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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:47:56 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:47:56 -0700 |
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diff --git a/29635-h/29635-h.htm b/29635-h/29635-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0041b91 --- /dev/null +++ b/29635-h/29635-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4461 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, by Maria Montessori.</title> + +<style type="text/css"> + @media screen { + hr.pb {margin:30px 0; width:100%; border:none;border-top:thin dashed silver;} + .pagenum {display: inline; font-size: x-small; text-align: right; position: absolute; right: 2%; padding: 1px 3px; font-style: normal; font-variant:normal; font-weight:normal; text-decoration: none; background-color: inherit; border:1px solid #eee;} + .pncolor {color: silver;} + } + @media print { + hr.pb {border:none;page-break-after: always;} + .pagenum { display:none; } + } + .figleft {padding: .5em .5em 0 0; float: left; width: auto;} + hr.fn {width:3em; text-align:left; margin-left: 0; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; height:1px; border: none; border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + span.indent1 {margin-left: 0; padding-left:0; width: 0.4em; padding-right: 0; margin-right: 0; display: block; float: left;} + a {text-decoration: none;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + body {margin-left: 11%; margin-right: 10%;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .fnanchor {font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + .figcenter {margin: 2em auto 2em auto; text-align: center; width: auto;} + .figtag {height: 1px;} + p.lalign {text-align: left !important;} + .chsp {margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + hr.mini {width: 20%; border:none; border-bottom:1px solid silver; clear:both; margin: 1em auto;} + p {margin-top: 0.5em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 0.5em;} + .figright {padding: .5em 0 0 .5em; float: right; width: auto;} + p.ralign {text-align: right !important;} + hr.toprule {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; border:none; border-bottom:1px solid silver; clear:both;} + .caption {font-size:smaller; text-align:center;} + hr.tb {border:none; margin-top:2em;} + table {text-align:justify;} + .smcap {font-variant:small-caps;} + h3 {font-size:1em; margin-bottom:0.2em; margin-top:1.2em; font-style:italic;} + ol.secondlevel li {display: block; margin-bottom:.5em; margin-left:2em;} + ul {list-style-type:none;} + .trnote {background-color: #EEE; color: inherit; margin: 2em 5% 1em 5%; font-size: 80%; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em; border: dotted 1px gray;} + ol.secondlevel {counter-reset:item2;} + p.dropcap:first-letter{float: left; padding-right: 3px; font-size: 250%; line-height: 83%; width:auto;} + .center {text-align:center;} + sup {font-size:90%; line-height:45%; vertical-align:105%; letter-spacing:0.03em;} + ins.trchange {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align:center; font-weight:normal;} + .caps {text-transform:uppercase;} + p.tp {font-size:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:center;} + ol.secondlevel li:before{display: inline-block; content: "(" counter(item2, decimal) ") "; counter-increment: item2; width: 2em; margin-left: -2em; font-style:normal;} + h1 {font-size:2.5em; margin-bottom:0.2em} + .smaller {font-size:0.9em;} + h2 {font-size:1.3em; margin-bottom:0em} +</style> + +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, by Maria Montessori + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook + +Author: Maria Montessori + +Release Date: August 8, 2009 [EBook #29635] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DR. MONTESSORI'S OWN HANDBOOK *** + + + + +Produced by Alicia Williams, Dan Horwood and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_1' id='linki_1'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-fpc.jpg' alt='' title='' width='312' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +Dr. Maria Montessori<br /> +</p> +</div> +<hr class='mini' /> +<h1>DR. MONTESSORI’S<br /> +OWN HANDBOOK</h1> + +<p style="text-align:center">BY</p> + +<h2 style="margin-bottom:0em">MARIA MONTESSORI</h2> + +<p style="text-align:center; margin-top:0em; font-size:smaller">AUTHOR OF “THE MONTESSORI METHOD” AND<br /> +“PEDAGOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY”</p> + +<p style="text-align:center; margin-top:3em"><i>WITH FORTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS</i></p> + +<div class='figcenter' style='margin: 0 auto;'> +<img src='images/illus-002.png' alt="Publisher's Logo" title='' width='99' height='125' /><br /> +</div> + +<p style="text-align:center">NEW YORK</p> +<p style="text-align:center">FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY</p> +<p style="text-align:center">PUBLISHERS</p> +<hr class='pb' /> +<p style="text-align:center"><i>Copyright, 1914, by</i><br /> +<span class="smcap">Frederick A. Stokes Company</span></p> +<hr class="mini" /> +<p style="text-align:center"><i>All rights reserved, including that of translation +into foreign languages</i></p> +<div style="margin-left:25%; margin-top:4em"> +<img src='images/logo.png' style='display:inline; position:relative; top:20px; width:auto;' width='36' height='50' alt='' title='' /> +<p style="display:inline; margin:4em auto; padding:0.5em; padding-left:5em; margin-left:-3em; border:thin solid black;"><i>May, 1914</i></p> +</div> +<hr class='pb' /> +<p style="text-align:center;">TO MY DEAR FRIEND</p> +<p style="font-size:1.1em; text-align:center;">DONNA MARIA MARAINI<br /> +MARCHIONESS GUERRIERI-GONZAGA</p> +<p style="font-size:0.9em; text-align:center;">WHO<br /> +DEVOTEDLY AND WITH SACRIFICE<br /> +HAS GENEROUSLY UPHELD<br /> +THIS WORK OF EDUCATION BROUGHT TO BIRTH IN<br /> +OUR BELOVED COUNTRY<br /> +BUT OFFERED<br /> +TO THE CHILDREN OF HUMANITY</p> +<hr class='pb' /> +<h2>NOTE BY THE AUTHOR</h2> +<p class='smaller' style="margin-left:1.0em; margin-right:5.0em">As a result of the widespread interest that has +been taken in my method of child education, certain +books have been issued, which may appear to the +general reader to be authoritative expositions of the +Montessori system. I wish to state definitely that +the present work, the English translation of which +has been authorised and approved by me, is the only +authentic manual of the Montessori method, and that +the only other authentic or authorised works of mine +in the English language are “The Montessori +Method,” and “Pedagogical Anthropology.”</p> +<p style='text-align:right; margin-right:5em'><img src='images/signature.png' +width='200' height='43' alt='Signed: Maria Montessori' title='' /></p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_vii' name='page_vii'></a>vii</span> +<a name='PREFACE' id='PREFACE'></a> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> +</div> +<p>If a preface is a light which should serve to +illumine the contents of a volume, I choose, not +words, but human figures to illustrate this little +book intended to enter families where children are +growing up. I therefore recall here, as an eloquent +symbol, Helen Keller and Mrs. Anne Sullivan +Macy, who are, by their example, both teachers +to myself––and, before the world, living documents +of the miracle in education.</p> +<p>In fact, Helen Keller is a <a name='TC_0'></a><ins class="trchange" title="Was 'marvellous'">marvelous</ins> example of +the phenomenon common to all human beings: the +possibility of the liberation of the imprisoned +spirit of man by the education of the senses. Here +lies the basis of the method of education of which +the book gives a succinct idea.</p> +<p>If one only of the senses sufficed to make of +Helen Keller a woman of exceptional culture and +a writer, who better than she proves the potency +of that method of education which builds on +the senses? If Helen Keller attained through +exquisite natural gifts to an elevated conception +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_viii' name='page_viii'></a>viii</span> +of the world, who better than she proves that in +the inmost self of man lies the spirit ready to +reveal itself?</p> +<p>Helen, clasp to your heart these little children, +since they, above all others, will understand you. +They are your younger brothers: when, with +bandaged eyes and in silence, they touch with +their little hands, profound impressions rise in +their consciousness, and they exclaim with a new +form of happiness: “I see with my hands.” They +alone, then, can fully understand the drama of the +mysterious privilege your soul has known. When, +in darkness and in silence, their spirit left free to +expand, their intellectual energy redoubled, they +become able to read and write without having +learnt, almost as it were by intuition, they, only +they, can understand in part the ecstasy which +God granted you on the luminous path of learning.</p> +<p class='ralign' style="margin-right:2.0em"><span class='smcap'>Maria Montessori.</span></p> +<hr class='pb' /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='Contents' style='margin:1em auto;'> +<tr> + <td /> + <td valign='top' align='right'>PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Preface</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#PREFACE'>vii</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Introductory Remarks</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#DR_MONTESSORIS_OWN_HANDBOOK'>1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>A “Children’s House”</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#A_CHILDRENS_HOUSE'>9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>The Method</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#THE_METHOD'>17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'><p style="margin:0em 0em 0em 3em">Didactic Material for the Education of the Senses</p></td> + <td valign='top' align='right'><a href="#DIDACTIC_SENSES">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'><p style="margin:0em 0em 0em 3em">Didactic Material for the Preparation for Writing and Arithmetic</p></td> + <td valign='top' align='right'><a href="#DIDACTIC_WRITING">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Motor Education</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#MOTOR_EDUCATION'>18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Sensory Education</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#SENSORY_EDUCATION'>29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Language and Knowledge of the World</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#LANGUAGE_AND_KNOWLEDGE_OF_THE_WORLD'>69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Freedom</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#FREEDOM'>77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Writing</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#WRITING'>80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'><p style="margin:0em 0em 0em 3em">Exercises for the Management of the Instrument of Writing</p></td> + <td valign='top' align='right'><a href="#EXERCISES_FOR_THE_MANAGEMENT_OF">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'><p style="margin:0em 0em 0em 3em">Exercises for the Writing of Alphabetical Signs</p></td> + <td valign='top' align='right'><a href="#EXERCISES_FOR_THE_WRITING_OF">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>The Reading of Music</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#THE_READING_OF_MUSIC'>98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Arithmetic</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#ARITHMETIC'>102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='left' style='padding-right:4em;'><span class='smcap'>Moral Factors</span></td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#MORAL_FACTORS'>114</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='Illustrations' style='margin:1em auto;'> +<col style='width:8%;' /> +<col style='width:75%;' /> +<col style='width:17%;' /> +<tr> + <td colspan='2' valign='top' align='left'>Dr. Maria Montessori</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_1'><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'><p style="font-size:smaller;">FIG.</p></td> + <td valign='top' align='right'> </td> + <td valign='top' align='right'><p style="font-size:smaller; text-align:right">PAGE</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>1.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Cupboard with Apparatus</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_2'>12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>2.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Montessori Pædometer</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_3'>13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>3.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Frames for Lacing and Buttoning</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_4'>22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>4.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Child Buttoning On Frame</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_5'>23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>5.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Cylinders Decreasing in Diameter only</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_6'>30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>6.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Cylinders Decreasing in Diameter and Height</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_7'>30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>7.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Cylinders Decreasing in Height only</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_8'>30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>8.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Child using Case of Cylinders</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_9'>31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>9.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Tower</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_10'>31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>10.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Child Playing with Tower</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_11'>31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>11.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Broad Stair</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_12'>36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>12.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Long Stair</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_13'>36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>13.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Board with Rough and Smooth Surfaces</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_14'>37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>14.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Board with Gummed Strips of Paper</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_15'>37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>15.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Wood Tablets Differing in Weight</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_16'>37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right'> </td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Color Spools</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_17'>42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>16.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Cabinet with Drawers to hold Geometrical Insets</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_18'>44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>17.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Set of Six Circles</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_19'>44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>18.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Set of Six Rectangles</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_20'>45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>19.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Set of Six Triangles</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_21'>45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>20.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Set of Six Polygons</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_22'>46</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>21.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Set of Six Irregular Figures</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_23'>46</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>22.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Set of Four Blanks and Two Irregular Figures</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_24'>47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>23.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Frame to hold Geometrical Insets</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_25'>48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>24.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Child Touching the Insets</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_26'>49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>25.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Series of Cards with Geometrical Forms</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_27'>54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>26.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Sound Boxes</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_28'>55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>27.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Musical Bells</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_30'>60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>28.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Sloping Boards to Display Set of Metal Insets</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_31'>90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>29.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Single Sandpaper Letter</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_32'>90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>30.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Groups of Sandpaper Letters</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_33'>91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>31.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Box of Movable Letters</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_34'>94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>32.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Musical Staff</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_35'>98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>33.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Didactic Material for Musical Reading</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_37'>100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>34.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Didactic Material for Musical Reading</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_38'>100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>35.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Didactic Material for Musical Reading</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_39'>100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>36.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Didactic Material for Musical Reading</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_40'>101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>37.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Didactic Material for Musical Reading</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_41'>101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>38.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Didactic Material for Musical Reading</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_42'>101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>39.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Dumb Keyboard</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_36'>102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>40.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Diagram Illustrating Use of Numerical Rods</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_43'>107</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>41.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Counting Boxes</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_44'>110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>42.</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Arithmetic Frame</td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#linki_45'>110</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr class='pb' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_1' name='page_1'></a>1</span> +<a name='DR_MONTESSORIS_OWN_HANDBOOK' id='DR_MONTESSORIS_OWN_HANDBOOK'></a> +<h2>DR. MONTESSORI’S OWN HANDBOOK</h2> +</div> +<p>Recent years have seen a remarkable improvement +in the conditions of child life. In all civilized +countries, but especially in England, statistics +show a decrease in infant mortality.</p> +<p>Related to this decrease in mortality a corresponding +improvement is to be seen in the physical +development of children; they are physically +finer and more vigorous. It has been the diffusion, +the popularization of science, which has +brought about such notable advantages. Mothers +have learned to welcome the dictates of modern +hygiene and to put them into practice in bringing +up their children. Many new social institutions +have sprung up and have been perfected with the +object of assisting children and protecting them +during the period of physical growth.</p> +<p>In this way what is practically a new race is +coming into being, a race more highly developed, +finer and more robust; a race which will be +capable of offering resistance to insidious disease.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_2' name='page_2'></a>2</span></div> +<p>What has science done to effect this? Science +has suggested for us certain very simple rules by +which the child has been restored as nearly as +possible to conditions of a natural life, and an +order and a guiding law have been given to the +functions of the body. For example, it is science +which suggested maternal feeding, the abolition of +swaddling clothes, baths, life in the open air, exercise, +simple short clothing, quiet and plenty of +sleep. Rules were also laid down for the measurement +of food adapting it rationally to the +physiological needs of the child’s life.</p> +<p>Yet with all this, science made no contribution +that was entirely new. Mothers had always +nursed their children, children had always been +clothed, they had breathed and eaten before.</p> +<p>The point is, that the same physical acts which, +performed blindly and without order, led to +disease and death, when ordered <i>rationally</i> were +the means of giving strength and life.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>The great progress made may perhaps deceive +us into thinking that everything possible has been +done for children.</p> +<p>We have only to weigh the matter carefully, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_3' name='page_3'></a>3</span> +however, to reflect: Are our children only those +healthy little bodies which to-day are growing +and developing so vigorously under our eyes? +Is their destiny fulfilled in the production of +beautiful human bodies?</p> +<p>In that case there would be little difference +between their lot and that of the animals which +we raise that we may have good meat or beasts +of burden.