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diff --git a/29635-8.txt b/29635-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..74a3cf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/29635-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3368 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, by Maria Montessori + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook + +Author: Maria Montessori + +Release Date: August 8, 2009 [EBook #29635] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DR. MONTESSORI'S OWN HANDBOOK *** + + + + +Produced by Alicia Williams, Dan Horwood and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + + + + +[Illustration: Dr. Maria Montessori] + + + + + DR. MONTESSORI'S + OWN HANDBOOK + + BY + + MARIA MONTESSORI + + AUTHOR OF "THE MONTESSORI METHOD" AND + "PEDAGOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY" + + _WITH FORTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS_ + + + + + NEW YORK + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY + PUBLISHERS + + + + + _Copyright, 1914, by_ + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY + + _All rights reserved, including that of + translation into foreign languages_ + + + FASC May, 1914 + + + + + TO MY DEAR FRIEND + + DONNA MARIA MARAINI + MARCHIONESS GUERRIERI-GONZAGA + + WHO + DEVOTEDLY AND WITH SACRIFICE + HAS GENEROUSLY UPHELD + THIS WORK OF EDUCATION BROUGHT TO BIRTH IN + OUR BELOVED COUNTRY + BUT OFFERED + TO THE CHILDREN OF HUMANITY + + + + +NOTE BY THE AUTHOR + + + As a result of the widespread interest that has been taken + in my method of child education, certain books have been + issued, which may appear to the general reader to be + authoritative expositions of the Montessori system. I wish + to state definitely that the present work, the English + translation of which has been authorised and approved by + me, is the only authentic manual of the Montessori method, + and that the only other authentic or authorised works of + mine in the English language are "The Montessori Method," + and "Pedagogical Anthropology." + + [Signed: Maria Montessori] + + + + +PREFACE + + +If a preface is a light which should serve to illumine the contents of +a volume, I choose, not words, but human figures to illustrate this +little book intended to enter families where children are growing up. +I therefore recall here, as an eloquent symbol, Helen Keller and Mrs. +Anne Sullivan Macy, who are, by their example, both teachers to +myself--and, before the world, living documents of the miracle in +education. + +In fact, Helen Keller is a marvelous example of the phenomenon common +to all human beings: the possibility of the liberation of the +imprisoned spirit of man by the education of the senses. Here lies the +basis of the method of education of which the book gives a succinct +idea. + +If one only of the senses sufficed to make of Helen Keller a woman of +exceptional culture and a writer, who better than she proves the +potency of that method of education which builds on the senses? If +Helen Keller attained through exquisite natural gifts to an elevated +conception of the world, who better than she proves that in the +inmost self of man lies the spirit ready to reveal itself? + +Helen, clasp to your heart these little children, since they, above +all others, will understand you. They are your younger brothers: when, +with bandaged eyes and in silence, they touch with their little hands, +profound impressions rise in their consciousness, and they exclaim +with a new form of happiness: "I see with my hands." They alone, then, +can fully understand the drama of the mysterious privilege your soul +has known. When, in darkness and in silence, their spirit left free to +expand, their intellectual energy redoubled, they become able to read +and write without having learnt, almost as it were by intuition, they, +only they, can understand in part the ecstasy which God granted you on +the luminous path of learning. + +MARIA MONTESSORI. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + PREFACE vii + INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1 + A "CHILDREN'S HOUSE" 9 + THE METHOD 17 + Didactic Material for the Education of the Senses 18 + Didactic Material for the Preparation of Writing + and Arithmetic 19 + MOTOR EDUCATION 20 + SENSORY EDUCATION 29 + LANGUAGE AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD 69 + FREEDOM 77 + WRITING 80 + Exercises for the Management of the Instrument of + Writing 86 + Exercises for the Writing of Alphabetical Signs 92 + THE READING OF MUSIC 98 + ARITHMETIC 102 + MORAL FACTORS 114 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Dr. Maria Montessori _Frontispiece_ + + FIG. FACING PAGE + 1. Cupboard with Apparatus 12 + 2. The Montessori Pædometer 13 + 3. Frames for Lacing and Buttoning 22 + 4. Child Buttoning On Frame 23 + 5. Cylinders Decreasing in Diameter only 30 + 6. Cylinders Decreasing in Diameter and Height 30 + 7. Cylinders Decreasing in Height only 30 + 8. Child using Case of Cylinders 31 + 9. The Tower 31 + 10. Child Playing with Tower 31 + 11. The Broad Stair 36 + 12. The Long Stair 36 + 13. Board with Rough and Smooth Surfaces 37 + 14. Board with Gummed Strips of Paper 37 + 15. Wood Tablets Differing in Weight 47 + Color Spools 42 + 16. Cabinet with Drawers to hold Geometrical Insets 44 + 17. Set of Six Circles 44 + 18. Set of Six Rectangles 45 + 19. Set of Six Triangles 45 + 20. Set of Six Polygons 46 + 21. Set of Six Irregular Figures 46 + 22. Set of Four Blanks and Two Irregular Figures 47 + 23. Frame to hold Geometrical Insets 48 + 24. Child Touching the Insets 49 + 25. Series of Cards with Geometrical Forms 54 + 26. Sound Boxes 55 + 27. Musical Bells 60 + 28. Sloping Boards to Display Set of Metal Insets 90 + 29. Single Sandpaper Letter 90 + 30. Groups of Sandpaper Letters 91 + 31. Box of Movable Letters 94 + 32. The Musical Staff 98 + 33. Didactic Material for Musical Reading 100 + 34. Didactic Material for Musical Reading 100 + 35. Didactic Material for Musical Reading 100 + 36. Didactic Material for Musical Reading 101 + 37. Didactic Material for Musical Reading 101 + 38. Didactic Material for Musical Reading 101 + 39. Dumb Keyboard 102 + 40. Diagram Illustrating Use of Numerical Rods 107 + 41. Counting Boxes 110 + 42. Arithmetic Frame 110 + + + + +DR. MONTESSORI'S OWN HANDBOOK + + +Recent years have seen a remarkable improvement in the conditions of +child life. In all civilized countries, but especially in England, +statistics show a decrease in infant mortality. + +Related to this decrease in mortality a corresponding improvement is +to be seen in the physical development of children; they are +physically finer and more vigorous. It has been the diffusion, the +popularization of science, which has brought about such notable +advantages. Mothers have learned to welcome the dictates of modern +hygiene and to put them into practice in bringing up their children. +Many new social institutions have sprung up and have been perfected +with the object of assisting children and protecting them during the +period of physical growth. + +In this way what is practically a new race is coming into being, a +race more highly developed, finer and more robust; a race which will +be capable of offering resistance to insidious disease. + +What has science done to effect this? Science has suggested for us +certain very simple rules by which the child has been restored as +nearly as possible to conditions of a natural life, and an order and a +guiding law have been given to the functions of the body. For example, +it is science which suggested maternal feeding, the abolition of +swaddling clothes, baths, life in the open air, exercise, simple short +clothing, quiet and plenty of sleep. Rules were also laid down for the +measurement of food adapting it rationally to the physiological needs +of the child's life. + +Yet with all this, science made no contribution that was entirely new. +Mothers had always nursed their children, children had always been +clothed, they had breathed and eaten before. + +The point is, that the same physical acts which, performed blindly and +without order, led to disease and death, when ordered _rationally_ +were the means of giving strength and life. + + * * * * * + +The great progress made may perhaps deceive us into thinking that +everything possible has been done for children. + +We have only to weigh the matter carefully, however, to reflect: Are +our children only those healthy little bodies which to-day are growing +and developing so vigorously under our eyes? Is their destiny +fulfilled in the production of beautiful human bodies? + +In that case there would be little difference between their lot and +that of the animals which we raise that we may have good meat or +beasts of burden. + +Man's destiny is evidently other than this, and the care due to the +child covers a field wider than that which is considered by physical +hygiene. The mother who has given her child his bath and sent him in +his perambulator to the park has not fulfilled the mission of the +"mother of humanity." The hen which gathers her chickens together, and +the cat which licks her kittens and lavishes on them such tender care, +differ in no wise from the human mother in the services they render. + +No, the human mother if reduced to such limits devotes herself in +vain, feels that a higher aspiration has been stifled within her. She +is yet the mother of man. + +Children must grow not only in the body but in the spirit, and the +mother longs to follow the mysterious spiritual journey of the +beloved one who to-morrow will be the intelligent, divine creation, +man. + +Science evidently has not finished its progress. On the contrary, it +has scarcely taken the first step in advance, for it has hitherto +stopped at the welfare of the body. It must continue, however, to +advance; on the same positive lines along which it has improved the +health and saved the physical life of the children, it is bound in the +future to benefit and to reenforce their inner life, which is the real +_human life_. On the same positive lines science will proceed to +direct the development of the intelligence, of character, and of those +latent creative forces which lie hidden in the marvelous embryo of +man's spirit. + + * * * * * + +As the child's body must draw nourishment and oxygen from its external +environment, in order to accomplish a great physiological work, the +_work of growth_, so also the spirit must take from its environment +the nourishment which it needs to develop according to its own "laws +of growth." It cannot be denied that the phenomena of development are +a great work in themselves. The consolidation of the bones, the +growth of the whole body, the completion of the minute construction of +the brain, the formation of the teeth, all these are very real labors +of the physiological organism, as is also the transformation which the +organism undergoes during the period of puberty. + +These exertions are very different from those put forth by mankind in +so-called _external work_, that is to say, in "social production," +whether in the schools where man is taught, or in the world where, by +the activity of his intelligence, he produces wealth and transforms +his environment. + +It is none the less true, however, that they are both "work." In fact, +the organism during these periods of greatest physiological work is +least capable of performing external tasks, and sometimes the work of +growth is of such extent and difficulty that the individual is +overburdened, as with an excessive strain, and for this reason alone +becomes exhausted or even dies. + +Man will always be able to avoid "external work" by making use of the +labor of others, but there is no possibility of shirking that inner +work. Together with birth and death it has been imposed by nature +itself, and each man must accomplish it for himself. This difficult, +inevitable labor, this is the "work of the child." + +When we say then that little children should _rest_, we are referring +to one side only of the question of work. We mean that they should +rest from that _external_ visible work to which the little child +through his weakness and incapacity cannot make any contribution +useful either to himself or to others. + +Our assertion, therefore, is not absolute; the child in reality is +not resting, he is performing the mysterious inner work of his +autoformation. He is working to make a man, and to accomplish this it +is not enough that the child's body should grow in actual size; the +most intimate functions of the motor and nervous systems must also +be established and the intelligence developed. + +The functions to be established by the child fall into two groups: +(1) the motor functions by which he is to secure his balance and +learn to walk, and to coordinate his movements; (2) the sensory +functions through which, receiving sensations from his environment, +he lays the foundations of his intelligence by a continual exercise +of observation, comparison and judgment. In this way he gradually +comes to be acquainted with his environment and to develop his +intelligence. + +At the same time he is learning a _language_, and he is faced not only +with the motor difficulties of articulation, sounds and words, but +also with the difficulty of gaining an intelligent understanding of +names and of the syntactical composition of the language. + +If we think of an emigrant who goes to a new country ignorant of its +products, ignorant of its natural appearance and social order, +entirely ignorant of its language, we realize that there is an immense +work of adaptation which he must perform before he can associate +himself with the active life of the unknown people. No one will be +able to do for him that work of adaptation. He himself must observe, +understand, remember, form judgments, and learn the new language by +laborious exercise and long experience. + +What is to be said then of the child? What of this emigrant who comes +into a new world, who, weak as he is and before his organism is +completely developed, _must_ in a short time adapt himself to a world +so complex? + +Up to the present day the little child has not received rational aid +in the accomplishment of this laborious task. As regards the psychical +development of the child we find ourselves in a period parallel to +that in which the physical life was left to the mercy of chance and +instinct--the period in which infant mortality was a scourge. + +It is by scientific and rational means also that we must facilitate +that inner work of psychical adaptation to be accomplished within the +child, a work which is by no means the same thing as "any external +work or production whatsoever." + +This is the aim which underlies my method of infant education, and it +is for this reason that certain principles which it enunciates, +together with that part which deals with the technique of their +practical application, are not of a general character, but have +special reference to the particular case of the child from three to +seven years of age, _i.e._, to the needs of a formative period of +life. + +My method is scientific, both in its substance and in its aim. It +makes for the attainment of a more advanced stage of progress, in +directions no longer only material and physiological. It is an +endeavor to complete the course which hygiene has already taken, but +in the treatment of the physical side alone. + +If to-day we possessed statistics respecting the nervous debility, +defects of speech, errors of perception and of reasoning, and lack of +character in normal children, it would perhaps be interesting to +compare them with statistics of the same nature, but compiled from the +study of children who have had a number of years of rational +education. In all probability we should find a striking resemblance +between such statistics and those to-day available showing the +decrease in mortality and the improvement in the physical development +of children. + + + + +A "CHILDREN'S HOUSE" + + +The "Children's House" is the _environment_ which is offered to the +child that he may be given the opportunity of developing his +activities. This kind of school is not of a fixed type, but may vary +according to the financial resources at disposal and to the +opportunities afforded by the environment. It ought to be a real +house; that is to say, a set of rooms with a garden of which the +children are the masters. A garden which contains shelters is ideal, +because the children can play or sleep under them, and can also bring +their tables out to work or dine. In this way they may live almost +entirely in the open air, and are protected at the same time from rain +and sun. + +The central and principal room of the building, often also the only +room at the disposal of the children, is the room for "intellectual +work." To this central room can be added other smaller rooms according +to the means and opportunities of the place: for example, a bathroom, +a dining-room, a little parlor or common-room, a room for manual work, +a gymnasium and rest-room. + +The special characteristic of the equipment of these houses is that it +is adapted for children and not adults. They contain not only didactic +material specially fitted for the intellectual development of the +child, but also a complete equipment for the management of the +miniature family. The furniture is light so that the children can move +it about, and it is painted in some light color so that the children +can wash it with soap and water. There are low tables of various +sizes and shapes--square, rectangular and round, large and small. The +rectangular shape is the most common as two or more children can work +at it together. The seats are small wooden chairs, but there are also +small wicker armchairs and sofas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--CUPBOARD WITH APPARATUS.] + +In the working-room there are two indispensable pieces of furniture. +One of these is a very long cupboard with large doors. (Fig. 1.) It is +very low so that a small child can set on the top of it small objects +such as mats, flowers, etc. Inside this cupboard is kept the didactic +material which is the common property of all the children. + +The other is a chest of drawers containing two or three columns of +little drawers, each of which has a bright handle (or a handle of some +color to contrast with the background), and a small card with a name +upon it. Every child has his own drawer, in which to put things +belonging to him. + +Round the walls of the room are fixed blackboards at a low level, so +that the children can write or draw on them, and pleasing, artistic +pictures, which are changed from time to time as circumstances