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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of College Teaching, by Paul Klapper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: College Teaching
+       Studies in Methods of Teaching in the College
+
+Author: Paul Klapper
+
+Release Date: August 4, 2009 [EBook #29604]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLEGE TEACHING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Stephanie Eason and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
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+
+
+  COLLEGE TEACHING
+
+  STUDIES IN
+  METHODS OF TEACHING IN
+  THE COLLEGE
+
+  Edited by
+
+  PAUL KLAPPER, Ph.D.
+
+  Associate Professor of Education
+  The College of the City of New York
+
+  with an
+  Introduction by
+  NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, LL.D.
+
+  President of Columbia University
+
+  Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
+  1920
+
+
+
+
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
+  THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE
+  Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson
+
+  YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
+  2126, PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO
+
+A treasure of wisdom is stored in the colleges of the land. The
+teachers are the custodians of knowledge that makes life free and
+progressive. This book aims to make the college teacher effective in
+handing down this heritage of knowledge, rich and vital, that will
+develop in youth the power of right thinking and the courage of right
+living. Thus _College Teaching_ carries out the ideal of service as
+expressed in the motto of the World Book Company, "Books that Apply
+the World's Knowledge to the World's Needs".
+
+
+  Copyright, 1920, by World Book Company
+  Copyright in Great Britain
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The student of general problems of education or of elementary
+education finds an extensive literature of varying worth. In the last
+decade our secondary schools have undergone radical reorganization and
+have assumed new functions. A rich literature on every phase of the
+high school is rapidly developing to keep pace with the needs and the
+progress of secondary education. The literature on college education
+in general and college pedagogy in particular is surprisingly
+undeveloped. This dearth is not caused by the absence of problem, for
+indeed there is room for much improvement in the organization, the
+administration, and the pedagogy of the college. Investigators of
+these problems have been considerably discouraged by the facts they
+have gathered. This volume is conceived in the hope of stimulating an
+interest in the quality of college teaching and initiating a
+scientific study of college pedagogy. The field is almost virgin, and
+the need for constructive programs is acute. We therefore ask for our
+effort the indulgence that is usually accorded a pioneer.
+
+In this age of specialization of study it is evident that no college
+teacher, however wide his experience and extensive his education, can
+speak with authority on the teaching of all the subjects in the
+college curriculum, or even of all the major ones. For this reason
+this volume is the product of a cooperating authorship. The editor
+devotes himself to the study of general methods of teaching that apply
+to almost all subjects and to most teaching situations. In addition,
+he coordinates the work of the other contributors. He realizes that
+there exists among college professors an active hostility to the study
+of pedagogy. The professors feel that one who knows his subject can
+teach it. The contributors have been purposely selected in order to
+dispel this hostility. They are, one and all, men of undisputed
+scholarship who have realized the need of a mode of presentation that
+will make their knowledge alive.
+
+Books of multiple authorship often possess too wide a diversity of
+viewpoints. The reader comes away with no underlying thought and no
+controlling principles. To overcome this defect, so common in books of
+this type, a tentative outline was formulated, setting forth a
+desirable mode of treating, in the confines of one chapter, the
+teaching of any subject in the college curriculum. This outline was
+submitted to all contributors for critical analysis and constructive
+criticism. The original plan was later modified in accordance with the
+suggestions of the contributors. This final outline, which follows,
+was then sent to the contributors with the full understanding that
+each writer was free to make such modifications as his specialty
+demanded and his judgment dictated. This outline is followed in most
+of the chapters and gives the book that unifying element necessary in
+any book and vital in a work of so large a cooperating authorship.
+
+The editor begs to acknowledge his indebtedness to the many
+contributors who have given generously of their time and their labor
+with no hope of compensation beyond the ultimate appreciation of those
+college teachers who are eager to learn from the experience of others
+so that they may the better serve their students.
+
+
+  TENTATIVE OUTLINE FOR THE TEACHING OF ---- IN THE COLLEGE
+
+  I. Aim of Subject _X_ in the College Curriculum:
+
+     Is it taught for disciplinary values? What are they?
+
+     Is it taught for cultural reasons?
+
+     Is it taught to give necessary information?
+
+     Is it taught to prepare for professional studies?
+
+     Is the aim single or eclectic? Do the aims vary for different
+     groups of students? Does this apply to all the courses in your
+     specialty? How does the aim govern the methods of teaching?
+
+
+  II. Place of the Subject in the College Curriculum:
+
+     In what year or years should it be taught?
+
+     What part of the college course--in terms of time or
+     credits--should be allotted to it?
+
+     What is the practice in other colleges?
+
+     What course or courses in this subject should be part of the
+     general curriculum or be prescribed for students in art, in
+     science, in modern languages, or in the preprofessional or
+     professional groups?
+
+
+  III. Organization of the Subject in the College Course:
+
+     Desired sequence of courses in this subject.
+
+     What is the basis of this sequence? Gradation of successive
+     difficulties or logical sequence of facts?
+
+     Should these courses be elective or prescribed? All prescribed?
+     For all groups of students?
+
+     In what years should the elective work be offered?
+
+
+  IV. Discussion of Methods of Teaching this Subject:
+
+     Place and relative worth of lecture method, laboratory work,
+     recitations, research, case method, field work, assignment from a
+     single text or reference reading, etc.
+
+     Discussion of such problems as the following:
+
+     Shall the first course in chemistry be a general and extensive
+     course summing up the scope of chemistry, its function in organic
+     and inorganic nature, with no laboratory work other than the
+     experimentation by the instructor?
+
+     Should students in the social sciences study the subject
+     deductively from a book or should the book be postponed and the
+     instructor present a series of problems from the social life of
+     the student so that the analysis of these may lead the student to
+     formulate many of the generalizations that are given early in a
+     textbook course?
+
+     Should college mathematics be presented as a series of subjects,
+     e.g., algebra (advanced), solid geometry, trigonometry,
+     analytical geometry, calculus, etc.? Would it be better to
+     present the subject as a single and unified whole in two or three
+     semesters?
+
+     Should a student study his mathematics as it is developed in his
+     book,--viz., as an intellectual product of a matured mind
+     familiar with the subject,--or should the subject grow gradually
+     in a more or less unorganized form from a series of mechanical,
+     engineering, building, nautical, surveying, and structural
+     problems that can be found in the life and environment of the
+     student?
+
+
+  V. Moot Questions in the Teaching of this Subject.
+
+  VI. How judge whether the subject has been of worth to the student?
+
+     How test whether the aims of this subject have been realized?
+
+     How test how much the student has carried away? What means,
+     methods, and indices exist aside from the traditional
+     examination?
+
+
+  VII. Bibliography on the Pedagogy of this Subject as Far as It Applies
+       to College Teaching. The aim of the bibliography
+       should be to give worth-while contributions that present
+       elaborations of what is here presented or points of view and
+       modes of procedure that differ from those here set forth.
+
+                                                 PAUL KLAPPER
+  _The College of the City of New York_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                                     PAGE
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                         xiii
+
+By NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Ph.D., LL.D. President of Columbia
+University. Author of _The Meaning of Education_, _True and False
+Democracy_, etc. Editor of _Educational Review_
+
+
+PART ONE--THE INTRODUCTORY STUDIES
+
+CHAPTER
+
+I    HISTORY AND PRESENT TENDENCIES OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE             3
+     By STEPHEN PIERCE DUGGAN, Ph.D. Professor of Education, The
+     College of the City of New York. Author of _A Student's
+     History of Education_
+
+II   PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR COLLEGE TEACHING                        31
+     By SIDNEY E. MEZES, Ph.D., LL.D. President of The College of
+     the City of New York. Formerly President of University of
+     Texas. Author of _Ethics, Descriptive and Explanatory_
+
+III  GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COLLEGE TEACHING                            43
+     By PAUL KLAPPER, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Education, The
+     College of the City of New York. Author of _Principles of
+     Educational Practice_, _The Teaching of English_, etc.
+
+
+PART TWO--THE SCIENCES
+
+IV   THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY                                           85
+     By T. W. GALLOWAY, Ph.D., Litt.D. Professor of Zoology,
+     Beloit College. Author of _Textbook of Zoology_, _Biology of
+     Sex for Parents and Teachers_, _Use of Motives in Moral
+     Education_, etc.
+
+V    THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY                                        110
+     By LOUIS KAHLENBERG, PH.D. Director of the Course in
+     Chemistry and Professor of Chemistry, University of
+     Wisconsin. Author of _Outlines of Chemistry_, _Laboratory
+     Exercises in Chemistry_, _Chemistry Analysis_, _Chemistry
+     and Its Relation to Daily Life_, etc.
+
+VI   THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS                                          126
+     By HARVEY B. LEMON, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Physics,
+     University of Chicago
+
+VII  THE TEACHING OF GEOLOGY                                          142
+     By T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Professor and Head
+     of Department of Geology and Director of Walker Museum,
+     University of Chicago. Author of _Geology of Wisconsin_,
+     _The Origin of the Earth_. Editor of _The Journal of Geology_
+
+VIII THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS                                      161
+     By G. A. MILLER, Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, University
+     of Illinois. Author of _Determinants_, _Mathematical
+     Monographs_ (co-author), _Theory and Applications of Groups
+     of Finite Order_ (co-author), _Historical Introduction to the
+     Mathematical Literature_, etc. Co-editor of _American Year
+     Book_ and _Encyclopedie des Sciences Mathematiques_
+
+IX   PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE COLLEGE                                183
+     By THOMAS A. STOREY, M.D., Ph.D. Professor of Hygiene, The
+     College of the City of New York. State Inspector of Physical
+     Training, New York. Secretary-General, Fourth International
+     Congress of School Hygiene, Buffalo, 1913. Executive-Secretary,
+     United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board. Author
+     of various contributions to standard works on physiology,
+     hygiene, and physical training
+
+
+PART THREE--THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
+
+X    THE TEACHING OF ECONOMICS                                        217
+     By FRANK A. FETTER, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Political
+     Economy, Princeton University. Author of _Economic
+     Principles and Modern Economic Problems_
+
+XI   THE TEACHING OF SOCIOLOGY                                        241
+     By ARTHUR J. TODD, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology and Director
+     of the Training Course for Social and Civic Work, University
+     of Minnesota. Author of _The Primitive Family as an
+     Educational Factor_, _Theories of Social Progress_
+
+XII  THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+  A. American History                                                 256
+     By HENRY W. ELSON, A.M., Litt.D. President of Thiel College.
+     Formerly Professor of History, Ohio University. Author of
+     _History of the United States_, _The Story of the Old World_
+    (with Cornelia E. MacMullan), etc.
+
+  B. Modern European History                                          263
+     By EDWARD KREHBIEL, Ph.D. Professor of Modern European
+     History, Leland Stanford University. Author of _The
+     Interdict_, _Nationalism_, _War and Society_
+
+XIII THE TEACHING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE                                279
+     By CHARLES GROVE HAINES, Ph.D. Professor of Government,
+     University of Texas. Author of _Conflict over Judicial
+     Powers in the United States prior to 1870_, _The American
+     Doctrine of Judicial Supremacy_, _The Teaching of
+     Government_ (Report of Committee on Instruction, Political
+     Science Association)
+
+XIV  THE TEACHING OF PHILOSOPHY                                       302
+     By FRANK THILLY, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Philosophy, Dean
+     of the College of Arts and Sciences, Cornell University.
+     Author of _Introduction to Ethics_, _History of Philosophy_
+
+XV   THE TEACHING OF ETHICS                                           320
+     By HENRY NEUMANN, Ph.D. Leader of the Brooklyn Society for
+     Ethical Culture. Formerly of the Department of Education,
+     The College of the City of New York, Author of _Moral Values
+     in Secondary Education_
+
+XVI  THE TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY                                       334
+     By ROBERT S. WOODWORTH, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology,
+     Columbia University. Author of _Dynamic Psychology_, _Le
+     Mouvement_, _Care of the Body_, _Elements of Physiological
+     Psychology_ (with George Trumbull Ladd)
+
+XVII THE TEACHING OF EDUCATION
+  A. Teaching the History of Education                                347
+     By HERMAN H. HORNE, Ph.D. (Harvard). Professor of the
+     History of Education and the History of Philosophy, New
+     York University. Author of _The Philosophy of Education_,
+     _The Psychological Principles of Education_, _Free Will and
+     Human Responsibility_, etc.
+
+  B. Teaching Educational Theory                                      359
+     By FREDERICK E. BOLTON, Ph.D. Dean of the College of
+     Education, University of Washington. Author of _Principles
+     of Education_, _The Secondary School System of Germany_
+
+
+PART FOUR--THE LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
+
+XVIII THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH LITERATURE                              379
+     By CALEB T. WINCHESTER, L.H.D. Professor of English
+     Literature, Wesleyan University. Author of _Some Principles
+     of Literary Criticism_, _A Group of English Essayists_,
+     _William Wordsworth: How to Know Him_, etc.
+
+XIX  THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION                              389
+     By HENRY SEIDEL CANBY, Ph.D. Adviser in Literary Composition,
+     Yale University. Author of _The Short Story in English_,
+     _College Sons and College Fathers_, etc.
+
+XX   THE TEACHING OF THE CLASSICS                                     404
+     By WILLIAM K. PRENTICE, Ph.D. Professor of Greek, Princeton
+     University, Author of _Greek and Latin inscriptions in Syria_
+
+XXI  THE TEACHING OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES                            424
+     By WILLIAM A. NITZE, Ph.D. Professor and Head of Department
+     of Romance Languages, University of Chicago. Author of _The
+     Grail Romance_, _Glastonbury and the Holy Grail_, _Handbook
+     of French Phonetics_, etc. Contributor to _New International
+     Encyclopedia_
+
+XXII THE TEACHING OF GERMAN                                           440
+     By E. PROKOSCH, Ph.D. Late Professor of Germanic Languages,
+     University of Texas. Author of _Teaching of German in
+     Secondary Schools_, _Phonetic Lessons in German_, _Sounds
+     and History of the German Language_, etc.
+
+
+PART FIVE--THE ARTS
+
+XXIII THE TEACHING OF MUSIC                                           457
+     By EDWARD DICKINISON, Litt.D. Professor of History and
+     Criticism of Music, Oberlin College. Author of _Music in the
+     History of the Western Church_, _The Study of the History of
+     Music_, _The Education of a Music Lover_, _Music and the
+     Higher Education_
+
+XXIV THE TEACHING OF ART                                              475
+     By HOLMES SMITH, A.M. Professor of Drawing and the History
+     of Art, Washington University. Author of various articles
+     in magazines on art topics
+
+
+PART SIX--VOCATIONAL SUBJECTS
+
+XXV  THE TEACHING OF ENGINEERING SUBJECTS                             501
+     By IRA O. BAKER, C.E., D. Eng'g. Professor of Civil
+     Engineering, University of Illinois. Author of _Treatise on
+     Masonry Construction_, _Treatise on Roads and Pavements_
+
+XXVI THE TEACHING OF MECHANICAL DRAWING                               525
+     By JAMES D. PHILLIPS, B.S. Assistant Dean and Professor of
+     Drawing, College of Engineering, University of Wisconsin,
+     Author of _Elements of Descriptive Geometry_ (with A. V.
+     Millar), _Mechanical Drawing for Secondary Schools_ (with
+     F. O. Crawshaw), _Mechanical Drawing for Colleges and
+     Universities_ (with H. D. Orth) and HERBERT D. ORTH, B.S.
+     Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing and Descriptive
+     Geometry, University of Wisconsin. Author of _Mechanical
+     Drawing for Colleges and Universities_ (with J. D. Phillips)
+
+XXVII THE TEACHING OF JOURNALISM                                      533
+     By TALCOTT WILLIAMS, A.M. LL.D., Litt.D. Director, School of
+     Journalism, Columbia University
+
+XXVIII BUSINESS EDUCATION                                             555
+     By FREDERICK B. ROBINSON, Ph.D. Professor of Economics and
+     Dean of the School of Business and Civic Administration,
+     College of the City of New York
+
+
+INDEX                                                                 577
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+It is characteristic of the American people to have profound faith in
+the power of education. Since Colonial days the American college has
+played a large part in American life and has trained an overwhelming
+proportion of the leaders of American opinion. There was a time when
+the American college was a relatively simple institution of a uniform
+type, but that time has passed. The term "college" is now used in a
+variety of significations, a number of which are very new and very
+modern indeed. Some of these uses of the term are quite indefensible,
+as when one speaks of a college of engineering, or of law, or of
+medicine, or of journalism, or of architecture. Such use of the word
+merely confuses and makes impossible clear thinking as to educational
+institutions and educational aims.
+
+The term "college" can be properly used only of an institution which
+offers training in the liberal arts and sciences to youth who have
+completed a standard secondary school course of study. The purpose of
+college teaching is to lay the foundation for intelligent and
+effective specialization later on, to open the mind to new
+interpretations and new understandings both of man and of nature, and
+to give instruction in those standards of judgment and appreciation,
+the possession and application of which are the marks of the truly
+educated and cultivated man. The size of a college is a matter of
+small importance, except that under modern conditions a large college
+and one in immediate contact with the life of a university is almost
+certain to command larger intellectual resources than is an
+institution of a different type. The important thing about a college
+is its spirit, its clearness of aim, its steadiness of purpose, and
+the opportunity which it affords for direct personal contact between
+teacher and student. Given these, the question of size is unimportant.
+
+There was a time when it was felt, probably correctly, that a
+satisfactory college training could be had by requiring all students
+to follow a single prescribed course of study. At that time, college
+students were drawn almost exclusively from families and homes of a
+single type or kind. Their purposes in after-life were similar, and
+their range of intellectual sympathy, while intense, was rather
+narrow. The last fifty years have changed all this. College students
+are now drawn from families and homes of every conceivable type and
+kind. Their purposes in after-life are very different, while new
+subjects of study have been multiplied many fold. The old and useful
+tradition of Latin, Greek, and mathematics, together with a little
+history and literature, as the chief elements in a college course of
+study, had to give way when first the natural sciences, and then the
+social sciences, claimed attention and when even these older subjects
+of study were themselves subdivided into many parts.
+
+These changes forced a change in the old-fashioned program of college
+study, and led to the various substitutes for it that now exist.
+Whether a college prefers the elective system of study, or the group
+system, or some other method of combining instruction that is regarded
+as fundamental with other instruction that is regarded as less so, the
+fact is that all these are simply different kinds of attempt to meet a
+new condition which is the natural result of intellectual and economic
+changes. Just now the college is in a state of transition. It is not
+at all clear precisely what its status will be a generation hence, or
+how far present tendencies may continue to increase, or how far they
+may be counteracted by a swing of the pendulum in the opposite
+direction. Therefore this is a time to describe rather than to
+dogmatize, and it is description which is the characteristic mark of
+the important series of papers which constitute the several chapters
+in the present volume.