</p> +<p>Man’s destiny is evidently other than this, and +the care due to the child covers a field wider than +that which is considered by physical hygiene. +The mother who has given her child his bath and +sent him in his perambulator to the park has not +fulfilled the mission of the “mother of humanity.” +The hen which gathers her chickens together, and +the cat which licks her kittens and lavishes on +them such tender care, differ in no wise from the +human mother in the services they render.</p> +<p>No, the human mother if reduced to such limits +devotes herself in vain, feels that a higher aspiration +has been stifled within her. She is yet the +mother of man.</p> +<p>Children must grow not only in the body but in +the spirit, and the mother longs to follow the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_4' name='page_4'></a>4</span> +mysterious spiritual journey of the beloved one +who to-morrow will be the intelligent, divine creation, +man.</p> +<p>Science evidently has not finished its progress. +On the contrary, it has scarcely taken +the first step in advance, for it has hitherto +stopped at the welfare of the body. It must +continue, however, to advance; on the same positive +lines along which it has improved the +health and saved the physical life of the children, +it is bound in the future to benefit and to reenforce +their inner life, which is the real <i>human life</i>. +On the same positive lines science will proceed to +direct the development of the intelligence, of character, +and of those latent creative forces which lie +hidden in the marvelous embryo of man’s spirit.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>As the child’s body must draw nourishment +and oxygen from its external environment, +in order to accomplish a great physiological +work, the <i>work of growth</i>, so also the spirit +must take from its environment the nourishment +which it needs to develop according to its +own “laws of growth.” It cannot be denied +that the phenomena of development are a great +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_5' name='page_5'></a>5</span> +work in themselves. The consolidation of the +bones, the growth of the whole body, the completion +of the minute construction of the brain, +the formation of the teeth, all these are very +real labors of the physiological organism, as is +also the transformation which the organism undergoes +during the period of puberty.</p> +<p>These exertions are very different from those +put forth by mankind in so-called <i>external work</i>, +that is to say, in “social production,” whether in +the schools where man is taught, or in the world +where, by the activity of his intelligence, he produces +wealth and transforms his environment.</p> +<p>It is none the less true, however, that they +are both “work.” In fact, the organism during +these periods of greatest physiological work is +least capable of performing external tasks, and +sometimes the work of growth is of such extent +and difficulty that the individual is overburdened, +as with an excessive strain, and for this reason +alone becomes exhausted or even dies.</p> +<p>Man will always be able to avoid “external +work” by making use of the labor of others, but +there is no possibility of shirking that inner work. +Together with birth and death it has been imposed +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_6' name='page_6'></a>6</span> +by nature itself, and each man must accomplish +it for himself. This difficult, inevitable +labor, this is the “work of the child.”</p> +<p>When we say then that little children should +<i>rest</i>, we are referring to one side only of the question +of work. We mean that they should rest +from that <i>external</i> visible work to which the little +child through his weakness and incapacity cannot +make any contribution useful either to himself or +to others.</p> +<p>Our assertion, therefore, is not absolute; the +child in reality is not resting, he is performing +the mysterious inner work of his autoformation. +He is working to make a man, and to accomplish +this it is not enough that the child’s body should +grow in actual size; the most intimate functions +of the motor and nervous systems must also be +established and the intelligence developed.</p> +<p>The functions to be established by the child fall +into two groups: (1) the motor functions by which +he is to secure his balance and learn to walk, and +to coordinate his movements; (2) the sensory +functions through which, receiving sensations +from his environment, he lays the foundations of +his intelligence by a continual exercise of observation, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_7' name='page_7'></a>7</span> +comparison and judgment. In this way he +gradually comes to be acquainted with his environment +and to develop his intelligence.</p> +<p>At the same time he is learning a <i>language</i>, and +he is faced not only with the motor difficulties +of articulation, sounds and words, but also with +the difficulty of gaining an intelligent understanding +of names and of the syntactical composition of +the language.</p> +<p>If we think of an emigrant who goes to a new +country ignorant of its products, ignorant of its +natural appearance and social order, entirely ignorant +of its language, we realize that there is +an immense work of adaptation which he must +perform before he can associate himself with the +active life of the unknown people. No one will be +able to do for him that work of adaptation. He +himself must observe, understand, remember, +form judgments, and learn the new language by +laborious exercise and long experience.</p> +<p>What is to be said then of the child? What of +this emigrant who comes into a new world, who, +weak as he is and before his organism is completely +developed, <i>must</i> in a short time adapt himself +to a world so complex? +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_8' name='page_8'></a>8</span></p> +<p>Up to the present day the little child has not +received rational aid in the accomplishment of +this laborious task. As regards the psychical development +of the child we find ourselves in a +period parallel to that in which the physical life +was left to the mercy of chance and instinct––the +period in which infant mortality was a scourge.</p> +<p>It is by scientific and rational means also that +we must facilitate that inner work of psychical +adaptation to be accomplished within the child, +a work which is by no means the same thing as +“any external work or production whatsoever.”</p> +<p>This is the aim which underlies my method of +infant education, and it is for this reason that +certain principles which it enunciates, together +with that part which deals with the technique of +their practical application, are not of a general +character, but have special reference to the particular +case of the child from three to seven years +of age, <i>i.e.</i>, to the needs of a formative period +of life.</p> +<p>My method is scientific, both in its substance +and in its aim. It makes for the attainment of +a more advanced stage of progress, in directions +no longer only material and physiological. It is +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_9' name='page_9'></a>9</span> +an endeavor to complete the course which hygiene +has already taken, but in the treatment of the +physical side alone.</p> +<p>If to-day we possessed statistics respecting the +nervous debility, defects of speech, errors of perception +and of reasoning, and lack of character +in normal children, it would perhaps be interesting +to compare them with statistics of the same nature, +but compiled from the study of children who +have had a number of years of rational education. +In all probability we should find a striking resemblance +between such statistics and those to-day +available showing the decrease in mortality and +the improvement in the physical development of +children.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='A_CHILDRENS_HOUSE' id='A_CHILDRENS_HOUSE'></a> +<h2>A “CHILDREN’S HOUSE”</h2> +</div> +<p>The “Children’s House” is the <i>environment</i> +which is offered to the child that he may be given +the opportunity of developing his activities. This +kind of school is not of a fixed type, but may +vary according to the financial resources at +disposal and to the opportunities afforded by +the environment. It ought to be a real house; +that is to say, a set of rooms with a garden of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_10' name='page_10'></a>10</span> +which the children are the masters. A garden +which contains shelters is ideal, because the children +can play or sleep under them, and can also +bring their tables out to work or dine. In this +way they may live almost entirely in the open air, +and are protected at the same time from rain and +sun.</p> +<p>The central and principal room of the building, +often also the only room at the disposal of the +children, is the room for “intellectual work.” To +this central room can be added other smaller +rooms according to the means and opportunities +of the place: for example, a bathroom, a dining-room, +a little parlor or common-room, a room +for manual work, a gymnasium and rest-room.</p> +<p>The special characteristic of the equipment of +these houses is that it is adapted for children +and not adults. They contain not only didactic +material specially fitted for the intellectual development +of the child, but also a complete equipment +for the management of the miniature family. +The furniture is light so that the children +can move it about, and it is painted in some light +color so that the children can wash it with soap +and water. There are low tables of various +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_11' name='page_11'></a>11</span> +sizes and shapes––square, rectangular and round, +large and small. The rectangular shape is the +most common as two or more children can work +at it together. The seats are small wooden +chairs, but there are also small wicker armchairs +and sofas.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_2' id='linki_2'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-012.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='344' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 1.––Cupboard with Apparatus.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>In the working-room there are two indispensable +pieces of furniture. One of these is a very +long cupboard with large doors. (Fig. 1.) It is +very low so that a small child can set on the top of +it small objects such as mats, flowers, etc. Inside +this cupboard is kept the didactic material which +is the common property of all the children.</p> +<p>The other is a chest of drawers containing two +or three columns of little drawers, each of which +has a bright handle (or a handle of some color +to contrast with the background), and a small +card with a name upon it. Every child has his +own drawer, in which to put things belonging to +him.</p> +<p>Round the walls of the room are fixed blackboards +at a low level, so that the children can +write or draw on them, and pleasing, artistic pictures, +which are changed from time to time as +circumstances direct. The pictures represent +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_12' name='page_12'></a>12</span> +children, families, landscapes, flowers and fruit, +and more often Biblical and historical incidents. +Ornamental plants and flowering plants ought always +to be placed in the room where the children +are at work.</p> +<p>Another part of the working-room’s equipment +is seen in the pieces of carpet of various colors––red, +blue, pink, green and brown. The children +spread these rugs upon the floor, sit upon them +and work there with the didactic material. A +room of this kind is larger than the customary +class-rooms, not only because the little tables and +separate chairs take up more space, but also because +a large part of the floor must be free for the +children to spread their rugs and work upon them.</p> +<p>In the sitting-room, or “club-room,” a kind of +parlor in which the children amuse themselves +by conversation, games, or music, etc., the furnishings +should be especially tasteful. Little tables +of different sizes, little armchairs and sofas +should be placed here and there. Many brackets +of all kinds and sizes, upon which may be put +statuettes, artistic vases or framed photographs, +should adorn the walls; and, above all, each child +should have a little flower-pot, in which he may +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_13' name='page_13'></a>13</span> +sow the seed of some indoor plant, to tend and +cultivate it as it grows. On the tables of this sitting-room +should be placed large albums of +colored pictures, and also games of patience, or +various geometric solids, with which the children +can play at pleasure, constructing figures, etc. A +piano, or, better, other musical instruments, possibly +harps of small dimensions, made especially +for children, completes the equipment. In this +“club-room” the teacher may sometimes entertain +the children with stories, which will attract a circle +of interested listeners.</p> +<p>The furniture of the dining-room consists, in +addition to the tables, of low cupboards accessible +to all the children, who can themselves put in their +place and take away the crockery, spoons, knives +and forks, table-cloth and napkins. The plates +are always of china, and the tumblers and water-bottles +of glass. Knives are always included in +the table equipment.</p> +<p><i>The Dressing-room.</i> Here each child has his +own little cupboard or shelf. In the middle of +the room there are very simple washstands, +consisting of tables, on each of which stand a +small basin, soap and nail-brush. Against the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_14' name='page_14'></a>14</span> +wall stand little sinks with water-taps. Here the +children may draw and pour away their water. +There is no limit to the equipment of the “Children’s +Houses” because the children themselves +do everything. They sweep the rooms, dust and +wash the furniture, polish the brasses, lay and +clear away the table, wash up, sweep and roll up +the rugs, wash a few little clothes, and cook eggs. +As regards their personal toilet, the children know +how to dress and undress themselves. They +hang their clothes on little hooks, placed very low +so as to be within reach of a little child, or else +they fold up such articles of clothing, as their +little serving-aprons, of which they take great +care, and lay them inside a cupboard kept for the +household linen.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>In short, where the manufacture of toys has +been brought to such a point of complication and +perfection that children have at their disposal entire +dolls’ houses, complete wardrobes for the +dressing and undressing of dolls, kitchens where +they can pretend to cook, toy animals as nearly +lifelike as possible, this method seeks to give all +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_15' name='page_15'></a>15</span> +this to the child in reality––making him an actor +in a living scene.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_3' id='linki_3'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:207px'> +<img src='images/illus-013.jpg' alt='' title='' width='207' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig 2.––The Montessori Paedometer.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>My pedometer forms part of the equipment of +a “Children’s House.” After various modifications +I have now reduced this instrument to a very +practical form. (Fig. 2.)</p> +<p>The purpose of the pedometer, as its name +shows, is to measure the children. It consists of +a wide rectangular board, forming the base, from +the center of which rise two wooden posts held +together at the top by a narrow flat piece of metal. +To each post is connected a horizontal metal rod––the +indicator––which runs up and down by +means of a casing, also of metal. This metal casing +is made in one piece with the indicator, to the +end of which is fixed an india-rubber ball. On one +side, that is to say, behind one of the two tall +vertical wooden posts, there is a small seat, also +of wood. The two tall wooden posts are graduated. +The post to which the seat is fixed is +graduated from the surface of the seat to the top, +whilst the other is graduated from the wooden +board at the base to the top, <i>i.e.</i> to a height of 1.5 +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_16' name='page_16'></a>16</span> +meters. On the side containing the seat the +height of the child seated is measured, on the +other side the child’s full stature. The practical +value of this instrument lies in the possibility of +measuring two children at the same time, and in +the fact that the children themselves cooperate +in taking the measurements. In fact, they learn +to take off their shoes and to place themselves +in the correct position on the pedometer. They +find no difficulty in raising and lowering the +metal indicators, which are held so firmly in place +by means of the metal casing that they cannot +deviate from their horizontal position even when +used by inexpert hands. Moreover they run extremely +easily, so that very little strength is required +to move them. The little india-rubber +balls prevent the children from hurting themselves +should they inadvertently knock their heads +against the metal indicator.</p> +<p>The children are very fond of the pedometer. +“Shall we measure ourselves?” is one of the proposals +which they make most willingly and with +the greatest likelihood of finding many of their +companions to join them. They also take great +care of the pedometer, dusting it, and polishing +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_17' name='page_17'></a>17</span> +its metal parts. All the surfaces of the pedometer +are so smooth and well polished that they invite +the care that is taken of them, and by their +appearance when finished fully repay the trouble +taken.</p> +<p>The pedometer represents the scientific part +of the method, because it has reference to the +anthropological and psychological study made of +the children, each of whom has his own biographical +record. This biographical record follows +the history of the child’s development according +to the observations which it is possible to +make by the application of my method. This +subject is dealt with at length in my other +books. A series of cinematograph pictures has +been taken of the pedometer at a moment when +the children are being measured. They are seen +coming of their own accord, even the very smallest, +to take their places at the instrument.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='THE_METHOD' id='THE_METHOD'></a> +<h2>THE METHOD</h2> +</div> +<p>The technique of my method as it follows the +guidance of the natural physiological and psychical +development of the child, may be divided +into three parts: +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_18' name='page_18'></a>18</span></p> +<ul> +<li>Motor education.</li> +<li>Sensory education.</li> +<li>Language.</li> +</ul> +<p>The care and management of the environment +itself afford the principal means of motor education, +while sensory education and the education +of language are provided for by my didactic material.</p> +<p><a name="DIDACTIC_SENSES" id="DIDACTIC_SENSES"></a> +The didactic material for the <i>education of the +senses</i> consists of:</p> +<ul> + <li>(<i>a</i>) Three sets of solid insets.</li> + <li>(<i>b</i>) Three sets of solids in graduated sizes, comprising: + <ol class="secondlevel" style="list-style-type:decimal"> + <li>Pink cubes.</li> + <li>Brown prisms.</li> + <li>Rods: (<i>a</i>) colored green; (<i>b</i>) colored + alternately red and blue.</li> + </ol> + </li> + <li>(<i>c</i>) Various geometric solids (prism, pyramid, + sphere, cylinder, cone, etc.).</li> + <li>(<i>d</i>) Rectangular tablets with rough and smooth + surfaces.</li> + <li>(<i>e</i>) A collection of various stuffs.</li> + <li>(<i>f</i>) Small wooden tablets of different weights.</li> + <li>(<i>g</i>) Two boxes, each containing sixty-four + colored tablets.</li> + <li><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_19' name='page_19'></a>19</span> + (<i>h</i>) A chest of drawers containing plane insets.</li> + <li>(<i>i</i>) Three series of cards on which are pasted + geometrical forms in paper.</li> + <li>(<i>k</i>) A collection of cylindrical closed boxes + (sounds).</li> + <li>(<i>l</i>) A double series of musical bells, wooden + boards on which are painted the lines + used in music, small wooden discs for the + notes.</li> +</ul> +<h3><a name="DIDACTIC_WRITING" id="DIDACTIC_WRITING"></a> +Didactic Material for the Preparation for Writing +and Arithmetic</h3> +<ul> +<li>(<i>m</i>) Two sloping desks and various iron insets.</li> +<li>(<i>n</i>) Cards on which are pasted sandpaper letters.</li> +<li>(<i>o</i>) Two alphabets of colored cardboard and +of different sizes.</li> +<li>(<i>p</i>) A series of cards on which are pasted sandpaper +figures (1, 2, 3, etc.).</li> +<li>(<i>q</i>) A series of large cards bearing the same +figures in smooth paper for the enumeration +of numbers above ten.</li> +<li>(<i>r</i>) Two boxes with small sticks for counting.</li> +<li>(<i>s</i>) The volume of drawings belonging specially +to the method, and colored pencils.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_20' name='page_20'></a>20</span> +(<i>t</i>) The frames for lacing, buttoning, etc., which +are used for the education of the movements +of the hand.</li> +</ul> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='MOTOR_EDUCATION' id='MOTOR_EDUCATION'></a> +<h2>MOTOR EDUCATION</h2> +</div> +<p>The education of the movements is very complex, +as it must correspond to all the coordinated +movements which the child has to establish in +his physiological organism. The child, if left +without guidance, is disorderly in his movements, +and these disorderly movements are the <i>special +characteristic of the little child.</i> In fact, he +“never keeps still,” and “touches everything.” +This is what forms the child’s so-called “unruliness” +and “naughtiness.”</p> +<p>The adult would deal with him by checking +these movements, with the monotonous and useless +repetition “keep still.” As a matter of fact, +in these movements the little one is seeking the +very exercise which will organize and coordinate +the movements useful to man. We must, therefore, +desist from the useless attempt to reduce the +child to a state of immobility. We should rather +give “order” to his movements, leading them +to those actions towards which his efforts are +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_21' name='page_21'></a>21</span> +actually tending. This is the aim of muscular +education at this age. Once a direction is given +to them, the child’s movements are made towards +a definite end, so that he himself grows quiet and +contented, and becomes an active worker, a being +calm and full of joy. This education of the movements +is one of the principal factors in producing +that outward appearance of “discipline” to be +found in the “Children’s Houses.” I have already +spoken at length on this subject in my other books.</p> +<p>Muscular education has reference to:</p> +<ul> +<li>The primary movements of everyday life (walking, rising, sitting, + handling objects).</li> +<li>The care of the person.</li> +<li>Management of the household.</li> +<li>Gardening.</li> +<li>Manual work.</li> +<li>Gymnastic exercises.</li> +<li>Rhythmic movements.</li> +</ul> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_4' id='linki_4'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:262px'> +<img src='images/illus-022.jpg' alt='' title='' width='262' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 3.––Frames for Lacing and Buttoning.