direct. +The pictures represent children, families, landscapes, flowers and +fruit, and more often Biblical and historical incidents. Ornamental +plants and flowering plants ought always to be placed in the room +where the children are at work. + +Another part of the working-room's equipment is seen in the pieces of +carpet of various colors--red, blue, pink, green and brown. The +children spread these rugs upon the floor, sit upon them and work +there with the didactic material. A room of this kind is larger than +the customary class-rooms, not only because the little tables and +separate chairs take up more space, but also because a large part of +the floor must be free for the children to spread their rugs and work +upon them. + +In the sitting-room, or "club-room," a kind of parlor in which the +children amuse themselves by conversation, games, or music, etc., the +furnishings should be especially tasteful. Little tables of different +sizes, little armchairs and sofas should be placed here and there. +Many brackets of all kinds and sizes, upon which may be put +statuettes, artistic vases or framed photographs, should adorn the +walls; and, above all, each child should have a little flower-pot, in +which he may sow the seed of some indoor plant, to tend and cultivate +it as it grows. On the tables of this sitting-room should be placed +large albums of colored pictures, and also games of patience, or +various geometric solids, with which the children can play at +pleasure, constructing figures, etc. A piano, or, better, other +musical instruments, possibly harps of small dimensions, made +especially for children, completes the equipment. In this "club-room" +the teacher may sometimes entertain the children with stories, which +will attract a circle of interested listeners. + +The furniture of the dining-room consists, in addition to the tables, +of low cupboards accessible to all the children, who can themselves +put in their place and take away the crockery, spoons, knives and +forks, table-cloth and napkins. The plates are always of china, and +the tumblers and water-bottles of glass. Knives are always included in +the table equipment. + +_The Dressing-room._ Here each child has his own little cupboard or +shelf. In the middle of the room there are very simple washstands, +consisting of tables, on each of which stand a small basin, soap and +nail-brush. Against the wall stand little sinks with water-taps. Here +the children may draw and pour away their water. There is no limit to +the equipment of the "Children's Houses" because the children +themselves do everything. They sweep the rooms, dust and wash the +furniture, polish the brasses, lay and clear away the table, wash up, +sweep and roll up the rugs, wash a few little clothes, and cook eggs. +As regards their personal toilet, the children know how to dress and +undress themselves. They hang their clothes on little hooks, placed +very low so as to be within reach of a little child, or else they fold +up such articles of clothing, as their little serving-aprons, of which +they take great care, and lay them inside a cupboard kept for the +household linen. + + * * * * * + +In short, where the manufacture of toys has been brought to such a +point of complication and perfection that children have at their +disposal entire dolls' houses, complete wardrobes for the dressing and +undressing of dolls, kitchens where they can pretend to cook, toy +animals as nearly lifelike as possible, this method seeks to give all +this to the child in reality--making him an actor in a living scene. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIG 2.--THE MONTESSORI PAEDOMETER.] + +My pedometer forms part of the equipment of a "Children's House." +After various modifications I have now reduced this instrument to a +very practical form. (Fig. 2.) + +The purpose of the pedometer, as its name shows, is to measure the +children. It consists of a wide rectangular board, forming the base, +from the center of which rise two wooden posts held together at the +top by a narrow flat piece of metal. To each post is connected a +horizontal metal rod--the indicator--which runs up and down by means +of a casing, also of metal. This metal casing is made in one piece +with the indicator, to the end of which is fixed an india-rubber ball. +On one side, that is to say, behind one of the two tall vertical +wooden posts, there is a small seat, also of wood. The two tall wooden +posts are graduated. The post to which the seat is fixed is graduated +from the surface of the seat to the top, whilst the other is graduated +from the wooden board at the base to the top, _i.e._ to a height of +1.5 meters. On the side containing the seat the height of the child +seated is measured, on the other side the child's full stature. The +practical value of this instrument lies in the possibility of +measuring two children at the same time, and in the fact that the +children themselves cooperate in taking the measurements. In fact, +they learn to take off their shoes and to place themselves in the +correct position on the pedometer. They find no difficulty in raising +and lowering the metal indicators, which are held so firmly in place +by means of the metal casing that they cannot deviate from their +horizontal position even when used by inexpert hands. Moreover they +run extremely easily, so that very little strength is required to move +them. The little india-rubber balls prevent the children from hurting +themselves should they inadvertently knock their heads against the +metal indicator. + +The children are very fond of the pedometer. "Shall we measure +ourselves?" is one of the proposals which they make most willingly and +with the greatest likelihood of finding many of their companions to +join them. They also take great care of the pedometer, dusting it, and +polishing its metal parts. All the surfaces of the pedometer are so +smooth and well polished that they invite the care that is taken of +them, and by their appearance when finished fully repay the trouble +taken. + +The pedometer represents the scientific part of the method, because it +has reference to the anthropological and psychological study made of +the children, each of whom has his own biographical record. This +biographical record follows the history of the child's development +according to the observations which it is possible to make by the +application of my method. This subject is dealt with at length in my +other books. A series of cinematograph pictures has been taken of the +pedometer at a moment when the children are being measured. They are +seen coming of their own accord, even the very smallest, to take their +places at the instrument. + + + + +THE METHOD + + +The technique of my method as it follows the guidance of the natural +physiological and psychical development of the child, may be divided +into three parts: + + Motor education. + Sensory education. + Language. + +The care and management of the environment itself afford the principal +means of motor education, while sensory education and the education of +language are provided for by my didactic material. + +The didactic material for the _education of the senses_ consists of: + + (_a_) Three sets of solid insets. + (_b_) Three sets of solids in graduated sizes, comprising: + (1) Pink cubes. + (2) Brown prisms. + (3) Rods: (_a_) colored green; (_b_) colored alternately + red and blue. + (_c_) Various geometric solids (prism, pyramid, sphere, cylinder, + cone, etc.). + (_d_) Rectangular tablets with rough and smooth surfaces. + (_e_) A collection of various stuffs. + (_f_) Small wooden tablets of different weights. + (_g_) Two boxes, each containing sixty-four colored tablets. + (_h_) A chest of drawers containing plane insets. + (_i_) Three series of cards on which are pasted geometrical forms + in paper. + (_k_) A collection of cylindrical closed boxes (sounds). + (_l_) A double series of musical bells, wooden boards on which are + painted the lines used in music, small wooden discs for + the notes. + + +_Didactic Material for the Preparation for Writing and Arithmetic_ + + (_m_) Two sloping desks and various iron insets. + (_n_) Cards on which are pasted sandpaper letters. + (_o_) Two alphabets of colored cardboard and + of different sizes. + (_p_) A series of cards on which are pasted sandpaper + figures (1, 2, 3, etc.). + (_q_) A series of large cards bearing the same + figures in smooth paper for the enumeration + of numbers above ten. + (_r_) Two boxes with small sticks for counting. + (_s_) The volume of drawings belonging specially + to the method, and colored pencils. + (_t_) The frames for lacing, buttoning, etc., which + are used for the education of the movements + of the hand. + + + + +MOTOR EDUCATION + + +The education of the movements is very complex, as it must correspond +to all the coordinated movements which the child has to establish in +his physiological organism. The child, if left without guidance, is +disorderly in his movements, and these disorderly movements are the +_special characteristic of the little child._ In fact, he "never keeps +still," and "touches everything." This is what forms the child's +so-called "unruliness" and "naughtiness." + +The adult would deal with him by checking these movements, with the +monotonous and useless repetition "keep still." As a matter of fact, +in these movements the little one is seeking the very exercise which +will organize and coordinate the movements useful to man. We must, +therefore, desist from the useless attempt to reduce the child to a +state of immobility. We should rather give "order" to his movements, +leading them to those actions towards which his efforts are actually +tending. This is the aim of muscular education at this age. Once a +direction is given to them, the child's movements are made towards a +definite end, so that he himself grows quiet and contented, and +becomes an active worker, a being calm and full of joy. This education +of the movements is one of the principal factors in producing that +outward appearance of "discipline" to be found in the "Children's +Houses." I have already spoken at length on this subject in my other +books. + +Muscular education has reference to: + + The primary movements of everyday life (walking, rising, sitting, + handling objects). + The care of the person. + Management of the household. + Gardening. + Manual work. + Gymnastic exercises. + Rhythmic movements. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FRAMES FOR LACING AND BUTTONING.] + +In the care of the person the first step is that of dressing and +undressing. For this end there is in my didactic material a collection +of frames to which are attached pieces of stuff, leather, etc. These +can be buttoned, hooked, tied together--in fact, joined in all the +different ways which our civilization has invented for fastening our +clothing, shoes, etc. (Fig. 3.) The teacher, sitting by the child's +side, performs the necessary movements of the fingers very slowly and +deliberately, separating the movements themselves into their different +parts, and letting them be seen clearly and minutely. + +For example, one of the first actions will be the adjustment of the +two pieces of stuff in such a way that the edges to be fastened +together touch one another from top to bottom. Then, if it is a +buttoning-frame, the teacher will show the child the different stages +of the action. She will take hold of the button, set it opposite the +buttonhole, make it enter the buttonhole completely, and adjust it +carefully in its place above. In the same way, to teach a child to tie +a bow, she will separate the stage in which he ties the ribbons +together from that in which he makes the bows. + +In the cinematograph film there is a picture which shows an entire +lesson in the tying of the bows with the ribbons. These lessons are +not necessary for all the children, as they learn from one another, +and of their own accord come with great patience to analyze the +movements, performing them separately very slowly and carefully. The +child can sit in a comfortable position and hold his frame on the +table. (Fig. 4.) As he fastens and unfastens the same frame many times +over with great interest, he acquires an unusual deftness of hand, and +becomes possessed with the desire to fasten real clothes whenever he +has the opportunity. We see the smallest children _wanting_ to dress +themselves and their companions. They go in search of amusement of +this kind, and defend themselves with all their might against the +adult who would try to help them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHILD BUTTONING ON FRAME. (PHOTO TAKEN AT MR. +HAWKER'S SCHOOL AT RUNTON.)] + +In the same way for the teaching of the other and larger movements, +such as washing, setting the table, etc., the directress must at the +beginning intervene, teaching the child with few or no words at all, +but with very precise actions. She teaches all the movements: how to +sit, to rise from one's seat, to take up and lay down objects, and to +offer them gracefully to others. In the same way she teaches the +children to set the plates one upon the other and lay them on the +table without making any noise. + +The children learn easily and show an interest and surprising care in +the performance of these actions. In classes where there are many +children it is necessary to arrange for the children to take turns in +the various household duties, such as housework, serving at table, and +washing dishes. The children readily respect such a system of turns. +There is no need to ask them to do this work, for they come +spontaneously--even little ones of two and a half years old--to offer +to do their share, and it is frequently most touching to watch their +efforts to imitate, to remember, and, finally, to conquer their +difficulty. Professor Jacoby, of New York, was once much moved as he +watched a child, who was little more than two years old and not at all +intelligent in appearance, standing perplexed, because he could not +remember whether the fork should be set at the right hand or the left. +He remained a long while meditating and evidently using all the powers +of his mind. The other children older than he watched him with +admiration, marveling, like ourselves, at the life developing under +our eyes. + +The instructions of the teacher consist then merely in a hint, a +touch--enough to give a start to the child. The rest develops of +itself. The children learn from one another and throw themselves into +the work with enthusiasm and delight. This atmosphere of quiet +activity develops a fellow-feeling, an attitude of mutual aid, and, +most wonderful of all, an intelligent interest on the part of the +older children in the progress of their little companions. It is +enough just to set a child in these peaceful surroundings for him to +feel perfectly at home. In the cinematograph pictures the actual work +in a "Children's House" may be seen. The children are moving about, +each one fulfilling his own task, whilst the teacher is in a corner +watching. Pictures were taken also of the children engaged in the care +of the house, that is, in the care both of their persons and of their +surroundings. They can be seen washing their faces, polishing their +shoes, washing the furniture, polishing the metal indicators of the +pedometer, brushing the carpets, etc. In the work of laying the table +the children are seen quite by themselves, dividing the work among +themselves, carrying the plates, spoons, knives and forks, etc., and, +finally, sitting down at the tables where the little waitresses serve +the hot soup. + +Again, gardening and manual work are a great pleasure to our children. +Gardening is already well known as a feature of infant education, and +it is recognized by all that plants and animals attract the children's +care and attention. The ideal of the "Children's Houses" in this +respect is to imitate the best in the present usage of those schools +which owe their inspiration more or less to Mrs. Latter. + +For manual instruction we have chosen clay work, consisting of the +construction of little tiles, vases and bricks. These may be made with +the help of simple instruments, such as molds. The completion of the +work should be the aim always kept in view, and, finally, all the +little objects made by the children should be glazed and baked in the +furnace. The children themselves learn to line a wall with shining +white or colored tiles wrought in various designs, or, with the help +of mortar and a trowel, to cover the floor with little bricks. They +also dig out foundations and then use their bricks to build division +walls, or entire little houses for the chickens. + +Among the gymnastic exercises that which must be considered the most +important is that of the "line." A line is described in chalk or +paint upon a large space of floor. Instead of one line, there may also +be two concentric lines, elliptical in form. The children are taught +to walk upon these lines like tight-rope walkers, placing their feet +one in front of the other. To keep their balance they make efforts +exactly similar to those of real tight-rope walkers, except that they +have no danger with which to reckon, as the lines are only _drawn_ +upon the floor. The teacher herself performs the exercise, showing +clearly how she sets her feet, and the children imitate her without +any necessity for her to speak. At first it is only certain children +who follow her, and when she has shown them how to do it, she +withdraws, leaving the phenomenon to develop of itself. + +The children for the most part continue to walk, adapting their feet +with great care to the movement they have seen, and making efforts to +keep their balance so as not to fall. Gradually the other children +draw near and watch and also make an attempt. Very little time elapses +before the whole of the two ellipses or the one line is covered with +children balancing themselves, and continuing to walk round, watching +their feet with an expression of deep attention on their faces. + +Music may then be used. It should be a very simple march, the rhythm +of which is not obvious at first, but which accompanies and enlivens +the spontaneous efforts of the children. + +When they have learned in this way to master their balance the +children have brought the act of walking to a remarkable standard of +perfection, and have acquired, in addition to security and composure +in their natural gait, an unusually graceful carriage of the body. The +exercise on the line can afterwards be made more complicated in +various ways. The first application is that of calling forth rhythmic +exercise by the sound of a march upon the piano. When the same march +is repeated during several days, the children end by feeling the +rhythm and by following it with movements of their arms and feet. They +also accompany the exercises on the line with songs. + +Little by little the music is _understood_ by the children. They +finish, as in Miss George's school at Washington, by singing over +their daily work with the didactic material. The "Children's House," +then, resembles a hive of bees humming as they work. + +As to the little gymnasium, of which I speak in my book on the +"Method," one piece of apparatus is particularly practical. This is +the "fence," from which the children hang by their arms, freeing their +legs from the heavy weight of the body and strengthening the arms. +This fence has also the advantage of being useful in a garden for the +purpose of dividing one part from another, as, for example, the +flower-beds from the garden walks, and it does not detract in any way +from the appearance of the garden. + + + + +SENSORY EDUCATION + + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CYLINDERS DECREASING IN DIAMETER ONLY.