+
+A careful reading of these papers is commended not only to the great
+army of college teachers and college students, but to that still
+greater army of those who, whether as alumni or as parents or as
+citizens, are deeply concerned with the preservation of the influence
+and character of the American college for its effect upon our
+national standards of thought and action.
+
+American colleges are of two distinct types, and it may be that the
+future has in store a different position for each type. The true
+distinction between colleges is according as they are separate or are
+incorporated in a university system, and not at all as to whether they
+are large or small. A separate college, such as Amherst or Beloit or
+Grinnell or Pomona, has its own peculiar problems of support and
+administration. The university college, on the other hand, such as
+Columbia or Harvard or Chicago or the college of any state university,
+has quite different problems of support and of administration. It is
+not unlikely that the distinction between these two types of college
+will become more sharply marked as years go by, and that eventually
+they will appear to be two distinct institutions rather than two types
+of one and the same institution.
+
+Meanwhile, we have to deal with the college as it is, in all its
+varied forms, but characteristically American whatever its form. The
+American college has little or no resemblance to the English Public
+School or to the French Lycee or to the German Gymnasium. It is
+something more than any one of these, and at the same time something
+less. It differs from them all very much as the conditions of American
+life differ from those of English or of French or of German life. The
+college may or may not involve residence, but when it does involve
+residence, it is at its best. It is then that the largest amount of
+carefully ordered and stimulating influence can be brought to bear
+upon the daily life of growing and expanding youth, and it is then and
+only then, that youth can get the inestimable benefits which follow
+from daily and hourly contact with others of like age, like tastes,
+like habits, and like purposes. Indeed, it has often been said that
+the college gives more through its opportunities which attach to
+residence, than through its opportunities which attach to instruction.
+
+Almost every conceivable problem that can arise in college life and
+college work, is discussed in the following pages. It is now coming
+to be understood that the health of the college student is as much a
+matter of concern as his instruction, and that a college is not doing
+its full duty by those who seek its doors, when it merely provides
+libraries, laboratories, and skillful teachers. It must also provide
+for such conditions of residence, of food, of exercise, and of
+frequent medical examination and inspection, as shall protect and
+preserve the health of those who come to take advantage of its
+instruction.
+
+There is one other point which should not be overlooked, and that is
+the literally immense influence exerted in America by that solidarity
+of college sentiment and college opinion which is kept alive by
+organizations of former college students scattered throughout the
+land. This, again, is a peculiarly American development, and it serves
+to unite the college and public sentiment much more closely than any
+formal tie could possibly do. Indeed, it illustrates how completely
+the American people claim the college as their own. The man or woman
+who has once been a college student never ceases to be a member of
+that particular college or to labor to extend its influence and to
+increase its usefulness.
+
+Every reader of this volume should approach it in a spirit of
+sympathetic understanding of American higher education, and of the
+college as the oldest instrument of that higher education and still
+one of the chief elements in it.
+
+                                         NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
+  _Columbia University_
+
+
+
+
+PART ONE
+
+THE INTRODUCTORY STUDIES
+
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+    I  HISTORY AND PRESENT TENDENCIES OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE
+           _Stephen P. Duggan_
+
+   II  PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR COLLEGE TEACHING
+           _Sidney E. Mezes_
+
+  III  GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COLLEGE TEACHING
+           _Paul Klapper_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+HISTORY AND PRESENT TENDENCIES OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE
+
+
+1. THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+=The predominance of the religious motive=
+
+The American colonies were founded chiefly by Englishmen who came to
+America for a variety of reasons. Some of these were economic and
+political, but the most important of their reasons was the desire to
+practice their religious convictions with greater freedom than was
+permitted at home. Apart from the state religion, however, all the
+colonists were animated by a love for English institutions which they
+transplanted to the New World, and among these institutions were the
+grammar school and the college. Wherever the Reformation had been
+chiefly a religious rather than a political and ecclesiastical
+movement, the interest in education and the effect upon it were direct
+and immediate. This was true where Calvinism prevailed, as in the
+Netherlands, Scotland, and among the Puritans in England. Hence it is
+natural to find that the first effective movements in America toward
+the establishment of educational institutions, both elementary and
+higher, should have taken place in New England.
+
+A large proportion of university graduates were included among the
+settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. They were chiefly graduates
+of Cambridge, which had always been religiously more tolerant than
+Oxford, and especially of Emmanuel College, which was the stronghold
+of Puritanism at Cambridge. It was natural that these men, leaders in
+the affairs of the colony, should want to establish a New Cambridge
+University, but it is astonishing that they were able to do so as
+early as 1636, only six years after the founding of this colony. Two
+years later the college was named after John Harvard, a clergyman and
+a graduate of Emmanuel, who upon his death bequeathed half his estate
+and all his fine library of three hundred volumes to the college. The
+religious motive predominated in the founding of Harvard, for though
+the colonists longed "to advance learning and perpetuate it to
+posterity," they were actuated chiefly by dread "to leave an
+illiterate ministry to the churches, when our present Ministers shall
+lie in the Dust."
+
+Harvard remained the sole instrument in the colonies for that purpose
+for more than half a century. In 1693 the College of William and Mary
+was founded in Virginia, with the most generous endowment of any
+pre-Revolutionary college, generous because of the help received from
+the mother country. It was the child of the Church of England, and its
+president and its professors had to subscribe to the Thirty-nine
+Articles. Subscription to a religious creed was also demanded of the
+president and tutors of the third American college, founded in 1701.
+This Collegiate Institute, as it was called, moved from place to place
+for more than a decade, but finally it settled permanently in New
+Haven in 1717. It afterward received the name of Yale College in honor
+of Elihu Yale, who had given it generous assistance.
+
+As a result of the founding of these three institutions, the New
+England and the Southern colonies had their need for ministers fairly
+well supplied, but this was not yet true of the Middle colonies.
+However, the Presbyterians had become particularly strong in the
+Middle colonies, and their religious zeal resulted in the
+establishment of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University,
+in 1746.
+
+A few years later Benjamin Franklin advanced for the college a new
+_raison d'etre_. In 1749 he published a pamphlet entitled "Proposals
+Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania," in which he
+advocated the establishment of an academy whose purpose was not the
+training of ministers but the secular one of developing the practical
+virtue necessary in the opening up of a new country. The Academy was
+opened in 1751, and the charter, granted in 1755, designated the
+institution as "The College, Academy, and Charitable School of
+Philadelphia." Though the extremely modern organization and curriculum
+suggested by Franklin were not realized, the institution, which was
+afterward called "The University of Pennsylvania," offered the most
+liberal curriculum of any college in the colonies up to the
+Revolution.
+
+The human motive was uppermost also in the establishment of King's
+College in 1754. The colonial assembly desired its establishment to
+enhance the welfare and reputation of the colony, and the only
+connection between the college and the Church of England lay in the
+requirement that the president should be a communicant of that church
+and that the morning and evening service of the college should be
+performed out of the liturgy of that church. But the religious motive
+again comes to the fore in the establishment of Brown University at
+Providence, Rhode Island, in 1764, primarily to train ministers for
+the Baptist churches; of Queens, afterwards named Rutgers, in 1766, to
+provide ministers for the Dutch Reformed churches; and of Dartmouth,
+in 1769, from which it was hoped at first that the evangelization of
+the Indians would proceed.
+
+=Character of the colonial college=
+
+These colonial colleges in their histories bear a great resemblance to
+one another. They were almost all born in poverty and led a desperate
+financial existence for many years. In some cases survival was
+possible only as the result of the untiring self-sacrifice of some
+great personality like Eleazar Wheelock, the first president of
+Dartmouth; in all cases, of the devotion of teachers and officers.
+Their beginnings were all small; in some cases the president was the
+only member of the instructing staff and taught all the subjects of
+the curriculum. The students were few in number, the equipment was
+simple, the buildings usually consisting of a house for the president,
+in which he often heard recitations, a dormitory for the students, and
+a college hall. Libraries, laboratories, and recreational facilities
+were usually conspicuous by their absence. In fact, as the curriculum
+consisted almost exclusively of philosophy, Greek, Latin, rhetoric,
+and a little mathematics, there was no great need of much equipment.
+The classics were taught by the intensive grammatical method; in
+philosophy there was a great deal of dialectical disputation;
+rhetoric was studied as an aid to oratory; mathematics included only
+arithmetic and geometry. The aim of instruction was, not to give a
+wide acquaintance with many fields of knowledge for cultural and
+appreciative purposes, but rather to develop power through intensive
+exercise upon a restricted curriculum. But the value of the materials
+utilized to produce power which would function in oratory, debate, and
+diplomacy is splendidly illustrated in the decades before the
+Revolution. The contest between the colonies and the mother country
+was essentially a rational contest in which questions of
+constitutional law and, indeed, of the fundamental principles of civil
+and political existence were debated. Splendidly did the leaders of
+public opinion in the colonies, almost every one of whom was a
+graduate of a colonial college, defend the cause of the colonists in
+pamphlet and debate. And when debate was followed by war, twenty-five
+per cent of the twenty-five hundred graduates of the colonial colleges
+were found in the military service of their country. At the close of
+the struggle for independence, it was again upon the shoulders of the
+men who had gained vision and character in the colonial colleges that
+the burden fell of organizing the mutually suspicious and antagonistic
+colonies into one nation. Space will not permit even of the
+enumeration of the great leaders who graduated from all the colonial
+colleges, but an idea of the service rendered by those institutions to
+the new nation may be obtained by mentioning the names of a few
+statesmen who received their instruction in one of the least of them,
+William and Mary. In its classrooms were taught Thomas Jefferson,
+Benjamin Harrison, Edmund Randolph, James Monroe, and John Marshall.
+
+
+2. THE NATIONAL ERA
+
+=French influence=
+
+French influence upon American political and intellectual life had
+become quite pronounced as the result of the contact between the
+leaders of the two peoples during and after the Revolution. That
+influence was reflected in the colleges. Instruction in the French
+language was offered in several of the colleges before the close of
+the eighteenth century, and a chair of French was established at
+Columbia as early as 1779 and at William and Mary in 1793. The
+secularizing influence of the French united also with the
+democratizing influence of the Revolution in diminishing the influence
+of the church upon the colleges and emphasizing the influence of the
+State and especially the relations between college and people. Of the
+fourteen colleges founded between 1776 and 1800, the majority were
+established upon a non-sectarian basis. These included institutions of
+a private nature like Washington and Lee, Bowdoin, and Union, as well
+as institutions closely related to the state governments like the
+Universities of North Carolina and of Vermont. There can hardly be any
+doubt that the French system of centralized administration in civil
+affairs influenced the establishment of the University of the State of
+New York. The University of the State of New York is not a local
+institution, but a body of nine regents elected by the legislature to
+control the administration of education throughout the State of New
+York. Though organized by Alexander Hamilton, it was in all
+probability much influenced by John Jay, who returned from France in
+1784. But the most potent factor in the spread of French influence in
+the early history of our country was Thomas Jefferson. While Jefferson
+was American minister to France, he studied the French system of
+education and embodied ideas taken from it in the organization of the
+University of Virginia. This occupied much of his attention during the
+last two decades of his life. The University was to be entirely
+non-sectarian and had for its purpose (1) to form statesmen,
+legislators, and judges for the commonwealth; (2) to expand the
+principles and structure of government, the laws which regulate the
+intercourse of states, and a sound spirit of legislation; (3) to
+harmonize and promote the interests of all forms of industry, chiefly
+by well-informed views of political economy; (4) to develop the
+reasoning faculties of youth and to broaden their minds and develop
+their character; (5) to enlighten them with knowledge, especially of
+the physical sciences which will advance the material welfare of the
+people. These progressive views of what the college should aim to do
+were associated with equally advanced views of college administration,
+such as the elective system and the importation of professors from
+abroad. The remarkable vision, constructive imagination, courage, and
+faith of Jefferson in his break with what was traditional and
+authoritative in education has been justified by the fine career of
+the university which he founded.
+
+=The state universities system=
+
+All the colleges that were established before the Revolution, and most
+of those between the Revolution and the year 1800, had received direct
+assistance from the colonial or state government either in grants of
+land, money, the proceeds of lotteries, or special taxes. Most of
+them, however, were dependent upon private foundations and controlled
+by denominational bodies. The secularizing influence from France, the
+growing interest in civic and political affairs, and the democratic
+spirit resulting from the Revolution combined to develop a distrust of
+the colleges as they were organized and a desire to bring them under
+the control of the state. This was apparent in 1779, when the
+legislature of Pennsylvania withdrew the charter of the college of
+Philadelphia and created a new corporation to be known as "The
+Trustees of the University of the State of Pennsylvania"; it was shown
+in 1787 when Columbia College was granted a new charter by the state
+legislature, under which the board of trustees were all drawn from the
+Board of Regents of the State; it was made most evident in 1816 when
+the legislature of New Hampshire transformed Dartmouth College into a
+university without the consent of the board of trustees and empowered
+the governor and council to appoint a Board of Overseers. In the
+celebrated Dartmouth College case, 1819, the old board of trustees,
+when defeated before the Supreme Court of New Hampshire in their suit
+for the recovery of property which had been seized, carried the case
+to the Supreme Court of the United States and engaged Daniel Webster
+as their counsel. The Court declared the act of the New Hampshire
+legislature in violation of the provision of the Constitution of the
+United States which reads that "No state shall pass any ... law
+impairing the obligation of contracts." The decision drew a sharp
+distinction between public and private corporations, and a necessary
+inference was that most of the existing institutions for higher
+education were in the latter class. The result was to strengthen the
+rising demand for publicly controlled institutions. The Southern and
+Western states across the Alleghanies that were on the point of
+framing state constitutions made provision for state universities
+under state control.
+
+The intention to provide higher education freely for the people had
+already received its greatest impetus in an Act of Congress passed
+shortly after the passage of the Ordinance of 1787, providing for the
+organization of the Northwest Territory. By that act two entire
+townships of public land were reserved to the states to be erected out
+of the territory, the proceeds of the sale of which were to be devoted
+to the establishment of a state university. These universities
+followed swiftly upon the establishment of new states, and the
+democratic ideal that prevailed is shown in the determination that the
+state university was to be the crown of the public educational system
+of the state. This is well illustrated in the provision of the
+constitution of Indiana, adopted in the very year of the Dartmouth
+College decision, 1819, which reads, "It shall be the duty of the
+General Assembly, as soon as circumstances will permit, to provide by
+law for a general system of education, ascending in regular gradation
+from township schools to a state university, wherein tuition shall be
+gratis and equally open to all." Circumstances did permit in the
+following year, and the provisions of the bill materialized. The
+national policy of granting public lands for educational purposes to
+new states was continued, and one or two townships were devoted in
+each case to the establishment of a state university. National
+assistance to higher education was given on an immense scale in 1862,
+when the Morrill Act was passed providing for the grant of 30,000
+acres of land for each representative and senator, to be devoted to
+the support in each state of a higher institution of learning, in
+which technical and agricultural branches should be taught. Within
+twenty years every state in the Union had taken advantage of this
+splendid endowment, either to found a new state university which would
+comply with the requirements as regards courses of instruction or to
+establish an agricultural college as an independent institution, or in
+connection with some already existing institution. Not only do some of
+the finest state universities like those of California, Illinois, and
+Minnesota owe their origins to the Morrill Act, but others owe to it
+their real beginnings as institutions of collegiate grade. Up to the
+passage of the Morrill Act a dozen state universities struggled to
+maintain themselves with meager revenues and few students. They were
+trying to do broad academic work, but by no means reached the
+standards of the strong colleges in the eastern part of the country.
+
+The establishment of state-supported and state-controlled universities
+in the commonwealths organized after the close of the eighteenth
+century by no means put an end to the establishment of colleges upon
+religious foundations. Denominational zeal was very strong in the
+decades preceding the Civil War, and the church was the center of
+community life in the newly settled regions. The need to provide an
+intelligent ministry and also a higher civilization led to the
+establishment of many small sectarian colleges in the new states.
+Despite the fact that practically all of them would today be
+considered only of secondary grade, they accomplished a splendid work
+and provided ideals and standards of intellectual life in a new
+country whose population was engaged chiefly in supplying the physical
+needs of life. The response made in the Civil War by the institutions
+of higher education throughout the United States, whether privately or
+publicly supported, was a magnificent return for the sacrifices
+endured in their establishment and maintenance. Everywhere throughout
+the North the colleges were depleted of instructors and students who
+had entered the ranks, and in the South nearly all the colleges were
+compelled to close their doors. Upon the shoulders of their graduates
+fell the burden of directing civil and military affairs in state and
+nation.
+
+
+3. THE MODERN ERA
+
+Were a visitor to Harvard or Columbia in 1860 to revisit it today, the
+changes he would observe would be startling. The elective system,
+graduate studies, professional and technical schools, an allied
+woman's college, and a summer session are a few of the most noticeable
+activities incorporated since 1860. It would be impossible to set any
+date for the beginning of this transformation, so gradual and subtle
+has it been, but the accession of Dr. Charles W. Eliot to the
+presidency of Harvard College in 1869 and the establishment of Johns
+Hopkins University in 1876 are definite landmarks.
+
+This chapter is a history of the American college, and space will not
+permit of a detailed description of these activities but simply of a
+narration of the way they developed and of the forces which brought
+them into being.
+
+=The curriculum and the elective system=
+
+It has already been mentioned that the curriculum of the average
+American college at the beginning of the nineteenth century differed
+but little from the curriculum followed in the middle of the
+seventeenth. The reason is simple. The curriculum is based upon the
+biological principle of adaptation to environment, and the environment
+of the average American of 1800 differed but slightly from his
+ancestor of a century and a half previous. The growth of the
+curriculum follows, slowly it is often true, upon the growth of
+knowledge. The growth of knowledge during the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries was slow and insignificant compared to its
+marvelous growth in the nineteenth century, particularly in the last
+half of it. The great discoveries in science, first in chemistry, then
+in physics and biology, resulted in their gradually displacing much of
+the logic and philosophy which had maintained the prime place in the
+old curriculum. The interest aroused in the French language and
+literature by our Revolution; in the Spanish by the South American
+wars of independence; and in the German by the distinguished scholars
+who studied in the German universities during the middle decades of
+the nineteenth century, caused a demand that those languages as well
+as English have a place in the curriculum. This could be secured only
+by making them partly alternatives to the classical languages. The
+Industrial Revolution, based as it was upon the application of science
+to industry, not only gave an impetus to the establishment of
+technical schools, but by revolutionizing the production and
+distribution of wealth pushed into the curriculum the science that
+deals with wealth, political economy. The growth of cities that
+followed in the wake of the Industrial Revolution, the conflicts
+between the interests of classes,--viz., landowners, capitalists, and
+laborers,--the rapid decay of feudalism and the spread of political
+democracy following the French Revolution, the expansion of commerce
+to all corners of the globe and the resulting development of
+colonialism, all these human interests gave a new meaning to the study
+of history and politics which caused them to secure a place of great
+prominence in the curriculum during the last quarter of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+It is perfectly obvious that as the time at the student's disposal
+remained the same, if he were to pursue even a part of the new subject
+matter that was gradually admitted into the curriculum, the course of
+study could no longer remain wholly prescribed and he would have to be
+granted some freedom of choice. The growth in number of students also
+produced changes in administration favorable to the introduction of
+the elective system. In the early history of the American college one
+instructor taught a single class in all subjects, and it was not until
+1776 that the transfer was made at Harvard from the teaching of
+classes by one instructor to the teaching of each subject by one
+instructor. With increase in numbers the students were unable to
+receive in each year instruction by every member of the teaching
+staff. In spite of the quite obvious advantages of the elective
+system, it was obstinately resisted by the defenders of the classics
+and also of orthodox religion and at first made but slow progress.