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>In the care of the person the first step is that +of dressing and undressing. For this end there is +in my didactic material a collection of frames to +which are attached pieces of stuff, leather, etc. +These can be buttoned, hooked, tied together––in +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_22' name='page_22'></a>22</span> +fact, joined in all the different ways which our +civilization has invented for fastening our clothing, +shoes, etc. (Fig. 3.) The teacher, sitting by +the child’s side, performs the necessary movements +of the fingers very slowly and deliberately, +separating the movements themselves into their +different parts, and letting them be seen clearly +and minutely.</p> +<p>For example, one of the first actions will be the +adjustment of the two pieces of stuff in such a +way that the edges to be fastened together touch +one another from top to bottom. Then, if it is +a buttoning-frame, the teacher will show the child +the different stages of the action. She will take +hold of the button, set it opposite the buttonhole, +make it enter the buttonhole completely, and adjust +it carefully in its place above. In the same +way, to teach a child to tie a bow, she will separate +the stage in which he ties the ribbons together +from that in which he makes the bows.</p> +<p>In the cinematograph film there is a picture +which shows an entire lesson in the tying of the +bows with the ribbons. These lessons are not +necessary for all the children, as they learn from +one another, and of their own accord come with +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_23' name='page_23'></a>23</span> +great patience to analyze the movements, performing +them separately very slowly and carefully. +The child can sit in a comfortable position +and hold his frame on the table. (Fig. 4.) As he +fastens and unfastens the same frame many times +over with great interest, he acquires an unusual +deftness of hand, and becomes possessed with the +desire to fasten real clothes whenever he has the +opportunity. We see the smallest children <i>wanting</i> +to dress themselves and their companions. +They go in search of amusement of this kind, and +defend themselves with all their might against the +adult who would try to help them.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_5' id='linki_5'></a> +</div> +<div class='figleft' style='width:315px'> +<img src='images/illus-023.jpg' alt='' title='' width='315' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 4.––Child Buttoning On Frame. (Photo Taken At Mr. Hawker’s School At Runton.)</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>In the same way for the teaching of the other +and larger movements, such as washing, setting +the table, etc., the directress must at the beginning +intervene, teaching the child with few or no +words at all, but with very precise actions. She +teaches all the movements: how to sit, to rise from +one’s seat, to take up and lay down objects, and +to offer them gracefully to others. In the same +way she teaches the children to set the plates one +upon the other and lay them on the table without +making any noise.</p> +<p>The children learn easily and show an interest +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_24' name='page_24'></a>24</span> +and surprising care in the performance of these +actions. In classes where there are many children +it is necessary to arrange for the children +to take turns in the various household duties, +such as housework, serving at table, and washing +dishes. The children readily respect such a +system of turns. There is no need to ask them +to do this work, for they come spontaneously––even +little ones of two and a half years old––to +offer to do their share, and it is frequently +most touching to watch their efforts to imitate, +to remember, and, finally, to conquer their difficulty. +Professor Jacoby, of New York, was once +much moved as he watched a child, who was +little more than two years old and not at all intelligent +in appearance, standing perplexed, because +he could not remember whether the fork +should be set at the right hand or the left. He +remained a long while meditating and evidently +using all the powers of his mind. The other children +older than he watched him with admiration, +marveling, like ourselves, at the life developing +under our eyes.</p> +<p>The instructions of the teacher consist then +merely in a hint, a touch––enough to give a start +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_25' name='page_25'></a>25</span> +to the child. The rest develops of itself. The +children learn from one another and throw themselves +into the work with enthusiasm and delight. +This atmosphere of quiet activity develops a fellow-feeling, +an attitude of mutual aid, and, most +wonderful of all, an intelligent interest on the part +of the older children in the progress of their little +companions. It is enough just to set a child in +these peaceful surroundings for him to feel perfectly +at home. In the cinematograph pictures +the actual work in a “Children’s House” may be +seen. The children are moving about, each one +fulfilling his own task, whilst the teacher is in a +corner watching. Pictures were taken also of the +children engaged in the care of the house, that is, +in the care both of their persons and of their surroundings. +They can be seen washing their faces, +polishing their shoes, washing the furniture, +polishing the metal indicators of the pedometer, +brushing the carpets, etc. In the work of laying +the table the children are seen quite by themselves, +dividing the work among themselves, carrying the +plates, spoons, knives and forks, etc., and, finally, +sitting down at the tables where the little waitresses +serve the hot soup.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_26' name='page_26'></a>26</span></div> +<p>Again, gardening and manual work are a great +pleasure to our children. Gardening is already +well known as a feature of infant education, and +it is recognized by all that plants and animals +attract the children’s care and attention. The +ideal of the “Children’s Houses” in this respect is +to imitate the best in the present usage of those +schools which owe their inspiration more or less +to Mrs. Latter.</p> +<p>For manual instruction we have chosen clay +work, consisting of the construction of little tiles, +vases and bricks. These may be made with the +help of simple instruments, such as molds. The +completion of the work should be the aim always +kept in view, and, finally, all the little objects +made by the children should be glazed and baked +in the furnace. The children themselves learn +to line a wall with shining white or colored tiles +wrought in various designs, or, with the help of +mortar and a trowel, to cover the floor with little +bricks. They also dig out foundations and then +use their bricks to build division walls, or entire +little houses for the chickens.</p> +<p>Among the gymnastic exercises that which +must be considered the most important is that of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_27' name='page_27'></a>27</span> +the “line.” A line is described in chalk or paint +upon a large space of floor. Instead of one line, +there may also be two concentric lines, elliptical +in form. The children are taught to walk upon +these lines like tight-rope walkers, placing their +feet one in front of the other. To keep their +balance they make efforts exactly similar to those +of real tight-rope walkers, except that they have +no danger with which to reckon, as the lines are +only <i>drawn</i> upon the floor. The teacher herself +performs the exercise, showing clearly how she +sets her feet, and the children imitate her without +any necessity for her to speak. At first it is only +certain children who follow her, and when she +has shown them how to do it, she withdraws, +leaving the phenomenon to develop of itself.</p> +<p>The children for the most part continue to walk, +adapting their feet with great care to the movement +they have seen, and making efforts to keep +their balance so as not to fall. Gradually the +other children draw near and watch and also +make an attempt. Very little time elapses before +the whole of the two ellipses or the one line is +covered with children balancing themselves, and +continuing to walk round, watching their feet +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_28' name='page_28'></a>28</span> +with an expression of deep attention on their +faces.</p> +<p>Music may then be used. It should be a very +simple march, the rhythm of which is not obvious +at first, but which accompanies and enlivens the +spontaneous efforts of the children.</p> +<p>When they have learned in this way to master +their balance the children have brought the act +of walking to a remarkable standard of perfection, +and have acquired, in addition to security and +composure in their natural gait, an unusually +graceful carriage of the body. The exercise on +the line can afterwards be made more complicated +in various ways. The first application is that of +calling forth rhythmic exercise by the sound of a +march upon the piano. When the same march +is repeated during several days, the children end +by feeling the rhythm and by following it with +movements of their arms and feet. They also accompany +the exercises on the line with songs.</p> +<p>Little by little the music is <i>understood</i> by the +children. They finish, as in Miss George’s school +at Washington, by singing over their daily work +with the didactic material. The “Children’s +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_29' name='page_29'></a>29</span> +House,” then, resembles a hive of bees humming +as they work.</p> +<p>As to the little gymnasium, of which I speak in +my book on the “Method,” one piece of apparatus +is particularly practical. This is the “fence,” +from which the children hang by their arms, freeing +their legs from the heavy weight of the body +and strengthening the arms. This fence has also +the advantage of being useful in a garden for the +purpose of dividing one part from another, as, +for example, the flower-beds from the garden +walks, and it does not detract in any way from +the appearance of the garden.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='SENSORY_EDUCATION' id='SENSORY_EDUCATION'></a> +<h2>SENSORY EDUCATION</h2> +</div> +<div style="float:right; width:500px; margin-right:0px; padding-left:0.5em"> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_6' id='linki_6'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-031a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='190' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 5.––Cylinders Decreasing in Diameter only.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_7' id='linki_7'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-031b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='194' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 6.––Cylinders Decreasing in Diameter and Height.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_8' id='linki_8'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-031c.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='188' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 7.––Cylinders Decreasing in Height only.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>My didactic material offers to the child the +<i>means</i> for what may be called “sensory education.”</p> +<p>In the box of material the first three objects +which are likely to attract the attention of a little +child from two and a half to three years old are +three solid pieces of wood, in each of which is +inserted a row of ten small cylinders, or sometimes +discs, all furnished with a button for a +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_30' name='page_30'></a>30</span> +handle. In the first case there is a row of cylinders +of the same height, but with a diameter which +decreases from thick to thin. (Fig. 5.) In the +second there are cylinders which decrease in all dimensions, +and so are either larger or smaller, but +always of the same shape. (Fig. 6.)</p> +<p>Lastly, in the third case, the cylinders have the +same diameter but vary in height, so that, as the +size decreases, the cylinder gradually becomes a +little disc in form. (Fig. 7.)</p> +<p>The first cylinders vary in two dimensions (the +section); the second in all three dimensions; the +third in one dimension (height). The order +which I have given refers to the degree of <i>ease</i> +with which the child performs the exercises.</p> +<p>The exercise consists in taking out the cylinders, +mixing them and putting them back in the +right place. It is performed by the child as he +sits in a comfortable position at a little table. +He exercises his hands in the delicate act of taking +hold of the button with the tips of one or two +fingers, and in the little movements of the hand +and arm as he mixes the cylinders, <i>without letting +them fall</i> and <i>without making too much noise</i> and +puts them back again each in its own place.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_31' name='page_31'></a>31</span></div> +<p>In these exercises the teacher may, in the first +instance, intervene, merely taking out the cylinders, +mixing them carefully on the table and then +showing the child that he is to put them back, but +without performing the action herself. Such intervention, +however, is almost always found +to be unnecessary, for the children <i>see</i> their companions +at work, and thus are encouraged to imitate +them.</p> +<p>They like to do it <i>alone</i>; in fact, sometimes almost +in private for fear of inopportune help. +(Fig. 8.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_9' id='linki_9'></a> +</div> +<div class='figleft' style='width:275px'> +<img src='images/illus-030a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='275' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 8.––Child using Case of Cylinders.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>But how is the child to find the right place +for each of the little cylinders which lie mixed +upon the table? He first makes trials; it often +happens that he places a cylinder which is too +large for the empty hole over which he puts it. +Then, changing its place, he tries others until +the cylinder goes in. Again, the contrary may +happen; that is to say, the cylinder may slip +too easily into a hole too big for it. In that +case it has taken a place which does not belong +to it at all, but to a larger cylinder. In +this way one cylinder at the end will be left out +without a place, and it will not be possible to find +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_32' name='page_32'></a>32</span> +one that fits. Here the child cannot help seeing +his mistake in concrete form. He is perplexed, his +little mind is faced with a problem which interests +him intensely. Before, all the cylinders fitted, now +there is one that will not fit. The little one stops, +frowning, deep in thought. He begins to feel the +little buttons and finds that some cylinders have +too much room. He thinks that perhaps they are +out of their right place and tries to place them +correctly. He repeats the process again and +again, and finally he succeeds. Then it is that he +breaks into a smile of triumph. The exercise +arouses the intelligence of the child; he wants to +repeat it right from the beginning and, having +learned by experience, he makes another attempt. +Little children from three to three and a half years +old have repeated the exercise up to <i>forty</i> times +without losing their interest in it.</p> +<p>If the second set of cylinders and then the +third are presented, the <i>change</i> of shape strikes +the child and reawakens his interest.</p> +<p>The material which I have described serves to +<i>educate the eye</i> to distinguish <i>difference in dimension</i>, +for the child ends by being able to recognize +at a glance the larger or the smaller hole +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_33' name='page_33'></a>33</span> +which exactly fits the cylinder which he holds in +his hand. The educative process is based on this: +that the control of the error lies in <i>the material +itself</i>, and the child has concrete evidence of +it.</p> +<p>The desire of the child to attain an end +which he knows, leads him to correct himself. It +is not a teacher who makes him notice his mistake +and shows him how to correct it, but it is a +complex work of the child’s own intelligence +which leads to such a result.</p> +<p>Hence at this point there begins the process of +auto-education.</p> +<p>The aim is not an external one, that is to +say, it is <i>not</i> the object that the child should learn +how to place the cylinders, and <i>that he should know +how to perform an exercise</i>.</p> +<p>The aim is an inner one, namely, that the child +train himself to observe; that he be led to make +comparisons between objects, to form judgments, +to reason and to decide; and it is in the indefinite +repetition of this exercise of attention and of +intelligence that a real development ensues.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_10' id='linki_10'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:142px'> +<img src='images/illus-030b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='142' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 9.––The Tower.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>The series of objects to follow after the cylinders +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_34' name='page_34'></a>34</span> +consists of three sets of geometrical solid +forms:</p> +<p>(1) Ten wooden cubes colored pink. The +sides of the cubes diminish from ten centimeters +to one centimeter. (Fig. 9.)</p> +<p>With these cubes the child builds a tower, first +laying on the ground (upon a carpet) the largest +cube, and then placing on the top of it all the +others in their order of size to the very smallest. +(Fig. 10.) As soon as he has built the tower, the +child, with a blow of his hand, knocks it down, so +that the cubes are scattered on the carpet, and +then he builds it up again.</p> +<div style="float:left; width:505px; margin-right:0.5em"> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_11' id='linki_11'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-030c.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='306' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 10.––Child Playing with Tower. (Photo taken at Mr. Hawker’s School at Runton.)</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_12' id='linki_12'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-036a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='137' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 11.––The Broad Stair.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_13' id='linki_13'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-036b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='140' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 12.––The Long Stair.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>(2) Ten wooden prisms, colored brown. The +length of the prisms is twenty centimeters, and +the square section diminishes from ten centimeters +a side to the smallest, one centimeter a +side. (Fig. 11.)</p> +<p>The child scatters the ten pieces over a light-colored +carpet, and then beginning sometimes with +the thickest, sometimes with the thinnest, he +places them in their right order of gradation upon +a table.</p> +<p>(3) Ten rods, colored green, or alternately +red and blue, all of which have the same square +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_35' name='page_35'></a>35</span> +section of four centimeters a side, but vary by ten +centimeters in length from ten centimeters to one +meter. (Fig. 12.)</p> +<p>The child scatters the ten rods on a large carpet +and mixes them at random, and, by comparing +rod with rod, he arranges them according to their +order of length, so that they take the form of a +set of organ pipes.</p> +<p>As usual, the teacher, by doing the exercises +herself, first shows the child how the pieces of +each set should be arranged, but it will often +happen that the child learns, not directly from +her, but by watching his companions. She will, +however, always continue to watch the children, +never losing sight of their efforts, and any correction +of hers will be directed more towards preventing +rough or disorderly use of the material +than towards any <i>error</i> which the child may make +in placing the rods in their order of gradation. +The reason is that the mistakes which the +child makes, by placing, for example, a small cube +beneath one that is larger, are caused by his own +lack of education, and it is the <i>repetition of the +exercise</i> which, by refining his powers of observation, +will lead him sooner or later to <i>correct</i> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_36' name='page_36'></a>36</span> +<i>himself</i>. Sometimes it happens that a child working +with the long rods makes the most glaring +mistakes. As the aim of the exercise, however, +is <i>not</i> that the rods be arranged in the right order +of gradation, but that the child <i>should practise +by himself</i>, there is no need to intervene.</p> +<p>One day the child will arrange all the rods in +their right order, and then, full of joy, he will +call the teacher to come and admire them. The +object of the exercise will thus be achieved.</p> +<p>These three sets, the cubes, the prisms, and the +rods, cause the child to move about and to handle +and carry objects which are difficult for him to +grasp with his little hand. Again, by their use, +he repeats the <i>training of the eye</i> to the recognition +of differences of size between similar objects. +The exercise would seem easier, from the sensory +point of view, than the other with the cylinders +described above.</p> +<p>As a matter of fact, it is more difficult, as there +is <i>no control of the error in the material itself</i>. +It is the child’s eye alone which can furnish the +control.</p> +<p>Hence the difference between the objects should +strike the eye at once; for that reason larger +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_37' name='page_37'></a>37</span> +objects are used, and the necessary visual power +presupposes a previous preparation (provided for +in the exercise with the solid insets).</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_14' id='linki_14'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-037a.png' alt='' title='' width='500' height='274' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 13.––Board with Rough and Smooth Surfaces.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>During the same period the child can be doing +other exercises. Among the material is to be +found a small rectangular board, the surface of +which is divided into two parts––rough and +smooth. (Fig. 13.) The child knows already how +to wash his hands with cold water and soap; he +then dries them and dips the tips of his fingers for +a few seconds in tepid water. Graduated exercises +for the thermic sense may also have their +place here, as has been explained in my book on +the “Method.”</p> +<p>After this, the child is taught to pass the soft +cushioned tips of his fingers <i>as lightly as possible</i> +over the two separate surfaces, that he may +appreciate their difference. The delicate <i>movement</i> +backwards and forwards of the suspended +hand, as it is brought into light contact with the +surface, is an excellent exercise in control. The +little hand, which has just been cleansed and given +its tepid bath, gains much in grace and beauty, +and the whole exercise is the first step in the education +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_38' name='page_38'></a>38</span> +of the “tactile sense,” which holds such an +important place in my method.</p> +<p>When initiating the child into the education +of the sense of touch, the teacher must always +take an active part the first time; not only must +she show the child “how it is done,” her interference +is a little more definite still, for she takes +hold of his hand and guides it to touch the surfaces +with the finger-tips in the lightest possible +way. She will make no explanations; her words +will be rather to <i>encourage</i> the child with his +hand to perceive the different sensations.