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--CYLINDERS DECREASING IN DIAMETER AND HEIGHT.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--CYLINDERS DECREASING IN HEIGHT ONLY.] + +My didactic material offers to the child the _means_ for what may be +called "sensory education." + +In the box of material the first three objects which are likely to +attract the attention of a little child from two and a half to three +years old are three solid pieces of wood, in each of which is inserted +a row of ten small cylinders, or sometimes discs, all furnished with a +button for a handle. In the first case there is a row of cylinders of +the same height, but with a diameter which decreases from thick to +thin. (Fig. 5.) In the second there are cylinders which decrease in +all dimensions, and so are either larger or smaller, but always of the +same shape. (Fig. 6.) + +Lastly, in the third case, the cylinders have the same diameter but +vary in height, so that, as the size decreases, the cylinder gradually +becomes a little disc in form. (Fig. 7.) + +The first cylinders vary in two dimensions (the section); the second +in all three dimensions; the third in one dimension (height). The +order which I have given refers to the degree of _ease_ with which the +child performs the exercises. + +The exercise consists in taking out the cylinders, mixing them and +putting them back in the right place. It is performed by the child as +he sits in a comfortable position at a little table. He exercises his +hands in the delicate act of taking hold of the button with the tips +of one or two fingers, and in the little movements of the hand and arm +as he mixes the cylinders, _without letting them fall_ and _without +making too much noise_ and puts them back again each in its own +place. + +In these exercises the teacher may, in the first instance, intervene, +merely taking out the cylinders, mixing them carefully on the table +and then showing the child that he is to put them back, but without +performing the action herself. Such intervention, however, is almost +always found to be unnecessary, for the children _see_ their +companions at work, and thus are encouraged to imitate them. + +They like to do it _alone_; in fact, sometimes almost in private for +fear of inopportune help. (Fig. 8.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--CHILD USING CASE OF CYLINDERS.] + +But how is the child to find the right place for each of the little +cylinders which lie mixed upon the table? He first makes trials; it +often happens that he places a cylinder which is too large for the +empty hole over which he puts it. Then, changing its place, he tries +others until the cylinder goes in. Again, the contrary may happen; +that is to say, the cylinder may slip too easily into a hole too big +for it. In that case it has taken a place which does not belong to it +at all, but to a larger cylinder. In this way one cylinder at the end +will be left out without a place, and it will not be possible to find +one that fits. Here the child cannot help seeing his mistake in +concrete form. He is perplexed, his little mind is faced with a +problem which interests him intensely. Before, all the cylinders +fitted, now there is one that will not fit. The little one stops, +frowning, deep in thought. He begins to feel the little buttons and +finds that some cylinders have too much room. He thinks that perhaps +they are out of their right place and tries to place them correctly. +He repeats the process again and again, and finally he succeeds. Then +it is that he breaks into a smile of triumph. The exercise arouses the +intelligence of the child; he wants to repeat it right from the +beginning and, having learned by experience, he makes another attempt. +Little children from three to three and a half years old have repeated +the exercise up to _forty_ times without losing their interest in it. + +If the second set of cylinders and then the third are presented, the +_change_ of shape strikes the child and reawakens his interest. + +The material which I have described serves to _educate the eye_ to +distinguish _difference in dimension_, for the child ends by being +able to recognize at a glance the larger or the smaller hole which +exactly fits the cylinder which he holds in his hand. The educative +process is based on this: that the control of the error lies in _the +material itself_, and the child has concrete evidence of it. + +The desire of the child to attain an end which he knows, leads him to +correct himself. It is not a teacher who makes him notice his mistake +and shows him how to correct it, but it is a complex work of the +child's own intelligence which leads to such a result. + +Hence at this point there begins the process of auto-education. + +The aim is not an external one, that is to say, it is _not_ the object +that the child should learn how to place the cylinders, and _that he +should know how to perform an exercise_. + +The aim is an inner one, namely, that the child train himself to +observe; that he be led to make comparisons between objects, to form +judgments, to reason and to decide; and it is in the indefinite +repetition of this exercise of attention and of intelligence that a +real development ensues. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE TOWER.] + +The series of objects to follow after the cylinders consists of three +sets of geometrical solid forms: + +(1) Ten wooden cubes colored pink. The sides of the cubes diminish +from ten centimeters to one centimeter. (Fig. 9.) + +With these cubes the child builds a tower, first laying on the ground +(upon a carpet) the largest cube, and then placing on the top of it +all the others in their order of size to the very smallest. (Fig. 10.) +As soon as he has built the tower, the child, with a blow of his hand, +knocks it down, so that the cubes are scattered on the carpet, and +then he builds it up again. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--CHILD PLAYING WITH TOWER. (PHOTO TAKEN AT MR. +HAWKER'S SCHOOL AT RUNTON.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--THE BROAD STAIR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--THE LONG STAIR.] + +(2) Ten wooden prisms, colored brown. The length of the prisms is +twenty centimeters, and the square section diminishes from ten +centimeters a side to the smallest, one centimeter a side. (Fig. 11.) + +The child scatters the ten pieces over a light-colored carpet, and +then beginning sometimes with the thickest, sometimes with the +thinnest, he places them in their right order of gradation upon a +table. + +(3) Ten rods, colored green, or alternately red and blue, all of which +have the same square section of four centimeters a side, but vary by +ten centimeters in length from ten centimeters to one meter. (Fig. +12.) + +The child scatters the ten rods on a large carpet and mixes them at +random, and, by comparing rod with rod, he arranges them according to +their order of length, so that they take the form of a set of organ +pipes. + +As usual, the teacher, by doing the exercises herself, first shows the +child how the pieces of each set should be arranged, but it will often +happen that the child learns, not directly from her, but by watching +his companions. She will, however, always continue to watch the +children, never losing sight of their efforts, and any correction of +hers will be directed more towards preventing rough or disorderly use +of the material than towards any _error_ which the child may make in +placing the rods in their order of gradation. The reason is that the +mistakes which the child makes, by placing, for example, a small cube +beneath one that is larger, are caused by his own lack of education, +and it is the _repetition of the exercise_ which, by refining his +powers of observation, will lead him sooner or later to _correct_ +_himself_. Sometimes it happens that a child working with the long +rods makes the most glaring mistakes. As the aim of the exercise, +however, is _not_ that the rods be arranged in the right order of +gradation, but that the child _should practise by himself_, there is +no need to intervene. + +One day the child will arrange all the rods in their right order, and +then, full of joy, he will call the teacher to come and admire them. +The object of the exercise will thus be achieved. + +These three sets, the cubes, the prisms, and the rods, cause the child +to move about and to handle and carry objects which are difficult for +him to grasp with his little hand. Again, by their use, he repeats the +_training of the eye_ to the recognition of differences of size +between similar objects. The exercise would seem easier, from the +sensory point of view, than the other with the cylinders described +above. + +As a matter of fact, it is more difficult, as there is _no control of +the error in the material itself_. It is the child's eye alone which +can furnish the control. + +Hence the difference between the objects should strike the eye at +once; for that reason larger objects are used, and the necessary +visual power presupposes a previous preparation (provided for in the +exercise with the solid insets). + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--BOARD WITH ROUGH AND SMOOTH SURFACES.] + +During the same period the child can be doing other exercises. Among +the material is to be found a small rectangular board, the surface of +which is divided into two parts--rough and smooth. (Fig. 13.) The +child knows already how to wash his hands with cold water and soap; he +then dries them and dips the tips of his fingers for a few seconds in +tepid water. Graduated exercises for the thermic sense may also have +their place here, as has been explained in my book on the "Method." + +After this, the child is taught to pass the soft cushioned tips of his +fingers _as lightly as possible_ over the two separate surfaces, that +he may appreciate their difference. The delicate _movement_ backwards +and forwards of the suspended hand, as it is brought into light +contact with the surface, is an excellent exercise in control. The +little hand, which has just been cleansed and given its tepid bath, +gains much in grace and beauty, and the whole exercise is the first +step in the education of the "tactile sense," which holds such an +important place in my method. + +When initiating the child into the education of the sense of touch, +the teacher must always take an active part the first time; not only +must she show the child "how it is done," her interference is a little +more definite still, for she takes hold of his hand and guides it to +touch the surfaces with the finger-tips in the lightest possible way. +She will make no explanations; her words will be rather to _encourage_ +the child with his hand to perceive the different sensations. + +When he has perceived them, it is then that he repeats the act by +himself in the delicate way which he has been taught. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--BOARD WITH GUMMED STRIPS OF PAPER.] + +After the board with the two contrasting surfaces, the child is +offered another board on which are gummed strips of paper which are +rough or smooth in different degrees. (Fig. 14.) + +Graduated series of sandpaper cards are also given. The child perfects +himself by exercises in touching these surfaces, not only refining his +capacity for perceiving tactile differences which are always growing +more similar, but also perfecting the movement of which he is ever +gaining greater mastery. + +Following these is a series of stuffs of every kind: velvets, satins, +silks, woolens, cottons, coarse and fine linens. There are two similar +pieces of each kind of stuff, and they are of bright and vivid +colors. + +The child is now taught a new movement. Where before he had to +_touch_, he must now _feel_ the stuffs, which, according to the +degree of fineness or coarseness from coarse cotton to fine silk, +are felt with movements correspondingly decisive or delicate. The +child whose hand is already practised finds the greatest pleasure +in feeling the stuffs, and, almost instinctively, in order to enhance +his appreciation of the tactile sensation he closes his eyes. +Then, to spare himself the exertion, he blindfolds himself with a +clean handkerchief, and as he feels the stuffs, he arranges the +similar pieces in pairs, one upon the other, then, taking off the +handkerchief, he ascertains for himself whether he has made any +mistake. + +This exercise in _touching_ and _feeling_ is peculiarly attractive to +the child, and induces him to seek similar experiences in his +surroundings. A little one, attracted by the pretty stuff of a +visitor's dress, will be seen to go and wash his hands, then to come +and touch the stuff of the garment again and again with infinite +delicacy, his face meanwhile expressing his pleasure and interest. + + * * * * * + +A little later we shall see the children interest themselves in a much +more difficult exercise. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--WOOD TABLETS DIFFERING IN WEIGHT.] + +There are some little rectangular tablets which form part of the +material. (Fig. 15.) The tablets, though of identical size, are made +of wood of varying qualities, so that they differ in weight and, +through the property of the wood, in color also. + +The child has to take a tablet and rest it delicately on the inner +surfaces of his four fingers, spreading them well out. This will be +another opportunity of teaching delicate movements. + +The hand must move up and down as though to weigh the object, but the +movement must be as imperceptible as possible. These little movements +should diminish as the capacity and attention for perceiving the +weight of the object becomes more acute and the exercise will be +perfectly performed when the child comes to perceive the weight +almost without any movement of the hands. It is only by the repetition +of the attempts that such a result can be obtained. + +Once the children are initiated into it by the teacher, they blindfold +their eyes and repeat by themselves these exercises of the _baric +sense_. For example, they lay the heavier wooden tablets on the right +and the lighter on the left. + +When the child takes off the handkerchief, he can see by the color of +the pieces of wood if he has made a mistake. + + * * * * * + +A long time before this difficult exercise, and during the period when +the child is working with the three sorts of geometrical solids and +with the rough and smooth tablets, he can be exercising himself with a +material which is very attractive to him. + +This is the set of tablets covered with bright silk of shaded colors. +The set consists of two separate boxes each containing sixty-four +colors; that is, eight different tints, each of which has eight shades +carefully graded. The first exercise for the child is that of _pairing +the colors_; that is, he selects from a mixed heap of colors the two +tablets which are alike, and lays them out, one beside the other. The +teacher naturally does not offer the child all the one hundred and +twenty-eight tablets in a heap, but chooses only a few of the brighter +colors, for example, red, blue and yellow, and prepares and mixes up +three or four pairs. Then, taking one tablet--perhaps the red one--she +indicates to the child that he is to choose its counterpart from the +heap. This done, the teacher lays the pair together on the table. Then +she takes perhaps the blue and the child selects the tablet to form +another pair. The teacher then mixes the tablets again for the child +to repeat the exercise by himself, _i.e._, to select the two red +tablets, the two blue, the two yellow, etc., and to place the two +members of each pair next to one another. + +Then the couples will be increased to four or five, and little +children of three years old end by pairing of their own accord ten or +a dozen couples of mixed tablets. + +[Illustration: COLOR SPOOLS] + +When the child has given his eye sufficient practise in recognizing +the identity of the pairs of colors, he is offered the shades of one +color only, and he exercises himself in the perception of the +slightest differences of shade in every color. Take, for example, the +blue series. There are eight tablets in graduated shades. The teacher +places them one beside another, beginning with the darkest, with the +sole object of making the child understand "what is to be done." + +She then leaves him alone to the interesting attempts which he +spontaneously makes. It often happens that the child makes a mistake. +If he has understood the idea and makes a mistake, it is a sign that +_he has not yet reached the stage_ of perceiving the differences +between the graduations of one color. It is practise which perfects in +the child that capacity for distinguishing the fine differences, and +so we leave him alone to his attempts! + +There are two suggestions that we can make to help him. The first is +that he should always select the darkest color from the pile. This +suggestion greatly facilitates his choice by giving it a constant +direction. + +Secondly, we can lead him to observe from time to time any two colors +that stand next to each other in order to compare them directly and +apart from the others. In this way the child does not place a tablet +without a particular and careful comparison with its neighbor. + +Finally, the child himself will love to mix the sixty-four colors and +then to arrange them in eight rows of pretty shades of color with +really surprising skill. In this exercise also the child's hand is +educated to perform fine and delicate movements and his mind is +afforded special training in attention. He must not take hold of the +tablets anyhow, he must avoid touching the colored silk, and must +handle the tablets instead by the pieces of wood at the top and +bottom. To arrange the tablets next to one another in a straight line +at exactly the same level, so that the series looks like a beautiful +shaded ribbon, is an act which demands a manual skill only obtained +after considerable practise. + + * * * * * + +These exercises of the chromatic sense lead, in the case of the older +children, to the development of the "color memory." A child having +looked carefully at a color, is then invited to look for its companion +in a mixed group of colors, without, of course, keeping the color he +has observed under his eye to guide him. It is, therefore, by his +memory that he recognizes the color, which he no longer compares with +a reality but with an image impressed upon his mind. + +The children are very fond of this exercise in "color memory"; it +makes a lively digression for them, as they run with the image of a +color in their minds and look for its corresponding reality in their +surroundings. It is a real triumph for them to identify the idea with +the corresponding reality and to _hold in their hands_ the proof of +the mental power they have acquired. + + * * * * * + +Another interesting piece of material is a little cabinet containing +six drawers placed one above another. When they are opened they +display six square wooden "frames" in each. (Fig. 16.