+Thomas Jefferson gave it the first great impetus when he made it an
+essential element in the organization of the University of Virginia in
+1825. Francis Wayland, president of Brown University and one of the
+few college presidents of his day who were educators in the modern
+sense, made a splendid exposition and defense of it in 1850 in his
+"Report to the Corporation of Brown University on Changes in the
+System of Collegiate Education." But the elective system waited upon
+the elevation of Charles W. Eliot to the presidency of Harvard in 1869
+for its general realization; in 1872 the senior year at Harvard became
+wholly elective; in 1879, the junior year; in 1884, the sophomore
+year; and in 1894 the single absolute requirement that remained in the
+entire college course was English A. The action of Harvard was rapidly
+imitated to a more or less thorough extent throughout the country.
+
+Probably no two colleges administer the elective system in the same
+way. There has been a considerable revulsion of opinion against
+unrestricted election of individual subjects. In many colleges the
+subjects of the curriculum were arranged into groups which must be
+elected _in toto_. This resulted in the multiplication of bachelor's
+degrees, each indicating the special course--arts, science,
+philosophy, or literature--which had been followed. At the present
+time the tendency is to prescribe the subjects considered essential to
+a liberal education chiefly in the first two years and to permit
+election among groups of related courses in the last two. This has
+maintained the unity that formerly prevailed and introduced greater
+breadth into the curriculum. It has also brought the new bachelor's
+degrees into disfavor, and today the majority of the best colleges
+give only the A.B. degree for the regular academic course. Valuable
+modifications in the elective system are constantly being adopted. One
+such is the preceptorial system at Princeton and elsewhere, under
+which the preceptors personally supervise the reading and study of a
+small group of students and can therefore advise them from personal
+knowledge of their capacity. Another is the system of honor courses
+adopted at Columbia and elsewhere, whereby a distinction is made
+between mere "passmen" and students desirous of attaining high rank in
+courses that are carefully organized in sequence.
+
+=German Influence and graduate study=
+
+The introduction of new subjects into the curriculum of the college
+and the adoption by it of the elective system owe much to German
+influence upon American education. Though this influence was partly
+exerted by the study of the German language and literature, it
+resulted chiefly from the residence of American students at German
+universities. The first American to be granted the degree of Doctor of
+Philosophy from a German university was Edward Everett, who received
+it at Goettingen in 1817. He was followed by George Ticknor, George
+Bancroft, Henry W. Longfellow, John Lothrop Motley, Frederick Henry
+Hedge, William Dwight Whitney, Theodore Dwight Woolsey, and a host of
+scholars who shed luster upon American education and scholarship in
+the mid-nineteenth century. Most of these men became associated with
+American colleges in some capacity and had a profound influence upon
+their ideals, organization, and methods of teaching. They came back
+devoted advocates of wide and deep scholarship, of independent
+research, and of the need of such scholastic tools as libraries and
+laboratories. But especially did they give an impetus to the movement
+in favor of freedom of choice (_Lernfreiheit_) in studies. Only by the
+adoption of such a principle could the pronounced tastes or needs of
+individual students be satisfied.
+
+Some slight effort had been made in the first four decades of the
+nineteenth century by a few of the colleges to conform to the desire
+of students for further study in some chosen field, but the results
+were negligible. In 1847 Yale established a "department of philosophy
+and the arts for scientific and graduate study leading to the degree
+of bachelor of philosophy." The first degree of doctor of philosophy
+was bestowed in 1861, but a distinct graduate school was not organized
+until 1872. Harvard announced in the same year the establishment of a
+graduate department to which only holders of the bachelor's degree
+would be admitted and in which the degrees of doctor of philosophy and
+doctor of science would be conferred. The graduate department was not
+made a separate school, however, until 1890.
+
+The greatest impetus to the establishment of graduate schools in the
+American universities was made by the establishment of Johns Hopkins
+University in 1876. Upon its foundation the chief aim was announced to
+be the development of instruction in the methods of scientific
+research. The influence of this institution upon the development of
+higher education in the United States has been incalculably great.
+Johns Hopkins was not a transplanted German university. The unique
+place of the college in American education was shown by the fact that
+graduate schools have followed the lead of Johns Hopkins in building
+upon the college. Even Clark University at Worcester, founded in 1889
+upon a purely graduate basis, established an undergraduate college in
+1902.
+
+One of the most gratifying features of higher education in the United
+States during the past quarter century has been the extension of
+graduate schools to the strong state universities. Research work in
+them usually began in the school of agriculture, where the intensive
+study of the sciences, particularly chemistry and biology, had such
+splendid results in improved farming and dairying that legislatures
+were gradually persuaded to extend the support for research to purely
+liberal studies. With the growth and development of graduate schools
+in this country, the practice of going to Europe for advanced
+specialized study has abated considerably. It will probably so
+continue in the future, particularly with regard to Germany. On the
+other hand, should the new ideal of international good will become a
+living reality, education through a wide system of exchange professors
+and students may be expected to make its contribution.
+
+=Technical and professional study=
+
+While the graduate school was built upon the college, the technical
+school grew up by the side of it or upon an independent foundation.
+The first technical school was established at Troy, New York, in 1824,
+and was called Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, after its founder,
+Stephen Van Rensselaer. For a score of years no other development of
+consequence was made, but in 1847 the foundations were made of what
+have since become the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard and the
+Sheffield Scientific School at Yale. The passage of the Morrill Act in
+1862 had a quickening effect on education in engineering and
+agriculture. In the decade from 1860 to 1870 some twenty-two technical
+institutions were founded, most of them by the aid of the land grants.
+The most important of them is the Massachusetts Institute of
+Technology, where instruction was first given in 1865 and which has
+exerted by far the greatest influence upon the development of
+scientific and technical education. The best technical schools require
+a high school diploma for admission and have a four-year course of
+study, but the only technical school on a graduate basis is the School
+of Mines at Columbia University.
+
+Professional education in theology, law, and medicine in the United
+States was conducted chiefly upon the apprenticeship system down into
+the nineteenth century. Though chairs of divinity existed in the
+colonial colleges in the eighteenth century, systematic preparation
+for the ministry was not generally attempted and the prospective
+minister usually came under the special care of a prominent clergyman
+who prepared him for the profession. In 1819 Harvard established a
+separate faculty of divinity, and three years later Yale founded a
+theological department. Since then about fifty colleges and
+universities have established theological faculties and about 125
+independent theological schools have been founded as the result of
+denominational zeal. A majority of all these institutions require at
+least a high school diploma for admission; half of them require a
+college degree. Nearly all offer a three-year course of study and
+confer the degree of bachelor of divinity.
+
+Previous to the Civil War the great majority of legal practitioners
+obtained their preparation in a law office. Though the University of
+Pennsylvania attempted to establish a law school in 1791, and Columbia
+in 1797, both attempts were abortive, and it remained for Harvard to
+establish the first permanent law school in 1817. Even this was but a
+feeble affair until Justice Joseph Story became associated with it in
+1830. Up to 1870 but three terms of study were required for a degree;
+until 1877 students were admitted without examination, and special
+students were admitted without examination as late as 1893. Since then
+the advance in standards has been very rapid, and in 1899 Harvard
+placed its law school upon a graduate basis. Though but few others
+have emulated Harvard in this respect, the improvement in legal
+education during the past two decades has been marked. Of the 120 law
+schools today, the great majority are connected with colleges and
+universities, demand a high school diploma for admission, maintain a
+three-year course of study, and confer the degree of LL.B. Twenty-four
+per cent of the twenty thousand students are college graduates. In
+some of the best schools the inductive method of study--i.e., the
+"case method"--has superseded the lecture, and in practically all the
+moot court is a prominent feature.
+
+Entrance into the medical profession in colonial times was obtained by
+apprenticeship in the office of a practicing physician. The first
+permanent medical school was the medical college of Philadelphia,
+which was established in 1765 and which became an integral part of the
+University of Pennsylvania in 1791. Columbia, Harvard, and Dartmouth
+also founded schools before the close of the eighteenth century, and
+these were slowly followed by other colleges in the early decades of
+the nineteenth century. During almost the entire nineteenth century
+medical education in the United States was kept on a low plane by the
+existence of large numbers of proprietary medical "colleges" organized
+for profit, requiring only the most meager entrance qualifications,
+giving poor instruction, and having very inadequate equipment in the
+way of laboratories and clinics. In fact, medical education did not
+obtain a high standard until the establishment of the Johns Hopkins
+Medical School in 1893. Since then the efforts of the medical schools
+connected with the strong universities and of the Rockefeller
+Foundation to raise the minimum standard of medical education have
+resulted in the elimination of the weakest medical schools. The total
+number fell from 150 in 1900 to 100 in 1914. Not all of these demand a
+high school diploma for admission, though the tendency is to stiffen
+entrance requirements, but all have a four-year course of study. In
+most institutions experience in laboratory, clinic, and hospital has
+superseded the old lecture system as the method of instruction.
+Closely associated with the progress in medicine and to a great extent
+similar in history has been the progress in dentistry and pharmacy.
+There are now fifty schools of dentistry, with nearly 9000 students,
+and seventy-two schools of pharmacy, with nearly 6000 students.
+
+One of the most gratifying advances in professional education has been
+that of the teacher. Practically all the state universities and many
+of the universities and colleges upon private foundations have
+established either departments or schools of education which require
+at least the same entrance qualifications as does the college proper
+and in many cases confine the work to the junior and senior years.
+Teachers College of Columbia University is on a graduate basis. Though
+many of the 250 training and normal schools throughout the country do
+not require a high school diploma for admission, the tendency is
+wholly in that direction. In no field of professional education has
+the application of scientific principles to actual practice made such
+progress as in that of the teacher.
+
+=College education for women--The independent college=
+
+Few movements in the history of American education had more important
+results than the academy movement which prevailed during the period
+between the Revolution and the Civil War. Possibly the principle upon
+which the new nation was established, i.e., the privilege of every
+individual to make the most of himself, influenced the founders of
+the academies to make provision for the education of girls beyond the
+mere rudiments. Certainly this aspect of the movement had a
+far-reaching influence. Some of the earliest of the academies admitted
+girls as well as boys from the beginning, and some soon became
+exclusively female. When it became evident from the work of the
+academies that sex differences were not of as great importance as had
+been supposed, it was not a long step to higher education. Some of the
+academies added a year or two to the curriculum and took on the more
+dignified name of "seminary." In this transition period the influence
+of a few great personalities was profound, and even a brief sketch of
+the history of women's education cannot omit to mention the splendid
+work of Emma Willard and Mary Lyon. Mrs. Willard was an exponent of
+the belief that freedom of development for the individual was the
+greatest desideratum for humanity. She not only diffused this idea in
+her addresses and writings but tried to utilize it in the
+establishment in 1814 of the Troy Female Seminary, which was the
+forerunner of many others throughout the country. Mary Lyon was rather
+the representative of the religious influence in education, the
+embodiment of the belief that to do one's duty is the great purpose in
+life. In 1837 she founded Mount Holyoke Seminary, which had an
+influence of inestimable value in sending well-equipped women
+throughout the country a teachers. The importance of this service was
+particularly evident during the period of the Civil War.
+
+Although a number of excellent institutions for women bearing the name
+of college were founded before the Civil War, the first one of really
+highest rank was Vassar College, which opened its doors to students in
+1865. Smith and Wellesley were founded in 1875, and Bryn Mawr in 1885.
+These four colleges are in every respect the equal of the best
+colleges for men. They are the most important of a dozen independent
+colleges for women, almost all of which are situated in the East. To
+establish the independent college was the chief method adopted in the
+older parts of the country to solve the problem of women's higher
+education, rather than to reorganize colleges for men where
+conditions were already established.
+
+=The development of coeducation=
+
+The independent college is not the method that has prevailed in the
+West. When the inspiration to higher education for women arrived west
+of the Alleghanies, conditions, especially lack of resources,
+practically necessitated coeducation. Oberlin, founded in 1834, was
+the first fully coeducational institution of college grade in the
+world. In 1841 three women received from it the bachelor's degree, the
+first to get it. Oberlin's success had a pronounced influence on the
+state universities, which, it was argued, should be open and free to
+all citizens, since they were supported by public taxation. Almost all
+the state universities and the great majority of the colleges and
+universities on private foundations are today coeducational. The
+results predicted by pessimists, viz., that the physical health of
+women would suffer, that their intellectual capacity would depreciate
+scholarship, and that the interests of the family would be menaced,
+have not eventuated.
+
+=The affiliated college for women=
+
+The spread of coeducation in the state universities of the West and
+the South and its presence in the newer private universities like
+Cornell and Chicago had an influence upon the older universities of
+the East. This influence has resulted in a third method of solving the
+problem of women's education; viz., the establishment of the
+affiliated college. Several universities have established women's
+colleges, sometimes under the same and sometimes under a different
+board of trustees, to provide the collegiate education for women which
+is given to men by the undergraduate departments. Barnard College,
+affiliated with Columbia University, Radcliffe College, affiliated
+with Harvard University, Woman's College, affiliated with Brown
+University, the College for Women, affiliated with the Western Reserve
+University, and the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women,
+affiliated with Tulane University, have all been founded within the
+past forty years.
+
+=Graduate and professional studies for women=
+
+All the universities for men except Princeton and Johns Hopkins and
+all the fully coeducational institutions admit women upon the same
+terms as men to graduate work. Graduate work is also undertaken with
+excellent results in some of the independent women's colleges, as at
+Bryn Mawr. Professional education for women has been coeducational
+from the beginning, with the exception of medicine. The prejudice
+against coeducation in that profession was so strong that five women's
+medical schools were organized, but they provide instruction for
+little more than a quarter of the women medical students. The increase
+in the number of women in professional schools has not by any means
+kept pace with the increase in the colleges. It appears that, with the
+exception of teaching, woman is not to be a very important sector in
+the learned professions in the near future.
+
+=Undergraduate life--Fraternities=
+
+Nothing differentiates more clearly the American college from European
+institutions of higher education than the kind of non-scholastic
+activities undertaken by the students. From the very beginning the
+college became a place of residence as well as of study for students
+from a distance, and the dormitory was an essential element in its
+life. With increase in numbers, especially after the Revolution, when
+all distinctions of birth or family were abolished, students naturally
+divided into groups. The first fraternity, Phi Beta Kappa, was founded
+in 1776 at William and Mary, with a patriotic and literary purpose,
+and membership in it has practically ever since been confined to
+graduates who have attained high scholastic standing. When one speaks
+of college fraternities, however, he does not refer to Phi B K, but to
+one of the intercollegiate social organizations which have chapters in
+several colleges organized somewhat upon the plan of a club and whose
+members live in a chapter house. The first such fraternity was founded
+at Yale in 1821, but it was limited to the senior class. The three
+fraternities established at Union in 1825-1827 form the foundation of
+the present system. The fraternities spread rapidly and are today very
+numerous. There are about thirty of national importance, having about
+a thousand chapters and a quarter of a million members. The fraternity
+system is bitterly attacked as being undemocratic, expensive, emphasizing
+social rather than scholastic attainments, and, generally speaking, a
+divisive rather than a unifying factor in college life. Hence some
+colleges have abolished it. Fraternities have been defended, however,
+as promoting close fellowship and even helping to develop character.
+So strongly are they entrenched, not only in undergraduate but also in
+alumni affection, that they probably form a permanent element in
+college life.
+
+=Religious life=
+
+The early American college was primarily a place to prepare for the
+ministry, and personal piety was a matter of official enforcement. For
+a number of reasons religious zeal declined in the eighteenth century.
+After the Revolution, under the influence of the new political
+theories and of French skepticism the percentage of students
+professing to be active Christians fell very low. In the early
+nineteenth century the interest of students in religion increased, and
+religious organizations in a number of colleges were founded.
+Practically all of these later gave way to the Young Men's Christian
+Association, which has now over 50,000 members organized in almost all
+the colleges of the country save the Roman Catholic. The religious
+interests of Roman Catholic students are in many colleges served by
+the Newman Clubs and similar organizations, and of Jewish students by
+the Menorah Society. The religion of college students has become less
+a matter of form and speech and more a matter of service--social
+service of many kinds at home and missionary service abroad.
+
+=Physical education=
+
+The educational reformers of Europe in the late eighteenth and early
+nineteenth centuries placed great emphasis upon a more complete
+physical training. This interest was felt in the United States, and
+simple gymnastic apparatus was set up at Harvard and Yale in 1826. The
+movement spread very slowly, however, due probably to ignorance of its
+real physiological import. Since the Civil War the development of the
+gymnastic system has been rapid, and now practically every first-class
+college has its gymnasium, attendance upon which is compulsory, and
+some have their stadium and natatorium. Of independent origin but
+hastened by the spread of the gymnasium is the vast athletic interest
+of undergraduates. Its earliest form, conducted on a considerable
+scale, was rowing. The first rowing club was formed at Yale in 1843,
+and the first intercollegiate race was rowed on Lake Winnepesaukee in
+1852, Harvard defeating Yale. Rowing is now a form of athletics at
+every college where facilities permit. The first baseball nine was
+formed at Princeton in 1859, and the game spread rapidly to all the
+other colleges. Football in a desultory and unorganized way made its
+appearance early in the nineteenth century. As early as 1840 an annual
+game was played at Yale between the freshmen and the sophomores, but
+the establishment of a regular football association dates from 1872,
+also at Yale. In the following year an intercollegiate organization
+was formed, and since then football has increased in popularity at the
+colleges to such an extent that just as baseball has become the great
+national game, so has football become the great American collegiate
+game. Track athletics is the most recent form of athletic sports to be
+introduced into the college, and most colleges now have their field
+days. In addition to these four major forms of college sports, tennis,
+lacrosse, basketball, and swimming also have a prominent place. The
+four major sports are usually under the control of special athletic
+associations, which spend large sums of money and have a great
+influence with the students. In fact, so great has become the interest
+of college students in athletics that much fear has been expressed
+about its influence upon scholastic work, and voices are not lacking
+demanding its curtailment.[1] Military training is a phase of physical
+education which, though it had earlier found a place in the land-grant
+institutions, came to the fore as a part of the colleges' contribution
+to winning the world war. Students' Army Training Corps were
+established at many of the higher institutions of the country, and the
+academic studies were made to correlate with the military work as a
+nucleus. At the present time, however, the colleges are putting their
+work back on a pre-war basis, and it seems most unlikely that military
+training will survive as a corporate part of their work.