</p> +<p>When he has perceived them, it is then that he +repeats the act by himself in the delicate way +which he has been taught.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_15' id='linki_15'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-037b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='278' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 14.––Board with Gummed Strips of Paper.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>After the board with the two contrasting surfaces, +the child is offered another board on which +are gummed strips of paper which are rough or +smooth in different degrees. (Fig. 14.)</p> +<p>Graduated series of sandpaper cards are also +given. The child perfects himself by exercises in +touching these surfaces, not only refining his capacity +for perceiving tactile differences which are +always growing more similar, but also perfecting +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_39' name='page_39'></a>39</span> +the movement of which he is ever gaining +greater mastery.</p> +<p>Following these is a series of stuffs of every +kind: velvets, satins, silks, woolens, cottons, +coarse and fine linens. There are two similar +pieces of each kind of stuff, and they are of +bright and vivid colors.</p> +<p>The child is now taught a new movement. +Where before he had to <i>touch</i>, he must now <i>feel</i> +the stuffs, which, according to the degree of fineness +or coarseness from coarse cotton to fine silk, +are felt with movements correspondingly decisive +or delicate. The child whose hand is already +practised finds the greatest pleasure in feeling +the stuffs, and, almost instinctively, in order to +enhance his appreciation of the tactile sensation +he closes his eyes. Then, to spare himself the exertion, +he blindfolds himself with a clean handkerchief, +and as he feels the stuffs, he arranges the +similar pieces in pairs, one upon the other, then, +taking off the handkerchief, he ascertains for himself +whether he has made any mistake.</p> +<p>This exercise in <i>touching</i> and <i>feeling</i> is peculiarly +attractive to the child, and induces him to +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_40' name='page_40'></a>40</span> +seek similar experiences in his surroundings. A +little one, attracted by the pretty stuff of a visitor’s +dress, will be seen to go and wash his hands, then +to come and touch the stuff of the garment again +and again with infinite delicacy, his face meanwhile +expressing his pleasure and interest.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>A little later we shall see the children interest +themselves in a much more difficult exercise.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_16' id='linki_16'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-037c.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='149' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 15.––Wood Tablets Differing in Weight.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>There are some little rectangular tablets which +form part of the material. (Fig. 15.) The tablets, +though of identical size, are made of wood of +varying qualities, so that they differ in weight +and, through the property of the wood, in color +also.</p> +<p>The child has to take a tablet and rest it delicately +on the inner surfaces of his four fingers, +spreading them well out. This will be another +opportunity of teaching delicate movements.</p> +<p>The hand must move up and down as though +to weigh the object, but the movement must be +as imperceptible as possible. These little movements +should diminish as the capacity and attention +for perceiving the weight of the object becomes +more acute and the exercise will be perfectly +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_41' name='page_41'></a>41</span> +performed when the child comes to perceive +the weight almost without any movement of +the hands. It is only by the repetition of the attempts +that such a result can be obtained.</p> +<p>Once the children are initiated into it by the +teacher, they blindfold their eyes and repeat by +themselves these exercises of the <i>baric sense</i>. +For example, they lay the heavier wooden +tablets on the right and the lighter on the left.</p> +<p>When the child takes off the handkerchief, he +can see by the color of the pieces of wood if +he has made a mistake.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>A long time before this difficult exercise, and +during the period when the child is working with +the three sorts of geometrical solids and with the +rough and smooth tablets, he can be exercising himself +with a material which is very attractive to +him.</p> +<p>This is the set of tablets covered with bright +silk of shaded colors. The set consists of two +separate boxes each containing sixty-four colors; +that is, eight different tints, each of which +has eight shades carefully graded. The first exercise +for the child is that of <i>pairing the colors</i>; +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_42' name='page_42'></a>42</span> +that is, he selects from a mixed heap of colors +the two tablets which are alike, and lays them out, +one beside the other. The teacher naturally does +not offer the child all the one hundred and twenty-eight +tablets in a heap, but chooses only a few +of the brighter colors, for example, red, blue and +yellow, and prepares and mixes up three or four +pairs. Then, taking one tablet––perhaps the red +one––she indicates to the child that he is to choose +its counterpart from the heap. This done, the +teacher lays the pair together on the table. +Then she takes perhaps the blue and the child +selects the tablet to form another pair. The +teacher then mixes the tablets again for the child +to repeat the exercise by himself, <i>i.e.</i>, to select +the two red tablets, the two blue, the two yellow, +etc., and to place the two members of each pair +next to one another.</p> +<p>Then the couples will be increased to four or +five, and little children of three years old end by +pairing of their own accord ten or a dozen couples +of mixed tablets.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_17' id='linki_17'></a> +</div> +<div class='figleft' style='width:263px'> +<img src='images/illus-042.jpg' alt='' title='' width='263' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +COLOR SPOOLS<br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>When the child has given his eye sufficient +practise in recognizing the identity of the pairs +of colors, he is offered the shades of one color +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_43' name='page_43'></a>43</span> +only, and he exercises himself in the perception +of the slightest differences of shade in every +color. Take, for example, the blue series. There +are eight tablets in graduated shades. The +teacher places them one beside another, beginning +with the darkest, with the sole object of making +the child understand “what is to be done.”</p> +<p>She then leaves him alone to the interesting +attempts which he spontaneously makes. It +often happens that the child makes a mistake. +If he has understood the idea and makes a mistake, +it is a sign that <i>he has not yet reached the +stage</i> of perceiving the differences between the +graduations of one color. It is practise which +perfects in the child that capacity for distinguishing +the fine differences, and so we leave him alone +to his attempts!</p> +<p>There are two suggestions that we can make +to help him. The first is that he should always +select the darkest color from the pile. This +suggestion greatly facilitates his choice by giving +it a constant direction.</p> +<p>Secondly, we can lead him to observe from time +to time any two colors that stand next to each +other in order to compare them directly and apart +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_44' name='page_44'></a>44</span> +from the others. In this way the child does not +place a tablet without a particular and careful +comparison with its neighbor.</p> +<p>Finally, the child himself will love to mix the +sixty-four colors and then to arrange them in +eight rows of pretty shades of color with really +surprising skill. In this exercise also the child’s +hand is educated to perform fine and delicate +movements and his mind is afforded special training +in attention. He must not take hold of the +tablets anyhow, he must avoid touching the colored +silk, and must handle the tablets instead by +the pieces of wood at the top and bottom. To arrange +the tablets next to one another in a straight +line at exactly the same level, so that the series +looks like a beautiful shaded ribbon, is an act +which demands a manual skill only obtained after +considerable practise.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>These exercises of the chromatic sense lead, in +the case of the older children, to the development +of the “color memory.” A child having looked +carefully at a color, is then invited to look for its +companion in a mixed group of colors, without, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_45' name='page_45'></a>45</span> +of course, keeping the color he has observed +under his eye to guide him. It is, therefore, +by his memory that he recognizes the color, +which he no longer compares with a reality but +with an image impressed upon his mind.</p> +<p>The children are very fond of this exercise in +“color memory”; it makes a lively digression +for them, as they run with the image of a +color in their minds and look for its corresponding +reality in their surroundings. It is a real +triumph for them to identify the idea with the +corresponding reality and to <i>hold in their hands</i> +the proof of the mental power they have acquired.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>Another interesting piece of material is a little +cabinet containing six drawers placed one above +another. When they are opened they display six +square wooden “frames” in each. (Fig. 16.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_18' id='linki_18'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-044a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='277' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 16.––Cabinet with Drawers to hold Geometrical Insets.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>Almost all the frames have a large geometrical +figure inserted in the center, each colored blue +and provided with a small button for a handle. +Each drawer is lined with blue paper, and when +the geometrical figure is removed, the bottom is +seen to reproduce exactly the same form.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_46' name='page_46'></a>46</span></div> +<p>The geometrical figures are arranged in the +drawers according to analogy of form.</p> +<p>(1) In one drawer there are six circles decreasing +in diameter. (Fig. 17.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_19' id='linki_19'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-044b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='359' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 17.––Set of Six Circles.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>(2) In another there is a square, together with +five rectangles in which the length is always equal +to the side of the square while the breadth gradually +decreases. (Fig. 18.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_20' id='linki_20'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-045a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='359' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 18.––Set of Six Rectangles.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>(3) Another drawer contains six triangles, +which vary either according to their sides or according +to their <a name='TC_1'></a><ins class="trchange" title="Was 'anvles'">angles</ins> (the equilateral, isosceles, +scalene, right angled, obtuse angled, and acute +angled). (Fig. 19.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_21' id='linki_21'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-045b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='360' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 19.––Set of Six Triangles.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>(4) In another drawer there are six regular +polygons containing from five to ten sides, <i>i.e.</i>, +the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, nonagon, +and decagon. (Fig. 20.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_22' id='linki_22'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-046a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='356' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 20.––Set of Six Polygons.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>(5) Another drawer contains various figures: +an oval, an ellipse, a rhombus, and a trapezoid. +(Fig. 21.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_23' id='linki_23'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-046b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='358' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 21.––Set of Six Irregular Figures.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>(6) Finally, there are four plain wooden +tablets, <i>i.e.</i>, without any geometrical inset, which +should have no button fixed to them; also two +other irregular geometrical figures. (Fig. 22.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_24' id='linki_24'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-047.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='359' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 22.––Set of Four Blanks and Two Irregular Figures.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>Connected with this material there is a wooden +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_47' name='page_47'></a>47</span> +frame furnished with a kind of rack which opens +like a lid, and serves, when shut, to keep firmly +in place six of the insets which may be arranged +on the bottom of the frame itself, entirely +covering it. (Fig. 23.)</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_25' id='linki_25'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-048.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='349' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 23.––Frame to hold Geometrical Insets.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>This frame is used for the preparation of the +<i>first presentation</i> to the child of the plane geometrical +forms.</p> +<p>The teacher may select according to her own +judgment certain forms from among the whole +series at her disposal.</p> +<p>At first it is advisable to show the child only +a few figures which differ very widely from one +another in form. The next step is to present a +larger number of figures, and after this to present +consecutively figures more and more similar in +form.</p> +<p>The first figures to be arranged in the frame +will be, for example, the circle and the equilateral +triangle, or the circle, the triangle and the square. +The spaces which are left should be covered with +the tablets of plain wood. Gradually the frame +is completely filled with figures; first, with very +dissimilar figures, as, for example, a square, a +very narrow rectangle, a triangle, a circle, an +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_48' name='page_48'></a>48</span> +ellipse and a hexagon, or with other figures in +combination.</p> +<p>Afterwards the teacher’s object will be to arrange +figures similar to one another in the frame, +as, for example, the set of six rectangles, six +triangles, six circles, varying in size, etc.</p> +<p>This exercise resembles that of the cylinders. +The insets are held by the buttons and taken from +their places. They are then mixed on the table +and the child is invited to put them back in their +places. Here also the control of the error is in +the <i>material</i>, for the figure cannot be inserted +perfectly except when it is put in its own place. +Hence a series of “experiments,” of “attempts” +which end in victory. The child is led to compare +the various forms; to realize in a concrete +way the differences between them when an inset +wrongly placed will not go into the aperture. In +this way he educates his eye to the <i>recognition of +forms</i>.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_26' id='linki_26'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-049.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='359' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 24.––Child Touching the Insets. (Montessori School, Runton.)</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>The new movement of the hand which the child +must coordinate is of particular importance. He +is taught to <i>touch the outline of the geometrical +figures</i> with the soft tips of the index and middle +finger of the right hand, or of the left as well, if +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_49' name='page_49'></a>49</span> +one believes in ambidexterity. (Fig. 24.) The +child is made to touch the outline, not only of the +<i>inset</i>, but also of the corresponding aperture, and, +only after <i>having touched</i> them, is he to put back +the inset into its place.</p> +<p>The <i>recognition</i> of the form is rendered much +easier in this way. Children who evidently do not +<i>recognize the identities of form</i> by the eye and who +make absurd attempts to place the most diverse +figures one within the other, <i>do recognize</i> the +forms after having touched their outlines, and +arrange them very quickly in their right places.</p> +<p>The child’s hand during this exercise of touching +the outlines of the geometrical figures has a +concrete guide in the object. This is especially +true when he touches the frames, for his two +fingers have only to follow the edge of the frame, +which acts as an obstacle and is a very clear +guide. The teacher must always intervene at +the start to teach accurately this movement, +which will have such an importance in the +future. She must, therefore, show the child <i>how +to touch</i>, not only by performing the movement +herself slowly and clearly, but also by guiding the +child’s hand itself during his first attempts, so +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_50' name='page_50'></a>50</span> +that he is sure to touch all the details––angles and +sides. When his hand has learned to perform +these movements with precision and accuracy, he +will be <i>really</i> capable of following the outline of +a geometrical figure, and through many repetitions +of the exercise he will come to coordinate the +movement <i>necessary</i> for the exact delineation of +its form.</p> +<p>This exercise could be called an indirect but +very real preparation for drawing. It is certainly +the preparation of the hand to <i>trace an enclosed +form</i>. The little hand which touches, +feels, and knows how to follow a determined outline +is preparing itself, without knowing it, for +writing.</p> +<p>The children make a special point of touching +the outlines of the plane insets with accuracy. +They themselves have invented the exercise of +blindfolding their eyes so as to recognize the +forms by touch only, taking out and putting back +the insets without seeing them.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_27' id='linki_27'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:295px'> +<img src='images/illus-054.png' alt='' title='' width='295' height='300' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 25.––Series of Cards with Geometrical Forms.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>Corresponding to every form reproduced in the +plane insets there are three white cards square in +shape and of exactly the same size as the wooden +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_51' name='page_51'></a>51</span> +frames of the insets. These cards are kept in +three special cardboard boxes, almost cubic in +form. (Fig. 25.)</p> +<p>On the cards are repeated, in three series, the +same geometrical forms as those of the plane +insets. The same measurements of the figures +also are exactly reproduced.</p> +<p>In the first series the forms are filled in, <i>i.e.</i>, +they are cut out in blue paper and gummed on +to the card; in the second series there is only an +outline about half a centimeter in width, which +is cut out in the same blue paper and gummed to +the card; in the third series, however, the geometrical +figures are instead outlined only in black +ink.</p> +<p>By the use of this second piece of the material, +the exercise of the eye is gradually brought to +perfection in the recognition of “plane forms.” +In fact, there is no longer the concrete control of +error in the material as there was in the <i>wooden</i> +insets, but the child, by his eye alone, must judge +of identities of form when, instead of <i>fitting</i> the +wooden forms into their corresponding apertures, +he simply <i>rests</i> them on the cardboard figure.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_52' name='page_52'></a>52</span></div> +<p>Again, the refinement of the eye’s power of discrimination +increases every time the child passes +from one series of cards to the next, and by the +time that he has reached the third series, he can +see the relation between a wooden object, which +he holds in his hand, and an outline drawing; that +is, he can connect the concrete reality with an <i>abstraction</i>. +The <i>line</i> now assumes in his eyes a +very definite meaning; and he accustoms himself +to recognize, to interpret and to judge of forms +contained by a simple outline.</p> +<p>The exercises are various; the children themselves +invent them. Some love to spread out a +number of the figures of the geometric insets before +their eyes, and then, taking a handful of the +cards and mixing them like playing cards, deal +them out as quickly as possible, choosing the +figures corresponding to the pieces. Then as a +test of their choice, they place the wooden pieces +upon the forms on the cards. At this exercise +they often cover whole tables, putting the wooden +figures above, and beneath each one in a vertical +line, the three corresponding forms of the cardboard +series.</p> +<p>Another game invented by the children consists +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_53' name='page_53'></a>53</span> +in putting out and mixing all the cards of the three +series on two or three adjoining tables. The +child then takes a wooden geometrical form and +places it, as quickly as possible, on the corresponding +cards which he has recognized at a +glance among all the rest.</p> +<p>Four or five children play this game together, +and as soon as one of them has found, for example, +the filled-in figure corresponding to the +wooden piece, and has placed the piece carefully +and precisely upon it, another child takes away +the piece in order to place it on the same form in +outline. The game is somewhat suggestive of +chess.</p> +<p>Many children, without any suggestion from +any one, touch with the finger the outline of the +figures in the three series of cards, doing it with +seriousness of purpose, interest and perseverance.</p> +<p>We teach the children to name all the forms +of the plane insets.</p> +<p>At first I had intended to limit my teaching to +the most important names, such as square, rectangle, +circle. But the children wanted to know +all the names, taking pleasure in learning even +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_54' name='page_54'></a>54</span> +the most difficult, such as trapezium, and decagon. +They also show great pleasure in listening to the +exact pronunciation of new words and in their +repetition. Early childhood is, in fact, the age +in which language is formed, and in which the +sounds of a foreign language can be perfectly +learned.