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--CABINET WITH DRAWERS TO HOLD GEOMETRICAL INSETS.] + +Almost all the frames have a large geometrical figure inserted in the +center, each colored blue and provided with a small button for a +handle. Each drawer is lined with blue paper, and when the geometrical +figure is removed, the bottom is seen to reproduce exactly the same +form. + +The geometrical figures are arranged in the drawers according to +analogy of form. + +(1) In one drawer there are six circles decreasing in diameter. (Fig. +17.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--SET OF SIX CIRCLES.] + +(2) In another there is a square, together with five rectangles in +which the length is always equal to the side of the square while the +breadth gradually decreases. (Fig. 18.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--SET OF SIX RECTANGLES.] + +(3) Another drawer contains six triangles, which vary either according +to their sides or according to their angles (the equilateral, +isosceles, scalene, right angled, obtuse angled, and acute angled). +(Fig. 19.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--SET OF SIX TRIANGLES.] + +(4) In another drawer there are six regular polygons containing from +five to ten sides, _i.e._, the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, +nonagon, and decagon. (Fig. 20.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--SET OF SIX POLYGONS.] + +(5) Another drawer contains various figures: an oval, an ellipse, a +rhombus, and a trapezoid. (Fig. 21.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--SET OF SIX IRREGULAR FIGURES.] + +(6) Finally, there are four plain wooden tablets, _i.e._, without any +geometrical inset, which should have no button fixed to them; also two +other irregular geometrical figures. (Fig. 22.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--SET OF FOUR BLANKS AND TWO IRREGULAR FIGURES.] + +Connected with this material there is a wooden frame furnished with a +kind of rack which opens like a lid, and serves, when shut, to keep +firmly in place six of the insets which may be arranged on the bottom +of the frame itself, entirely covering it. (Fig. 23.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--FRAME TO HOLD GEOMETRICAL INSETS.] + +This frame is used for the preparation of the _first presentation_ to +the child of the plane geometrical forms. + +The teacher may select according to her own judgment certain forms +from among the whole series at her disposal. + +At first it is advisable to show the child only a few figures which +differ very widely from one another in form. The next step is to +present a larger number of figures, and after this to present +consecutively figures more and more similar in form. + +The first figures to be arranged in the frame will be, for example, +the circle and the equilateral triangle, or the circle, the triangle +and the square. The spaces which are left should be covered with the +tablets of plain wood. Gradually the frame is completely filled with +figures; first, with very dissimilar figures, as, for example, a +square, a very narrow rectangle, a triangle, a circle, an ellipse and +a hexagon, or with other figures in combination. + +Afterwards the teacher's object will be to arrange figures similar to +one another in the frame, as, for example, the set of six rectangles, +six triangles, six circles, varying in size, etc. + +This exercise resembles that of the cylinders. The insets are held by +the buttons and taken from their places. They are then mixed on the +table and the child is invited to put them back in their places. Here +also the control of the error is in the _material_, for the figure +cannot be inserted perfectly except when it is put in its own place. +Hence a series of "experiments," of "attempts" which end in victory. +The child is led to compare the various forms; to realize in a +concrete way the differences between them when an inset wrongly placed +will not go into the aperture. In this way he educates his eye to the +_recognition of forms_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--CHILD TOUCHING THE INSETS. (MONTESSORI SCHOOL, +RUNTON.)] + +The new movement of the hand which the child must coordinate is of +particular importance. He is taught to _touch the outline of the +geometrical figures_ with the soft tips of the index and middle finger +of the right hand, or of the left as well, if one believes in +ambidexterity. (Fig. 24.) The child is made to touch the outline, not +only of the _inset_, but also of the corresponding aperture, and, only +after _having touched_ them, is he to put back the inset into its +place. + +The _recognition_ of the form is rendered much easier in this way. +Children who evidently do not _recognize the identities of form_ by +the eye and who make absurd attempts to place the most diverse figures +one within the other, _do recognize_ the forms after having touched +their outlines, and arrange them very quickly in their right places. + +The child's hand during this exercise of touching the outlines of the +geometrical figures has a concrete guide in the object. This is +especially true when he touches the frames, for his two fingers have +only to follow the edge of the frame, which acts as an obstacle and is +a very clear guide. The teacher must always intervene at the start to +teach accurately this movement, which will have such an importance in +the future. She must, therefore, show the child _how to touch_, not +only by performing the movement herself slowly and clearly, but also +by guiding the child's hand itself during his first attempts, so that +he is sure to touch all the details--angles and sides. When his hand +has learned to perform these movements with precision and accuracy, he +will be _really_ capable of following the outline of a geometrical +figure, and through many repetitions of the exercise he will come to +coordinate the movement _necessary_ for the exact delineation of its +form. + +This exercise could be called an indirect but very real preparation +for drawing. It is certainly the preparation of the hand to _trace an +enclosed form_. The little hand which touches, feels, and knows how to +follow a determined outline is preparing itself, without knowing it, +for writing. + +The children make a special point of touching the outlines of the +plane insets with accuracy. They themselves have invented the exercise +of blindfolding their eyes so as to recognize the forms by touch only, +taking out and putting back the insets without seeing them. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--SERIES OF CARDS WITH GEOMETRICAL FORMS.] + +Corresponding to every form reproduced in the plane insets there are +three white cards square in shape and of exactly the same size as the +wooden frames of the insets. These cards are kept in three special +cardboard boxes, almost cubic in form. (Fig. 25.) + +On the cards are repeated, in three series, the same geometrical forms +as those of the plane insets. The same measurements of the figures +also are exactly reproduced. + +In the first series the forms are filled in, _i.e._, they are cut out +in blue paper and gummed on to the card; in the second series there is +only an outline about half a centimeter in width, which is cut out in +the same blue paper and gummed to the card; in the third series, +however, the geometrical figures are instead outlined only in black +ink. + +By the use of this second piece of the material, the exercise of the +eye is gradually brought to perfection in the recognition of "plane +forms." In fact, there is no longer the concrete control of error in +the material as there was in the _wooden_ insets, but the child, by +his eye alone, must judge of identities of form when, instead of +_fitting_ the wooden forms into their corresponding apertures, he +simply _rests_ them on the cardboard figure. + +Again, the refinement of the eye's power of discrimination increases +every time the child passes from one series of cards to the next, and +by the time that he has reached the third series, he can see the +relation between a wooden object, which he holds in his hand, and an +outline drawing; that is, he can connect the concrete reality with an +_abstraction_. The _line_ now assumes in his eyes a very definite +meaning; and he accustoms himself to recognize, to interpret and to +judge of forms contained by a simple outline. + +The exercises are various; the children themselves invent them. Some +love to spread out a number of the figures of the geometric insets +before their eyes, and then, taking a handful of the cards and mixing +them like playing cards, deal them out as quickly as possible, +choosing the figures corresponding to the pieces. Then as a test of +their choice, they place the wooden pieces upon the forms on the +cards. At this exercise they often cover whole tables, putting the +wooden figures above, and beneath each one in a vertical line, the +three corresponding forms of the cardboard series. + +Another game invented by the children consists in putting out and +mixing all the cards of the three series on two or three adjoining +tables. The child then takes a wooden geometrical form and places it, +as quickly as possible, on the corresponding cards which he has +recognized at a glance among all the rest. + +Four or five children play this game together, and as soon as one of +them has found, for example, the filled-in figure corresponding to the +wooden piece, and has placed the piece carefully and precisely upon +it, another child takes away the piece in order to place it on the +same form in outline. The game is somewhat suggestive of chess. + +Many children, without any suggestion from any one, touch with the +finger the outline of the figures in the three series of cards, doing +it with seriousness of purpose, interest and perseverance. + +We teach the children to name all the forms of the plane insets. + +At first I had intended to limit my teaching to the most important +names, such as square, rectangle, circle. But the children wanted to +know all the names, taking pleasure in learning even the most +difficult, such as trapezium, and decagon. They also show great +pleasure in listening to the exact pronunciation of new words and in +their repetition. Early childhood is, in fact, the age in which +language is formed, and in which the sounds of a foreign language can +be perfectly learned. + +When the child has had long practise with the plane insets, he begins +to make "discoveries" in his environment, recognizing forms, colors, +and qualities already known to him--a result which, in general, +follows after all the sensory exercises. Then it is that a great +enthusiasm is aroused in him, and the world becomes for him a source +of pleasure. A little boy, walking one day alone on the roof terrace, +repeated to himself with a thoughtful expression on his face, "The sky +is blue! the sky is blue!" Once a cardinal, an admirer of the children +of the school in Via Guisti, wished himself to bring them some +biscuits and to enjoy the sight of a little greediness among the +children. When he had finished his distribution, instead of seeing the +children put the food hastily into their mouths, to his great surprise +he heard them call out, "A triangle! a circle! a rectangle!" In fact, +these biscuits were made in geometrical shapes. + +In one of the people's dwellings at Milan, a mother, preparing the +dinner in the kitchen, took from a packet a slice of bread and butter. +Her little four-year-old boy who was with her said, "Rectangle." The +woman going on with her work cut off a large corner of the slice of +bread, and the child cried out, "Triangle." She put this bit into the +saucepan, and the child, looking at the piece that was left, called +out more loudly than before, "And now it is a trapezium." + +The father, a working man, who was present, was much impressed with +the incident. He went straight to look for the teacher and asked for +an explanation. Much moved, he said, "If I had been educated in that +way I should not be now just an ordinary workman." + +It was he who later on arranged for a demonstration to induce all the +workmen of the dwellings to take an interest in the school. They ended +by presenting the teacher with a parchment they had painted +themselves, and on it, between the pictures of little children, they +had introduced every kind of geometrical form. + +As regards the touching of objects for the realization of their form, +there is an infinite field of discovery open to the child in his +environment. Children have been seen to stand opposite a beautiful +pillar or a statue and, after having admired it, to close their eyes +in a state of beatitude and pass their hands many times over the +forms. One of our teachers met one day in a church two little brothers +from the school in Via Guisti. They were standing looking at the small +columns supporting the altar. Little by little the elder boy edged +nearer the columns and began to touch them, then, as if he desired his +little brother to share his pleasure, he drew him nearer and, taking +his hand very gently, made him pass it round the smooth and beautiful +shape of the column. But a sacristan came up at that moment and sent +away "those tiresome children who were touching everything." + +The great pleasure which the children derive from the recognition of +_objects_ by touching their form corresponds in itself to a sensory +exercise. + +Many psychologists have spoken of the _stereognostic_ sense, that is, +the capacity of recognizing forms by the movement of the muscles of +the hand as it follows the outlines of solid objects. This sense does +not consist only of the sense of touch, because the tactile sensation +is only that by which we perceive the differences in quality of +surfaces, rough or smooth. Perception of form comes from the +combination of two sensations, tactile and muscular, muscular +sensations being sensations of movement. What we call in the blind the +_tactile_ sense is in reality more often the stereognostic sense. That +is, they perceive by means of their hands the _form of bodies_. + +It is the special muscular sensibility of the child from three to six +years of age who is forming his own muscular activity which stimulates +him to use the stereognostic sense. When the child spontaneously +blindfolds his eyes in order to recognize various objects, such as the +plane and solid insets, he is exercising this sense. + +There are many exercises which he can do to enable him to recognize +with closed eyes objects of well defined shapes, as, for example, the +little bricks and cubes of Froebel, marbles, coins, beans, peas, etc. +From a selection of different objects mixed together he can pick out +those that are alike, and arrange them in separate heaps. + +In the didactic material there are also geometrical solids--pale blue +in color--a sphere, a prism, a pyramid, a cone, a cylinder. The most +attractive way of teaching a child to recognize these forms is for him +to touch them with closed eyes and guess their names, the latter +learned in a way which I will describe later. After an exercise of +this kind the child when his eyes are open observes the forms with a +much more lively interest. Another way of interesting him in the solid +geometrical forms is to make them _move_. The sphere rolls in every +direction; the cylinder rolls in one direction only; the cone rolls +round itself; the prism and the pyramid, however, stand still, but the +prism falls over more easily than the pyramid. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--SOUND BOXES.] + +Little more remains of the didactic material for the education of the +senses. There is, however, a series of six cardboard cylinders, either +closed entirely or with wooden covers. (Fig. 26.) + +When these cases are shaken they produce sounds varying in intensity +from loud to almost imperceptible sounds, according to the nature of +the objects inside the cylinder. + +There is a double act of these, and the exercise consists, first, in +the recognition of sounds of equal intensity, arranging the cylinders +in pairs. The next exercise consists in the comparison of one sound +with another; that is, the child arranges the six cylinders in a +series according to the loudness of sound which they produce. The +exercise is analogous to that with the color spools, which also are +paired and then arranged in gradation. In this case also the child +performs the exercise seated comfortably at a table. After a +preliminary explanation from the teacher he repeats the exercise by +himself, his eyes being blindfolded that he may better concentrate his +attention. + +We may conclude with a general rule for the direction of the education +of the senses. The order of procedure should be: + +(1) Recognition of _identities_ (the pairing of similar objects and +the insertion of solid forms into places which fit them). + +(2) Recognition of _contrasts_ (the presentation of the extremes of a +series of objects). + +(3) Discrimination between objects very _similar_ to one another. + +To concentrate the attention of the child upon the sensory stimulus +which is acting upon him at a particular moment, it is well, as far as +possible, to _isolate_ the sense; for instance, to obtain silence in +the room for all the exercises and to blindfold the eyes for those +particular exercises which do not relate to the education of the sense +of sight. + +The cinematograph pictures give a general idea of all the sense +exercises which the children can do with the material, and any one who +has been initiated into the theory on which these are based will be +able gradually to recognize them as they are seen practically carried +out. + +It is very advisable for those who wish to guide the children in these +sensory exercises to begin themselves by working with the didactic +material. The experience will give them some idea of what the children +must feel, of the difficulties which they must overcome, etc., and, up +to a certain point, it will give them some conception of the interest +which these exercises can arouse in them. Whoever makes such +experiments himself will be most struck by the fact that, when +blindfolded, he finds that all the sensations of touch and hearing +really appear more acute and more easily recognized. On account of +this alone no small interest will be aroused in the experimenter. + + * * * * * + +For the beginning of the education of the musical sense, we use in +Rome a material which does not form part of the didactic apparatus as +it is sold at present. It consists of a double series of bells forming +an octave with tones and semitones. These metal bells, which stand +upon a wooden rectangular base, are all alike in appearance, but, when +struck with a little wooden hammer, give out sounds corresponding to +the notes doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh, doh [sharp], re +[sharp], fah [sharp], soh [sharp], lah [sharp]. + +[Illustration: Musical Scale (Chromatic)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--MUSICAL BELLS.] + +One series of bells is arranged in chromatic order upon a long board, +upon which are painted rectangular spaces which are black and white +and of the same size as the bases which support the bells. As on a +pianoforte keyboard, the white spaces correspond to the tones, and the +black to the semitones. (Fig. 27.) + +At first the only bells to be arranged upon the board are those which +correspond to the tones; these are set upon the white spaces in the +order of the musical notes, doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh. + +To perform the first exercise the child strikes with a small hammer +the first note of the series already arranged (doh). Then among a +second series of corresponding bells which, arranged without the +semitones, are mixed together upon the table, he tries, by striking +the bells one after the other, to find the sound which is the same as +the first one he has struck (doh). When he has succeeded in finding +the corresponding sound, he puts the bell thus chosen opposite the +first one (doh) upon the board. Then he strikes the second bell, _re_, +once or twice; then from among the mixed group of bells he makes +experiments until he recognizes _re_, which he places opposite the +second bell of the series already arranged. He continues in the same +way right to the end, looking for the identity of the sounds and +performing an exercise of _pairing_ similar to that already done in +the case of the sound-boxes, the colors, etc. + +Later, he learns in order the sounds of the musical scale, striking in +rapid succession the bells arranged in order, and also accompanying +his action with his voice--doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh. When +he is able to recognize and _remember_ the series of sounds, the child +takes the eight bells and, after mixing them up, he tries by striking +them with the hammer, to find _doh_, then _re_, etc. Every time that +he takes a new note, he strikes from the beginning all the bells +already recognized and arranged in order--doh, _re_, doh, re, _mi_; +doh, re, mi, _fah_; doh, re, mi, fah, _soh_, etc. In this way he +succeeds in arranging all the bells in the order of the scale, guided +only by his ear, and having succeeded, he strikes all the notes one +after the other up and down the scale. This exercise fascinates +children from five years old upwards. + +If the objects which have been described constitute the didactic +material for the beginnings of a methodical education of the auditory +sense, I have no desire to limit to them an educational process which +is so important and already so complex in its practise, whether in the +long established methods of treatment for the deaf, or in modern +physiological musical education. In fact, I also use resonant metal +tubes, small bars of wood which emit musical notes, and strings +(little harps), upon which the children seek to recognize the tones +they have already learned with the exercise of the bells. The +pianoforte may also be used for the same purpose. In this way the +difference in _timbre_ comes to be perceived together with the +differences in tone. At the same time various exercises, already +mentioned, such as the marches played on the piano for rhythmic +exercises, and the simple songs sung by the children themselves, offer +extensive means for the development of the musical sense. + + * * * * * + +To quicken the child's attention in special relation to sounds there +is a most important exercise which, contrary to all attempts made up +to this time in the practise of education, consists not in producing +but in eliminating, as far as possible, all sounds from the +environment. My "lesson of silence" has been very widely applied, even +in schools where the rest of my method has not found its way, for the +sake of its practical effect upon the discipline of the children. + +The children are taught "not to move"; to inhibit all those motor +impulses which may arise from any cause whatsoever, and in order to +induce in them real "immobility," it is necessary to initiate them in +the _control_ of all their movements. The teacher, then, does not +limit herself to saying, "Sit still," but she gives them the example +herself, showing them how to sit absolutely still; that is, with feet +still, body still, arms still, head still. The respiratory movements +should also be performed in such a way as to produce no sound. + +The children must be taught how to succeed in this exercise. The +fundamental condition is that of finding a comfortable position, +_i.e._, a position of equilibrium. As they are seated for this +exercise, they must therefore make themselves comfortable either in +their little chairs or on the ground. When immobility is obtained, the +room is half-darkened, or else the children close their eyes, or cover +them with their hands. + +It is quite plain to see that the children take a great interest in +the "Silence"; they seem to give themselves up to a kind of spell: +they might be said to be wrapped in meditation. Little by little, as +each child, watching himself, becomes more and more still, the silence +deepens till it becomes absolute and can be felt, just as the +twilight gradually deepens whilst the sun is setting. + +Then it is that slight sounds, unnoticed before, are heard; the +ticking of the clock, the chirp of a sparrow in the garden, the flight +of a butterfly. The world becomes full of imperceptible sounds which +invade that deep silence without disturbing it, just as the stars +shine out in the dark sky without banishing the darkness of the night. +It is almost the discovery of a new world where there is rest. It is, +as it were, the twilight of the world of loud noises and of the uproar +that oppresses the spirit. At such a time the spirit is set free and +opens out like the corolla of the convolvulus. + +And leaving metaphor for the reality of facts, can we not all recall +feelings that have possessed us at sunset, when all the vivid +impressions of the day, the brightness and clamor, are silenced? It is +not that we miss the day, but that our spirit expands. It becomes more +sensitive to the inner play of emotions, strong and persistent, or +changeful and serene. + + "It was that hour when mariners feel longing, + And hearts grow tender." + + (Dante, trans. Longfellow.) + +The lesson of silence ends with a general calling of the children's +names. The teacher, or one of the children, takes her place behind the +class or in an adjoining room, and "calls" the motionless children, +one by one, by name; the call is made in a whisper, that is, without +vocal sound. This demands a close attention on the part of the child, +if he is to hear his name. When his name is called he must rise and +find his way to the voice which called him; his movements must be +light and vigilant, and so controlled _as to make no noise_. + +When the children have become acquainted with _silence_, their hearing +is in a manner refined for the perception of sounds. Those sounds +which are too loud become gradually displeasing to the ear of one who +has known the pleasure of silence, and has discovered the world of +delicate sounds. From this point the children gradually go on to +perfect themselves; they walk lightly, take care not to knock against +the furniture, move their chairs without noise, and place things upon +the table with great care. The result of this is seen in the grace of +carriage and of movement, which is especially delightful on account of +the way in which it has been brought about. It is not a grace taught +externally for the sake of beauty or regard for the world, but one +which is born of the pleasure felt by the spirit in immobility and +silence. The soul of the child wishes to free itself from the +irksomeness of sounds that are too loud, from obstacles to its peace +during work. These children, with the grace of pages to a noble lord, +are serving their spirits. + +This exercise develops very definitely the social spirit. No other +lesson, no other "situation," could do the same. A profound silence +can be obtained even when more than fifty children are crowded +together in a small space, provided that _all_ the children know how +to keep still and want to do it; but one disturber is enough to take +away the charm. + +Here is demonstration of the cooperation of all the members of a +community to achieve a common end. The children gradually show +increased power of _inhibition_; many of them, rather than disturb the +silence, refrain from brushing a fly off the nose, or suppress a cough +or sneeze. The same exhibition of collective action is seen in the +care with which the children move to avoid making a noise during their +work. The lightness with which they run on tiptoe, the grace with +which they shut a cupboard, or lay an object on the table, these are +qualities that must be _acquired by all_, if the environment is to +become tranquil and free from disturbance. One rebel is sufficient to +mar this achievement; one noisy child, walking on his heels or banging +the door, can disturb the peaceful atmosphere of the small community. + + + + +LANGUAGE AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD + + +The special importance of the sense of hearing comes from the fact +that it is the sense organ connected with speech. Therefore, to train +the child's attention to follow sounds and noises which are produced +in the environment, to recognize them and to discriminate between +them, is to prepare his attention to follow more accurately the sounds +of articulate language. The teacher must be careful to pronounce +clearly and completely the sounds of the word when she speaks to a +child, even though she may be speaking in a low voice, almost as if +telling him a secret. The children's songs are also a good means for +obtaining exact pronunciation. The teacher, when she teaches them, +pronounces slowly, separating the component sounds of the word +pronounced. + +But a special opportunity for training in clear and exact speech +occurs when the lessons are given in the nomenclature relating to the +sensory exercises. In every exercise, when the child has _recognized_ +the differences between the qualities of the objects, the teacher +fixes the idea of this quality with a word. Thus, when the child has +many times built and rebuilt the tower of the pink cubes, at an +opportune moment the teacher draws near him, and taking the two +extreme cubes, the largest and the smallest, and showing them to him, +says, "This is large"; "This is small." The two words only, _large_ +and _small_, are pronounced several times in succession with strong +emphasis and with a very clear pronunciation, "This is _large_, large, +large"; after which there is a moment's pause. Then the teacher, to +see if the child has understood, verifies with the following tests: +"Give me the large one. Give me the _small_ one." Again, "The large +one." "Now the small one." "Give me the large one." Then there is +another pause. Finally, the teacher, pointing to the objects in turn +asks, "What is this?" The child, if he has learned, replies rightly, +"Large," "Small." The teacher then urges the child to repeat the words +always more clearly and as accurately as possible. "What is it?" +"Large." "What?" "Large." "Tell me nicely, what is it?" "Large." + +_Large_ and _small_ objects are those which differ only in size and +not in form; that is, all three dimensions change more or less +proportionally. We should say that a house is "large" and a hut is +"small." When two pictures represent the same objects in different +dimensions one can be said to be an enlargement of the other. + +When, however, only the dimensions referring to the section of the +object change, while the length remains the same, the objects are +respectively "thick" and "thin." We should say of two posts of equal +height, but different cross-section, that one is "thick" and the other +is "thin." The teacher, therefore, gives a lesson on the brown prisms +similar to that with the cubes in the three "periods" which I have +described: + +_Period 1. Naming._ "This is thick. This is thin." + +_Period 2. Recognition._ "Give me the _thick_. Give me the _thin_." + +_Period 3. The Pronunciation of the Word._ "What is this?" + +There is a way of helping the child to recognize differences in +dimension and to place the objects in correct gradation. After the +lesson which I have described, the teacher scatters the brown prisms, +for instance, on a carpet, says to the child, "Give me the thickest of +all," and lays the object on a table. Then, again, she invites the +child to look for _the thickest_ piece among those scattered on the +floor, and every time the piece chosen is laid in its order on the +table next to the piece previously chosen. In this way the child +accustoms himself always to look either for the _thickest_ or the +_thinnest_ among the rest, and so has a guide to help him to lay the +pieces in gradation. + +When there is one dimension only which varies, as in the case of the +rods, the objects are said to be "long" and "short," the varying +dimension being length. When the varying dimension is height, the +objects are said to be "tall" and "short"; when the breadth varies, +they are "broad" and "narrow." + +Of these three varieties we offer the child as a fundamental lesson +only that in which the _length_ varies, and we teach the differences +by means of the usual "three periods," and by asking him to select +from the pile at one time always the "longest," at another always the +"shortest." + +The child in this way acquires great accuracy in the use of words. One +day the teacher had ruled the blackboard with very fine lines. A child +said, "What small lines!" "They are not small," corrected another; +"they are _thin_." + +When the names to be taught are those of colors or of forms, so that +it is not necessary to emphasize contrast between extremes, the +teacher can give more than two names at the same time, as, for +instance, "This is red." "This is blue." "This is yellow." Or, again, +"This is a square." "This is a triangle." "This is a circle." In the +case of a _gradation_, however, the teacher will select (if she is +teaching the colors) the two extremes "dark" and "light," then making +choice always of the "darkest" and the "lightest." + +Many of the lessons here described can be seen in the cinematograph +pictures; lessons on touching the plane insets and the surfaces, in +walking on the line, in color memory, in the nomenclature relating to +the cubes and the long rods, in the composition of words, reading, +writing, etc. + +By means of these lessons the child comes to know many words very +thoroughly--large, small; thick, thin; long, short; dark, light; +rough, smooth; heavy, light; hot, cold; and the names of many colors +and geometrical forms. Such words do not relate to any particular +_object_, but to a psychic acquisition on the part of the child. In +fact, the name is given _after a long exercise_, in which the child, +concentrating his attention on different qualities of objects, has +made comparisons, reasoned, and formed judgments, until he has +acquired a power of discrimination which he did not possess before. In +a word, he has _refined his senses_; his observation of things has +been thorough and fundamental; he has _changed himself_. + +He finds himself, therefore, facing the world with _psychic_ qualities +refined and quickened. His powers of observation and of recognition +have greatly increased. Further, the mental images which he has +succeeded in establishing are not a confused medley; they are all +classified--forms are distinct from dimensions, and dimensions are +classed according to the qualities which result from the combinations +of varying dimensions. + +All these are quite distinct from _gradations_. Colors are divided +according to tint and to richness of tone, silence is distinct from +non-silence, noises from sounds, and everything has its own exact and +appropriate name. The child then has not only developed in himself +special qualities of observation and of judgment, but the objects +which he observes may be said to go into their place, according to the +order established in his mind, and they are placed under their +appropriate name in an exact classification. + +Does not the student of the experimental sciences prepare himself in +the same way to observe the outside world? He may find himself like +the uneducated man in the midst of the most diverse natural objects, +but he differs from the uneducated man in that he has _special +qualities_ for observation. If he is a worker with the microscope, his +eyes are trained to see in the range of the microscope certain minute +details which the ordinary man cannot distinguish. If he is an +astronomer, he will look through the same telescope as the curious +visitor or _dilettante_, but he will see much more clearly. The same +plants surround the botanist and the ordinary wayfarer, but