+
+=Student literary activities--College journalism=
+
+Journalism, though its actual performance is limited to a small number
+of students, has had an honored place as an undergraduate activity for
+almost a hundred years. It served first as a means of developing
+literary ability among the students, afterwards as a vehicle for
+college news, and now there has been added to these purposes the
+uniting of alumni and undergraduates. Hence we find among college
+journals dailies, monthlies, and quarterlies, some of them humorous
+and some with a serious literary purpose. Journalism is not the only
+method of expressing undergraduate thought. There has been a great
+revival of intracollegiate and of intercollegiate debating in recent
+years. Literary societies for debating the great issues preceding the
+Revolution was the first development of undergraduate life, and every
+college before and after the Revolution had strong societies. As
+undergraduate interests increased in number, and especially as the
+fraternity system began to spread, debating societies assumed a
+relatively less important place, but in the past two decades great
+interest has been revived in them. The glee club, or choral society,
+along with the college orchestra, minister to the specialized
+interests of some students, and the dramatic association to those of
+others. One significant result of such activities has been to
+establish a nexus between the college and community life.
+
+=Student self-government=
+
+One other feature of undergraduate life cannot be overlooked; viz.,
+student self-government. The college student today is two or three
+years older than was his predecessor of fifty or sixty years ago.
+Moreover, with the great increase in the number of students has come a
+parallel increase in complexity of administration and in the duties of
+the college professor. Finally, a sounder psychology has taught the
+wisdom of placing in the hands of the students the control of many
+activities which they can supervise better than the faculty. As a
+result of these and of other influences, in many colleges today all
+extra-scholastic activities are either supervised by the student
+council, the members of which are elected by the students, or by a
+joint body of student and faculty members. The effect in almost every
+instance has been the diminution of friction between the faculty and
+students and the development of better relations between them. In some
+colleges the honor system is found, under which even proctoring at
+examinations does not exist, as all disciplinary matters, including
+the decision in serious offenses like cheating, rest with the student
+council. Student self-government is only one evidence of the
+democratization that has taken place in the administration of the
+college during the past two decades. Even more noticeable than student
+self-government is the tendency recently manifested to transfer more
+of the control of the government of the college from the board of
+trustees to the faculty.
+
+=New opportunities in higher education=
+
+With the extension of commerce and the attempt to bring it under
+efficient organization in the nineteenth century, the demand has been
+made upon the colleges to train experts in this field. Germany was the
+first to engage in it, and just before the war probably led the world.
+France and England have remained relatively indifferent. In America,
+the so-called "business college" proved entirely too narrow in scope,
+and beginning with the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce of the
+University of Pennsylvania (1881), the higher institutions have begun
+to train for this important field. Some of the colleges of commerce,
+like those of Dartmouth and Harvard, demand extensive liberal
+preparation; others, like Wharton and the schools connected with the
+state universities, coordinate their liberal and vocational work; a
+few, like that of New York University, give almost exclusive attention
+to the practical element.
+
+Two other movements might be mentioned as illustrating the attempt to
+extend the opportunity for higher education to an ever increasing
+number of people. One is the development of extension courses and the
+other the offering of evening work to those who cannot attend the
+regular sessions. These are both steps in the direction of equality
+of opportunity which is the ultimate aim of education in a democratic
+country.
+
+=The future of the college in American education--Relation to secondary
+schools=
+
+The college preceded the high school in time, and when the high school
+began its career in the middle of the nineteenth century it was made
+tributary to the college in all essentials. By deciding requirements
+for admission, the college practically prescribed the curriculum of
+the high school; by conducting examinations itself it practically
+determined methods of teaching in the high school. But a remarkable
+change in these respects has taken place in the past two decades. The
+high school, which is almost omnipresent in our country, has attained
+independence and today organizes its curricula without much reference
+to the college. If there be any domination in college entrance
+requirements today, it is rather the high school that dominates. Over
+a large part of the country, especially in states maintaining state
+universities, there are now no examinations for entrance to college.
+The college accepts all graduates of _accredited_ high schools--i.e.,
+high schools that the state university decides maintain proper
+secondary standards. This growth in strength and independence has been
+accompanied by a lengthening of the high school course from two years
+in the middle of the last century to four years at the present time.
+
+=The junior college=
+
+With the introduction of the principle of promotion by subject instead
+of by class, the strong high schools have been enabled to undertake to
+teach subjects in their last years which were formerly taught in the
+first years of the college. They have done this so well that the
+practice has grown up in some parts of the country, especially on the
+Pacific Coast, of extending the course of the high school to six years
+and of completing in them the work of the first two years of college.
+This enables more young men and women throughout the state to receive
+collegiate education, and as the best-equipped teachers in the high
+schools are usually in the last years and the worst-equipped teachers
+in the college are usually in the first years, the system makes for
+better education. Moreover, it relieves the state universities of the
+crowds of students in the first two years and permits overworked
+professors to concentrate upon the advanced work of the last two years
+and upon research work in the graduate schools. A system which offers
+so many advantages and is so popular both in the high school and the
+university bids fair to spread.
+
+=The abbreviated and condensed college course=
+
+While the movement making for the elimination of the college from
+below has been taking place in the West, another movement having the
+same effect has been taking place in the East, only the pressure has
+been from above. The tendency is spreading for the professional
+schools of the strong universities to demand a college degree for
+admission. If the full four years of the college are demanded in
+addition to the four years of the secondary school and the eight years
+of the elementary school, the great majority of students will begin
+their professional education at twenty-two and their professional
+careers at twenty-six, and they will hardly be self-supporting before
+thirty. This seems an unreasonably long period of preparation compared
+to that required in other progressive countries. The German student,
+for example, begins his professional studies immediately upon
+graduation from the gymnasium at eighteen. Hence the demand has arisen
+for a shortening of the college course. This demand has been met in
+several ways. In some colleges the courses have been arranged in such
+a way that the bright and industrious student may complete the work
+required for graduation in three years. In others, as at Harvard, the
+student may elect in his senior year the studies of the first year of
+the professional school. Another tendency in the same direction is to
+permit students in the junior and even in the sophomore years to elect
+subjects of a vocational nature. This has been bitterly contested by
+those who hold that the minimum essentials of liberal culture should
+be acquired before vocational specialization begins. Columbia
+_permits_ a student to complete his college and professional studies
+in six years, and at the end of that time he receives both the
+bachelor's and the professional degrees.
+
+It is to be noted, however, that these solutions of the problem and,
+in fact, most other solutions that have been suggested, apply only to
+a college connected with a university; they could not be administered
+in the independent college. But a movement has developed in the Middle
+West which may result in another solution; i.e., the Junior College.
+It can be best understood by reference to the policy of the University
+of Chicago. That institution divides its undergraduate course into two
+parts: a Junior College of two years, the completion of whose course
+brings with it the title of Associate in Arts, and a Senior College of
+two years, the completion of whose course is rewarded with the regular
+bachelor's degree. There have become affiliated with the University of
+Chicago a considerable number of colleges throughout the Mississippi
+Valley which have frankly become Junior Colleges and confine their
+work to the freshman and sophomore years. And this has become true of
+other universities. It would seem inevitable that the bachelor's
+degree will finally be granted at the end of the Junior College and
+some other degree, perhaps the master's, which has an anomalous place
+in American education in any case, at the end of the Senior College.
+This has, in fact, been suggested by President Butler. The University
+of Chicago has also struck out in another new direction. Provided a
+certain amount of work is done in residence at the University, the
+remainder may be completed _in absentia_, i.e., through
+correspondence courses.
+
+The Junior College movement has had the excellent result of inducing
+many weak colleges to confine their work to what they really can
+afford to do. Many parts of our country have a surplus of colleges,
+chiefly denominational. Ohio alone has more than fifty. The cost of
+maintaining dormitories, laboratories, libraries, apparatus, and other
+equipment and paying respectable salaries cannot be met by the tuition
+fees in any college. The college must either have a large
+income-producing endowment, which few have, or must receive gifts
+sufficient to meet expenses. Gifts to colleges and universities form
+one of the finest evidences of interest in higher education in the
+United States, and reach really colossal proportions. In the past
+fifty years, during which this form of generosity has prevailed, over
+600 million dollars have been given, and in 1914 gifts from private
+sources amounted to more than 30 million dollars. Most of this money
+is given to the non-sectarian institutions and not to the small
+denominational colleges scattered over the country. As they are in
+addition unable to compete with the state universities, they are for
+every reason justified in becoming Junior Colleges. But this does not
+apply to the old independent colleges, such as Amherst, Williams,
+Dartmouth, etc., which have loyal and wealthy alumni associations.
+They have the support necessary to retain the four-year course and
+seem determined to do so.
+
+Just what the outcome of the whole question of shortening the college
+course may be is not now evident. That concessions in time must be
+made to the demand for an earlier beginning of professional education
+seems certain. That the saving should be made in the college course is
+not so certain. A sounder pedagogy seems to indicate that one year, if
+not two, can be saved in the period from the sixth to the eighteenth
+year. It is probable that the arbitrary division of American education
+into elementary, secondary, collegiate, and university, each with a
+stated number of years, will give way to a real unification of the
+educational process. Most Americans would regret to see the college,
+the unique product of American education, which has had such an
+honorable part in the development of our civilization, disappear in
+the unifying process.
+
+                                          STEPHEN PIERCE DUGGAN
+  _College of the City of New York_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+The bibliography on the American college is almost inexhaustible. The
+list here given is confined to the best books that have appeared since
+1900.
+
+ANGELL, J. B. _Selected Addresses._ New York, 1912.
+
+Association of American Universities. Proceedings of the Annual
+Conference.
+
+BUTLER, N. M. _Education in the United States._ New York, 1900.
+
+CATTELL, J. M. _University Control._ New York, 1913.
+
+CRAWFORD, W. H. (editor). _The American College._ New York, 1915.
+(Papers by Faunce, Shorey, Haskins, Rhees, Thwing, Finley, Few,
+Slocum, Meiklejohn, Claxton.)
+
+Cyclopedia of Education, article on "American College." New York,
+1911.
+
+DEXTER, E. G. _History of Education in the United States._ New York,
+1904.
+
+DRAPER, A. S. _American Education._ Boston, 1909.
+
+FLEXNER, A. _The American College: A Criticism._ General Education
+Board, New York, 1908.
+
+FOSTER, W. T. _Administration of the College Curriculum._ Boston,
+1911.
+
+HARPER, W. R. _The Trend in Higher Education._ Chicago, 1905.
+
+KINGSLEY, C. D. _College Entrance Requirements._ United States Bureau
+of Education, 1913.
+
+MACLEAN, G. E. _Present Standards of Higher Education in the United
+States._ United States Bureau of Education, 1913.
+
+National Association of State Universities in the United States of
+America. Annual Transactions and Proceedings.
+
+RISK, R. K. _America at College._ London, 1908.
+
+SNOW, L. F. _College Curriculum in the United States._ New York, 1907.
+
+THWING, C. F. _History of Higher Education in the United States._ New
+York, 1906.
+
+---- _The American College; What It Is and What It May Become._ New
+York, 1914.
+
+---- _College Administration._ New York, 1900.
+
+WEST, A. F. _Short Papers on American Liberal Education._ New York,
+1907.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] W. T. Foster in N.E.A. Reports, 1915.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR COLLEGE TEACHING
+
+
+=Introduction=
+
+Were this chapter to be a discussion of schemes of training, now in
+operation, that had been devised to prepare teachers for colleges, it
+could not be written, for there are no such schemes. Many elementary
+and secondary teachers have undergone training for their life work, as
+investigators have, by a different regimen, of course, for theirs. But
+if college and university teachers do their work well, it is because
+they are born with competence for their calling, or were self-taught,
+or happened to grow into competence accidentally, as a by-product of
+training for other and partly alien ends, or learned to teach by
+teaching.
+
+There are able college men, presidents and others, who view this
+situation with equanimity, if not with satisfaction. Teachers are
+born, not made, it is said. Can pedagogy furnish better teachers than
+specialized scholarly training? it is asked. If we train definitely
+for teaching, we shall diminish scholarship, cramp and warp native
+teaching faculty, and mechanize our class procedure, it is objected.
+
+Had the subject of training for college teaching been discussed, no
+doubt other objections would have been advanced. But it has not been
+discussed, as will be seen from the very scant bibliography at the end
+of the chapter. No plan of training for college teaching is in
+operation, and no discussion of such a plan can be found. Each of a
+half-dozen men has argued his individual views, and elicited no reply.
+
+This state of facts notwithstanding, the subject is well worth
+discussing, and one may even venture to prophesy that in a decade, or
+at latest two, the subject will have a respectable literature, and
+enough training plans will be in operation to permit fruitful
+comparisons.
+
+When specific training is first urged for specialized work, there
+always is opposition. The outgoing generation remembers the opposition
+to specialized training for law, medicine, and engineering, to say
+nothing of farming, school teaching and business. But in spite of
+obstructive and retarding objections, specialized types of training
+for specialized types of work have grown in number and favor, and
+today we are being shown convincingly that nations which have declined
+to set up the fundamental types of special training find themselves
+able to make effective only a fraction of their resources. The
+majority of the personnel in every higher calling has about average
+native aptitude for it, and it is just the average man who can be
+improved in competence for any work by training directed to that end
+rather than to another. This is, of course, true of college teaching.
+
+=How the college teacher has been and is trained=
+
+In early days in this country the great majority of college teachers
+were clergymen, trained in most cases abroad. Later bookish graduates
+came to be the chief source of supply, their appointment in their own
+colleges, and infrequently in others, following close upon their
+graduation. Well into the third quarter of last century college
+faculties were selected almost exclusively from these two types,
+representatives of the former decreasing and of the latter increasing
+in relative number. Neither type was specifically trained for teaching
+in colleges or elsewhere.
+
+With the founding and developing of Johns Hopkins University a new era
+in higher education opened in this country. The paucity of exact
+scholarship came to be known, and the country's need of scholarship to
+be appreciated. In colleges grown from English seedlings we sought to
+implant grafts from German universities. Independent colleges and
+colleges within universities, while still called upon by American
+traditions and needs to prepare their students for enlightened living
+by means of a broadening and liberating training, came to be manned
+preponderatingly by narrowly specialized investigators, withdrawn from
+everyday life, with concentrated interests focused upon subjects or
+parts of subjects, rather than upon students. Little thought was, or
+is yet, given to the preparation of college teachers for their duties
+as teachers, and that little rested, and still in large measure rests,
+satisfied with the assumption that by some unexplained and it may be
+inexplicable transfer of competence a man closeted and intensively
+trained to search for truth in books and laboratories emerges after
+three or more years well equipped for divining and developing the
+mental processes and interests of freshmen.
+
+Once fairly examined, this assumption lacks plausibility. "We consider
+the Ph.D. a scholar's degree and not a teacher's degree," says the
+dean of one of our leading graduate schools, and yet preparation for
+this scholar's degree has been and is practically the only formal
+preparation open to college teachers in this country.
+
+=Equipment needed by college teachers=
+
+It goes without saying that scholarship is one of the basal needs of
+college teachers, a scholarship that keeps alive, and is human and
+contagious. But it should be remembered that there are several kinds
+of scholarship, and it is pertinent to ask what kind college teachers
+need. Should they, for instance, model themselves on the broad
+shrewdness and alluring scholarly mellowness of James Russell Lowell
+or on the untiring encyclopedic exactitude and minuteness of Von
+Helmholz? Or is there an even better ideal or ideals _for them_? I
+would suggest that the teacher's knowledge of his subject should,
+essentially, be of a kind that would keep him in intellectual sympathy
+with the undeveloped minds of his students, and this means chiefly two
+things. The more points of contact of his knowledge with the past
+experience and future plans of his students the teacher has at his
+command, the better teacher he will be; for he can use them, not as
+resting places, but as points of departure for the development of
+phases of his subject outside the students' experience. And secondly,
+the teacher should see his subject entire, with its parts, as rich in
+number and detail as possible, each in its proper place within the
+whole. For the students' knowledge of the subject is vague and
+general; he is trying to place it, and many other new things, in some
+kind of a coherent setting; in fact, he is in college largely for the
+very purpose of working out some sort of rudimentary scheme of things.
+The duty of the college teacher is to help him in this quite as much
+as to teach him a particular subject. And, besides, each particular
+subject can be best taught if advantage is taken of every opportunity
+to attach it to the only knowledge of it the student has, vague and
+general though it be. Highly specialized and dehumanized knowledge is
+not as useful for the college teacher as broad and vital knowledge,
+which is, of course, much harder to acquire. Even in the case of
+"disciplinary" subjects, there is no gain in concealing the human
+bearings. The teacher should be trained to seize opportunities in the
+classroom and out to help the student, through his subject and his
+maturer life experience, to see the bearing of what he is learning on
+the life about him and on the life he is to lead. This is the college
+teacher's richest opportunity and the opportunity that tries him most
+shrewdly. If he is to rise to it, his entire equipment, native and
+acquired, must come into play.
+
+What else does the teacher need? So that he may select the best and
+continue to improve them, he needs a knowledge of the different
+methods and aims in the teaching of his subject, and, so far as
+possible, of the results attained by each. Too much of college
+teaching is a blind groping, chartless and without compass. Instead of
+expecting each inexperienced teacher to start afresh, he should set
+out armed with the epitomized and digested teaching experience of
+those that have gone before him.
+
+Finally, the teacher needs a sympathetic and expert understanding of
+the thinking and feeling of college students. This should be his
+controlling interest. The teacher, his interest in his subject, and in
+all else except the student, should be instrumental, not final. Every
+available strand of continuity between studenthood and teacherhood
+should thereafter be preserved.