</p> +<p>When the child has had long practise with the +plane insets, he begins to make “discoveries” in +his environment, recognizing forms, colors, and +qualities already known to him––a result which, +in general, follows after all the sensory exercises. +Then it is that a great enthusiasm is aroused in +him, and the world becomes for him a source of +pleasure. A little boy, walking one day alone +on the roof terrace, repeated to himself with a +thoughtful expression on his face, “The sky is +blue! the sky is blue!” Once a cardinal, an admirer +of the children of the school in Via Guisti, +wished himself to bring them some biscuits and +to enjoy the sight of a little greediness among +the children. When he had finished his distribution, +instead of seeing the children put the food +hastily into their mouths, to his great surprise he +heard them call out, “A triangle! a circle! a rectangle!” +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_55' name='page_55'></a>55</span> +In fact, these biscuits were made in +geometrical shapes.</p> +<p>In one of the people’s dwellings at Milan, a +mother, preparing the dinner in the kitchen, took +from a packet a slice of bread and butter. Her +little four-year-old boy who was with her said, +“Rectangle.” The woman going on with her +work cut off a large corner of the slice of bread, +and the child cried out, “Triangle.” She put this +bit into the saucepan, and the child, looking at +the piece that was left, called out more loudly +than before, “And now it is a trapezium.”</p> +<p>The father, a working man, who was present, +was much impressed with the incident. He went +straight to look for the teacher and asked for an +explanation. Much moved, he said, “If I had been +educated in that way I should not be now just +an ordinary workman.”</p> +<p>It was he who later on arranged for a demonstration +to induce all the workmen of the dwellings +to take an interest in the school. They +ended by presenting the teacher with a parchment +they had painted themselves, and on it, between +the pictures of little children, they had introduced +every kind of geometrical form.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_56' name='page_56'></a>56</span></div> +<p>As regards the touching of objects for the realization +of their form, there is an infinite field of +discovery open to the child in his environment. +Children have been seen to stand opposite a beautiful +pillar or a statue and, after having admired +it, to close their eyes in a state of beatitude and +pass their hands many times over the forms. One +of our teachers met one day in a church two little +brothers from the school in Via Guisti. They +were standing looking at the small columns supporting +the altar. Little by little the elder boy +edged nearer the columns and began to touch +them, then, as if he desired his little brother to +share his pleasure, he drew him nearer and, taking +his hand very gently, made him pass it round +the smooth and beautiful shape of the column. +But a sacristan came up at that moment and sent +away “those tiresome children who were touching +everything.”</p> +<p>The great pleasure which the children derive +from the recognition of <i>objects</i> by touching their +form corresponds in itself to a sensory exercise.</p> +<p>Many psychologists have spoken of the <i>stereognostic</i> +sense, that is, the capacity of recognizing +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_57' name='page_57'></a>57</span> +forms by the movement of the muscles of the +hand as it follows the outlines of solid objects. +This sense does not consist only of the sense of +touch, because the tactile sensation is only that +by which we perceive the differences in quality +of surfaces, rough or smooth. Perception of +form comes from the combination of two sensations, +tactile and muscular, muscular sensations +being sensations of movement. What we call in +the blind the <i>tactile</i> sense is in reality more often +the stereognostic sense. That is, they perceive +by means of their hands the <i>form of bodies</i>.</p> +<p>It is the special muscular sensibility of the +child from three to six years of age who is forming +his own muscular activity which stimulates +him to use the stereognostic sense. When the +child spontaneously blindfolds his eyes in order +to recognize various objects, such as the plane +and solid insets, he is exercising this sense.</p> +<p>There are many exercises which he can do +to enable him to recognize with closed eyes objects +of well defined shapes, as, for example, the +little bricks and cubes of Froebel, marbles, coins, +beans, peas, etc. From a selection of different +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_58' name='page_58'></a>58</span> +objects mixed together he can pick out those +that are alike, and arrange them in separate +heaps.</p> +<p>In the didactic material there are also geometrical +solids––pale blue in color––a sphere, a prism, +a pyramid, a cone, a cylinder. The most attractive +way of teaching a child to recognize these +forms is for him to touch them with closed eyes and +guess their names, the latter learned in a way which +I will describe later. After an exercise of this +kind the child when his eyes are open observes the +forms with a much more lively interest. Another +way of interesting him in the solid geometrical +forms is to make them <i>move</i>. The sphere rolls in +every direction; the cylinder rolls in one direction +only; the cone rolls round itself; the prism +and the pyramid, however, stand still, but the +prism falls over more easily than the pyramid.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_28' id='linki_28'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:300px'> +<img src='images/illus-055.jpg' alt='' title='' width='300' height='299' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 26.––Sound Boxes.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>Little more remains of the didactic material +for the education of the senses. There is, however, +a series of six cardboard cylinders, either +closed entirely or with wooden covers. (Fig. 26.)</p> +<p>When these cases are shaken they produce +sounds varying in intensity from loud to almost +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_59' name='page_59'></a>59</span> +imperceptible sounds, according to the nature of +the objects inside the cylinder.</p> +<p>There is a double act of these, and the exercise +consists, first, in the recognition of sounds +of equal intensity, arranging the cylinders in +pairs. The next exercise consists in the comparison +of one sound with another; that is, the child +arranges the six cylinders in a series according +to the loudness of sound which they produce. +The exercise is analogous to that with the +color spools, which also are paired and then arranged +in gradation. In this case also the child +performs the exercise seated comfortably at a +table. After a preliminary explanation from the +teacher he repeats the exercise by himself, his +eyes being blindfolded that he may better concentrate +his attention.</p> +<p>We may conclude with a general rule for the +direction of the education of the senses. The +order of procedure should be:</p> +<p>(1) Recognition of <i>identities</i> (the pairing of +similar objects and the insertion of solid forms +into places which fit them).</p> +<p>(2) Recognition of <i>contrasts</i> (the presentation +of the extremes of a series of objects).</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_60' name='page_60'></a>60</span></div> +<p>(3) Discrimination between objects very <i>similar</i> +to one another.</p> +<p>To concentrate the attention of the child upon +the sensory stimulus which is acting upon him at +a particular moment, it is well, as far as possible, +to <i>isolate</i> the sense; for instance, to obtain silence +in the room for all the exercises and to blindfold +the eyes for those particular exercises which do +not relate to the education of the sense of sight.</p> +<p>The cinematograph pictures give a general idea +of all the sense exercises which the children can +do with the material, and any one who has been +initiated into the theory on which these are based +will be able gradually to recognize them as they +are seen practically carried out.</p> +<p>It is very advisable for those who wish to guide +the children in these sensory exercises to begin +themselves by working with the didactic material. +The experience will give them some idea of what +the children must feel, of the difficulties which they +must overcome, etc., and, up to a certain point, it +will give them some conception of the interest +which these exercises can arouse in them. Whoever +makes such experiments himself will be most +struck by the fact that, when blindfolded, he finds +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_61' name='page_61'></a>61</span> +that all the sensations of touch and hearing really +appear more acute and more easily recognized. +On account of this alone no small interest will be +aroused in the experimenter.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>For the beginning of the education of the musical +sense, we use in Rome a material which does +not form part of the didactic apparatus as it is +sold at present. It consists of a double series of +bells forming an octave with tones and semitones. +These metal bells, which stand upon a +wooden rectangular base, are all alike in appearance, +but, when struck with a little wooden hammer, +give out sounds corresponding to the notes +doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh, doh ♯, re ♯, fah ♯, +soh ♯, lah ♯.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_29' id='linki_29'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-061.png' alt='' title='' width='500' height='72' /><br /> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_30' id='linki_30'></a> +</div> +<div class='figleft' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-060.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='341' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 27.––Musical Bells.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>One series of bells is arranged in chromatic +order upon a long board, upon which are painted +rectangular spaces which are black and white +and of the same size as the bases which support +the bells. As on a pianoforte keyboard, the white +spaces correspond to the tones, and the black to +the semitones. (Fig. 27.)</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_62' name='page_62'></a>62</span></div> +<p>At first the only bells to be arranged upon the +board are those which correspond to the tones; +these are set upon the white spaces in the order of +the musical notes, doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh.</p> +<p>To perform the first exercise the child strikes +with a small hammer the first note of the series +already arranged (doh). Then among a second +series of corresponding bells which, arranged +without the semitones, are mixed together upon +the table, he tries, by striking the bells one after +the other, to find the sound which is the same as the +first one he has struck (doh). When he has succeeded +in finding the corresponding sound, he puts +the bell thus chosen opposite the first one (doh) +upon the board. Then he strikes the second bell, +<i>re</i>, once or twice; then from among the mixed +group of bells he makes experiments until he recognizes +<i>re</i>, which he places opposite the second +bell of the series already arranged. He continues +in the same way right to the end, looking for the +identity of the sounds and performing an exercise +of <i>pairing</i> similar to that already done in the +case of the sound-boxes, the colors, etc.</p> +<p>Later, he learns in order the sounds of the musical +scale, striking in rapid succession the bells arranged +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_63' name='page_63'></a>63</span> +in order, and also accompanying his action +with his voice––doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh. +When he is able to recognize and <i>remember</i> +the series of sounds, the child takes the eight +bells and, after mixing them up, he tries by striking +them with the hammer, to find <i>doh</i>, then <i>re</i>, +etc. Every time that he takes a new note, he +strikes from the beginning all the bells already +recognized and arranged in order––doh, <i>re</i>, <a name='TC_2'></a><ins class="trchange" title="Added comma">doh,</ins> +re, <i>mi</i>; doh, <ins class="trchange" title="Added comma">re,</ins> mi, <i>fah</i>; doh, <ins class="trchange" title="Added comma">re,</ins> mi, fah, <i>soh</i>, +etc. In this way he succeeds in arranging all the +bells in the order of the scale, guided only by his +ear, and having succeeded, he strikes all the notes +one after the other up and down the scale. This +exercise fascinates children from five years old +upwards.</p> +<p>If the objects which have been described constitute +the didactic material for the beginnings +of a methodical education of the auditory sense, +I have no desire to limit to them an educational +process which is so important and already so +complex in its practise, whether in the long +established methods of treatment for the deaf, or +in modern physiological musical education. In +fact, I also use resonant metal tubes, small bars of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_64' name='page_64'></a>64</span> +wood which emit musical notes, and strings (little +harps), upon which the children seek to recognize +the tones they have already learned with the +exercise of the bells. The pianoforte may also +be used for the same purpose. In this way the +difference in <i>timbre</i> comes to be perceived together +with the differences in tone. At the same time +various exercises, already mentioned, such as the +marches played on the piano for rhythmic exercises, +and the simple songs sung by the children +themselves, offer extensive means for the development +of the musical sense.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>To quicken the child’s attention in special relation +to sounds there is a most important exercise +which, contrary to all attempts made up to this +time in the practise of education, consists not in +producing but in eliminating, as far as possible, +all sounds from the environment. My “lesson of +silence” has been very widely applied, even in +schools where the rest of my method has not +found its way, for the sake of its practical effect +upon the discipline of the children.</p> +<p>The children are taught “not to move”; to inhibit +all those motor impulses which may arise +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_65' name='page_65'></a>65</span> +from any cause whatsoever, and in order to induce +in them real “immobility,” it is necessary +to initiate them in the <i>control</i> of all their movements. +The teacher, then, does not limit herself +to saying, “Sit still,” but she gives them the example +herself, showing them how to sit absolutely +still; that is, with feet still, body still, arms still, +head still. The respiratory movements should also +be performed in such a way as to produce no sound.</p> +<p>The children must be taught how to succeed +in this exercise. The fundamental condition is +that of finding a comfortable position, <i>i.e.</i>, a +position of equilibrium. As they are seated for +this exercise, they must therefore make themselves +comfortable either in their little chairs or on the +ground. When immobility is obtained, the room +is half-darkened, or else the children close their +eyes, or cover them with their hands.</p> +<p>It is quite plain to see that the children take +a great interest in the “Silence”; they seem to +give themselves up to a kind of spell: they might +be said to be wrapped in meditation. Little by +little, as each child, watching himself, becomes +more and more still, the silence deepens till it +becomes absolute and can be felt, just as the twilight +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_66' name='page_66'></a>66</span> +gradually deepens whilst the sun is setting.</p> +<p>Then it is that slight sounds, unnoticed before, +are heard; the ticking of the clock, the chirp of +a sparrow in the garden, the flight of a butterfly. +The world becomes full of imperceptible sounds +which invade that deep silence without disturbing +it, just as the stars shine out in the dark sky +without banishing the darkness of the night. It +is almost the discovery of a new world where +there is rest. It is, as it were, the twilight of the +world of loud noises and of the uproar that oppresses +the spirit. At such a time the spirit is +set free and opens out like the corolla of the convolvulus.</p> +<p>And leaving metaphor for the reality of facts, +can we not all recall feelings that have possessed +us at sunset, when all the vivid impressions of the +day, the brightness and clamor, are silenced? It +is not that we miss the day, but that our spirit +expands. It becomes more sensitive to the inner +play of emotions, strong and persistent, or changeful +and serene.</p> +<p class='lalign' style="margin-left:2.0em">“It was that hour when mariners feel longing,<br /> +<span class='indent1'> </span>And hearts grow tender.”</p> +<p class='lalign' style="margin-left:7.0em">(Dante, trans. Longfellow.)</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_67' name='page_67'></a>67</span></div> +<p>The lesson of silence ends with a general calling +of the children’s names. The teacher, or one of +the children, takes her place behind the class or +in an adjoining room, and “calls” the motionless +children, one by one, by name; the call is +made in a whisper, that is, without vocal sound. +This demands a close attention on the part of the +child, if he is to hear his name. When his name +is called he must rise and find his way to the voice +which called him; his movements must be light +and vigilant, and so controlled <i>as to make no +noise</i>.</p> +<p>When the children have become acquainted with +<i>silence</i>, their hearing is in a manner refined for +the perception of sounds. Those sounds which +are too loud become gradually displeasing to the +ear of one who has known the pleasure of silence, +and has discovered the world of delicate sounds. +From this point the children gradually go on to +perfect themselves; they walk lightly, take care +not to knock against the furniture, move their +chairs without noise, and place things upon the +table with great care. The result of this is seen +in the grace of carriage and of movement, which +is especially delightful on account of the way in +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_68' name='page_68'></a>68</span> +which it has been brought about. It is not a grace +taught externally for the sake of beauty or regard +for the world, but one which is born of +the pleasure felt by the spirit in immobility and +silence. The soul of the child wishes to free itself +from the irksomeness of sounds that are too loud, +from obstacles to its peace during work. These +children, with the grace of pages to a noble lord, +are serving their spirits.</p> +<p>This exercise develops very definitely the social +spirit. No other lesson, no other “situation,” +could do the same. A profound silence can be +obtained even when more than fifty children are +crowded together in a small space, provided that +<i>all</i> the children know how to keep still and want +to do it; but one disturber is enough to take +away the charm.</p> +<p>Here is demonstration of the cooperation of all +the members of a community to achieve a common +end. The children gradually show increased +power of <i>inhibition</i>; many of them, rather than +disturb the silence, refrain from brushing a fly +off the nose, or suppress a cough or sneeze. The +same exhibition of collective action is seen in the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_69' name='page_69'></a>69</span> +care with which the children move to avoid making +a noise during their work. The lightness with +which they run on tiptoe, the grace with which +they shut a cupboard, or lay an object on the +table, these are qualities that must be <i>acquired +by all</i>, if the environment is to become tranquil +and free from disturbance. One rebel is sufficient +to mar this achievement; one noisy child, +walking on his heels or banging the door, can +disturb the peaceful atmosphere of the small community.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='LANGUAGE_AND_KNOWLEDGE_OF_THE_WORLD' id='LANGUAGE_AND_KNOWLEDGE_OF_THE_WORLD'></a> +<h2>LANGUAGE AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD</h2> +</div> +<p>The special importance of the sense of hearing +comes from the fact that it is the sense organ +connected with speech. Therefore, to train the +child’s attention to follow sounds and noises +which are produced in the environment, to recognize +them and to discriminate between them, is to +prepare his attention to follow more accurately +the sounds of articulate language. The teacher +must be careful to pronounce clearly and completely +the sounds of the word when she speaks to +a child, even though she may be speaking in a low +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_70' name='page_70'></a>70</span> +voice, almost as if telling him a secret. The children’s +songs are also a good means for obtaining +exact pronunciation. The teacher, when she +teaches them, pronounces slowly, separating the +component sounds of the word pronounced.</p> +<p>But a special opportunity for training in clear +and exact speech occurs when the lessons are +given in the nomenclature relating to the sensory +exercises. In every exercise, when the child has +<i>recognized</i> the differences between the qualities +of the objects, the teacher fixes the idea of this +quality with a word. Thus, when the child has +many times built and rebuilt the tower of the +pink cubes, at an opportune moment the teacher +draws near him, and taking the two extreme cubes, +the largest and the smallest, and showing them +to him, says, “This is large”; “This is small.” +The two words only, <i>large</i> and <i>small</i>, are pronounced +several times in succession with strong +emphasis and with a very clear pronunciation, +“This is <i>large</i>, large, large”; after which there +is a moment’s pause. Then the teacher, to see +if the child has understood, verifies with the following +tests: “Give me the large one. Give +me the <i>small</i> one.” Again, “The large one.” +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_71' name='page_71'></a>71</span> +“Now the small one.” “Give me the large one.” +Then there is another pause. Finally, the +teacher, pointing to the objects in turn asks, +“What is this?” The child, if he has learned, +replies rightly, “Large,” “Small.” The teacher +then urges the child to repeat the words always +more clearly and as accurately as possible. +“What is it?” “Large.” “What?” “Large.” +“Tell me nicely, what is it?” “Large.”</p> +<p><i>Large</i> and <i>small</i> objects are those which differ +only in size and not in form; that is, all three +dimensions change more or less proportionally. +We should say that a house is “large” and a hut +is “small.” When two pictures represent the +same objects in different dimensions one can be +said to be an enlargement of the other.</p> +<p>When, however, only the dimensions referring +to the section of the object change, while the +length remains the same, the objects are respectively +“thick” and “thin.” We should say of +two posts of equal height, but different cross-section, +that one is “thick” and the other is +“thin.” The teacher, therefore, gives a lesson +on the brown prisms similar to that with the cubes +in the three “periods” which I have described:</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_72' name='page_72'></a>72</span></div> +<p><i>Period 1. Naming.</i> “This is thick. This is +thin.”