the +botanist sees in every plant those qualities which are classified in +his mind, and assigns to each plant its own place in the natural +orders, giving it its exact name. It is this capacity for recognizing +a plant in a complex order of classification which distinguishes the +botanist from the ordinary gardener, and it is _exact_ and scientific +language which characterizes the trained observer. + +Now, the scientist who has developed special qualities of observation +and who "possesses" an order in which to classify external objects +will be the man to make scientific _discoveries_. It will never be he +who, without preparation and order, wanders dreaming among plants or +beneath the starlit sky. + +In fact, our little ones have the impression of continually "making +discoveries" in the world about them; and in this they find the +greatest joy. They take from the world a knowledge which is ordered +and inspires them with enthusiasm. Into their minds there enters "the +Creation" instead of "the Chaos"; and it seems that their souls find +therein a divine exultation. + + + + +FREEDOM + + +The success of these results is closely connected with the delicate +intervention of the one who guides the children in their development. +It is necessary for the teacher to _guide_ the child without letting +him feel her presence too much, so that she may be always ready to +supply the desired help, but may never be the obstacle between the +child and his experience. + +A lesson in the ordinary use of the word cools the child's enthusiasm +for the knowledge of things, just as it would cool the enthusiasm of +adults. To keep alive that enthusiasm is the secret of real +guidance, and it will not prove a difficult task, provided that +the attitude towards the child's acts be that of respect, calm and +waiting, and provided that he be left free in his movements and in +his experiences. + +Then we shall notice that the child has a personality which he is +seeking to expand; he has initiative, he chooses his own work, +persists in it, changes it according to his inner needs; he does not +shirk effort, he rather goes in search of it, and with great joy +overcomes obstacles within his capacity. He is sociable to the extent +of wanting to share with every one his successes, his discoveries, and +his little triumphs. There is therefore no need of intervention. "Wait +while observing." That is the motto for the educator. + +Let us wait, and be always ready to share in both the joys and the +difficulties which the child experiences. He himself invites our +sympathy, and we should respond fully and gladly. Let us have endless +patience with his slow progress, and show enthusiasm and gladness at +his successes. If we could say: "We are respectful and courteous in +our dealings with children, we treat them as we should like to be +treated ourselves," we should certainly have mastered a great +educational principle and undoubtedly be setting an _example of good +education_. + +What we all desire for ourselves, namely, not to be disturbed in our +work, not to find hindrances to our efforts, to have good friends +ready to help us in times of need, to see them rejoice with us, to be +on terms of equality with them, to be able to confide and trust in +them--this is what we need for happy companionship. In the same way +children are human beings to whom respect is due, superior to us by +reason of their "innocence" and of the greater possibilities of their +future. What we desire they desire also. + +As a rule, however, we do not respect our children. We try to force +them to follow us without regard to their special needs. We are +overbearing with them, and above all, rude; and then we expect them to +be submissive and well-behaved, knowing all the time how strong is +their instinct of imitation and how touching their faith in and +admiration of us. They will imitate us in any case. Let us treat them, +therefore, with all the kindness which we would wish to help to +develop in them. And by kindness is not meant caresses. Should we not +call anyone who embraced us at the first time of meeting rude, vulgar +and ill-bred? Kindness consists in interpreting the wishes of others, +in conforming one's self to them, and sacrificing, if need be, one's +own desire. This is the kindness which we must show towards children. + +To find the interpretation of children's desires we must study them +scientifically, for their desires are often unconscious. They are the +inner cry of life, which wishes to unfold according to mysterious +laws. We know very little of the way in which it unfolds. Certainly +the child is growing into a man by force of a divine action similar to +that by which from nothing he became a child. + +Our intervention in this marvelous process is _indirect_; we are here +to offer to this life, which came into the world by itself, the +_means_ necessary for its development, and having done that we must +await this development with respect. + +Let us leave the life _free_ to develop within the limits of the good, +and let us observe this inner life developing. This is the whole of +our mission. Perhaps as we watch we shall be reminded of the words of +Him who was absolutely good, "Suffer the little children to come unto +Me." That is to say, "Do not hinder them from coming, since, if they +are left free and unhampered, they will come." + + + + +WRITING + + +The child who has completed all the exercises above described, and is +thus _prepared_ for an advance towards unexpected conquests, is about +four years old. + +He is not an unknown quantity, as are children who have been left to +gain varied and casual experiences by themselves, and who therefore +differ in type and intellectual standard, not only according to their +"natures," but especially according to the chances and opportunities +they have found for their spontaneous inner formation. + +Education has _determined an environment_ for the children. Individual +differences to be found in them can, therefore, be put down almost +exclusively to each one's individual "nature." Owing to their +environment which offers _means_ adapted and measured to meet the +needs of their psychical development, our children have acquired a +fundamental type which is common to all. They have _coordinated_ their +movements in various kinds of manual work about the house, and so have +acquired a characteristic independence of action, and initiative in +the adaptation of their actions to their environment. Out of all this +emerges a _personality_, for the children have become little men, who +are self-reliant. + +The special attention necessary to handle small fragile objects +without breaking them, and to move heavy articles without making a +noise, has endowed the movements of the whole body with a lightness +and grace which are characteristic of our children. It is a deep +feeling of responsibility which has brought them to such a pitch of +perfection. For instance, when they carry three or four tumblers at a +time, or a tureen of hot soup, they know that they are responsible not +only for the objects, but also for the success of the meal which at +that moment they are directing. In the same way each child feels the +responsibility of the "silence," of the prevention of harsh sounds, +and he knows how to cooperate for the general good in keeping the +environment, not only orderly, but quiet and calm. Indeed, our +children have taken the road which leads them to mastery of +themselves. + +But their formation is due to a deeper psychological work still, +arising from the education of the senses. In addition to ordering their +environment and ordering themselves in their outward personalities, +they have also ordered the inner world of their minds. + +The didactic material, in fact, does not offer to the child the +"content" of the mind, but the _order_ for that "content." It causes +him to distinguish identities from differences, extreme differences +from fine gradations, and to classify, under conceptions of quality +and of quantity, the most varying sensations appertaining to surfaces, +colors, dimensions, forms and sounds. The mind has formed itself by a +special exercise of attention, observing, comparing, and classifying. + +The mental attitude acquired by such an exercise leads the child to +make ordered observations in his environment, observations which prove +as interesting to him as discoveries, and so stimulate him to multiply +them indefinitely and to form in his mind a rich "content" of clear +ideas. + +Language now comes to _fix_ by means of _exact words_ the ideas which +the mind has acquired. These words are few in number and have +reference, not to separate objects, but rather to the _order of the +ideas_ which have been formed in the mind. In this way the children +are able to "find themselves," alike in the world of natural things +and in the world of objects and of words which surround them, for they +have an inner guide which leads them to become _active and +intelligent explorers_ instead of wandering wayfarers in an unknown +land. + +These are the children who, in a short space of time, sometimes in a +few days, learn to write and to perform the first operations of +arithmetic. It is not a fact that children in general can do it, as +many have believed. It is not a case of giving my material for writing +to unprepared children and of awaiting the "miracle." + +The fact is that the minds and hands of our children are already +_prepared_ for writing, and ideas of quantity, of identity, of +differences, and of gradation, which form the bases of all calculation, +have been maturing for a long time in them. + +One might say that all their previous education is a preparation for +the first stages of essential culture--_writing_, _reading_, _and +number_, and that knowledge comes as an easy, spontaneous, and logical +consequence of the preparation--that it is in fact its natural +_conclusion_. + +We have already seen that the purpose of the _word_ is to fix +ideas and to facilitate the elementary comprehension of _things_. +In the same way writing and arithmetic now fix the complex inner +acquisitions of the mind, which proceeds henceforward continually +to enrich itself by fresh observations. + + * * * * * + +Our children have long been preparing the hand for writing. +Throughout all the sensory exercises the hand, whilst cooperating +with the mind in its attainments and in its work of formation, was +preparing its own future. When the hand learned to hold itself +lightly suspended over a horizontal surface in order to touch rough +and smooth, when it took the cylinders of the solid insets and +placed them in their apertures, when with two fingers it touched the +outlines of the geometrical forms, it was coordinating movements, +and the child is now ready--almost impatient to use them in the +fascinating "synthesis" of writing. + +The _direct_ preparation for writing also consists in exercises of the +movements of the hand. There are two series of exercises, very +different from one another. I have analyzed the movements which are +connected with writing, and I prepare them separately one from the +other. When we write, we perform a movement for the _management_ of +the instrument of writing, a movement which generally acquires an +individual character, so that a person's handwriting can be +recognized, and, in certain medical cases, changes in the nervous +system can be traced by the corresponding alterations in the +handwriting. In fact, it is from the handwriting that specialists in +that subject would interpret the _moral character_ of individuals. + +Writing has, besides this, a general character, which has reference to +the form of the alphabetical signs. + +When a man writes he combines these two parts, but they actually exist +as the _component parts of a single product_ and can be prepared +apart. + + +_Exercises for the Management of the Instrument of Writing_ + +(THE INDIVIDUAL PART) + +In the didactic material there are two sloping wooden boards, on each +of which stand five square metal frames, colored pink. In each of +these is inserted a blue geometrical figure similar to the geometrical +insets and provided with a small button for a handle. With this +material we use a box of ten colored pencils and a little book of +designs which I have prepared after five years' experience of +observing the children. I have chosen and graduated the designs +according to the use which the children made of them. + +The two sloping boards are set side by side, and on them are placed +ten complete "insets," that is to say, the frames with the geometrical +figures. (Fig. 28.) The child is given a sheet of white paper and the +box of ten colored pencils. He will then choose one of the ten metal +insets, which are arranged in an attractive line at a certain distance +from him. The child is taught the following process: + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--SLOPING BOARDS TO DISPLAY SET OF METAL INSETS.] + +He lays the frame of the iron inset on the sheet of paper, and, +holding it down firmly with one hand, he follows with a colored pencil +the interior outline which describes a geometrical figure. Then he +lifts the square frame, and finds drawn upon the paper an enclosed +geometrical form, a triangle, a circle, a hexagon, etc. The child has +not actually performed a new exercise, because he had already +performed all these movements when he _touched_ the wooden plane +insets. The only new feature of the exercise is that he follows the +outlines no longer directly with his finger, but through the medium +of a pencil. That is, he _draws, he leaves a trace_ of his movement. + +The child finds this exercise easy and most interesting, and, as soon +as he has succeeded in making the first outline, he places above it +the piece of blue metal corresponding to it. This is an exercise +exactly similar to that which he performed when he placed the wooden +geometrical figures upon the cards of the third series, where the +figures are only contained by a simple line. + +This time, however, when the action of placing the form upon the +outline is performed, the child takes _another colored pencil_ and +draws the outline of the blue metal figure. + +When he raises it, if the drawing is well done, he finds upon the +paper a geometrical figure contained by two outlines in colors, and, +if the colors have been well chosen, the result is very attractive, +and the child, who has already had a considerable education of the +chromatic sense is keenly interested in it. + +These may seem unnecessary details, but, as a matter of fact, they are +all-important. For instance, if, instead of arranging the ten metal +insets in a row, the teacher distributes them among the children +without thus exhibiting them, the child's exercises are much limited. +When, on the other hand, the insets are exhibited before his eyes, he +feels the desire to draw them _all_ one after the other, and the +number of exercises is increased. + +The two _colored outlines_ rouse the desire of the child to see +another combination of colors and then to repeat the experience. The +variety of the objects and the colors are therefore an _inducement_ to +work and hence to final success. + +Here the actual preparatory movement for writing begins. When the +child has drawn the figure in double outline, he takes hold of a +pencil "like a pen for writing," and draws marks up and down until he +has completely filled the figure. In this way a definite filled-in +figure remains on the paper, similar to the figures on the cards of +the first series. This figure can be in any of the ten colors. At +first the children fill in the figures very clumsily without regard +for the outlines, making very heavy lines and not keeping them +parallel. Little by little, however, the drawings improve, in that +they keep within the outlines, and the lines increase in number, grow +finer, and are parallel to one another. + +When the child has begun these exercises, he is seized with a desire +to continue them, and he never tires of drawing the outlines of the +figures and then filling them in. Each child suddenly becomes the +possessor of a considerable number of drawings, and he treasures them +up in his own little drawer. In this way he _organizes_ the movement +of writing, which brings him _to the management of the pen_. This +movement in ordinary methods is represented by the wearisome pothook +connected with the first laborious and tedious attempts at writing. + +The organization of this movement, which began from the guidance of a +piece of metal, is as yet rough and imperfect, and the child now +passes on to the _filling in of the prepared designs_ in the little +album. The leaves are taken from the book one by one in the order of +progression in which they are arranged, and the child fills in the +prepared designs with colored pencils in the same way as before. Here +the choice of the colors is another intelligent occupation which +encourages the child to multiply the tasks. He chooses the colors by +himself and with much taste. The delicacy of the shades which he +chooses and the harmony with which he arranges them in these designs +show us that the common belief, that children love _bright and +glaring_ colors, has been the result of observation of _children +without education_, who have been abandoned to the rough and harsh +experiences of an environment unfitted for them. + +The education of the chromatic sense becomes at this point of a +child's development the _lever_ which enables him to become possessed +of a firm, bold and beautiful handwriting. + +The drawings lend themselves to _limiting_, in very many ways, _the +length of the strokes with which they are filled in_. The child will +have to fill in geometrical figures, both large and small, of a +pavement design, or flowers and leaves, or the various details of an +animal or of a landscape. In this way the hand accustoms itself, not +only to perform the general action, but also to confine the movement +within all kinds of limits. + +Hence the child is preparing himself to write in a handwriting +_either_ large or small. Indeed, later on he will write as well +between the wide lines on a blackboard as between the narrow, closely +ruled lines of an exercise book, generally used by much older +children. + +The number of exercises which the child performs with the drawings is +practically unlimited. He will often take another colored pencil and +draw over again the outlines of the figure already filled in with +color. A help to the _continuation_ of the exercise is to be found in +the further education of the chromatic sense, which the child acquires +by painting the same designs in water-colors. Later he mixes colors +for