+
+This need suggests a capital weakness of the training for the
+doctorate in philosophy as a preparation for teaching. As it proceeds
+it shifts the interest from undergraduate student to scholarly
+specialty, and steadily snaps the ties that bound the budding
+investigator to his college days. It also explains the greatness of
+some college teachers and personalities before the eighties. Their
+degrees in arts were their licenses to teach. They suffered no drastic
+loss of touch with undergraduate thought and life. In the early years
+of their teaching this sympathetic and kindly understanding was fresh
+and strong, and they used it in their classroom and wove it into the
+tissue of their tutorial activities. A discerning observer of college
+faculties can even today discover in them men and women who entered
+them by the same door as these great ones of old, irregularly as we
+would say now,--without the hallmark, and whose good teaching is a
+surprise to their doctored colleagues. In one institution I know of,
+the best five teachers some years ago were all of this type. The
+training of college teachers might well, it therefore seems, include
+an apprenticeship, beginning with, or in exceptional cases before,
+graduation from college.
+
+=The college legislator and administrator=
+
+But the duties and opportunities of the college teacher do not stop at
+the door leading from his classroom. In addition to dealing directly
+with students, individually and in groups, and even, if possible, with
+their families, as he grows in service he becomes, as faculty member
+and committeeman, a college legislator and administrator. In
+exercising these important functions he needs the equipment that would
+aid him to take the central point of view, a background of scholarly
+knowledge of what education in general and college education in
+particular are in their methods and in their social functions and
+purposes. There is too much departmental logrolling, as well as too
+much beating of the air in faculty meetings, and too many excursions
+into the blue in faculty legislation and administration arrangements.
+The educational views of faculty members greatly need to be steadied,
+ordered, and appreciably broadened and deepened by a developed and
+trained habit of thinking educationally under the safeguards of
+scientific method and on the basis of an adequate supply of facts.
+That pedagogy has made but the smallest beginning of gathering and
+ordering such facts and developing a scientific method in this field
+is not a valid objection. These tasks are no more difficult than
+others that have been compared, as _they_ will be, the sooner for
+being imposed.
+
+It is significant that coincident with sharp and widespread criticism
+of the American college (justified in part by what college teachers
+have been made into by their training), appear demands on the part of
+faculties for more power. In this connection it may be remembered that
+autocracy is the simplest and easiest form of government, and that
+history shows that it can at least be made to work with less brains
+and training than are required for the working of democracy. As
+American colleges and universities have grown in complexity and
+responsibility, their faculties have lost power because they did not
+acquire the larger competence that was the indispensable condition of
+even reasonably successful democratic control. It is highly desirable
+that the power of faculties should increase to the point of
+preponderance. But the added power they will probably acquire will not
+be retained unless faculty members learn their business much better
+than they now know it in most institutions. Thomas Jefferson, when
+asked which would come to dominate, the states or the federal
+government, replied that in the long run each of the opposed pair
+would prevail in the functions in which it proved the more competent.
+
+=A tentative scheme of training for college teachers=
+
+To outline a scheme of such importance without any experience to
+examine as a basis is a very bold undertaking, and one that can hope
+for but partial success. What I shall propose, however, is similar to
+the proposals of Pitkin (5), Horne (11), and Wolfe (14), my only
+predecessors in this rash enterprise. The general spirit and purpose
+of our proposals are the same. But we disagree more or less in
+details--which is fortunate, as it may encourage discussion of the
+subject, which is the thing most needed. Indeed, a lively sense of
+this need has led me to venture some unpopular assertions. It may also
+be admitted that the desiderata for teachers mentioned above are not
+likely to be all insured by any system of training.
+
+The proposal submitted for discussion is that a three-year graduate
+course be established, its spirit and purpose being to train young men
+to become _college_ teachers. This course should lead to a doctorate;
+e.g., to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, or of Doctor of
+Philosophy in Teaching, or of Docendi Doctor. What degree is selected
+is, in the long run, relatively unimportant, provided the course is
+soundly conducive to its end.
+
+The course might well be divided into three parts, having the
+approximate relative value in time and effort of two fifths, two
+fifths, and one fifth. These parts should proceed simultaneously
+throughout the three years, the first being an apprenticeship--under
+supervision, of course--in the functions of the college teacher, the
+second a broad course of study and investigation of the subject to be
+taught, and the third a course of pedagogical study and investigation.
+Let me suggest a minimum of detail within these outlines.
+
+The apprentice teacher would, naturally, do the least classroom
+teaching during his first year, and the most during his last. He would
+also each year "advise" a group of freshman in studies and in life, or
+cooperate with students in the conduct of athletics, dramatics,
+publication work, or other "activities." On all this apprentice work
+he would report, and in all he would be guided and supervised
+appropriately by the department whose subject he was teaching, by the
+department of education, and by other departments concerned. This and
+other parts of the training would attract others in addition to
+narrowly bookish graduates, something much to be desired (other parts
+would eliminate those not bookish enough), and would tend to keep
+alive in all apprentices an interest in students, especially in
+student character, and to prevent them from thinking of students as
+disembodied minds.
+
+The course of study and investigation in the subject to be taught
+should be based on adequate undergraduate work in the same and allied
+fields, and should be something like the honor course in Oxford or
+Cambridge (or our _old_ M.A. course) in its conduct and purpose; it
+should hark back to our collegiate origin in England. The work should
+be in charge of a don, a widely and wisely read and a very human
+guide, philosopher, and friend. Stated class meetings and precise
+count of hours of attendance should receive little emphasis. But wide
+reading of the subject, in a spirit that breeds contagion, running off
+into a study, in books, laboratories, and meetings, of the human and
+practical bearings of the subject, should be required, and enough
+conference with the don should be had to enable him to judge and
+criticize the student's plan and amount of work, to test his mettle in
+handling the subject, and to aid him to grasp it as a whole and in its
+chief subdivisions, and to get glimpses of its bearings on and place
+in human life. This part of the training should lead up to and
+culminate in a thesis dealing with some major phase of the subject
+comprehendingly in its setting and connections. Naturally this program
+could be carried out most successfully with the social subjects, which
+lend themselves easily to culture, like history or philosophy, and
+less completely with the exact subjects, which are better fitted for
+precise discipline, like mathematics. But if treated, as far as
+possible, after the manner indicated, even the latter could be made
+better instruments for the training of college teachers than they are
+now in narrow specialization for the Ph.D. degree. Among returning
+Rhodes scholars some excellent material for dons could be found.
+
+The fifth of the course directed to pedagogy should include a very
+brief study of the methods of teaching the chosen subject, with
+glimpses into teaching methods in general; and courses in the history
+and philosophy of education, with emphasis on, but by no means
+exclusive dealing with, the educational and social functions of the
+college. It might include an intensive investigation of some
+relatively simple college problem in preparation for future faculty
+membership. All this should, of course, be intimately articulated with
+the student's apprenticeship work. Such a course of pedagogical study
+should furnish a basis for better teaching methods and for helpful
+self-criticism therein; should encourage the formation of a habit of
+thinking and working out educational problems scientifically with eyes
+open to the purpose of the college as a whole; and should discourage
+departmental selfishness in legislation and administration.
+
+=Incidental advantage=
+
+The college would, under this plan, have some of its teaching done at
+minimum cost by student teachers, who should receive only the graduate
+scholarship or fellowship now customary for Ph. D. candidates. Care
+would be necessary to prevent the assignment to them of mere routine
+hackwork without training value. It is safe to say that, though
+slightly less mature, their services, being supervised, would be more
+valuable than those rendered during their first few years of teaching
+by most better-paid winners of the doctorate of philosophy, who, if
+they do so at all, grope their way to usefulness as teachers, with
+little aid from others more experienced.
+
+With good teaching prepared for, required, and adequately rewarded (a
+point to be developed later), somewhat longer schedules could properly
+be assigned and further economy effected. Schedules would, of course,
+have to be kept short enough to allow ample time for reading, for some
+writing, and for faculty and committee work in later years. But time
+would not be required by _college_ teachers for specialized research,
+and the freedom from such tasks resulting for them would be a blessed
+relief to many who are now compelled to assume a virtue they have not,
+and to conceal the love of teaching they have. And when we bear in
+mind the heavy mass of uninspired and unimportant hackwork that is now
+dumped on the scholarly world, we shall welcome the prospect of a
+lightened burden for ourselves.
+
+The need of students, especially of freshmen, for advisers is widely
+recognized. They come into a new freedom exercised in a new
+environment. This makes for bewilderment that involves loss of
+precious time and opportunities, and presents perils which involve
+possible injuries to many and certain injuries to some. Efforts, many
+and various, to constitute a body of advisers chosen from among
+faculty members have met with but little success. With few exceptions
+the task is not congenial to those who now man our faculties, and for
+that and other reasons they are ill fitted for it. But a greater
+measure of success has been attained, even under present conditions,
+when the cooperation of volunteers from among seniors and graduate
+students has been had. This suggests that the problem might come
+nearer solution when some dependence came to be placed upon the
+services of apprentices. Such service would be a part of their regular
+work having a bearing on their future career, and would therefore be
+supervised and rest on sustained interest and the consciousness that
+it was counting.
+
+Finally, young student teachers would, under proper encouragement and
+arrangement, help materially to bridge the gulf, that is broader than
+is wholesome, between a faculty of mature men and young students. The
+mixing of these different generations, so far as possible, is much to
+be desired, difficult as it is to accomplish.
+
+=Consequent change of plan in appointments and promotions=
+
+This is not the place to discuss the details of appointment and
+promotion plans, interesting and important as they are. But it is
+evident that the scheme of training outlined, if adopted, would call
+for changes in present practices.
+
+The appointing authorities of colleges looking for young teachers
+could ascertain their strong and weak points as they developed during
+their apprenticeship in classrooms and in other educational
+activities, as well as the quality and trend of their scholarship.
+They would not rest satisfied with ascertaining the minute corner of
+the field of philosophy, history, or physics in which a man
+recommended had done research. Records could be kept throwing
+much-needed light on the teaching ability, scholarship, and
+personality of candidates for appointment. In selecting _college_
+teachers, appointing authorities would value this evidence and would
+come to prefer teaching power to investigating ability.
+
+Moreover, the record keeping, and, no doubt, some of the supervision
+begun during the apprentice years would continue during the early
+instructorial years. This would render it possible to evaluate and to
+value effectiveness in teaching in making promotions. Ambitious
+teachers would no longer be practically forced, as their only resort,
+to neglect their students and give their best energies to publication
+in order to make a name and get a call, in the interest of promotion.
+The expert teacher would have a chance and a dignity equal to that of
+the skilled investigator. The individual could follow, and not be
+penalized for so doing, his own bent and the line of his highest
+capacity.
+
+=Training of investigators=
+
+The training now given in graduate schools here and elsewhere for the
+doctorate in philosophy will, of course, continue, and increase rather
+than diminish. Investigators will be preferred in research, in
+universities, and in some colleges and college departments. They will
+be increasingly prized in the government service and in important
+branches of industry. The recent terrible experiences burn into our
+minds the imperative need strong nations have of exact knowledge and
+of skill that has a scientific edge. And the specific training for
+these great tasks will be stronger when it is based on a college
+course in which highly effective and whole-hearted teaching is valued
+and rewarded.
+
+                                                SIDNEY E. MEZES
+  _College of the City of New York_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+ANONYMOUS. Confessions of One Behind the Times. _Atlantic_, Vol. 3,
+pages 353-356, March, 1913.
+
+CANBY, H. S. The Professor. _Harpers_, April, 1913.
+
+Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bulletin No. 2,
+May, 1908, pages 55-57.
+
+FLEXNER, ABRAHAM. Adjusting the College to American Life. _Science_,
+Vol. 29, pages 361-372.
+
+HANDSCHIN, C. H. Inbreeding in the Instructional Corps of American
+Colleges and Universities. _Science_, Vol. 32, pages 707-709.
+November, 1910.
+
+HOLLIDAY, CARL. Our "Doctored" Colleges. _School and Society_, Vol. 2,
+pages 782-784. November 27, 1915.
+
+HORNE, HERMAN H. The Study of Education by Prospective College
+Instructors. _School Review_, Vol. 16, March, 1908, pages 162-170.
+
+PITKIN, W. B. Training College Teachers. _Popular Science_, Vol. 74,
+pages 588-595. June, 1909.
+
+Report of the Committee on Standards of American Universities.
+_Science_, Vol. 29, page 172. November 17, 1908.
+
+ROBINSON, MABEL L. Need of Supervision in College Teaching. _School
+and Society_, Vol. 2, pages 514-519, October 9, 1915.
+
+SANDERSON, E. D. Definiteness of Appointment and Tenure. _Science_,
+Vol. 39, pages 890-896, June, 1914.
+
+STEWART, Charles A. Appointment and Promotion of College Instructors.
+_Educational Review_, Vol. 44, 1912, pages 249-256.
+
+WILCZYNSKI, E. J. Appointments in College and Universities. _Science_,
+February 28, 1909; Vol. 29, pages 336ff.
+
+WOLFE, A. B. The Graduate School, Faculty Responsibility, and the
+Training of University Teachers. _School and Society_, September 16,
+1916.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COLLEGE TEACHING
+
+=Status of teaching in the colleges=
+
+The investigator of educational practices and methods of teaching is
+impressed with an unmistakable educational anti-climax, for the
+conviction grows on him that elementary school teaching is on a
+relatively high plane, that secondary school teaching is not as
+effective, and that collegiate teaching, with rare exceptions, is
+ineffective and in urgent need of reform. A superficial survey of
+educational literature of the last ten years shows that while the
+problem of the high school is now receiving earnest attention,
+elementary education continues to absorb the earnest efforts of an
+army of vitally interested investigators. The field of college
+pedagogics is still virgin soil, and no significant or extensive
+program for improved methods of teaching has yet been advanced.
+
+Three earnest and intelligent students representing three colleges of
+undisputed standing were asked informally about their instructors for
+the current semester. Nothing was said to make these students aware
+that their judgment would hold any significance beyond the friendly
+conversation. The summary of opinions is offered, not because the
+investigation is complete and affords a basis for scientific
+conclusion, but because it reflects typical college teaching in three
+recognized institutions of more than average standing.
+
+
+    STUDENT NO. I       |     STUDENT NO. II     |  STUDENT NO. III
+                        |                        |
+ _Teacher A_: A popular | _Teacher A_: A good    | _Teacher A_: A very
+ and interesting        | teacher of mathematics.| popular teacher of
+ teacher. Talks         | He assigns a new lesson| English. If the final
+ enthusiastically, but  | for home study. The    | examination is given
+ talks all the time.    | next day he asks       | by another teacher, I
+ Lessons assigned are   | questions on the       | may not have enough
+ not heard. Students    | lesson. The answers are| specific facts to
+ seldom recite. Written | written out on the     | pass. We began Chaucer
+ quizzes on themes of   | blackboards. After     | last week. He spent a
+ assigned reading are   | fifteen minutes all    | good part of each
+ rated by an assistant. | students take their    | session reading to us.
+ The work comes back    | seats and the work on  | All of us were
+ with an A, a C, or a D,| the blackboard is taken| surprised to find how
+ but we do not know why | up for explanation. He | much more the text
+ the rating was given.  | explains every         | meant than after our
+ Frequently two students| difficulty very        | own reading. In the
+ who worked together are| clearly. We rarely     | last session we went
+ marked B and D         | cover the lesson. Some | to our book on
+ respectively for the   | topics go unexplained  | literature and tried
+ same work. Sometimes a | because during the next| to justify the
+ a student who "cribbed"| hour the blackboard    | characterization which
+ his outline from       | problems are based on  | the author gives of
+ another who actually   | the lesson. If I       | Chaucer. The class
+ "worked it up" receives| understood the second  | agreed with all in the
+ a higher mark than was | half of each lesson as | book except in one
+ given for the original.| clearly as the first,  | characterization. In
+                        | I would feel hopeful   | the composition work we
+                        | of a good grade in the | took up the structure
+                        |  final examination.    | of short narratives.
+                        |                        | The assignment was to
+                        |                        | find narratives in
+                        |                        | current periodicals,
+                        |                        | in the writings of
+                        |                        | standard authors, in
+                        |                        | newspapers, and then
+                        |                        | attempt to find whether
+                        |                        | the structure we
+                        |                        | studied was followed.
+                        |                        | In each case we had to
+                        |                        | justify any departure
+                        |                        | from the standard.
+                        |                        | There was little time
+                        |                        | for the footnotes in
+                        |                        | Chaucer. I hope we are
+                        |                        | not asked for these on
+                        |                        | the final examination.
+                        |                        |
+                        |                        |
+ _Teacher B_: Rather an | _Teacher B_: A dry     | _Teacher B_: A very
+ interesting teacher;   | course in Art History  | conscientious teacher
+ assigns lessons from a | and Appreciation. We   | of chemistry. He gives
+ book. At the beginning | take up the history of | us a ten-minute written
+ of the hour he asks    | architecture, painting,| quiz each hour on the
+ questions on the text  | and sculpture. The     | work in the book or on
+ but is soon carried    | names of the best      | the matter discussed in
+ away and rambles along | artists are mentioned, | the last lecture. The
+ for the period,        | and their many works   | rest of the hour is
+ touching on every      | confuse us. We memorize| spent in explanation of
+ subject. We never      | Praxiteles, Phidias,   | difficult points and in
+ complete a chapter or  | Myron, the ancient     | the application of what
+ topic. The succeeding  | cairns, the parts of an| we learned of industry
+ hour we take the next  | Egyptian temple.       | and physiology. It is
+ chapter, which meets   | Pictures are shown on  | surprising to see the
+ the same fate. Written | the screen. I elected  | interest the class
+ tests determine the    | this course in the hope| shows in the chemical
+ students' rank. The    | that it would teach me | explanations of things
+ grade for the written  | something about        | we never noticed
+ test is announced, but | pictures, how to judge | before.
+ the papers are not     | them and give me       |
+ returned and one never | standards of beauty,   |
+ knows why the papers   | etc., but it has been  |
+ were rated C or D.     | history and not        |
+                        | appreciation so far.   |
+                        | We do not see any      |
+                        | beauty in the pictures |
+                        | of old madonnas. Even  |
+                        | the religious ones     |
+                        | among us say this.     |
+                        |                        |
+                        |                        |
+ _Teacher C_:           | _Teacher C_: A good,   | _Teacher C_: A scholarly
+ A conscientious teacher| clear, effective       | instructor in history.
+ in physics. He assigns | lecturer in chemistry. | He assigns thirty to
+ a definite lesson for  | Every lesson we learn a| forty pages in English
+ each recitation of the | definite principle and | History, and then he
+ term. At the beginning | its application. The   | lectures to us about
+ of the hour students go| laboratory work of each| the topics discussed by
+ to the board to write  | is related to the      | the author. He points
+ out answers to         | lecture and throws     | out errors in dates and
+ questions on the       | interesting side lights| places. Occasionally he
+ lesson. The hour is    | on it. We have quiz    | calls on a student. At
+ spent listening to the | sections once a week.  | the end of each month
+ recitation of each     | Here the work is oral  | he gives a written test.