</p> +<p><i>Period 2. Recognition.</i> “Give me the <i>thick</i>. +Give me the <i>thin</i>.”</p> +<p><i>Period 3. The Pronunciation of the Word.</i> +“What is this?”</p> +<p>There is a way of helping the child to recognize +differences in dimension and to place the objects +in correct gradation. After the lesson which I +have described, the teacher scatters the brown +prisms, for instance, on a carpet, says to the child, +“Give me the thickest of all,” and lays the object +on a table. Then, again, she invites the child +to look for <i>the thickest</i> piece among those scattered +on the floor, and every time the piece chosen +is laid in its order on the table next to the piece +previously chosen. In this way the child accustoms +himself always to look either for the <i>thickest</i> +or the <i>thinnest</i> among the rest, and so has a guide +to help him to lay the pieces in gradation.</p> +<p>When there is one dimension only which varies, +as in the case of the rods, the objects are said to +be “long” and “short,” the varying dimension +being length. When the varying dimension is +height, the objects are said to be “tall” and +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_73' name='page_73'></a>73</span> +“short”; when the breadth varies, they are +“broad” and “narrow.”</p> +<p>Of these three varieties we offer the child as a +fundamental lesson only that in which the <i>length</i> +varies, and we teach the differences by means of +the usual “three periods,” and by asking him to +select from the pile at one time always the “longest,” +at another always the “shortest.”</p> +<p>The child in this way acquires great accuracy +in the use of words. One day the teacher had +ruled the blackboard with very fine lines. A child +said, “What small lines!” “They are not small,” +corrected another; “they are <i>thin</i>.”</p> +<p>When the names to be taught are those of colors +or of forms, so that it is not necessary to +emphasize contrast between extremes, the teacher +can give more than two names at the same time, +as, for instance, “This is red.” “This is blue.” +“This is yellow.” Or, again, “This is a square.” +“This is a triangle.” “This is a circle.” In +the case of a <i>gradation</i>, however, the teacher will +select (if she is teaching the colors) the two extremes +“dark” and “light,” then making choice +always of the “darkest” and the “lightest.”</p> +<p>Many of the lessons here described can be seen +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_74' name='page_74'></a>74</span> +in the cinematograph pictures; lessons on touching +the plane insets and the surfaces, in walking +on the line, in color memory, in the nomenclature +relating to the cubes and the long rods, in the +composition of words, reading, writing, etc.</p> +<p>By means of these lessons the child comes to +know many words very thoroughly––large, small; +thick, thin; long, short; dark, light; rough, smooth; +heavy, light; hot, cold; and the names of many +colors and geometrical forms. Such words do not +relate to any particular <i>object</i>, but to a psychic +acquisition on the part of the child. In fact, the +name is given <i>after a long exercise</i>, in which the +child, concentrating his attention on different +qualities of objects, has made comparisons, reasoned, +and formed judgments, until he has acquired +a power of discrimination which he did +not possess before. In a word, he has <i>refined his +senses</i>; his observation of things has been thorough +and fundamental; he has <i>changed himself</i>.</p> +<p>He finds himself, therefore, facing the world +with <i>psychic</i> qualities refined and quickened. +His powers of observation and of recognition have +greatly increased. Further, the mental images +which he has succeeded in establishing are not a +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_75' name='page_75'></a>75</span> +confused medley; they are all classified––forms +are distinct from dimensions, and dimensions are +classed according to the qualities which result +from the combinations of varying dimensions.</p> +<p>All these are quite distinct from <i>gradations</i>. +Colors are divided according to tint and to richness +of tone, silence is distinct from non-silence, +noises from sounds, and everything has its own +exact and appropriate name. The child then has +not only developed in himself special qualities of +observation and of judgment, but the objects +which he observes may be said to go into their +place, according to the order established in his +mind, and they are placed under their appropriate +name in an exact classification.</p> +<p>Does not the student of the experimental sciences +prepare himself in the same way to observe +the outside world? He may find himself like the +uneducated man in the midst of the most diverse +natural objects, but he differs from the uneducated +man in that he has <i>special qualities</i> for observation. +If he is a worker with the microscope, his +eyes are trained to see in the range of the microscope +certain minute details which the ordinary +man cannot distinguish. If he is an astronomer, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_76' name='page_76'></a>76</span> +he will look through the same telescope as the +curious visitor or <i>dilettante</i>, but he will see much +more clearly. The same plants surround the +botanist and the ordinary wayfarer, but the botanist +sees in every plant those qualities which are +classified in his mind, and assigns to each plant its +own place in the natural orders, giving it its exact +name. It is this capacity for recognizing a plant +in a complex order of classification which distinguishes +the botanist from the ordinary gardener, +and it is <i>exact</i> and scientific language which characterizes +the trained observer.</p> +<p>Now, the scientist who has developed special +qualities of observation and who “possesses” an +order in which to classify external objects will +be the man to make scientific <i>discoveries</i>. It will +never be he who, without preparation and order, +wanders dreaming among plants or beneath the +starlit sky.</p> +<p>In fact, our little ones have the impression of +continually “making discoveries” in the world +about them; and in this they find the greatest +joy. They take from the world a knowledge which +is ordered and inspires them with enthusiasm. +Into their minds there enters “the Creation” instead +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_77' name='page_77'></a>77</span> +of “the Chaos”; and it seems that their souls +find therein a divine exultation.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='FREEDOM' id='FREEDOM'></a> +<h2>FREEDOM</h2> +</div> +<p>The success of these results is closely connected +with the delicate intervention of the one who +guides the children in their development. It is +necessary for the teacher to <i>guide</i> the child without +letting him feel her presence too much, so that +she may be always ready to supply the desired +help, but may never be the obstacle between the +child and his experience.</p> +<p>A lesson in the ordinary use of the word cools +the child’s enthusiasm for the knowledge of +things, just as it would cool the enthusiasm of +adults. To keep alive that enthusiasm is the secret +of real guidance, and it will not prove a difficult +task, provided that the attitude towards the +child’s acts be that of respect, calm and waiting, +and provided that he be left free in his movements +and in his experiences.</p> +<p>Then we shall notice that the child has a personality +which he is seeking to expand; he has +initiative, he chooses his own work, persists in it, +changes it according to his inner needs; he does +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_78' name='page_78'></a>78</span> +not shirk effort, he rather goes in search of it, +and with great joy overcomes obstacles within his +capacity. He is sociable to the extent of wanting +to share with every one his successes, his discoveries, +and his little triumphs. There is therefore +no need of intervention. “Wait while observing.” +That is the motto for the educator.</p> +<p>Let us wait, and be always ready to share in +both the joys and the difficulties which the child +experiences. He himself invites our sympathy, +and we should respond fully and gladly. Let us +have endless patience with his slow progress, and +show enthusiasm and gladness at his successes. +If we could say: “We are respectful and courteous +in our dealings with children, we treat them +as we should like to be treated ourselves,” we +should certainly have mastered a great educational +principle and undoubtedly be setting an +<i>example of good education</i>.</p> +<p>What we all desire for ourselves, namely, not +to be disturbed in our work, not to find hindrances +to our efforts, to have good friends ready to help +us in times of need, to see them rejoice with us, +to be on terms of equality with them, to be able +to confide and trust in them––this is what we need +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_79' name='page_79'></a>79</span> +for happy companionship. In the same way children +are human beings to whom respect is due, +superior to us by reason of their “innocence” +and of the greater possibilities of their future. +What we desire they desire also.</p> +<p>As a rule, however, we do not respect our children. +We try to force them to follow us without +regard to their special needs. We are overbearing +with them, and above all, rude; and then we +expect them to be submissive and well-behaved, +knowing all the time how strong is their instinct +of imitation and how touching their faith in and +admiration of us. They will imitate us in any +case. Let us treat them, therefore, with all the +kindness which we would wish to help to develop +in them. And by kindness is not meant caresses. +Should we not call anyone who embraced us at the +first time of meeting rude, vulgar and ill-bred? +Kindness consists in interpreting the wishes of +others, in conforming one’s self to them, and sacrificing, +if need be, one’s own desire. This is the +kindness which we must show towards children.</p> +<p>To find the interpretation of children’s desires +we must study them scientifically, for their desires +are often unconscious. They are the inner +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_80' name='page_80'></a>80</span> +cry of life, which wishes to unfold according to +mysterious laws. We know very little of the way +in which it unfolds. Certainly the child is growing +into a man by force of a divine action similar +to that by which from nothing he became a child.</p> +<p>Our intervention in this marvelous process is +<i>indirect</i>; we are here to offer to this life, which +came into the world by itself, the <i>means</i> necessary +for its development, and having done that we must +await this development with respect.</p> +<p>Let us leave the life <i>free</i> to develop within the +limits of the good, and let us observe this inner +life developing. This is the whole of our mission. +Perhaps as we watch we shall be reminded of the +words of Him who was absolutely good, “Suffer +the little children to come unto Me.” That is to +say, “Do not hinder them from coming, since, if +they are left free and unhampered, they will +come.”</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='WRITING' id='WRITING'></a> +<h2>WRITING</h2> +</div> +<p>The child who has completed all the exercises +above described, and is thus <i>prepared</i> for an advance +towards unexpected conquests, is about four +years old.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_81' name='page_81'></a>81</span></div> +<p>He is not an unknown quantity, as are children +who have been left to gain varied and casual experiences +by themselves, and who therefore differ +in type and intellectual standard, not only according +to their “natures,” but especially according +to the chances and opportunities they have found +for their spontaneous inner formation.</p> +<p>Education has <i>determined an environment</i> for +the children. Individual differences to be found +in them can, therefore, be put down almost exclusively +to each one’s individual “nature.” Owing +to their environment which offers <i>means</i> +adapted and measured to meet the needs of their +psychical development, our children have acquired +a fundamental type which is common to +all. They have <i>coordinated</i> their movements in +various kinds of manual work about the house, +and so have acquired a characteristic independence +of action, and initiative in the adaptation of +their actions to their environment. Out of all this +emerges a <i>personality</i>, for the children have become +little men, who are self-reliant.</p> +<p>The special attention necessary to handle small +fragile objects without breaking them, and to +move heavy articles without making a noise, has +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_82' name='page_82'></a>82</span> +endowed the movements of the whole body with +a lightness and grace which are characteristic of +our children. It is a deep feeling of responsibility +which has brought them to such a pitch of perfection. +For instance, when they carry three or +four tumblers at a time, or a tureen of hot soup, +they know that they are responsible not only for +the objects, but also for the success of the meal +which at that moment they are directing. In the +same way each child feels the responsibility of +the “silence,” of the prevention of harsh sounds, +and he knows how to cooperate for the general +good in keeping the environment, not only orderly, +but quiet and calm. Indeed, our children have +taken the road which leads them to mastery of +themselves.</p> +<p>But their formation is due to a deeper psychological +work still, arising from the education of +the senses. In addition to ordering their environment +and ordering themselves in their outward +personalities, they have also ordered the inner +world of their minds.</p> +<p>The didactic material, in fact, does not offer to +the child the “content” of the mind, but the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_83' name='page_83'></a>83</span> +<i>order</i> for that “content.” It causes him to distinguish +identities from differences, extreme differences +from fine gradations, and to classify, +under conceptions of quality and of quantity, the +most varying sensations appertaining to surfaces, +colors, dimensions, forms and sounds. The mind +has formed itself by a special exercise of attention, +observing, comparing, and classifying.</p> +<p>The mental attitude acquired by such an exercise +leads the child to make ordered observations +in his environment, observations which prove +as interesting to him as discoveries, and so +stimulate him to multiply them indefinitely and +to form in his mind a rich “content” of clear +ideas.</p> +<p>Language now comes to <i>fix</i> by means of <i>exact +words</i> the ideas which the mind has acquired. +These words are few in number and have reference, +not to separate objects, but rather to the +<i>order of the ideas</i> which have been formed in the +mind. In this way the children are able to “find +themselves,” alike in the world of natural things +and in the world of objects and of words which +surround them, for they have an inner guide which +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_84' name='page_84'></a>84</span> +leads them to become <i>active and intelligent explorers</i> +instead of wandering wayfarers in an unknown +land.</p> +<p>These are the children who, in a short space of +time, sometimes in a few days, learn to write and +to perform the first operations of arithmetic. It +is not a fact that children in general can do it, as +many have believed. It is not a case of giving +my material for writing to unprepared children +and of awaiting the “miracle.”</p> +<p>The fact is that the minds and hands of our +children are already <i>prepared</i> for writing, and +ideas of quantity, of identity, of differences, and +of gradation, which form the bases of all calculation, +have been maturing for a long time in them.</p> +<p>One might say that all their previous education +is a preparation for the first stages of essential +culture––<i>writing</i>, <i>reading</i>, <i>and number</i>, and that +knowledge comes as an easy, spontaneous, and +logical consequence of the preparation––that it is +in fact its natural <i>conclusion</i>.</p> +<p>We have already seen that the purpose of the +<i>word</i> is to fix ideas and to facilitate the elementary +comprehension of <i>things</i>. In the same way writing +and arithmetic now fix the complex inner acquisitions +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_85' name='page_85'></a>85</span> +of the mind, which proceeds henceforward +continually to enrich itself by fresh observations.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>Our children have long been preparing the hand +for writing. Throughout all the sensory exercises +the hand, whilst cooperating with the mind in +its attainments and in its work of formation, was +preparing its own future. When the hand learned +to hold itself lightly suspended over a horizontal +surface in order to touch rough and smooth, when +it took the cylinders of the solid insets and placed +them in their apertures, when with two fingers it +touched the outlines of the geometrical forms, it +was coordinating movements, and the child is now +ready––almost impatient to use them in the fascinating +“synthesis” of writing.</p> +<p>The <i>direct</i> preparation for writing also consists +in exercises of the movements of the hand. +There are two series of exercises, very different +from one another. I have analyzed the movements +which are connected with writing, and +I prepare them separately one from the other. +When we write, we perform a movement for the +<i>management</i> of the instrument of writing, a movement +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_86' name='page_86'></a>86</span> +which generally acquires an individual character, +so that a person’s handwriting can be recognized, +and, in certain medical cases, changes in +the nervous system can be traced by the corresponding +alterations in the handwriting. In fact, +it is from the handwriting that specialists in that +subject would interpret the <i>moral character</i> of +individuals.</p> +<p>Writing has, besides this, a general character, +which has reference to the form of the alphabetical +signs.</p> +<p>When a man writes he combines these two parts, +but they actually exist as the <i>component parts of +a single product</i> and can be prepared apart.</p> +<h3> +<a name="EXERCISES_FOR_THE_MANAGEMENT_OF" id="EXERCISES_FOR_THE_MANAGEMENT_OF"></a> +<i>Exercises for the Management of the +Instrument of Writing</i> +</h3> +<p class='center'>(<span class='smcap'>The Individual Part</span>)</p> +<p>In the didactic material there are two sloping +wooden boards, on each of which stand five square +metal frames, colored pink. In each of these is +inserted a blue geometrical figure similar to the +geometrical insets and provided with a small button +for a handle. With this material we use a +box of ten colored pencils and a little book of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_87' name='page_87'></a>87</span> +designs which I have prepared after five years’ +experience of observing the children. I have +chosen and graduated the designs according to +the use which the children made of them.</p> +<p>The two sloping boards are set side by side, and +on them are placed ten complete “insets,” that is +to say, the frames with the geometrical figures. +(Fig. 28.) The child is given a sheet of white +paper and the box of ten colored pencils. He will +then choose one of the ten metal insets, which +are arranged in an attractive line at a certain distance +from him. The child is taught the following +process:</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_31' id='linki_31'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-090a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='198' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 28.––Sloping Boards to Display Set of Metal Insets.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>He lays the frame of the iron inset on the sheet +of paper, and, holding it down firmly with one +hand, he follows with a colored pencil the interior +outline which describes a geometrical figure. +Then he lifts the square frame, and finds drawn +upon the paper an enclosed geometrical form, a +triangle, a circle, a hexagon, etc. The child has +not actually performed a new exercise, because he +had already performed all these movements when +he <i>touched</i> the wooden plane insets. The only +new feature of the exercise is that he follows the +outlines no longer directly with his finger, but +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_88' name='page_88'></a>88</span> +through the medium of a pencil. That is, he +<i>draws, he leaves a trace</i> of his movement.</p> +<p>The child finds this exercise easy and most interesting, +and, as soon as he has succeeded in +making the first outline, he places above it the +piece of blue metal corresponding to it. This is an +exercise exactly similar to that which he performed +when he placed the wooden geometrical +figures upon the cards of the third series, where +the figures are only contained by a simple line.</p> +<p>This time, however, when the action of placing +the form upon the outline is performed, the child +takes <i>another colored pencil</i> and draws the outline +of the blue metal figure.</p> +<p>When he raises it, if the drawing is well done, +he finds upon the paper a geometrical figure contained +by two outlines in colors, and, if the colors +have been well chosen, the result is very attractive, +and the child, who has already had a considerable +education of the chromatic sense is +keenly interested in it.</p> +<p>These may seem unnecessary details, but, as a +matter of fact, they are all-important. For instance, +if, instead of arranging the ten metal +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_89' name='page_89'></a>89</span> +insets in a row, the teacher distributes them +among the children without thus exhibiting them, +the child’s exercises are much limited. When, on +the other hand, the insets are exhibited before his +eyes, he feels the desire to draw them <i>all</i> one +after the other, and the number of exercises is increased.</p> +<p>The two <i>colored outlines</i> rouse the desire of the +child to see another combination of colors and +then to repeat the experience. The variety of the +objects and the colors are therefore an <i>inducement</i> +to work and hence to final success.</p> +<p>Here the actual preparatory movement for +writing begins. When the child has drawn the +figure in double outline, he takes hold of a pencil +“like a pen for writing,” and draws marks up +and down until he has completely filled the figure. +In this way a definite filled-in figure remains on +the paper, similar to the figures on the cards of +the first series. This figure can be in any of the +ten colors. At first the children fill in the figures +very clumsily without regard for the outlines, +making very heavy lines and not keeping them +parallel. Little by little, however, the drawings +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_90' name='page_90'></a>90</span> +improve, in that they keep within the outlines, +and the lines increase in number, grow finer, and +are parallel to one another.</p> +<p>When the child has begun these exercises, he is +seized with a desire to continue them, and he never +tires of drawing the outlines of the figures and +then filling them in. Each child suddenly becomes +the possessor of a considerable number of +drawings, and he treasures them up in his own +little drawer. In this way he <i>organizes</i> the movement +of writing, which brings him <i>to the management +of the pen</i>. This movement in ordinary +methods is represented by the wearisome pothook +connected with the first laborious and tedious attempts +at writing.