himself until he can imitate the colors of nature, or create the +delicate tints which his own imagination desires. It is not possible, +however, to speak of all this in detail within the limits of this +small work. + + +_Exercises for the Writing of Alphabetical Signs_ + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--SINGLE SANDPAPER LETTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--GROUPS OF SANDPAPER LETTERS.] + +In the didactic material there are series of boxes which contain the +alphabetical signs. At this point we take those cards which are +covered with very smooth paper, to which is gummed a letter of the +alphabet cut out in sandpaper. (Fig. 29.) There are also large cards +on which are gummed several letters, grouped together according to +analogy of form. (Fig. 30.) + +The children "have to _touch_ over the alphabetical signs as though +they were writing." They touch them with the tips of the index and +middle fingers in the same way as when they touched the wooden insets, +and with the hand raised as when they lightly touched the rough and +smooth surfaces. The teacher herself touches the letters to show the +child how the movement should be performed, and the child, if he has +had much practise in touching the wooden insets, _imitates_ her with +_ease_ and pleasure. Without the previous practise, however, the +child's hand does not follow the letter with accuracy, and it is most +interesting to make close observations of the children in order to +understand the importance of a _remote motor preparation_ for writing, +and also to realize the _immense_ strain which we impose upon the +children when we set them to write directly without a previous motor +education of the hand. + +The child finds great pleasure in touching the sandpaper letters. It +is an exercise by which he applies to a new attainment the power he +has already acquired through exercising the sense of touch. Whilst +the child touches a letter, the teacher pronounces its sound, and she +uses for the lesson the usual three periods. Thus, for example, +presenting the two vowels _i_, _o_, she will have the child touch them +slowly and accurately, and repeat their relative sounds one after +the other as the child touches them, "i, i, i! o, o, o!" Then she +will say to the child: "Give me i!" "Give me o!" Finally, she will ask +the question: "What is this?" To which the child replies, "i, o." +She proceeds in the same way through all the other letters, giving, +in the case of the consonants, not the name, but only the sound. The +child then touches the letters by himself over and over again, +either on the separate cards or on the large cards on which several +letters are gummed, and in this way he establishes the movements +necessary for tracing the alphabetical signs. At the same time he +retains the _visual_ image of the letter. This process forms the first +preparation, not only for writing, but also for reading, because it +is evident that when the child _touches_ the letters he performs the +movement corresponding to the writing of them, and, at the same +time, when he recognizes them by sight he is reading the alphabet. + +The child has thus prepared, in effect, all the necessary movements +for writing; therefore he _can write_. This important conquest is the +result of a long period of inner formation of which the child is not +clearly aware. But a day will come--very soon--when he _will write_, +and that will be a day of great surprise for him--the wonderful +harvest of an unknown sowing. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--BOX OF MOVABLE LETTERS.] + +The alphabet of movable letters cut out in pink and blue cardboard, +and kept in a special box with compartments, serves "for the +composition of words." (Fig. 31.) + +In a phonetic language, like Italian, it is enough to pronounce +clearly the different component sounds of a word (as, for example, +m-a-n-o), so that the child whose ear is _already educated_ may +recognize one by one the component sounds. Then he looks in the +movable alphabet for the _signs_ corresponding to each separate sound, +and lays them one beside the other, thus composing the word (for +instance, mano). Gradually he will become able to do the same thing +with words of which he thinks himself; he succeeds in breaking them up +into their component sounds, and in translating them into a row of +signs. + +When the child has composed the words in this way, he knows how to +read them. In this method, therefore, all the processes leading to +writing include reading as well. + +If the language is not phonetic, the teacher can compose separate +words with the movable alphabet, and then pronounce them, letting the +child repeat by himself the exercise of arranging and rereading them. + +In the material there are two movable alphabets. One of them consists +of larger letters, and is divided into two boxes, each of which +contains the vowels. This is used for the first exercises, in which +the child needs very large objects in order to recognize the letters. +When he is acquainted with one half of the consonants he can begin to +compose words, even though he is dealing with one part only of the +alphabet. + +The other movable alphabet has smaller letters and is contained in a +single box. It is given to children who have made their first attempts +at composition with words, and already know the complete alphabet. + +It is after these exercises with the movable alphabet that the child +_is able to write entire words_. This phenomenon generally occurs +unexpectedly, and then a child who has never yet traced a stroke or a +letter on paper _writes several words in succession_. From that moment +he continues to write, always gradually perfecting himself. This +spontaneous writing takes on the characteristics of a _natural_ +phenomenon, and the child who has begun to write the "first word" will +continue to write in the same way as he spoke after pronouncing the +first word, and as he walked after having taken the first step. The +same course of inner formation through which the phenomenon of writing +appeared is the course of his future progress, of his growth to +perfection. The child prepared in this way has entered upon a course +of development through which he will pass as surely as the growth of +the body and the development of the natural functions have passed +through their course of development when life has once been +established. + +For the interesting and very complex phenomena relating to the +development of writing and then of reading, see my larger works. + + + + +THE READING OF MUSIC + + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE MUSICAL STAFF.[A]] + +----- + + [A] The single staff is used in the Conservatoire of Milan and + utilized in the Perlasca method. + +----- + +When the child knows how to read, he can make a first application of +this knowledge to the reading of the names of musical notes. + +In connection with the material for sensory education, consisting of +the series of bells, we use a didactic material, which serves as an +introduction to musical reading. For this purpose we have, in the +first place, a wooden board, not very long, and painted pale green. On +this board the staff is cut out in black, and in every line and space +are cut round holes, inside each of which is written the name of the +note in its reference to the treble clef. + +There is also a series of little white discs which can be fitted into +the holes. On one side of each disc is written the name of the note +(doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh). + +The child, guided by the name written on the discs, puts them, with +the name uppermost, in their right places on the board and then reads +the names of the notes. This exercise he can do by himself, and he +learns the position of each note on the staff. Another exercise which +the child can do at the same time is to place the disc bearing the +name of the note on the rectangular base of the corresponding bell, +whose sound he has already learned to recognize by ear in the +sensorial exercise described above. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--DUMB KEYBOARD.] + +Following this exercise there is another staff made on a board of +green wood, which is longer than the other and has neither indentures +nor signs. A considerable number of discs, on one side of which are +written the names of the notes, is at the disposal of the child. He +takes up a disc at random, reads its name and places it on the staff, +with the name underneath, so that the white face of the disc shows on +the top. By the repetition of this exercise the child is enabled to +arrange many discs on the same line or in the same space. When he has +finished, he turns them all over so that the names are outside, and so +finds out if he has made mistakes. After learning the treble clef the +child passes on to learn the bass with great ease. + +To the staff described above can be added another similar to it, +arranged as is shown in the figure. (Fig. 32.) The child beginning +with doh, lays the discs on the board in ascending order in their +right position until the octave is reached: doh, re, mi, fah, soh, +lah, ti, doh. Then he descends the scale in the same way, returning to +_doh_, but continuing to place the discs always to the right: soh, +fah, mi, re, doh. In this way he forms an angle. At this point he +descends again to the lower staff, ti, lah, soh, fah, mi, re, doh, +then he ascends again on the other side: re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, +and by forming with his two lines of discs another angle in the bass, +he has completed a rhombus, "the rhombus of the notes." + +After the discs have been arranged in this way, the upper staff is +separated from the lower. In the lower the notes are arranged +according to the bass clef. In this way the first elements of musical +reading are presented to the child, reading which corresponds to +_sounds_ with which the child's ear is already acquainted. + +For a first practical application of this knowledge we have used in +our schools a miniature pianoforte keyboard, which reproduces the +essentials of this instrument, although in a simplified form, and so +that they are visible. Two octaves only are reproduced, and the keys, +which are small, are proportioned to the hand of a little child of +four or five years, as the keys of the common piano are proportioned +to those of the adult. All the mechanism of the key is visible. (Fig. +39.) On striking a key one sees the hammer rise, on which is written +the name of the note. The hammers are black and white, like the +notes. + +With this instrument it is very easy for the child to practise alone, +finding the notes on the keyboard corresponding to some bar of written +music, and following the movements of the fingers made in playing the +piano. + +The keyboard in itself is mute, but a series of resonant tubes, +resembling a set of organ-pipes, can be applied to the upper surface, +so that the hammers striking these produce musical notes corresponding +to the keys struck. The child can then pursue his exercises with the +control of the musical sounds. + + +DIDACTIC MATERIAL FOR MUSICAL READING. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33. + +On the wooden board, round spaces are cut out +corresponding to the notes. Inside each of the spaces there is a figure. +On one side of each of the discs is written a number and on the other the +name of the note. They are fitted by the child into the corresponding +places.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34. + +The child next arranged the discs in the notes cut out on +the staff, but there are no longer numbers written to help him find the +places. Instead, he must try to remember the place of the note on the +staff. If he is not sure he consults the numbered board (Fig. 33).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35. + +The child arranged on the staff the semitones in the +spaces which remain where the discs are far apart: do-re, re-mi, fah-soh, +soh-la, la-ti. The discs for the semitones have the sharp on one side and +the flat on the other, e.g., re[sharp]-mi[flat] are written on the +opposite sides of the same disc.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 36. + +The children take a large number of discs and arrange them +on the staff, leaving uppermost the side which is blank, i.e., the side +on which the name of the note is not written. Then they verify their work +by turning the discs over and reading the name.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37. + +The double staff is formed by putting the two staves +together. The children arrange the notes in the form of a rhombus.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38. + +The two boards are then separated and the notes remain +arranged according to the treble and bass clefs. The corresponding key +signatures are then placed upon the two different staves.] + + + + +ARITHMETIC + + +The children possess all the instinctive knowledge necessary as a +preparation for clear ideas on numeration. The idea of quantity was +inherent in all the material for the education of the senses: longer, +shorter, darker, lighter. The conception of identity and of difference +formed part of the actual technique of the education of the senses, +which began with the recognition of identical objects, and continued +with the arrangement in gradation of similar objects. I will make a +special illustration of the first exercise with the solid insets, +which can be done even by a child of two and a half. When he makes a +mistake by putting a cylinder in a hole too large for it, and so +leaves _one_ cylinder without a place, he instinctively absorbs the +idea of the absence of _one_ from a continuous series. The child's +mind is not prepared for number "by certain preliminary ideas," given +in haste by the teacher, but has been prepared for it by a process of +formation, by a slow building up of itself. + +To enter directly upon the teaching of arithmetic, we must turn to the +same didactic material used for the education of the senses. + +Let us look at the three sets of material which are presented after +the exercises with the solid insets, _i.e._, the material for teaching +_size_ (the pink cubes), _thickness_ (the brown prisms), and _length_ +(the green rods). There is a definite relation between the ten pieces +of each series. In the material for length the shortest piece is a +_unit of measurement_ for all the rest; the second piece is double the +first, the third is three times the first, etc., and, whilst the scale +of length increases by ten centimeters for each piece, the other +dimensions remain constant (_i.e._, the rods all have the same +section). + +The pieces then stand in the same relation to one another as the +natural series of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. + +In the second series, namely, that which shows _thickness_, whilst the +length remains constant, the square section of the prisms varies. The +result is that the sides of the square sections vary according to the +series of natural numbers, _i.e._, in the first prism, the square of +the section has sides of one centimeter, in the second of two +centimeters, in the third of three centimeters, etc., and so on until +the tenth, in which the square of the section has sides of ten +centimeters. The prisms therefore are in the same proportion to one +another as the numbers of the series of squares (1, 4, 9, etc.), for +it would take four prisms of the first size to make the second, nine +to make the third, etc. The pieces which make up the series for +teaching thickness are therefore in the following proportion: 1 : 4 : +9 : 16 : 25 : 36 : 49 : 64 : 81 : 100. + +In the case of the pink cubes the edge increases according to the +numerical series, _i.e._, the first cube has an edge of one +centimeter, the second of two centimeters, the third of three +centimeters, and so on, to the tenth cube, which has an edge of ten +centimeters. Hence the relation in volume between them is that of the +cubes of the series of numbers from one to ten, _i.e._, 1 : 8: 27 : +64: 125 : 216 : 343 : 512 : 729 : 1000. In fact, to make up the +volume of the second pink cube, eight of the first little cubes would +be required; to make up the volume of the third, twenty-seven would be +required, and so on. + +[Illustration: + + ===== + =====----- + =====-----===== + A =====-----=====----- B + =====-----=====-----===== + =====-----=====-----=====----- + =====-----=====-----=====-----===== + =====-----=====-----=====-----=====----- + =====-----=====-----=====-----=====-----===== + =====-----=====-----=====-----=====-----=====----- + 1 + 1 2 + 1 2 3 + 1 2 3 4 + 1 2 3 4 5 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + FIG. 40.