+ student and the        | and written.           | We remember little of
+ explanation of         |                        | what we learned and
+ difficult points. We   |                        | must "bone away" at
+ never cover more than  |                        | about 200 to 300 pages.
+ one half of the lesson:|                        | His English is
+ sometimes only one     |                        | delightful and we enjoy
+ third. The next hour   |                        | listening at times,
+ the questions are on   |                        | but I seem to retain
+ the new lesson, not on |                        | so little. "Yes, half
+ the incompleted portion|                        | the term is up. We are
+ of the former lesson.  |                        | beginning the reign of
+ My knowledge of physics|                        | Henry VII."
+ is punctuated by areas |                        |
+ of  ignorance. These   |                        |
+ alternate with topics  |                        |
+ that I think I         |                        |
+ understand clearly.    |                        |
+                        |                        |
+                        |                        |
+ _Teacher D_: A quiet,  | _Teacher D_: A very    | _Teacher D_: A very
+ modest man. Sits back  | strict teacher of      | enthusiastic lecturer
+ comfortably in his seat| English literature. He | in economics. He
+ and asks questions on  | assigns text for study,| explains the important
+ assigned texts. The    | and we must be prepared| principles in
+ questions review the   | for detailed questions | economics. We follow
+ text, and he explains  | on each of the great   | in a printed syllabus,
+ in further detail the  | writers. He is very    | so that it is
+ facts in the book. The | strict and detailed. We| unnecessary to take
+ conscientious and      | had to know all the    | notes. He talks well
+ capable student finds  | fifteen qualities of   | and makes things clear.
+ him superfluous; the   | Macaulay's style. "No, | We are given assignments
+ indifferent student    | we did not read        | in S----'s "Elements of
+ remains unmoved by his | Macaulay this term: we | Economics," on which we
+ phlegmatic             | study from a history of| are questioned by
+ presentation; the poor | English literature that| another teacher. "Is
+ student finds him a    | tells us all about the | the work in the quiz
+ help; the shirk who    | master writers."       | section related directly
+ listens and takes notes|                        | to the lectures?
+ is saved studying at   |                        | Sometimes. No, we do
+ home.                  |                        | not take current
+                        |                        | economic problems. These
+                        |                        | are given in a later
+                        |                        | elective course."
+                        |                        |
+                        |                        |
+ _Teacher E_: A good    | _Teacher E_: A quiet,  | _Teacher E_: An
+ teacher of Latin. He   | dignified gentleman who| instructor in
+ explains the work,     | teaches us psychology. | psychology. His hours
+ hears the lessons,     | A chapter is assigned  | are weary and dreary.
+ gives drills, calls on | in the book, and the   | A chapter is assigned
+ almost everybody every | hour is spent hearing  | in X's "Elements of
+ hour. The written work | students recite on the | Psychology." He asks a
+ is returned properly   | text. He sticks closely| question or two and
+ corrected and rated.   | to the book. He        | then repeats what the
+                        | explains clearly when  | author tells us, even
+                        | the book is not clear  | using the illustrations
+                        | or not specific enough.| and diagrams found in
+                        | The hours drag, for the| the text. Sometimes a
+                        | book is good and those | student reads a paper
+                        | who studied the lessons| which he prepared. "No,
+                        | weary at what seems to | we do not get very much
+                        | us needless repetition.| out of these papers
+                        |                        | read by students. But
+                        |                        | then we get just as
+                        |                        | little from the
+                        |                        | instructor. No, we
+                        |                        | never apply the
+                        |                        | psychology to our own
+                        |                        | thinking nor to
+                        |                        | teaching nor to the
+                        |                        | behavior of children
+                        |                        | or adults."
+                        |                        |
+                        |                        |
+ _Teacher F_:  One      | _Teacher F_: A learned | _Teacher F_: A
+ cannot pass judgment on| Latin scholar who is   | forbidding but very
+ this teacher of        | very enthusiastic about| strict Latin teacher.
+ mechanical drawing. He | his specialty. The     | His questions are fast
+ gives out a problem,   | students exhibit       | and numerous and the
+ works a type on the    | cheerful tolerance. He | hesitating student is
+ board, and then        | assigns a given number | lost. He assigns at
+ distributes the plates.| of lines per day. These| least twenty-five per
+ We draw. He helps us   | we prepare at home. In | cent more per lesson
+ when we ask for aid,   | class we give a        | than any other
+ otherwise he walks     | translation in English | instructor. The hour is
+ about the room. I      | that has distorted     | spent in translating,
+ suppose one cannot show| phrases and clauses    | parsing, and quizzing
+ teaching ability in    | lest we be accused of  | on historical and
+ such a subject.        | dishonesty in          | mythological allusions.
+                        | preparation. The rest  | Every "pony" user is
+                        | of the time is spent on| soon caught, because
+                        | questions of syntax,   | he is asked so many
+                        | references, footnotes, | questions on each
+                        | and the identification | sentence. There is a
+                        | of the of the real and | distinct relief when
+                        | mythological characters| the hour is over because
+                        | in the text. The       | he is constantly at you.
+                        | teacher is animated and| "Will I take the next
+                        | effective.             | course in Latin? Not
+                        |                        | unless I must. This is
+                        |                        | prescribed work. It
+                        |                        | can't end too soon for
+                        |                        | me, nor for the others
+                        |                        | in the class."
+
+
+The student of scientific and statistical measurements in education
+may object to attaching any importance to these informal
+characterizations of college teachers by undergraduates. College
+teachers interested in the pedagogical aspects of their subject, and
+college administrators who spend time observing class instruction will
+concede that these young men were not at all unfortunate in their
+teachers. The significance of these characterizations is not that
+college teachers vary in teaching efficiency, but rather that
+inefficient college teaching is general, and that the causes of this
+inefficiency are such as respond readily to simple remedial measures
+very well known to elementary and high school teachers.
+
+=Causes of ineffective college teaching=
+
+It may be well to note the chief causes of ineffective college
+teaching before directing attention to a remedial program:
+
+(a) Many college teachers hold to be true the time-honored fallacy
+that the only equipment for successful teaching is a thorough
+knowledge of the subject. They do not stop to square their belief with
+actual facts. They overlook the examples of their colleagues possessed
+of undisputed scholarship who are failures in the classroom. They fail
+to realize that there are psychological and pedagogical aspects of the
+teaching art which demand careful organization, skilful gradation and
+a happy selection of illustrations intimately related to the lives of
+the students.
+
+(_b_) Closely related to this first cause of ineffective teaching is a
+lack of sympathetic understanding of the student's viewpoint. The
+scholarly teacher, deep in the intricacies and speculations of his
+specialty, is often impatient with the groping of the beginner. He may
+not realize that the student before him, apparently indifferent to the
+most vital aspects of his subject, has potentialities for development
+in it. His interest in his researches and his vision of the
+far-reaching human relations of his subject may blind him to the
+difficulties that beset the path of the beginner.
+
+(_c_) The inferiority of college teaching in many institutions can
+often be traced to the absence of constructive supervision. The
+supervising officer in elementary and secondary schools makes
+systematic visits to the classrooms of young or ineffective teachers,
+observes their work, offers remedial suggestions, and tries to infuse
+a professional interest in the technique of teaching. In the college
+such supervision would usually stir deep resentment. The college
+teacher is, in matters of teaching, a law unto himself. He sees little
+of the actual teaching of his colleagues; they see as little of his.
+His contact with the head of his department, and his departmental and
+faculty meetings, are usually limited to discussions of college policy
+and of the sequence and content of courses. Methods of teaching are
+rarely, if ever, brought up for discussion. The results are
+inevitable. Weaknesses in teaching are perpetuated, while the devices
+and practices of an effective teacher remain unknown to his
+colleagues.
+
+(_d_) A fourth factor which accounts for much of the inefficiency in
+college pedagogics is made the thesis of Dr. Mezes' chapter on "The
+Training of the College Teacher." The college teacher, unlike teachers
+in other grades of an educational system, is expected to teach without
+a knowledge of educational aims and ideals, and without a knowledge of
+the psychological principles which should guide him in his work. The
+prospective college teacher, having given evidence of scholarship
+alone, has intrusted to him, the noisy, expressive, and rapidly
+developing, youth. We set up no standards aside from character and
+scholarship. We do not demand evidence of teaching ability, a
+knowledge of applied psychology and of accepted teaching practices,
+skill in presentation, power of organizing material in graded
+sequence, or ability to frame a series of questions designed to
+stimulate and sustain the self-activity of the pupils. The born
+college teacher remains the successful teacher. The poor college
+teacher finds no agent which tends to raise his teaching to a higher
+level. The temperamentally unfit are not weeded out. But teaching is
+an art, and like all arts it requires conscientious professional
+preparation, the mastery of underlying scientific principles, and
+practice under supervision scrupulous in its attention to technique.
+
+We have here outlined a few of the causes which keep college teaching
+on a low plane. The remedial measures are in each case too obvious to
+mention. It remains for college authorities to formulate a
+well-conceived and adjustable program of means and methods of ridding
+college teaching of those forces which keep it in a discouraging
+state. It is our purpose in the remainder of this chapter not to
+evolve a system of pedagogics, but rather to touch on the most vital
+principles in teaching which must be borne in mind if college teaching
+is to be rendered pedagogically comparable to elementary and secondary
+teaching. We shall confine ourselves to teaching practices which are
+applicable to all subjects in the college curriculum.
+
+
+PRINCIPLES IN COLLEGE TEACHING
+
+=A clearly conceived aim must control all teaching=
+
+One of the very first elements in good teaching is the clear
+recognition of a well-defined aim that gives purpose and direction to
+all that is attempted in a lesson or in a period. The chief cause of
+poor teaching is aimless teaching, in which the sole object seems to
+be to fill the allotted time with talking about the facts of a given
+subject. We sit patiently through a recitation in English literature.
+Act I, Scene 1 of _Hamlet_ had been assigned for home study and is now
+the text for the hour. Questions are asked on the dramatic structure
+of this scene, on versification, on the meaning of words and
+expressions now obsolete, on peculiarities of syntax, and finally a
+question or two on a character portrayal. The bell brings these
+questions to an abrupt end. Ask teacher and students the aim of all
+these questions. To the former, they are means of testing the
+students' knowledge of a variety of facts of language and literature;
+to the latter they mean little, and serve only to repress a living
+interest and appreciation of living literary text. How much more
+effective the hour in English literature would have been if the entire
+act had been assigned with a view to giving the students an insight
+into the dramatic structure of each scene in this act and of the act
+as a whole. All the questions would then bear on dramatic movement, on
+the dramatist's technique, on his way of arousing interest in his
+story, on devices for giving the cause and the development of the
+action. In the opening scene we read:
+
+     _Elsinore. A Platform before the Castle._
+     _Francisco at his post. Enter to him Bernardo._
+
+     BER. Who's there?
+
+     FRAN. Nay, answer me; stand, and unfold yourself.
+
+     BER. Long live the King!
+
+     FRAN. Bernardo?
+
+     BER. He.
+
+     FRAN. You come most carefully upon your hour.
+
+     BER. 'Tis now struck twelve; get thee to bed, Francisco.
+
+     FRAN. For this relief much thanks: 'tis bitter cold. And I am sick
+           at heart.
+
+     BER. Have you had a quiet guard?
+
+Here we see the guard on duty challenged by his relief, a most unusual
+procedure. Why does this experienced guard so far forget the customary
+forms as to challenge the guard on duty? What possible reason can
+there be for this? How would you read the second line? What words must
+be emphasized to show the surprise of the challenged guard? If the
+entire hour were given to the whole of Act I and all the questions
+sought to reveal to the students Shakespeare's power of dramatic
+structure, a definite and lasting impression would be carried away.
+Act I should be assigned again, but with a different aim. The teacher
+now seeks to make clear to the student the dramatist's method of
+character portrayal. A third hour may be spent on certain portions of
+this act in which attention is given to significant facts of language,
+choice of words, or poetic form. When a guiding aim controls, all
+questions, suggestions, explanations, and illustrations tend to create
+in the mind of the pupil a rich and unified impression. Where no
+distinct aim gives direction to the work, the student is confused by a
+variety of facts--isolated facts--that are displaced by another group
+of disjointed bits of information. Aimless teaching leads to mental
+wandering on the part of the student; teaching governed by a definite
+aim leads to mental development and to the acquisition of new
+viewpoints and new power.
+
+=The educational aim vs. the instructional aim=
+
+We must distinguish clearly between the general or educational aim and
+the specific or instructional aim. The former sums up the hope of an
+entire course or an entire subject. In the teaching of literature we
+hope to develop a vital interest in reading, a discriminating taste,
+an enlivened imagination and a quickened perception which enable the
+student to visualize the situations and to acquire the thought on the
+printed page. The instructional aim, however, is much more specific;
+it posits a task that can be accomplished in a very limited time; it
+seeks to give an insight into Shakespeare's mastery of words, or into
+his power of character portrayal, or into his methods of enhancing
+dramatic interest. Each of these two types of aims has its
+unmistakable influence on methods of teaching.
+
+=The variety of aims that may govern teaching=
+
+What aim should we select to guide us in formulating principles of
+collegiate teaching? The question is almost basic, for the selection
+of a proper aim gives color and direction to all our teaching. In
+brief, the aim may be one of the following:
+
+(_a_) _The informational aim._ A given course in chemistry or physics
+may be designed to sum up for the student the vital facts necessary
+for an intelligent comprehension of common phenomena. With such an
+aim, it is obvious that only so much laboratory work will be assigned
+as will give the student a general knowledge of the tools and methods
+of laboratory work; that the major portion of the work will be divided
+into occasional lectures, regular book assignments, and extensive
+applications of knowledge gained to surrounding chemical and physical
+phenomena. A language course may seek to give pupils a stock of words
+designed to develop power to read the language in a very short time.
+Obviously, grammatical work and translations into the mother tongue
+will now be minimized, and those devices which give the eye the power
+to find thought in new symbols will be emphasized. There is no
+standard for determining the relative importance of this informational
+or utilitarian aim when compared to other aims. The significant thing
+is, not so much to discover its relative importance, but, having
+adopted it, to devise methods which clearly tend to bring the students
+to an effective realization of it.
+
+(_b_) _The disciplinary aim._ On the other hand, the controlling aim
+in any subject may be to develop the power to reason about natural
+phenomena, the power to observe, and the power to discriminate between
+vital and inconsequential details. If this be the aim, the assignment
+of subject matter must be reduced, the phenomena studied must be
+submitted in the forms of problems, first-hand observations must be
+made, and students must be led to see the errors in their observations
+and their reasoning. The course which is extensive in subject matter
+and which relies on the lecture method sacrifices mental discipline
+for information. From the teaching point of view, the result of the
+time-honored quarrel between the disciplinists and the utilitarians is
+not so important as the adoption of a definite aim, and the
+formulation of consistent methods of teaching in order to attain that
+aim. Ineffective teaching is not caused by the selection of the one
+aim or of the other, but by systems of instruction devoid of any aim
+at all.
+
+(_c_) _The appreciative or aesthetic aim._ It is obvious that a subject
+may be taught for the power it develops for aesthetic appreciation of
+the arts of life. We have here a legitimate aim of coordinate
+importance with the two preceding ones; and if we adopt it, the vital
+thing in teaching is to allow this appreciative aim to mold all
+instructional effort. It is obvious that a college course in aesthetics
+must be inspirational, must seek to develop a real appreciation of the
+beauty of line, of color and of sound. Such a course must, therefore,
+encourage contact with the products of art, rather than promote the
+study of texts on the history of any of the arts. So, too, courses in
+music or in literature which do not send the student away with an
+intense desire to hear, to see, to feel the masterpieces of music or
+literature must be judged dismal failures. The formalization of an art
+course given to the general student, kills the live material and
+leaves the student himself cold.
+
+(_d_) _The aim to teach technique._ An effective college course may
+select for its aim the development of the technique of a given
+subject. It is obvious that a science course governed by this aim will
+emphasize the laboratory method at the expense of information; that a
+course in the social sciences will seek to cover less ground but will
+develop in the student the power to find facts and use them to
+formulate an intelligent conclusion; that a course in biology will
+minimize names, classifications and structures, but will emphasize
+field and laboratory work and the modes of utilizing the data thus
+discovered. We must repeat the statement made before, that no one can
+set himself up as the final arbiter of the claims of these contending
+aims. They are all vitally necessary for a thorough understanding of
+life's problems. The significant conclusion for teaching is that one
+or more of these aims must be consciously chosen and that content and
+method must be determined by them absolutely. Teaching for the sake of
+teaching consumes time and makes drafts on energy, but it leaves the
+student no richer in power and with no truer understanding.
+
+=Should the aim be modified for varying groups of students?=
+
+It is obvious that no general law can be formulated for the adjustment
+of aims to the needs of students. Teachers have usually found it
+necessary to change the aim, the content, and the method of a course
+according to the needs of different classes of students. In one of our
+colleges science students are required to take two years of Latin. The
+course offered these young men gives the ordinary drill in grammar,
+translation, and analysis of Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil, as well as
+practice in prose composition in which nondescript and disjointed
+English sentences, grammatically correct, are turned into incorrect
+Latin. This description, without any changes whatever, applies also to
+the course given in the introductory years in Latin to students
+specializing in the arts. Even a superficial analysis reveals a
+different set of needs in the two classes of students which can be
+served only by a corresponding difference in content and mode of
+teaching. A student who takes French or German because he wants enough
+mastery of these languages to enable him to read in foreign journals
+about the progress of his specialty must be given a course which
+appeals to the eye and minimizes the grammatical and conversational
+phases of these languages.
+
+There are courses that are foundational and that must therefore be
+governed by an eclectic aim. In the first course in college physics it
+is obvious that we must teach the necessary facts of the subject as
+well as its method. These aspects of the work must be emphasized with
+equal force for all students; no differentiation need be made for
+future medical or engineering students or for prospective teachers of
+the subject in secondary schools. Generally speaking, initial courses
+in a department are governed by an eclectic aim, but in the advanced
+courses there must be constant adjustment to the needs of various
+groups. An eclectic aim can be as effective an instrument in enhancing
+the quality of teaching as a single, clear-cut aim, provided there is
+a clear recognition of the relative importance of the ends set up, and
+provided a definite plan is evolved to attain them.
+
+The aim or aims of a subject or a lesson, once formulated, must always
+be kept before the students as well as before the teacher. Every pupil
+must know the ends to be attained in the course he is taking, and as
+work progresses he must experience a growing realization that the
+class is moving toward these ends. The subject matter of the course,
+the method of instruction, the assigned task, now glow with interest
+which springs from work clearly motivated. The average student plods
+through his semester from a sense of duty or obedience rather than
+from a conviction of the worth of both subject matter and method.