</p> +<p>The organization of this movement, which began +from the guidance of a piece of metal, is as +yet rough and imperfect, and the child now passes +on to the <i>filling in of the prepared designs</i> in the +little album. The leaves are taken from the book +one by one in the order of progression in which +they are arranged, and the child fills in the prepared +designs with colored pencils in the same +way as before. Here the choice of the colors is +another intelligent occupation which encourages +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_91' name='page_91'></a>91</span> +the child to multiply the tasks. He chooses the +colors by himself and with much taste. The delicacy +of the shades which he chooses and the harmony +with which he arranges them in these designs +show us that the common belief, that children +love <i>bright and glaring</i> colors, has been the +result of observation of <i>children without education</i>, +who have been abandoned to the rough and +harsh experiences of an environment unfitted for +them.</p> +<p>The education of the chromatic sense becomes +at this point of a child’s development the <i>lever</i> +which enables him to become possessed of a firm, +bold and beautiful handwriting.</p> +<p>The drawings lend themselves to <i>limiting</i>, in +very many ways, <i>the length of the strokes with +which they are filled in</i>. The child will have to +fill in geometrical figures, both large and small, of +a pavement design, or flowers and leaves, or the +various details of an animal or of a landscape. +In this way the hand accustoms itself, not only to +perform the general action, but also to confine the +movement within all kinds of limits.</p> +<p>Hence the child is preparing himself to write +in a handwriting <i>either</i> large or small. Indeed, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_92' name='page_92'></a>92</span> +later on he will write as well between the wide +lines on a blackboard as between the narrow, +closely ruled lines of an exercise book, generally +used by much older children.</p> +<p>The number of exercises which the child performs +with the drawings is practically unlimited. +He will often take another colored pencil and +draw over again the outlines of the figure already +filled in with color. A help to the <i>continuation</i> of +the exercise is to be found in the further education +of the chromatic sense, which the child acquires +by painting the same designs in water-colors. +Later he mixes colors for himself until he +can imitate the colors of nature, or create the +delicate tints which his own imagination desires. +It is not possible, however, to speak of all this in +detail within the limits of this small work.</p> +<h3> +<a name="EXERCISES_FOR_THE_WRITING_OF" id="EXERCISES_FOR_THE_WRITING_OF"></a> +<i>Exercises for the Writing of Alphabetical Signs</i> +</h3> +<div style="float:right; width:240px; margin-right:0px; margin-left:0.5em;"> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_32' id='linki_32'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-090b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='237' height='226' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 29.––Single Sandpaper Letter.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_33' id='linki_33'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-091.jpg' alt='' title='' width='237' height='350' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 30.––Groups of Sandpaper Letters.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>In the didactic material there are series of boxes +which contain the alphabetical signs. At this +point we take those cards which are covered with +very smooth paper, to which is gummed a letter +of the alphabet cut out in sandpaper. (Fig. 29.) +There are also large cards on which are gummed +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_93' name='page_93'></a>93</span> +several letters, grouped together according to +analogy of form. (Fig. 30.)</p> +<p>The children “have to <i>touch</i> over the alphabetical +signs as though they were writing.” They +touch them with the tips of the index and middle +fingers in the same way as when they touched the +wooden insets, and with the hand raised as when +they lightly touched the rough and smooth surfaces. +The teacher herself touches the letters to +show the child how the movement should be performed, +and the child, if he has had much practise +in touching the wooden insets, <i>imitates</i> her with +<i>ease</i> and pleasure. Without the previous practise, +however, the child’s hand does not follow the letter +with accuracy, and it is most interesting to make +close observations of the children in order to understand +the importance of a <i>remote motor preparation</i> +for writing, and also to realize the <i>immense</i> +strain which we impose upon the children +when we set them to write directly without a previous +motor education of the hand.</p> +<p>The child finds great pleasure in touching the +sandpaper letters. It is an exercise by which he +applies to a new attainment the power he has already +acquired through exercising the sense of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_94' name='page_94'></a>94</span> +touch. Whilst the child touches a letter, the +teacher pronounces its sound, and she uses for the +lesson the usual three periods. Thus, for example, +presenting the two vowels <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, she will +have the child touch them slowly and accurately, +and repeat their relative sounds one after the +other as the child touches them, “i, i, i! o, o, o!” +Then she will say to the child: “Give me i!” +“Give me o!” Finally, she will ask the question: +“What is this?” To which the child replies, +“i, o.” She proceeds in the same way through +all the other letters, giving, in the case of the +consonants, not the name, but only the sound. +The child then touches the letters by himself +over and over again, either on the separate cards +or on the large cards on which several letters +are gummed, and in this way he establishes the +movements necessary for tracing the alphabetical +signs. At the same time he retains the +<i>visual</i> image of the letter. This process forms +the first preparation, not only for writing, but also +for reading, because it is evident that when the +child <i>touches</i> the letters he performs the movement +corresponding to the writing of them, and, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_95' name='page_95'></a>95</span> +at the same time, when he recognizes them by +sight he is reading the alphabet.</p> +<p>The child has thus prepared, in effect, all the +necessary movements for writing; therefore he +<i>can write</i>. This important conquest is the result +of a long period of inner formation of which the +child is not clearly aware. But a day will come––very +soon––when he <i>will write</i>, and that will be +a day of great surprise for him––the wonderful +harvest of an unknown sowing.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_34' id='linki_34'></a> +</div> +<div class='figleft' style='width:387px'> +<img src='images/illus-094.jpg' alt='' title='' width='387' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 31.––Box of Movable Letters.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>The alphabet of movable letters cut out in pink +and blue cardboard, and kept in a special box +with compartments, serves “for the composition +of words.” (Fig. 31.)</p> +<p>In a phonetic language, like Italian, it is enough +to pronounce clearly the different component +sounds of a word (as, for example, m-a-n-o), so +that the child whose ear is <i>already educated</i> may +recognize one by one the component sounds. +Then he looks in the movable alphabet for the +<i>signs</i> corresponding to each separate sound, and +lays them one beside the other, thus composing +the word (for instance, mano). Gradually he will +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_96' name='page_96'></a>96</span> +become able to do the same thing with words of +which he thinks himself; he succeeds in breaking +them up into their component sounds, and in +translating them into a row of signs.</p> +<p>When the child has composed the words in this +way, he knows how to read them. In this method, +therefore, all the processes leading to writing include +reading as well.</p> +<p>If the language is not phonetic, the teacher can +compose separate words with the movable alphabet, +and then pronounce them, letting the child repeat +by himself the exercise of arranging and rereading +them.</p> +<p>In the material there are two movable alphabets. +One of them consists of larger letters, and +is divided into two boxes, each of which contains +the vowels. This is used for the first exercises, +in which the child needs very large objects in order +to recognize the letters. When he is acquainted +with one half of the consonants he can begin to +compose words, even though he is dealing with one +part only of the alphabet.</p> +<p>The other movable alphabet has smaller letters +and is contained in a single box. It is given to +children who have made their first attempts at +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_97' name='page_97'></a>97</span> +composition with words, and already know the +complete alphabet.</p> +<p>It is after these exercises with the movable alphabet +that the child <i>is able to write entire words</i>. +This phenomenon generally occurs unexpectedly, +and then a child who has never yet traced a +stroke or a letter on paper <i>writes several +words in succession</i>. From that moment he +continues to write, always gradually perfecting +himself. This spontaneous writing takes +on the characteristics of a <i>natural</i> phenomenon, +and the child who has begun to write the “first +word” will continue to write in the same way as +he spoke after pronouncing the first word, and +as he walked after having taken the first step. +The same course of inner formation through +which the phenomenon of writing appeared is the +course of his future progress, of his growth to +perfection. The child prepared in this way has +entered upon a course of development through +which he will pass as surely as the growth of the +body and the development of the natural functions +have passed through their course of development +when life has once been established.</p> +<p>For the interesting and very complex phenomena +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_98' name='page_98'></a>98</span> +relating to the development of writing and +then of reading, see my larger works.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='THE_READING_OF_MUSIC' id='THE_READING_OF_MUSIC'></a> +<h2>THE READING OF MUSIC</h2> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_35' id='linki_35'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-099.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='245' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 32.––The Musical Staff.</span><a name='FNanchor_0001' id='FNanchor_0001'></a><a href='#Footnote_0001' class='fnanchor'>[A]</a><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>When the child knows how to read, he can make +a first application of this knowledge to the reading +of the names of musical notes.</p> +<p>In connection with the material for sensory +education, consisting of the series of bells, we use +a didactic material, which serves as an introduction +to musical reading. For this purpose we +have, in the first place, a wooden board, not very +long, and painted pale green. On this board the +staff is cut out in black, and in every line and +space are cut round holes, inside each of which is +written the name of the note in its reference to +the treble clef.</p> +<p>There is also a series of little white discs which +can be fitted into the holes. On one side of each +disc is written the name of the note (doh, re, mi, +fah, soh, lah, ti, doh).</p> +<p>The child, guided by the name written on the +discs, puts them, with the name uppermost, in +their right places on the board and then reads the +names of the notes. This exercise he can do by +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_99' name='page_99'></a>99</span> +himself, and he learns the position of each note on +the staff. Another exercise which the child can +do at the same time is to place the disc bearing the +name of the note on the rectangular base of the +corresponding bell, whose sound he has already +learned to recognize by ear in the sensorial exercise +described above.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_36' id='linki_36'></a> +</div> +<div class='figleft' style='width:389px'> +<img src='images/illus-102.jpg' alt='' title='' width='389' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 39.––Dumb Keyboard.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>Following this exercise there is another staff +made on a board of green wood, which is longer +than the other and has neither indentures nor +signs. A considerable number of discs, on one +side of which are written the names of the notes, is +at the disposal of the child. He takes up a disc at +random, reads its name and places it on the staff, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_100' name='page_100'></a>100</span> +with the name underneath, so that the white face +of the disc shows on the top. By the repetition +of this exercise the child is enabled to arrange +many discs on the same line or in the same space. +When he has finished, he turns them all over so +that the names are outside, and so finds out if he +has made mistakes. After learning the treble clef +the child passes on to learn the bass with great +ease.</p> +<p>To the staff described above can be added another +similar to it, arranged as is shown in the figure. +(Fig. 32.) The child beginning with doh, +lays the discs on the board in ascending order in +their right position until the octave is reached: +doh, re, mi, fah, soh, lah, ti, doh. Then he descends +the scale in the same way, returning to +<i>doh</i>, but continuing to place the discs always to +the right: soh, fah, mi, re, doh. In this way he +forms an angle. At this point he descends again +to the lower staff, ti, lah, soh, fah, mi, re, doh, +then he ascends again on the other side: re, mi, +fah, soh, lah, ti, and by forming with his two lines +of discs another angle in the bass, he has completed +a rhombus, “the rhombus of the notes.”</p> +<p>After the discs have been arranged in this way, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_101' name='page_101'></a>101</span> +the upper staff is separated from the lower. In +the lower the notes are arranged according to the +bass clef. In this way the first elements of musical +reading are presented to the child, reading +which corresponds to <i>sounds</i> with which the +child’s ear is already acquainted.</p> +<p>For a first practical application of this knowledge +we have used in our schools a miniature +pianoforte keyboard, which reproduces the essentials +of this instrument, although in a simplified +form, and so that they are visible. Two octaves +only are reproduced, and the keys, which are +small, are proportioned to the hand of a little +child of four or five years, as the keys of the +common piano are proportioned to those of the +adult. All the mechanism of the key is visible. +(Fig. 39.) On striking a key one sees the hammer +rise, on which is written the name of the note. +The hammers are black and white, like the notes.</p> +<p>With this instrument it is very easy for the +child to practise alone, finding the notes on the +keyboard corresponding to some bar of written +music, and following the movements of the fingers +made in playing the piano.</p> +<p>The keyboard in itself is mute, but a series of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_102' name='page_102'></a>102</span> +resonant tubes, resembling a set of organ-pipes, +can be applied to the upper surface, so that the +hammers striking these produce musical notes corresponding +to the keys struck. The child can then +pursue his exercises with the control of the musical +sounds.</p> +<div style="width:540px; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-top:2em; border:thin solid black; padding:15px; clear:both"> +<h2>DIDACTIC MATERIAL FOR MUSICAL READING.</h2> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_37' id='linki_37'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-100a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='187' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 33.</span><br /> +On the wooden board, round spaces are cut out corresponding to the notes. Inside each of the spaces there is a figure. On one side of each of the discs is written a number and on the other the name of the note. They are fitted by the child into the corresponding places.<br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_38' id='linki_38'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-100b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='171' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 34.</span><br /> +The child next arranged the discs in the notes cut out on the staff, but there are no longer numbers written to help him find the places. Instead, he must try to remember the place of the note on the staff. If he is not sure he consults the numbered board (Fig. 33).<br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_39' id='linki_39'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-100c.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='174' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 35.</span><br /> +The child arranged on the staff the semitones in the spaces which remain where the discs are far apart: do-re, re-mi, fah-soh, soh-la, la-<a name='TC_3'></a><ins class="trchange" title="Was 'si'">ti</ins>. The discs for the semitones have the sharp on one side and the flat on the other, e.g., re♯-mi♭ are written on the opposite sides of the same disc.<br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_40' id='linki_40'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-101a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='174' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 36.</span><br /> +The children take a large number of discs and arrange them on the staff, leaving uppermost the side which is blank, i.e., the side on which the name of the note is not written. Then they verify their work by turning the discs over and reading the name.<br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_41' id='linki_41'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-101b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='174' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 37.</span><br /> +The double staff is formed by putting the two staves together. The children arrange the notes in the form of a rhombus.<br /> +</p> +</div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_42' id='linki_42'></a> +</div> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/illus-101c.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='222' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 38.</span><br /> +The two boards are then separated and the notes remain arranged according to the treble and bass clefs. The corresponding key signatures are then placed upon the two different staves.<br /> +</p> +</div> +</div> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='ARITHMETIC' id='ARITHMETIC'></a> +<h2>ARITHMETIC</h2> +</div> +<p>The children possess all the instinctive knowledge +necessary as a preparation for clear ideas on +numeration. The idea of quantity was inherent +in all the material for the education of the senses: +longer, shorter, darker, lighter. The conception +of identity and of difference formed part of the +actual technique of the education of the senses, +which began with the recognition of identical objects, +and continued with the arrangement in gradation +of similar objects. I will make a special +illustration of the first exercise with the solid insets, +which can be done even by a child of two and +a half. When he makes a mistake by putting a +cylinder in a hole too large for it, and so leaves +<i>one</i> cylinder without a place, he instinctively absorbs +the idea of the absence of <i>one</i> from a continuous +series. The child’s mind is not prepared +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_103' name='page_103'></a>103</span> +for number “by certain preliminary ideas,” +given in haste by the teacher, but has been prepared +for it by a process of formation, by a slow +building up of itself.</p> +<p>To enter directly upon the teaching of arithmetic, +we must turn to the same didactic material +used for the education of the senses.</p> +<p>Let us look at the three sets of material which +are presented after the exercises with the solid +insets, <i>i.e.</i>, the material for teaching <i>size</i> (the +pink cubes), <i>thickness</i> (the brown prisms), and +<i>length</i> (the green rods). There is a definite relation +between the ten pieces of each series. In the +material for length the shortest piece is a <i>unit of +measurement</i> for all the rest; the second piece is +double the first, the third is three times the first, +etc., and, whilst the scale of length increases by +ten centimeters for each piece, the other dimensions +remain constant (<i>i.e.</i>, the rods all have the +same section).</p> +<p>The pieces then stand in the same relation to +one another as the natural series of the numbers +1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.</p> +<p>In the second series, namely, that which shows +<i>thickness</i>, whilst the length remains constant, the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_104' name='page_104'></a>104</span> +square section of the prisms varies. The result +is that the sides of the square sections vary according +to the series of natural numbers, <i>i.e.</i>, in +the first prism, the square of the section has sides +of one centimeter, in the second of two centimeters, +in the third of three centimeters, etc., and +so on until the tenth, in which the square of the +section has sides of ten centimeters. The prisms +therefore are in the same proportion to one another +as the numbers of the series of squares (1, +4, 9, etc.), for it would take four prisms of the +first size to make the second, nine to make the +third, etc. The pieces which make up the series +for teaching thickness are therefore in the following +proportion: 1 : 4 : 9 : 16 : 25 : 36 : 49 : 64 : +81 : 100.</p> +<p>In the case of the pink cubes the edge increases +according to the numerical series, <i>i.e.</i>, the first +cube has an edge of one centimeter, the second +of two centimeters, the third of three centimeters, +and so on, to the tenth cube, which has an edge +of ten centimeters. Hence the relation in volume +between them is that of the cubes of the series +of numbers from one to ten, <i>i.e.</i>, 1 : 8: 27 : 64: +125 : 216 : 343 : 512 : 729 : 1000. In fact, to make +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_105' name='page_105'></a>105</span> +up the volume of the second pink cube, eight of +the first little cubes would be required; to make up +the volume of the third, twenty-seven would be +required, and so on.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_43' id='linki_43'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-106.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='341' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 40.––Diagram Illustrating Use of Numerical Rods.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>The children have an intuitive knowledge of this +difference, for they realize that the exercise with +the pink cubes is the <i>easiest</i> of all three and that +with the rods the most difficult. When we begin +the direct teaching of number, we choose the long +rods, modifying them, however, by dividing them +into ten spaces, each ten centimeters in length, +colored alternately red and blue. For example, +the rod which is four times as long as the first is +clearly seen to be composed of four equal lengths, +red and blue; and similarly with all the rest.