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING USE OF NUMERICAL RODS.] + +The children have an intuitive knowledge of this difference, for they +realize that the exercise with the pink cubes is the _easiest_ of all +three and that with the rods the most difficult. When we begin the +direct teaching of number, we choose the long rods, modifying them, +however, by dividing them into ten spaces, each ten centimeters in +length, colored alternately red and blue. For example, the rod which +is four times as long as the first is clearly seen to be composed of +four equal lengths, red and blue; and similarly with all the rest. + +When the rods have been placed in order of gradation, we teach the +child the numbers: one, two, three, etc., by touching the rods in +succession, from the first up to ten. Then, to help him to gain a +clear idea of number, we proceed to the recognition of separate rods +by means of the customary lesson in three periods. + +We lay the three first rods in front of the child, and pointing to +them or taking them in the hand in turn, in order to show them to him +we say: "This is _one_." "This is _two_." "This is _three_." We point +out with the finger the divisions in each rod, counting them so as to +make sure, "One, two: this is _two_." "One, two, three: this is +_three_." Then we say to the child: "Give me _two_." "Give me _one_." +"Give me _three_." Finally, pointing to a rod, we say, "What is this?" +The child answers, "Three," and we count together: "One, two, three." + +In the same way we teach all the other rods in their order, adding +always one or two more according to the responsiveness of the child. + +The importance of this didactic material is that it gives a clear idea +of _number_. For when a number is named it exists as an object, a +unity in itself. When we say that a man possesses a million, we mean +that he has a _fortune_ which is worth so many units of measure of +values, and these units all belong to one person. + +So, if we add 7 to 8 (7 + 8), we add a _number to a number_, and these +numbers for a _definite_ reason represent in themselves groups of +homogeneous units. + +Again, when the child shows us the 9, he is handling a rod which is +inflexible--an object complete in itself, yet composed of _nine equal +parts_ which can be counted. And when he comes to add 8 to 2, he will +place next to one another, two rods, two objects, one of which has +eight equal lengths and the other two. When, on the other hand, in +ordinary schools, to make the calculation easier, they present the +child with different objects to count, such as beans, marbles, etc., +and when, to take the case I have quoted (8 + 2), he takes a group of +eight marbles and adds two more marbles to it, the natural impression +in his mind is not that he has added 8 to 2, but that he has added 1 ++ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 to 1 + 1. The result is not so clear, and +the child is required to make the effort of holding in his mind the +idea of a group of eight objects as _one united whole_, corresponding +to a single number, 8. + +This effort often puts the child back, and delays his understanding of +number by months or even years. + +The addition and subtraction of numbers under ten are made very much +simpler by the use of the didactic material for teaching lengths. Let +the child be presented with the attractive problem of arranging the +pieces in such a way as to have a set of rods, all as long as the +longest. He first arranges the rods in their right order (the long +stair); he then takes the last rod (1) and lays it next to the 9. +Similarly, he takes the last rod but one (2) and lays it next to the +8, and so on up to the 5. + +This very simple game represents the addition of numbers within the +ten: 9 + 1, 8 + 2, 7 + 3, 6 + 4. Then, when he puts the rods back in +their places, he must first take away the 4 and put it back under the +5, and then take away in their turn the 3, the 2, the 1. By this +action he has put the rods back again in their right gradation, but +he has also performed a series of arithmetical subtractions, 10 - 4, +10 - 3, 10 - 2, 10 - 1. + +The teaching of the actual figures marks an advance from the rods to +the process of counting with separate units. When the figures are +known, they will serve the very purpose in the abstract which the rods +serve in the concrete; that is, they will stand for the _uniting into +one whole_ of a certain number of separate units. + +The _synthetic_ function of language and the wide field of work which +it opens out for the intelligence is _demonstrated_, we might say, by +the function of the _figure_, which now can be substituted for the +concrete rods. + +The use of the actual rods only would limit arithmetic to the small +operations within the ten or numbers a little higher, and, in the +construction of the mind, these operations would advance very little +farther than the limits of the first simple and elementary education +of the senses. + +The figure, which is a word, a graphic sign, will permit of that +unlimited progress which the mathematical mind of man has been able to +make in the course of its evolution. + +In the material there is a box containing smooth cards, on which are +gummed the figures from one to nine, cut out in sandpaper. These are +analogous to the cards on which are gummed the sandpaper letters of +the alphabet. The method of teaching is always the same. The child is +_made to touch_ the figures in the direction in which they are +written, and to name them at the same time. + +In this case he does more than when he learned the letters; he is +shown how to place each figure upon the corresponding rod. When all +the figures have been learned in this way, one of the first exercises +will be to place the number cards upon the rods arranged in gradation. +So arranged, they form a succession of steps on which it is a pleasure +to place the cards, and the children remain for a long time repeating +this intelligent game. + +After this exercise comes what we may call the "emancipation" of the +child. He carried his own figures with him, and now _using them_ he +will know how to group units together. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--COUNTING BOXES.] + +For this purpose we have in the didactic material a series of wooden +pegs, but in addition to these we give the children all sorts of small +objects--sticks, tiny cubes, counters, etc. + +The exercise will consist in placing opposite a figure the number of +objects that it indicates. The child for this purpose can use the box +which is included in the material. (Fig. 41.) This box is divided into +compartments, above each of which is printed a figure and the child +places in the compartment the corresponding number of pegs. + +Another exercise is to lay all the figures on the table and place +below them the corresponding number of cubes, counters, etc. + +This is only the first step, and it would be impossible here to speak +of the succeeding lessons in zero, in tens and in other arithmetical +processes--for the development of which my larger works must be +consulted. The didactic material itself, however, can give some idea. +In the box containing the pegs there is one compartment over which the +0 is printed. Inside this compartment "nothing must be put," and then +we begin with _one_. + +Zero is nothing, but it is placed next to one to enable us to count +when we pass beyond 9--thus, 10. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--ARITHMETIC FRAME.] + +If, instead of the piece 1, we were to take pieces as long as the rod +10, we could count 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90. In the didactic +material there are frames containing cards on which are printed such +numbers from 10 to 90. These numbers are fixed into a frame in such a +way that the figures 1 to 9 can be slipped in covering the zero. If +the zero of 10 is covered by 1 the result is 11, if with 2 it becomes +12, and so on, until the last 9. Then we pass to the twenties (the +second ten), and so on, from ten to ten. (Fig. 42.) + +For the beginning of this exercise with the cards marking the tens we +can use the rods. As we begin with the first ten (10) in the frame, we +take the rod 10. We then place the small rod 1 next to rod 10, and at +the same time slip in the number 1, covering the zero of the 10. Then +we take rod 1 and figure 1 away from the frame, and put in their place +rod 2 next to rod 10, and figure 2 over the zero in the frame, and so +on, up to 9. To advance farther we should need to use two rods of 10 +to make 20. + +The children show much enthusiasm when learning these exercises, which +demand from them two sets of activities, and give them in their work +clearness of idea. + + * * * * * + +In writing and arithmetic we have gathered the fruits of a laborious +education which consisted in coordinating the movements and gaining a +first knowledge of the world. This culture comes as a natural +consequence of man's first efforts to put himself into intelligent +communication with the world. + +All those early acquisitions which have brought order into the child's +mind, would be wasted were they not firmly established by means of +written language and of figures. Thus established, however, these +experiences open up an unlimited field for future education. What we +have done, therefore, is to introduce the child to a higher level--the +level of culture--and he will now be able to pass on to a _school_, +but not the school we know to-day, where, irrationally, we try to give +culture to minds not yet prepared or _educated to receive it_. + +To preserve the health of their minds, which have been _exercised_ and +not _fatigued_ by the order of the work, our children must have a new +kind of school for the acquisition of culture. My experiments in the +continuation of this method for older children are already far +advanced. + + + + +MORAL FACTORS + + +A brief description such as this, of the _means_ which are used in the +"Children's House," may perhaps give the reader the impression of a +logical and convincing system of education. But the importance of my +method does not lie in the organization itself, but _in the effects +which it produces on the child_. It is the _child_ who proves the +value of this method by his spontaneous manifestations, which seem to +reveal the laws of man's inner development.[B] Psychology will perhaps +find in the "Children's Houses" a laboratory which will bring more +truths to light than thus hitherto recognized; for the essential +factor in psychological research, especially in the field of +psychogenesis, the origin and development of the mind, must be the +establishment of normal conditions for the free development of +thought. + +----- + + [B] See the chapters on Discipline in my larger works. + +----- + +As is well known, we leave the children _free_ in their work, and in +all actions which are not of a disturbing kind. That is, we +_eliminate_ disorder, which is "bad," but allow to that which is +orderly and "good" the most complete liberty of manifestation. + +The results obtained are surprising, for the children have shown a +love of work which no one suspected to be in them, and a calm and an +orderliness in their movements which, surpassing the limits of +correctness have entered into those of "grace." The spontaneous +discipline, and the obedience which is seen in the whole class, +constitute the most striking result of our method. + +The ancient philosophical discussion as to whether man is born good or +evil is often brought forward in connection with my method, and many +who have supported it have done so on the ground that it provides a +demonstration of man's natural goodness. Very many others, on the +contrary, have opposed it, considering that to leave children free is +a dangerous mistake, since they have in them innate tendencies to +evil. + +I should like to put the question upon a more positive plane. + +In the words "good" and "evil" we include the most varying ideas, and +we confuse them especially _in our practical dealings with little +children_. + +The tendencies which we stigmatize as _evil_ in little children of +three to six years of age are often merely those which cause +_annoyance_ to us adults when, not understanding their needs, we try +to prevent their _every movement_, their every _attempt to gain +experience for themselves in the world_ (by touching everything, +etc.). The child, however, through this _natural tendency_, is led to +_coordinate his movements_ and to collect impressions, especially +sensations of touch, so that when prevented he _rebels_, and this +rebellion forms almost the whole of his "naughtiness." + +What wonder is it that the evil disappears when, if we give the right +_means_ for development and leave full liberty to use them, rebellion +has no more reason for existence? + +Further, by the substitution of a series of outbursts of _joy_ for the +old series of outbursts of _rage_, the moral physiognomy of the child +comes to assume a calm and gentleness which make him appear a +different being. + +It is we who provoked the children to the violent manifestations of a +real _struggle for existence_. In order to exist _according to the +needs of their psychic development_ they were often obliged to snatch +from us the things which seemed necessary to them for the purpose. +They had to move contrary to our laws, or sometimes to struggle with +other children to wrest from them the objects of their desire. + +On the other hand, if we give children the _means of existence_, the +struggle for it disappears, and a vigorous expansion of life takes its +place. This question involves a hygienic principle connected with the +nervous system during the difficult period when the brain is still +rapidly growing, and should be of great interest to specialists in +children's diseases and nervous derangements. The inner life of man +and the beginnings of his intellect are controlled by special laws and +vital necessities which cannot be forgotten if we are aiming at health +for mankind. + +For this reason, an educational method, which cultivates and protects +the inner activities of the child, is not a question which concerns +merely the school or the teachers; it is a universal question which +concerns the family, and is of vital interest to mothers. + +To go more deeply into a question is often the only means of answering +it rightly. If, for instance, we were to see men fighting over a piece +of bread, we might say: "How bad men are!" If, on the other hand, we +entered a well-warmed eating-house, and saw them quietly finding a +place and choosing their meal without any envy of one another, we +might say: "How good men are!" Evidently, the question of absolute +good and evil, intuitive ideas of which guide us in our superficial +judgment, goes beyond such limitations as these. We can, for instance, +provide excellent eating-houses for an entire people without directly +affecting the question of their morals. One might say, indeed, that to +judge by appearances, a well-fed people are _better, quieter, and +commit less crime_ than a nation that is ill-nourished; but whoever +draws from that the conclusion that to make men good it is _enough_ to +feed them, will be making an obvious mistake. + +It cannot be denied, however, that _nourishment_ will be an essential +factor in obtaining goodness, in the sense that it will _eliminate_ +all the _evil acts, and the bitterness_ caused by lack of bread. + +Now, in our case, we are dealing with a far deeper need--the +nourishment of man's inner life, and of his higher functions. The +bread that we are dealing with is the bread of the spirit, and we are +entering into the difficult subject of the satisfaction of man's +psychic needs. + +We have already obtained a most interesting result, in that we have +found it possible to present _new means_ of enabling children to reach +a higher level of calm and goodness, and we have been able to +establish these means by experience. The whole foundation of our +results rests upon these means which we have discovered, and which may +be divided under two heads--the _organization of work_, and liberty. + +It is the perfect organization of work, permitting the possibility of +self-development and giving outlet for the energies, which procures +for each child the beneficial and calming _satisfaction_. And it is +under such conditions of work that liberty leads to a perfecting of +the activities, and to the attainment of a fine discipline which is in +itself the result of that new quality of _calmness_ that has been +developed in the child. + +Freedom without organization of work would be useless. The child left +_free_ without means of work would go to waste, just as a new-born +baby, if _left free_ without nourishment, would die of starvation. +_The organization of the work_, therefore, is the corner-stone of this +new structure of goodness; but even that organization would be in vain +without the _liberty_ to make use of it, and without freedom for the +expansion of all those energies which spring from the satisfaction of +the child's highest activities. + +Has not a similar phenomenon occurred also in the history of man? The +history of civilization is a history of successful attempts to +organize work and to obtain liberty. On the whole, man's goodness has +also increased, as is shown by his progress from barbarism to +civilization, and it may be said that crime, the various forms of +wickedness, cruelty and violence have been gradually decreasing during +this passage of time. + +The _criminality_ of our times, as a matter of fact, has been compared +to a form of _barbarism_ surviving in the midst of civilized peoples. +It is, therefore, through the better organization of work that society +will probably attain to a further purification, and in the meanwhile +it seems unconsciously to be seeking the overthrow of the last +barriers between itself and liberty. + +If this is what we learn from society, how great should be the results +among little children from three to six years of age if the +organization of their work is complete, and their freedom absolute? It +is for this reason that to us they seem so good, like heralds of hope +and of redemption. + +If men, walking as yet so painfully and imperfectly along the road of +work and of freedom, have become better, why should we fear that the +same road will prove disastrous to the children? + +Yet, on the other hand, I would not say that the goodness of our +little ones in their freedom will solve the problem of the absolute +goodness or wickedness of man. We can only say that we have made a +contribution to the cause of goodness by removing obstacles which were +the cause of violence and of rebellion. + +Let us "render, therefore, unto Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's, and +unto God the things that are God's." + + + + +THE END + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Illustrations have been moved closer to their relevant paragraphs. + + The page numbers in the List of Illustrations do not reflect the new + placement of the illustrations, but are as in the original. + + The list of "didactic material for the _education of the senses_" on + pages 18-19 is missing item (j) as in the original. + + Author's archaic and variable spelling is preserved. + + Author's punctuation style is preserved. + + Passages in italics indicated by _underscores_. + + Passages in bold indicated by =equal signs=. + + Typographical problems have been changed and are listed below. + + +Transcriber's Changes: + + Page vii: Was 'marvellous' [In fact, Helen Keller is a =marvelous= + example of the phenomenon common to all human beings] + + Page 46: Was 'anvles' [which vary either according to their sides or + according to their =angles= (the equilateral, isosceles, + scalene, right angled, obtuse angled, and acute)] + + Page 63: Added commas [recognized and arranged in order--doh, _re_, + =doh,= re, _mi_; doh, =re,= mi, _fah_; doh, =re,= mi, fah, + _soh_, etc. In this way he succeeds in arranging all the] + + Fig. 35 caption: Was 'si' [the spaces which remain where the discs + are far apart: do-re, re-mi, fah-soh, soh-la, la-=ti=. The + discs for the semitones] + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, by Maria Montessori + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DR. MONTESSORI'S OWN HANDBOOK *** + +***** This file should be named 29635-8.txt or 29635-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/6/3/29635/ + +Produced by Alicia Williams, Dan Horwood and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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