+
+=Value of clearly defined aims=
+
+Not only must the general aim be indicated to the student, but he must
+also be made acquainted with the specific aim. Where students have
+been acquainted with the specific task that must be accomplished in a
+given period, concentration and cooperation with the instructor are
+easier; the students can, at stages in the lesson, anticipate
+succeeding steps; their answers have greater relevancy, their thought
+is more sequential and flows more readily along the path planned by
+the instructor. A specific aim for each lesson makes for economy, for
+it is a standard of relevancy for both student and teacher. The
+student whose answer or observation is irrelevant is asked to recall
+the aim of the lesson and to judge the pertinence of his contribution.
+The instructor given to wandering far afield finds that a clearly
+fixed aim is an aid in keeping him in the prescribed path. Too many
+college hours, especially in the social sciences, find the instructor
+beginning with his subject but ending anywhere in the field of human
+knowledge. These wanderings are entertaining enough, but they
+dissipate the energies of the students and produce a mental flabbiness
+already too well developed in the average college student.
+
+=Motivation in college teaching=
+
+A second factor which contributes much toward the effectiveness of
+college teaching is the principle of motivation. So long as most of
+the college course is prescribed, course by course, students will be
+found pursuing certain studies without an intelligent understanding of
+their social or mental worth. Ask the student "doing" prescribed logic
+to explain the value of the course. In friendly or intimate discussion
+with him, elicit his conception of the utilitarian or disciplinary
+worth of the prescribed Latin or mathematics in the arts course. He
+sees no relation between the problems of life and the daily lessons in
+many of these subjects. He submits to the teacher's attempts to graft
+this knowledge upon his intellectual stock merely because he has
+learned that the easiest course is to bend to authority. Instruction
+in too many college subjects is based, not on intelligent and
+voluntary attention, but on the discipline maintained by the
+institution or by the instructor. It is obvious that such instruction
+is stultifying to the teacher and can never develop in the student a
+liberal and cultured outlook upon life.
+
+The principle of motivation in teaching seeks to justify to the
+student the experience that is presented as part of his college
+course. It is obvious that this motivation need not always be
+explained in terms of utilitarian values. A student of college age can
+be made to realize the mental, the cultural, or the inspirational
+values that justify the prescription of certain courses. The college
+instructor who tries to motivate courses in the appreciation of music
+or painting finds no great difficulty in leading his students to an
+enthusiastic conviction of their inspirational value. It is well
+worth taking the student into our confidence in these matters of aim
+and value. We must become more tolerant of the thoughtful student who
+makes honest inquiry as to the value of any of the presented courses.
+We must learn to regard such questions as signs of growing seriousness
+and increasing maturity and not as signs of impertinence. We
+constantly ask ourselves questions about the round of our daily task;
+we seek to know thoroughly their uses, their values, their meaning in
+our lives. Clear conception of use or value in teaching is as vital as
+it is in life--for what is teaching if not the process of repeating
+life's experiences?
+
+In the principle of motivation lies the most successful solution of
+the problem of interest in teaching. We have too long persisted in the
+"sugarcoating" conception of interest. We have regarded it as a
+process of "making agreeable." Interest has therefore been looked upon
+as a fictitious element introduced into teaching merely to inveigle
+the mind of the student into a consideration of what we are offering
+it. Our modern psychology teaches a truer conception of interest: a
+feeling accompanying self-expression. Interest has been defined as a
+feeling of worth in experience. Where this feeling of worth is
+aroused, the individual expresses his activity to attain the end that
+he perceives. Every act, every effort, to attain this end is
+accompanied by a distinctive feeling known as interest. When a class
+is quiet and gives itself to the teacher, it is obedient and polite,
+but not necessarily interested. The class that looks tolerantly at the
+stereopticon views that the instructor presents, or listens to the
+reading of the professor of English, is amused but not necessarily
+interested. But when the students ask questions about the pictures or
+ask the professor of English for further references, then have we
+evidence of real interest. Interest is, therefore, an active attitude
+toward life's experience. Rational motivation is almost a guarantee of
+this active attitude of interest.
+
+Intelligent motivation in teaching has far-reaching values for both
+student and teacher. It stirs interest and guarantees attention and
+thus tends to keep aroused the activity of the students. It
+establishes an end toward which all effort of teacher and student must
+bend. It enables the student to follow a line of thought more
+intelligently, and occasionally to anticipate conclusions. For the
+teacher it serves as a standard, in terms of which he reorganizes his
+subject matter, judges the value of each topic, and omits socially
+useless matter which has too long been retained in the course in the
+fond hope that it will in some way develop the mind.
+
+=Beginning at the point of contact=
+
+The instructor who strives to motivate the subject matter he teaches
+usually begins with that phase of the subject which is most intimately
+related to the student's life and environment. Every subject worth
+teaching crosses the student's life at some point. The contacts
+between pupil and subject afford the most natural and the most
+effective starting points in the teaching of any subject.
+
+The subject matter in a college course is too frequently so organized
+that it presents points of discrepancy between itself and the student.
+To the college student life is not classified and systematized to a
+nicety. Experiences occur in more or less accidental but natural
+sequence. Scientific classification is the product of a mature mind
+possessing mastery of a given portion of the field of knowledge. To
+thrust the student, who is just finding his way in a new course, into
+a thoroughly scientific classification of a subject, is to present in
+the introduction what should come in the conclusion.
+
+Many a student taking his introductory course in psychology begins
+with a definition of the subject, its relation to all social and
+physical sciences, and its classification. All these are aspects of
+the subject which the mind conversant with it sees clearly and
+understands thoroughly, but which the inexperienced student accepts
+merely because the facts are printed in his textbook. The youthful
+mind is concerned with the present and with the immediate environment.
+Too many of our college courses, in the initial stages, transport the
+student into the realm of theory or into the distant past. The
+student cannot orientate himself in this new environment and is soon
+lost on the highways and byways of classification; to him the subject
+becomes a study of words rather than of vital ideas. Why must the
+introductory course in philosophy begin with the ancient philosophers,
+and give the major part of the term to the study of dead philosophers
+and their theories long since refuted and discarded, while vital
+modern philosophic thought is crowded into the last few sessions of
+the semester?
+
+=Illustrations of maxim. Begin at the point of contact=
+
+The pedagogical significance of beginning at the point of contact can
+best be understood and appreciated by illustrations of actual teaching
+conditions. Most initial courses in economics begin by positing that
+economics is the science of the consumption, distribution, and
+production of wealth. The student is told that in earlier systems of
+economics production was studied as the initial economic process, but
+that the more modern view makes consumption the starting process. All
+this the student takes on faith. He does not really see its bearings
+and its implications; he is as unconcerned with the new formulation as
+he is with the old; he feels at once far removed from economics. The
+succeeding lessons study economic laws with little reference to the
+economic life that the student lives. In a later chapter he learns a
+definition of wages, the forces that determine wage, and the mode of
+computing the share of the total produce that must go to wages.
+
+Here we have a course that does not begin at the point of contact,
+that presents the very discrepancies between itself and the student
+that were noted before. How can we overcome them? By proceeding
+psychologically. The instructor refers to two or three important wage
+disputes in current industrial life; these conflicts are analyzed; the
+contending demands are studied, and the forces controlling the
+adoption of a new wage scale are noted. After this study of actual
+economic conditions the students are led to formulate their own
+definition of wages, and to discover the forces that determine wage.
+Their conclusions are of course tentative. The textbook or textbooks
+are consulted in order to verify the formulations and the conclusions
+of the class. Thus the course is developed entirely through a series
+of contacts with economic life. The final topic in the course is the
+formulation of a definition of economics. Now the class sums up all
+that it has seen and learned of economics during the year. The cold
+and empty definition now glows with meaning. Such a course awakens an
+intelligent interest in economic life; it develops a mode of thought
+in social sciences and a sense of self-reliance; it teaches the
+student that all conclusions are tentative and constantly subject to
+verification; it fosters a critical attitude toward printed text.
+
+The college graduate who studied college mathematics, advanced
+algebra, trigonometry, analytical geometry, and calculus, looks back
+with satisfaction at work completed. Each of these subjects seemed to
+have little or no relation to the other; each was kept in a
+water-tight compartment. He remembers few, if any, of the formulae,
+equations, and symbols. He recalls vividly his admiration of the
+author's ingenious method of deriving equations. Every succeeding
+theorem, formula, or equation was another puzzle in a subject which
+seemed to be composed of a series of difficult, unrelated, and
+unapplied mathematical proofs. The course ended, the mass of data was
+soon obliterated from the mind's active possessions.
+
+What is the meaning of it all? What is its relation to life? There is
+no doubt that much of this mathematics has its application to life's
+needs, and that these successive subjects of mathematics are
+thoroughly interdependent. But nothing in the mode of instruction
+leads the student to see either the application or the interrelation
+of all this higher mathematics. Would it not be better to give a
+single course called mathematics rather than these successive
+subjects? Would it not be more enlightening if each new mathematical
+principle were taught through a situation in building, engineering, or
+mechanics so that the student would at all times see the intimate
+relation between mathematical law and physical forces? Would not the
+disciplinary values of mathematics be intensified for the student by
+teaching it in a way that presents a quantitative interpretation of
+the daily phenomena in his experience?
+
+Teachers of philosophy and psychology too often fall into a formalism
+that robs their subject of all its vitalizing influences. Many a
+student enters his course in logic with high hopes. At last he is to
+learn the laws of thought which will render him keen in detection of
+fallacies and potent in the presentation of argument. How bitter is
+his disappointment when he finds his course dissipated in definitions
+and classifications. His logic gives itself to the discussion of such
+patent fallacies as, "A good teacher knows his subject; Williams knows
+his subject, therefore he is a good teacher." Day after day he proves
+the error in every form of stupidity or the truth of what is
+axiomatic. He tires of "Gold is a metal" and "Socrates is mortal." Few
+courses in logic have the courage to break away from the traditional
+formalism and to begin each new principle or fundamental concept of
+logic by analyzing editorials, arguments, contentions in newspapers,
+magazines, campaign literature, or the actual textbooks. Few students
+complete their course in logic with a keener insight into thought and
+with a maturer or more aggressive mental attitude.
+
+=Beginning at the point of contact relates the subject to the life of
+the student=
+
+It was pointed out in a previous illustration that the college student
+"taking philosophy" is seldom made to feel that the subject he studies
+is related to the problems that arise in his own life. Too frequently
+introductory courses in philosophy are historical and extensive in
+scope, striving to develop mastery of facts rather than to give new
+viewpoints. The student learns names of philosophers, and attempts to
+memorize the philosophic system developed by each thinker. Such a
+course imposes a heavy burden on retentive power, for no little effort
+is required to remember the distinctive philosophical systems
+advocated by the respective writers. To the students these
+philosophers represent a group of peculiar people differing one from
+the other in their degrees of "queerness." One system is as far
+removed as another from the life that the student experiences; no
+system helps him to find himself. An introductory course in philosophy
+should begin with the problems of philosophy; it should have its
+origin in the reflective and speculative problems of the student
+himself. As the course progresses, the student should feel a growing
+sense of power, an increasing ability to formulate more clearly, to
+himself at least, the questions of religion and ethics that arise in
+the life of a normal thinking person. So, too, courses in ethics and
+psychology lose the vital touch unless they begin in the life of the
+student and apply their lessons to his social and intellectual
+environment.
+
+It must be pointed out, however, that the social sciences lend
+themselves more readily to this intimate treatment than do languages,
+or the physical sciences, but at all points possible in the study of a
+subject, the experience of the student must be introduced as a means
+of giving the subject real meaning. In teaching composition and
+rhetoric illustrations of the canons of good form need not be
+restricted to the past. Current magazines and newspapers are not
+devoid of effective illustrations. When the older literary forms are
+used exclusively as models of language, the student ends his course
+with the erroneous notion that contemporary writing is cheap and
+sensational and devoid of artistic craftsmanship.
+
+Courses in physics and chemistry frequently devote themselves to a
+development of principles rather than to the applications of the
+studies to every sphere of life. Introductory college courses in
+zoology spend the year in the minutiae of the lowest animal forms and
+rarely reach any animal higher in the scale than the crayfish. We
+still find students in botany learning the various margins of leaves,
+the system of venation, the scientific classifications, but at the end
+of the course, unable to recognize ordinary leaves and just as blind
+to nature as they were before. Zoology and botany do not always--as
+they should--give a new view of life, a new attitude towards living
+phenomena, a new contact with nature.
+
+Careful inquiry among college students will reveal an amazing
+ignorance of common chemical and physical phenomena after full-year
+courses in chemistry and physics. We find a student giving two
+semesters to work in each of these subjects. He spends most of his
+time learning the chemical elements, their characteristics and the
+modes of testing for them. The major portion of the time is spent in
+the laboratory, where he must discover for himself the elementary
+practices of the subject and test the validity of well-established
+truths. At the end of his second semester he has not developed
+sufficient laboratory technique for significant work in chemistry; he
+is ignorant of the chemical explanation of the most common phenomena
+in life.
+
+=Pedagogical vs. logical organization=
+
+There is much to be said for the position taken by the "older
+teachers," who may not possess the scholarship of the "younger
+investigators" but who argue for a general course in which laboratory
+work shall be reduced, technique minimized, and attention focused on
+giving an extensive view of chemical forces. The simple chemical facts
+in digestion, metabolism, industry, war, medicine, etc., would be
+presented in such a way as to make life a more intelligent process and
+to give an insight into the method of science. In the courses that
+follow the introductory one, there would be a marked change in aim;
+the student would be taught the laboratory technique and would be
+given a more intensive study of the important aspects of chemistry.
+Similar changes in the introductory courses in physics are urged by
+these same teachers.
+
+Beginning at the point of contact may frequently interfere with the
+logical arrangement of the course of study; it may wrench many a topic
+out of its accustomed place in the textbook; it will demand that the
+applications, which come last in most logically arranged courses, be
+given first and that definitions and principles which come first be
+given last. This logical arrangement, it was pointed out, is usually
+the expression of the matured mind that is thoroughly conversant with
+every aspect of a subject; it may mean little, however, to the
+beginner--so little that he does not even slightly appreciate its
+significance. The loss in logical sequence entailed by beginning at
+the point of contact is often more than compensated for by the
+advantages which are derived from a psychological presentation.
+
+=Proper organization as a factor in effective teaching=
+
+A well-organized lesson possesses teaching merits which may counteract
+almost all the usual weaknesses found in poor teaching. Good
+organization determines clearness of comprehension, ease of retention,
+and ability of recall; it makes for economy of time and mental energy;
+it simplifies the processes of mental assimilation; it teaches the
+student, indirectly but effectively, to think sequentially. We have
+all suffered too keenly, as auditors and readers, the inconveniences
+of poor organization, not to realize the worth of proper organization
+of knowledge in teaching.
+
+Organization of knowledge has become a pedagogical slogan, but its
+increase in popularity has not been accompanied by increased clearness
+of comprehension of its meaning. What, then, is meant by proper
+organization? It must ever be borne in mind that proper organization
+is a relative condition, the limits of which are determined by the
+capacities of the students and the nature of the subject matter. What
+is effective organization of facts in elementary history may be very
+ineffective organization for students of high school or college grade.
+Making due allowance for relative conditions, good organization may be
+said to consist of five essential characteristics.
+
+_Logical sequence_ is the first of these. It is apparent that the more
+rational the sequence of facts, the more effective is the organization
+of knowledge. Data organized on a basis of cause and effect,
+similarity, contrast or any other logical relationship will help to
+secure the teaching advantages we have mentioned. A search for this
+simple principle in most textbooks on American or English history or
+literature reveals its complete absence. A detailed mass of historical
+information grouped into administrations or reigns is merely a
+mechanical organization in which time, the accidental element, and
+not the development of social movements, the logic of human history,
+is the determining factor. In too many courses in literature the
+student learns names of writers, biographical data, and literary
+characteristics of the masters, but fails to see the development of
+the movement of which the writer was a part. Events of history placed
+in their social movements, writers in literature placed in the school
+in which they belong, give the student the logical ties which bind the
+knowledge to him. So, too, one often analyzes the sequence of chapters
+in an advanced algebra or a trigonometry and fails to discover the
+governing rationale. It must be remembered, however, that the nature
+of the subject will often reduce the logical element in its
+organization. Instances in language teaching may be cited as
+illustrations of teaching situations where a mechanical organization
+is often the only one possible because of the arbitrary character of
+the subject matter.
+
+=Meaning of organization of subject matter=
+
+_Relativity_ of importance is the second factor of good organization.
+A cursory study of a well-organized chapter or merely passing
+attention to a well-organized lecture reveals at once a distinct
+difference in the emphasis on the various parts or elements of the
+subject. The proportional allotment of time or space, the number of
+illustrations, the number of questions asked on a given point, the
+force of language--these are all means of bringing out the relative
+importance of constituent topics or principles. In retrospect, a
+well-organized lesson presents an appearance similar to a contour map;
+each part stands out in distinctive color according to its
+significance.
+
+It is frequently argued by teachers that students of college age
+should be required to distinguish the relativity of importance of the
+parts of a lesson or the topics in a subject; that the instructor who
+points out the changing importance of each succeeding part of a lesson
+is enervating the student by doing for him what he ought to do for
+himself. This is true in part, but it must be realized that the
+instructor who through questions and directed discussions leads
+students to formulate for themselves the relative importance of data
+is not only carrying out the suggestion made in the preceding
+paragraph but is also developing in his students a power they too
+frequently lack. Those who have studied the notes that students take
+in their classes have seen how frequently facts are torn from their
+moorings; how wrong principles are derived from illustrations; how a
+catch-phrase becomes a basic principle; how simple truths and axioms
+are distorted in the frenzy of note taking. Through questions if
+possible, through emphasis on illustrations and explanations, where no
+other means is available, students must be made to see that all facts
+of a subject are not of the same hue, that some are faint of tint,
+others in shadow, and still others in high colors. Without this
+relativity of importance, facts are grouped; with it, they are
+intelligently organized.
+
+_An underlying tendency_ can be discerned in well-organized knowledge.