</p> +<p>When the rods have been placed in order of +gradation, we teach the child the numbers: one, +two, three, etc., by touching the rods in succession, +from the first up to ten. Then, to help him +to gain a clear idea of number, we proceed to the +recognition of separate rods by means of the customary +lesson in three periods.</p> +<p>We lay the three first rods in front of the child, +and pointing to them or taking them in the hand +in turn, in order to show them to him we say: +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_106' name='page_106'></a>106</span> +“This is <i>one</i>.” “This is <i>two</i>.” “This is <i>three</i>.” +We point out with the finger the divisions in each +rod, counting them so as to make sure, “One, two: +this is <i>two</i>.” “One, two, three: this is <i>three</i>.” +Then we say to the child: “Give me <i>two</i>.” +“Give me <i>one</i>.” “Give me <i>three</i>.” Finally, +pointing to a rod, we say, “What is this?” The +child answers, “Three,” and we count together: +“One, two, three.”</p> +<p>In the same way we teach all the other rods +in their order, adding always one or two more +according to the responsiveness of the child.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_107' name='page_107'></a>107</span></div> +<p>The importance of this didactic material is that +it gives a clear idea of <i>number</i>. For when a number +is named it exists as an object, a unity in itself. +When we say that a man possesses a million, we +mean that he has a <i>fortune</i> which is worth so many +units of measure of values, and these units all belong +to one person.</p> +<p>So, if we add 7 to 8 (7 + 8), we add a <i>number +to a number</i>, and these numbers for a <i>definite</i> +reason represent in themselves groups of homogeneous +units.</p> +<p>Again, when the child shows us the 9, he is +handling a rod which is inflexible––an object complete +in itself, yet composed of <i>nine equal parts</i> +which can be counted. And when he comes to +add 8 to 2, he will place next to one another, two +rods, two objects, one of which has eight equal +lengths and the other two. When, on the other +hand, in ordinary schools, to make the calculation +easier, they present the child with different +objects to count, such as beans, marbles, +etc., and when, to take the case I have quoted +(8 + 2), he takes a group of eight marbles and +adds two more marbles to it, the natural impression +in his mind is not that he has added 8 to 2, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_108' name='page_108'></a>108</span> +but that he has added 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + +1 + 1 to 1 + 1. The result is not so clear, and the +child is required to make the effort of holding in +his mind the idea of a group of eight objects as +<i>one united whole</i>, corresponding to a single number, +8.</p> +<p>This effort often puts the child back, and delays +his understanding of number by months or even +years.</p> +<p>The addition and subtraction of numbers under +ten are made very much simpler by the use of the +didactic material for teaching lengths. Let the +child be presented with the attractive problem of +arranging the pieces in such a way as to have a +set of rods, all as long as the longest. He first +arranges the rods in their right order (the long +stair); he then takes the last rod (1) and lays it +next to the 9. Similarly, he takes the last rod +but one (2) and lays it next to the 8, and so on up +to the 5.</p> +<p>This very simple game represents the addition +of numbers within the ten: 9 + 1, 8 + 2, 7 + 3, +6 + 4. Then, when he puts the rods back in their +places, he must first take away the 4 and put it +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_109' name='page_109'></a>109</span> +back under the 5, and then take away in their turn +the 3, the 2, the 1. By this action he has put the +rods back again in their right gradation, but he has +also performed a series of arithmetical subtractions, +10 - 4, 10 - 3, 10 - 2, 10 - 1.</p> +<p>The teaching of the actual figures marks an +advance from the rods to the process of counting +with separate units. When the figures are known, +they will serve the very purpose in the abstract +which the rods serve in the concrete; that is, they +will stand for the <i>uniting into one whole</i> of a certain +number of separate units.</p> +<p>The <i>synthetic</i> function of language and the wide +field of work which it opens out for the intelligence +is <i>demonstrated</i>, we might say, by the function of +the <i>figure</i>, which now can be substituted for the +concrete rods.</p> +<p>The use of the actual rods only would limit +arithmetic to the small operations within the ten +or numbers a little higher, and, in the construction +of the mind, these operations would advance +very little farther than the limits of the first simple +and elementary education of the senses.</p> +<p>The figure, which is a word, a graphic sign, will +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_110' name='page_110'></a>110</span> +permit of that unlimited progress which the mathematical +mind of man has been able to make in the +course of its evolution.</p> +<p>In the material there is a box containing smooth +cards, on which are gummed the figures from one +to nine, cut out in sandpaper. These are analogous +to the cards on which are gummed the sandpaper +letters of the alphabet. The method of +teaching is always the same. The child is <i>made +to touch</i> the figures in the direction in which they +are written, and to name them at the same time.</p> +<p>In this case he does more than when he learned +the letters; he is shown how to place each figure +upon the corresponding rod. When all the figures +have been learned in this way, one of the first exercises +will be to place the number cards upon the +rods arranged in gradation. So arranged, they +form a succession of steps on which it is a pleasure +to place the cards, and the children remain for +a long time repeating this intelligent game.</p> +<p>After this exercise comes what we may call the +“emancipation” of the child. He carried his own +figures with him, and now <i>using them</i> he will know +how to group units together.</p> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_44' id='linki_44'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:500px'> +<img src='images/illus-110a.jpg' alt='' title='' width='500' height='177' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 41.––Counting Boxes.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>For this purpose we have in the didactic material +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_111' name='page_111'></a>111</span> +a series of wooden pegs, but in addition to +these we give the children all sorts of small objects––sticks, +tiny cubes, counters, etc.</p> +<p>The exercise will consist in placing opposite a +figure the number of objects that it indicates. The +child for this purpose can use the box which is +included in the material. (Fig. 41.) This box is +divided into compartments, above each of which is +printed a figure and the child places in the compartment +the corresponding number of pegs.</p> +<p>Another exercise is to lay all the figures on the +table and place below them the corresponding +number of cubes, counters, etc.</p> +<p>This is only the first step, and it would be impossible +here to speak of the succeeding lessons +in zero, in tens and in other arithmetical processes––for +the development of which my larger works +must be consulted. The didactic material itself, +however, can give some idea. In the box containing +the pegs there is one compartment over which +the 0 is printed. Inside this compartment “nothing +must be put,” and then we begin with <i>one</i>.</p> +<p>Zero is nothing, but it is placed next to one to +enable us to count when we pass beyond 9––thus, +10.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_112' name='page_112'></a>112</span></div> +<div class='figtag'> +<a name='linki_45' id='linki_45'></a> +</div> +<div class='figright' style='width:460px'> +<img src='images/illus-110b.jpg' alt='' title='' width='460' height='500' /><br /> +<p class='caption'> +<span class='smcap'>Fig. 42.––Arithmetic Frame.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +<p>If, instead of the piece 1, we were to take pieces +as long as the rod 10, we could count 10, 20, 30, 40, +50, 60, 70, 80, 90. In the didactic material there +are frames containing cards on which are printed +such numbers from 10 to 90. These numbers +are fixed into a frame in such a way that the +figures 1 to 9 can be slipped in covering the zero. +If the zero of 10 is covered by 1 the result is 11, +if with 2 it becomes 12, and so on, until the +last 9. Then we pass to the twenties (the +second ten), and so on, from ten to ten. (Fig. +42.)</p> +<p>For the beginning of this exercise with the cards +marking the tens we can use the rods. As we +begin with the first ten (10) in the frame, we take +the rod 10. We then place the small rod 1 next +to rod 10, and at the same time slip in the number +1, covering the zero of the 10. Then we take +rod 1 and figure 1 away from the frame, and +put in their place rod 2 next to rod 10, and figure +2 over the zero in the frame, and so on, up to 9. +To advance farther we should need to use two +rods of 10 to make 20.</p> +<p>The children show much enthusiasm when +learning these exercises, which demand from them +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_113' name='page_113'></a>113</span> +two sets of activities, and give them in their +work clearness of idea.</p> +<hr class='tb' /> +<p>In writing and arithmetic we have gathered the +fruits of a laborious education which consisted in +coordinating the movements and gaining a first +knowledge of the world. This culture comes as a +natural consequence of man’s first efforts to put +himself into intelligent communication with the +world.</p> +<p>All those early acquisitions which have brought +order into the child’s mind, would be wasted +were they not firmly established by means of +written language and of figures. Thus established, +however, these experiences open up an unlimited +field for future education. What we have +done, therefore, is to introduce the child to a +higher level––the level of culture––and he will now +be able to pass on to a <i>school</i>, but not the school we +know to-day, where, irrationally, we try to give +culture to minds not yet prepared or <i>educated to +receive it</i>.</p> +<p>To preserve the health of their minds, which +have been <i>exercised</i> and not <i>fatigued</i> by the order +of the work, our children must have a new kind +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_114' name='page_114'></a>114</span> +of school for the acquisition of culture. My experiments +in the continuation of this method for +older children are already far advanced.</p> +<hr class='toprule' /> +<div class='chsp'> +<a name='MORAL_FACTORS' id='MORAL_FACTORS'></a> +<h2>MORAL FACTORS</h2> +</div> +<p>A brief description such as this, of the <i>means</i> +which are used in the “Children’s House,” may +perhaps give the reader the impression of a logical +and convincing system of education. But the importance +of my method does not lie in the organization +itself, but <i>in the effects which it produces +on the child</i>. It is the <i>child</i> who proves +the value of this method by his spontaneous manifestations, +which seem to reveal the laws of +man’s inner development.<a name='FNanchor_0002' id='FNanchor_0002'></a><a href='#Footnote_0002' class='fnanchor'>[B]</a> Psychology will +perhaps find in the “Children’s Houses” a laboratory +which will bring more truths to light than +thus hitherto recognized; for the essential factor +in psychological research, especially in the field of +psychogenesis, the origin and development of the +mind, must be the establishment of normal conditions +for the free development of thought.</p> +<p>As is well known, we leave the children <i>free</i> +in their work, and in all actions which are not of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_115' name='page_115'></a>115</span> +a disturbing kind. That is, we <i>eliminate</i> disorder, +which is “bad,” but allow to that which is orderly +and “good” the most complete liberty of manifestation.</p> +<p>The results obtained are surprising, for the +children have shown a love of work which no one +suspected to be in them, and a calm and an orderliness +in their movements which, surpassing the +limits of correctness have entered into those of +“grace.” The spontaneous discipline, and the +obedience which is seen in the whole class, +constitute the most striking result of our method.</p> +<p>The ancient philosophical discussion as to +whether man is born good or evil is often brought +forward in connection with my method, and many +who have supported it have done so on the ground +that it provides a demonstration of man’s natural +goodness. Very many others, on the contrary, +have opposed it, considering that to leave children +free is a dangerous mistake, since they have in +them innate tendencies to evil.</p> +<p>I should like to put the question upon a more +positive plane.</p> +<p>In the words “good” and “evil” we include the +most varying ideas, and we confuse them especially +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_116' name='page_116'></a>116</span> +<i>in our practical dealings with little children</i>.</p> +<p>The tendencies which we stigmatize as <i>evil</i> in +little children of three to six years of age are often +merely those which cause <i>annoyance</i> to us adults +when, not understanding their needs, we try to +prevent their <i>every movement</i>, their every <i>attempt +to gain experience for themselves in the world</i> (by +touching everything, etc.). The child, however, +through this <i>natural tendency</i>, is led to <i>coordinate +his movements</i> and to collect impressions, +especially sensations of touch, so that when prevented +he <i>rebels</i>, and this rebellion forms almost +the whole of his “naughtiness.”</p> +<p>What wonder is it that the evil disappears when, +if we give the right <i>means</i> for development and +leave full liberty to use them, rebellion has no +more reason for existence?</p> +<p>Further, by the substitution of a series of outbursts +of <i>joy</i> for the old series of outbursts of +<i>rage</i>, the moral physiognomy of the child comes +to assume a calm and gentleness which make him +appear a different being.</p> +<p>It is we who provoked the children to the violent +manifestations of a real <i>struggle for existence</i>. +In order to exist <i>according to the needs of their +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_117' name='page_117'></a>117</span> +psychic development</i> they were often obliged to +snatch from us the things which seemed necessary +to them for the purpose. They had to move contrary +to our laws, or sometimes to struggle with +other children to wrest from them the objects of +their desire.</p> +<p>On the other hand, if we give children the +<i>means of existence</i>, the struggle for it disappears, +and a vigorous expansion of life takes its place. +This question involves a hygienic principle connected +with the nervous system during the difficult +period when the brain is still rapidly +growing, and should be of great interest to +specialists in children’s diseases and nervous derangements. +The inner life of man and the +beginnings of his intellect are controlled by special +laws and vital necessities which cannot be +forgotten if we are aiming at health for mankind.</p> +<p>For this reason, an educational method, which +cultivates and protects the inner activities of the +child, is not a question which concerns merely the +school or the teachers; it is a universal question +which concerns the family, and is of vital interest +to mothers.</p> +<div><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_118' name='page_118'></a>118</span></div> +<p>To go more deeply into a question is often the +only means of answering it rightly. If, for +instance, we were to see men fighting over a piece +of bread, we might say: “How bad men are!” +If, on the other hand, we entered a well-warmed +eating-house, and saw them quietly finding a place +and choosing their meal without any envy of +one another, we might say: “How good men +are!” Evidently, the question of absolute good +and evil, intuitive ideas of which guide us in +our superficial judgment, goes beyond such limitations +as these. We can, for instance, provide excellent +eating-houses for an entire people without +directly affecting the question of their morals. +One might say, indeed, that to judge by appearances, +a well-fed people are <i>better, quieter, and +commit less crime</i> than a nation that is ill-nourished; +but whoever draws from that the conclusion +that to make men good it is <i>enough</i> to feed +them, will be making an obvious mistake.</p> +<p>It cannot be denied, however, that <i>nourishment</i> +will be an essential factor in obtaining goodness, +in the sense that it will <i>eliminate</i> all the <i>evil acts, +and the bitterness</i> caused by lack of bread.</p> +<p>Now, in our case, we are dealing with a far +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_119' name='page_119'></a>119</span> +deeper need––the nourishment of man’s inner +life, and of his higher functions. The bread that +we are dealing with is the bread of the spirit, and +we are entering into the difficult subject of the +satisfaction of man’s psychic needs.</p> +<p>We have already obtained a most interesting +result, in that we have found it possible to present +<i>new means</i> of enabling children to reach a higher +level of calm and goodness, and we have been able +to establish these means by experience. The +whole foundation of our results rests upon these +means which we have discovered, and which may +be divided under two heads––the <i>organization of +work</i>, and liberty.</p> +<p>It is the perfect organization of work, permitting +the possibility of self-development and giving +outlet for the energies, which procures for each +child the beneficial and calming <i>satisfaction</i>. And +it is under such conditions of work that liberty +leads to a perfecting of the activities, and to the +attainment of a fine discipline which is in itself +the result of that new quality of <i>calmness</i> that +has been developed in the child.</p> +<p>Freedom without organization of work would be +useless. The child left <i>free</i> without means of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_120' name='page_120'></a>120</span> +work would go to waste, just as a new-born baby, +if <i>left free</i> without nourishment, would die of +starvation. <i>The organization of the work</i>, therefore, +is the corner-stone of this new structure of +goodness; but even that organization would be in +vain without the <i>liberty</i> to make use of it, and +without freedom for the expansion of all those +energies which spring from the satisfaction of the +child’s highest activities.</p> +<p>Has not a similar phenomenon occurred also in +the history of man? The history of civilization +is a history of successful attempts to organize +work and to obtain liberty. On the whole, man’s +goodness has also increased, as is shown by his +progress from barbarism to civilization, and it +may be said that crime, the various forms of wickedness, +cruelty and violence have been gradually +decreasing during this passage of time.</p> +<p>The <i>criminality</i> of our times, as a matter of +fact, has been compared to a form of <i>barbarism</i> +surviving in the midst of civilized peoples. It is, +therefore, through the better organization of work +that society will probably attain to a further purification, +and in the meanwhile it seems unconsciously +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_121' name='page_121'></a>121</span> +to be seeking the overthrow of the last +barriers between itself and liberty.</p> +<p>If this is what we learn from society, how great +should be the results among little children from +three to six years of age if the organization of their +work is complete, and their freedom absolute? It +is for this reason that to us they seem so good, +like heralds of hope and of redemption.</p> +<p>If men, walking as yet so painfully and imperfectly +along the road of work and of freedom, +have become better, why should we fear that the +same road will prove disastrous to the children?</p> +<p>Yet, on the other hand, I would not say that +the goodness of our little ones in their freedom +will solve the problem of the absolute goodness or +wickedness of man. We can only say that we have +made a contribution to the cause of goodness by +removing obstacles which were the cause of violence +and of rebellion.</p> +<p>Let us “render, therefore, unto Cæsar the things +that are Cæsar’s, and unto God the things that are +God’s.”</p> +<p style='text-align:center; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em'>THE END</p> +<hr class='fn' /> +<div class='footnote'><a name='Footnote_0001' id='Footnote_0001'></a><a href='#FNanchor_0001'><span class='label'>[A]</span></a> +<p>The single staff is used in the Conservatoire of Milan and +utilized in the Perlasca method.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote'><a name='Footnote_0002' id='Footnote_0002'></a><a href='#FNanchor_0002'><span class='label'>[B]</span></a> +<p>See the chapters on Discipline in my larger works.</p> +</div> +<div class="trnote"> +<p>Transcriber’s Note:</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'>Illustrations have been moved closer to their relevant paragraphs.</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'>The page numbers in the List of Illustrations do not reflect the new +placement of the illustrations, but are as in the original.</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'>The list of "didactic material for the <i>education of the senses</i>" +on pages 18-19 is missing item (j) as in the original.</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'>Author’s archaic and variable spelling is preserved.</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'>Author’s punctuation style is preserved.</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'>Typographical problems have been changed and these are +<ins class="trchange" title="Was 'hgihligthed'">highlighted</ins>.</p> +<p>Transcriber’s Changes:</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'><a href='#TC_0'>Page vii</a>: Was ’marvellous’ [In fact, Helen Keller is a <span style='font-weight:bold'>marvelous</span> example of the phenomenon common to all human beings]</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'><a href='#TC_1'>Page 46</a>: Was ’anvles’ [which vary either according to their sides or according to their <span style='font-weight:bold'>angles</span> (the equilateral, isosceles, scalene, right angled, obtuse angled, and acute)]</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'><a href='#TC_2'>Page 63</a>: Added commas [recognized and arranged in order––doh, <i>re</i>, <span style='font-weight:bold'>doh,</span> re, <i>mi</i>; doh, <span style='font-weight:bold'>re,</span> mi, <i>fah</i>; doh, <span style='font-weight:bold'>re,</span> mi, fah, <i>soh</i>, etc. In this way he succeeds in arranging all the]</p> +<p style='margin-left:1.0em'><a href='#TC_3'>Fig. 35 caption</a>: Was ’si’ [the spaces which remain where the discs are far apart: do-re, re-mi, fah-soh, soh-la, la-<span style='font-weight:bold'>ti</span>. The discs for the semitones]</p> +</div> + +<!-- generated by ppg.rb version: ppg0727 --> +<!-- timestamp: Mon Aug 03 09:37:42 +0700 2009 --> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook, by Maria Montessori + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DR. 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