+Not only are facts arranged in logical sequence and emphasized
+according to importance, but there is in addition a central principle
+or an underlying purpose giving unifying force to them all. We can
+illustrate the need of this third characteristic of good organization
+by referring to a college course in American history which gives much
+time to the period from 1815 to 1860. The events of these forty-five
+years are not taught in administrations but are summed up in six
+national tendencies; viz., the questions of state sovereignty,
+slavery, territorial acquisition, tariff, industrial and
+transportational progress, and foreign policy. Each of these movements
+is treated as intensively as time permits. At the end of the study of
+the entire period, the student is left with these six topics but
+without a unifying principle; to him, these are six unrelated currents
+of events. In each of these problems the North and the South displayed
+distinctive attitudes, acted from distinctive motives, expressed
+distinctive needs and preferences, but these were never brought out
+either through well-formulated questions or through explanation. As a
+result, the class never realize fully that those years, 1815-1860,
+marked the period of growing sectional differences, misunderstandings,
+and animosities. Had this underlying tendency been brought out clearly
+at various points in the course, the students would have carried away
+a permanent impression of what is most vital in this period of
+American development.
+
+_Gradation_ of subject matter is another characteristic of good
+organization. Careful gradation is not so vital in subjects of social
+content as it is in mathematics, foreign languages, and exact
+sciences. The most important single factor in removing difficulties
+that beset a student is gradation. Teaching problems often arise
+because the instructor or the textbook presents more than one
+difficulty at a time. Teachers who lack intellectual sympathy or who
+are so lost in the advanced stages of their specialty that they can no
+longer image the successive steps of difficulty, one by one, that
+present themselves to a mind inexperienced in their respective fields,
+are frequently guilty of this pedagogical error. Malgradation of
+subject matter is the direct cause of serious loss of time and energy
+and of needless discouragement not only to students but to instructors
+as well.
+
+_Ability of the student to summarize_ easily is a test of good
+organization. At the end of a loosely organized chapter or lesson the
+student experiences no little difficulty in setting forth the
+underlying principles and their supporting data. It does not help much
+to have the textbook or the instructor state the summary either at the
+end of the lesson in question or at the beginning of the succeeding
+one. The summary of a lesson, given by the class, is a test of the
+effectiveness of instruction. Summaries given by teachers or textbooks
+have little or no pedagogical justification. Only in cases where the
+summary introduces a new point of view or unifying principles, or when
+it sets forth basic principles in particularly forceful language--only
+then is the statement by teacher or textbook justifiable.
+
+=Thoroughness=
+
+Teachers are advised to be thorough in their instruction. They in turn
+urge their students to strive for thoroughness in study. We praise or
+impugn the scholarship of our colleagues because it possesses or lacks
+thoroughness. Here we have a quality of knowledge universally
+extolled. But what is meant by thoroughness? How can teachers or
+students know that they are attaining that degree of comprehension
+known as thoroughness? We are told that thoroughness is a relative
+condition, always changing with accompanying circumstances. Even an
+unattainable ideal can be defined,--why not thoroughness? We must,
+therefore, attempt to determine the meaning of thoroughness as used in
+teaching and study.
+
+=Negative interpretation of thoroughness=
+
+It may be helpful to formulate the common or lay interpretation of
+thoroughness. The term "thoroughness" is erroneously used in a
+quantitative sense to describe scholastic attainment. We are told of a
+colleague's thoroughness in history; he knows all names, dates,
+places, facts in the development of mankind; his knowledge of his
+specialty is encyclopedic; "there is no need of looking things up when
+he is around." A professor of English literature boasted of the
+thoroughness with which he teaches _Hamlet_: "Every word of value and
+every change in the form of versification are marked; every allusion
+is taken up, every peculiar grammatical construction is brought to the
+attention of the class." Here we have illustrations of an erroneous
+conception of thoroughness which gives it an extensive meaning and
+regards it as the accumulation of a mass of data.
+
+=Positive interpretation of thoroughness=
+
+Yet the master of chronological detail in history may have no
+historical imagination, no historical perspective, no historical
+judgment. He may possess the facts, but a period in history still
+remains for him a stretch of time limited by two dates, rather than a
+succession of years in which all mankind seems to be moving in the
+same direction, possessed of the same viewpoints, the same hopes and
+aspirations. The professor of English literature does not see that in
+teaching _Hamlet_ he forsook his specialty, literature, for philology
+and mythology; that he turned his back on art and took up language
+structure. Thoroughness is not completeness, because the possession of
+the details of a subject does not necessarily bring with it a true
+comprehension of it. Add all the details, and the sum total is nothing
+more than the group of details. Thoroughness is a degree of
+comprehension resulting from the acquisition of new points of view.
+The teacher of history who sees underlying forces in the facts of the
+past, who understands that true inwardness of any movement which shows
+him its relation to all phases of life, but who nevertheless may not
+have ready command of all the specific details, is more thorough in
+his scholarship. He has the things that count; the facts that are
+forgotten can easily be found. The class that studies the dramatic
+structure of _Hamlet_, that sees Shakespeare's power of character
+portrayal, that takes up only such grammatical and language points as
+give clearer comprehension or lead to greater appreciation of diction,
+is thorough although it does not possess all the facts. It is thorough
+because what is significant and dynamic in _Hamlet_ is made focal. The
+postgraduate student assiduously searching for data for his doctorate
+thesis is often guided by the erroneous conception of thoroughness; he
+wants facts that have never seen the light. The more he gets of these,
+the nearer he approaches his goal. He avoids conclusions; he is
+counseled by his professors against giving too much of his book to the
+expression of his views. Analyze the chapters of a doctorate thesis
+and note the number of pages given to facts and those to conclusions
+and interpretations. The proportion is astonishing. The student's
+power to find facts is clearly shown; his power to use facts is not
+revealed by his thesis. The richer the thesis is in detail, in
+references, in allusions to dusty tomes and original sources, the more
+thorough is it frequently considered by the faculty. We have failed to
+realize that this excessive zeal in gathering and collating a large
+number of not commonly known facts may make the thesis more
+cumbersome, more complete, but not necessarily more thorough. However,
+the plea for a new standard in judging doctorate theses is meeting
+with gratifying encouragement.
+
+What, then, are the teaching practices that make for greater
+thoroughness, that increase the qualitative and intensive character of
+knowledge? We shall discuss some of these in the succeeding
+paragraphs.
+
+=How can thoroughness be produced?=
+
+The _acquisition of new points of view_ makes for increased
+thoroughness of comprehension. The class that understands the causes
+of the American Revolution from the American point of view knows of
+the navigation laws, the quartering of soldiers in American homes, the
+Stamp Act, the Boston Massacre,--the usual provocations that strained
+patience to the breaking point. The college teacher of American
+history who spends time on the riots in New York in which a greater
+number of colonists was killed than in Boston, who teaches in detail
+the various acts forbidding the manufacture of hats and of iron ware,
+or the protests against English practices in the colonies made by
+British merchants, etc., is adding more facts, but he may only be
+intensifying the erroneous conclusion that the students have formed in
+earlier and less complete courses. The topic, "Causes of the American
+Revolution," grows in thoroughness, not through the addition of these
+facts but through the presentation of new interpretations of the
+practices of the English. When we explain that the English believed in
+virtual and not actual representation, the students see a new meaning
+in "taxation without representation." When the students learn that the
+English government decided on a new economic and industrial policy
+which planned to have the mother country specialize in manufacture and
+transportation and the colonies in production of raw materials, the
+students see reason, though not necessarily justice, in the acts
+prohibiting Americans from various forms of manufacture and
+transportational activities. These new facts modify in the minds of
+students the point of view so often given in elementary courses, that
+the War for Independence was caused by sheer British meanness and
+injustice, by her policy of reckless repression.
+
+It is not always possible to give new points of view to all knowledge
+in all subjects. There are cases in which there is only one point of
+view or where students may not be ready for a new interpretation
+because of their limited mastery of a new field of knowledge. Under
+these conditions an added point of view is a source of confusion
+rather than an aid to clearer comprehension. Some subjects, like the
+social sciences, naturally allow for richer interpretations. Others,
+like the languages and the physical sciences, present only very
+limited opportunities; in the biological sciences the possibilities,
+though not as rich as in the social sciences, are numerous and
+productive of good results.
+
+_Comparison_ is a second means of producing thoroughness of
+comprehension. Good teaching abounds in comparisons which are
+introduced at the end of every important topic rather than reserved
+for examination questions. Comparisons used liberally at every logical
+pause in the development of a subject always give an added viewpoint,
+review early subject matter incidentally, stir thought, and make for
+better organization. How much more clearly are the causes of the War
+of 1812 understood after they are compared with those that brought on
+the Revolutionary War! How much more definite are the causes of the
+American Revolution when compared with those that brought on the
+French Revolution! A writer, a school, or a movement in English
+literature may be understood when studied by itself; but how is
+comprehension deepened when each is compared with another writer or
+school or movement! Comparison of perception and conception or
+appreciation and association in psychology, makes each activity stand
+out clearer in the mind of the student. Compare the laws of rent,
+wage, profit, and interest in economics, and not only each is better
+understood but the basic laws of distribution are readily derived by
+the student. Similarly, comparisons in mathematics, physics,
+chemistry, and the entire range of collegiate subjects give increased
+comprehension, useful though incidental reviews, and greater
+unification of knowledge, as well as added points of view.
+
+_Correlation_ as a means of producing thoroughness is closely allied
+to comparison. Correlation relates kindred topics of different
+subjects, while comparison points out relations in the same subject.
+The instructor who correlates the history of education with the
+political and economic history that the student learned in another
+course is unifying related experience, reducing the field of
+knowledge, introducing logical organization, and adding new
+interpretations to facts already acquired. Similarly, teaching must be
+enriched by correlating physics and mathematics, chemistry and
+physics, literature and music, history of literature and general
+history, until instruction has taken advantage of every vital relation
+among subjects. With the growth of specialized subjects there is an
+unfortunate tendency toward isolation until the untrained mind looks
+upon the curriculum as a series of unrelated experiences, each
+rivaling the other in its claim to importance.
+
+The advantage of correlation will remain lost in college teaching as
+long as each instructor regards himself as a specialized investigator
+concerned with teaching his subject rather than his students. How many
+college teachers know what subjects their students have already taken,
+or knowing the names of these subjects, have a general knowledge of
+their content? The college professor of the preceding generation was a
+cultured gentleman whose general scholarship transcended the limits of
+his specialty. He understood and knew the curriculum as a whole.
+Because of changes in every phase of our civilization, his successor
+has a deeper but a narrower knowledge. He knows little of the work of
+his students outside of his own subject. He does not relate and
+correlate the ever growing field of knowledge; he merely adds--by the
+introduction of his own mass of facts--to the isolation which
+characterizes the parts of college curricula. This tendency must be
+counteracted, not by interfering with the scholastic interests of any
+instructor, but by occasional conferences of instructors of allied
+subjects in order to agree on common meeting grounds, on points of
+correlation, on useful repetitions, and on the elimination of needless
+duplications. Such pedagogical conferences are rare because college
+teachers are not alive to the need of reform in methods of college
+teaching.
+
+Thoroughness results from _increase in the number of applications_ of
+knowledge. The introduction of the functional view into teaching
+brings with it a realization of the vital needs of increased ways of
+applying the experience we present to students. As the laws of
+physics, mathematics, biology, composition, economics, etc., are
+applied to a number of specific instances, the generalization grows in
+meaning and in force. Specific cases vary, and, varying, give new
+color and new meaning to the laws that are applied to explain them.
+How much a law in chemistry means after it is applied to specific
+instances in industry, human and animal physiology, plant life, or
+engineering! The equation learned in descriptive geometry may be
+understood, but it never means so much as when it is applied to
+specific problems in engineering. Applications give added insight into
+knowledge and therefore make for greater thoroughness of
+comprehension.
+
+=Teaching as a process of arousing self-activity=
+
+Locke's Blank Paper Theory, enunciated centuries ago, has been
+repeatedly and triumphantly refuted even by tyros in psychology, but
+in educational practices it continues to hold sway. College teaching
+too frequently proceeds on the assumption that the mind is an aching
+void anxiously awaiting the generous contributions of knowledge to be
+made by the teacher. College examinations usually test for
+multiplicity of facts acquired, rather than for power developed.
+College teaching usually does not perceive that the mind is a reacting
+machine containing a vast amount of pent-up potential energy which is
+ready to react upon any presentation; that development takes place
+only as this self-activity expresses itself; that education is
+evolutionary rather than involutionary. Teaching is, therefore, a
+process of arousing, sustaining, and directing the self-activity of
+pupils. The more persistently and successfully this activity is
+aroused, the more systematically it is directed to intelligent ends,
+the more skillful is the teaching. Teachers do not impart knowledge,
+for that is impossible; they _occasion_ knowledge. Only as the teacher
+succeeds through questions, directions, diagrams, and all known
+devices, in arousing the self-activity of the student, is he producing
+the conditions under which knowledge is acquired by the pupil.
+
+=Evaluation of common methods of teaching=
+
+The methods commonly used in college teaching are as follows:
+
+     1. Lecture method, with or without quiz sections.
+
+     2. Development method, with or without textbook.
+
+     3. Combination of lecture and development method.
+
+     4. Reference readings and the presentation of papers by students.
+
+     5. Laboratory work by students, together with lectures and quiz
+        sections.
+
+Teachers have long debated the relative merits of these methods or
+combinations of them. They fail to realize that each method is
+correct, depending upon the aim to be accomplished and the governing
+circumstances. No method has a monopoly of pedagogical wisdom; no
+method, used exclusively, is free from inherent weakness. A teaching
+method must be judged by its ability to arouse and sustain
+self-activity and to attain the aim set for a specific lesson. With
+this standard for judging a method of teaching, we must stop to sum up
+the relative worth of common methods of college teaching.
+
+=Lecture method evaluated=
+
+The _lecture method_ has been the target for much criticism for many
+centuries. Socrates inveighed against its use by the sophists, and
+educators since have repeated the attack. The reasons are legion:
+(_a_) The lecture method tends to discourage the pupil's activity. The
+student feels no responsibility during the lecture; he listens
+leisurely, and makes notes of the instructor's contribution. The
+student's judgment is not called into play; he learns to take
+knowledge on the authority of the instructor. The sense of comfort and
+security experienced in a lecture hour is fatal even to aggressive and
+assertive minds. Sooner or later the students succumb to the inertia
+developed by the lecture system.
+
+(_b_) A second limitation of an exclusive lecture method is its
+inability to make permanent impressions. Many a student, entering the
+lecture hall, has completely forgotten even the theme of the last
+lecture. Knowledge is retained only when it is obtained by the
+expression of self-activity. To offset this weakness notes must be
+taken, but these prove to be the bane of the lecture method. Some
+students, in their efforts to record a point just concluded, lose not
+only the thought of what they are trying to write but also the new
+thought which the instructor is now explaining; they drop both ideas
+from their notes and wait for the next step in the development of the
+lecture. This accounts for the many gaps in the notes kept by
+students. Some instructors, dismayed by the amount of knowledge lost
+by students, resort to dictation devices. Others, realizing the
+pedagogical weakness of such teaching, distribute mimeographed
+outlines of carefully prepared summaries of the lectures. Now the
+student is relieved of the tedium of note taking, but the temptation
+to let his mind wander afield is intensified. An outline, scanty of
+detail, but so devised as to keep the organization and sequence of
+subject matter clear in the minds of students, is, of course, helpful.
+But detailed outlines distributed among the students discourage even
+attentive listening.
+
+(_c_) In teaching by lectures only there is no contact between student
+and teacher. The student does not recite; he does not reveal his type
+of mind, his mode of study, his grasp of subject matter. He is merely
+a passive recipient. To this third weakness of the lecture method we
+may add a fourth: (_d_) it tends to emphasize quantity rather than
+method. The student is confronted with a great mass of facts, but he
+does not acquire a mode of thought nor does he see the method by which
+a given subject is developed. (_e_) The lecture method, therefore,
+inculcates in students an attitude of mental subservience which is
+fatal for the development of courageous and vigorous thought. And
+finally (_f_) it must be urged that in lecture teaching the instructor
+is not testing the accuracy of the students' conceptions nor is he
+able to judge the efficacy of his own methods.
+
+But, on the other hand, it must be admitted that with an effective
+lecturer, possessed of commanding personality, the lecture gives a
+point of view of a subject and an enthusiasm for it which other
+devices fail to achieve. The lecture method makes for economy of time
+and enables one to present his subject to his class with a
+succinctness absent from many textbooks. Where much must be taught in
+a limited time, where a comprehensive view of an extensive field must
+be given, when certain types of responses or mental attitudes are
+desired, the lecture serves well.
+
+=Final worth of lecture method=
+
+Experience teaches that an exclusive lecture system is not conducive
+to efficient work; that lectures to regular classes ought to be
+punctuated by questions whenever interest lags; that the occasional
+and even the unannounced lecture is more effective; that supplementary
+devices for checking up assignments and regular collateral study are
+of vital importance. Where regular lectures are followed by detailed
+analyses in quiz sections the best results are obtained when the
+lecturer himself is the questioner. Where quiz sections are turned
+over to assistants, wise procedure requires that quiz leaders attend
+the lectures and decide, in conference with the lecturer, the specific
+aims which must be achieved in the quiz work and the assigned readings
+which must be given to students in preparation for each quiz hour.
+Unless this is done, the student is frequently confused by the
+divergent points of view presented by lecturer, quiz master, and
+textbook.
+
+_The development method_ has much to commend it. It stimulates
+activity by its repeated questions. Few or no notes are taken. There
+is constant contact with the student. At every point the mental
+content of the pupils is revealed. The teacher sees the result of his
+teaching by the intelligence of successive responses. The pupil is
+being trained in systematic thought and in concentration. But it must
+be remembered that the development method is often costly in time
+because answers may be wrong or irrelevant. It may encourage
+wandering; a student's reply reveals ignorance of a basic principle,
+and the aim of the lesson is often forgotten in the eagerness to
+patch up this misconception. Then, too, in subject matter that is
+arbitrary, as in descriptive and narrative history, no development is
+possible. In such cases the questions are designed to test the
+student's knowledge of the text, and the lesson becomes a quiz rather
+than a development.
+
+It is plain, therefore, that a judicious combination of the lecture
+and development methods will give better results than the exclusive
+use of either one. The analysis of the pedagogical advantages of each
+leads to the conclusion that the development method should predominate
+and that the lecture method should be used sparingly and always with
+some of the checking devices described.
+
+=Place of reference reading in college teaching=
+
+=Evaluation of development--Socratic or heuristic method=
+
+A common method employed in advanced courses in college subjects
+emphasizes _reference study and research_. The entire course is
+reduced to a series of problems, each of which deals with a vital
+aspect of the subject. Each student is made responsible for a topic.
+The initial hours are devoted to an examination of the common sources
+of information in this specific subject, the modes of using these, the
+standards to be attained in writing a paper on one of the topics, and
+similar matters. The remainder of the term is given over to seminar
+work: each student reads his paper and holds himself in readiness to
+answer all questions his classmates may ask on his topic. The aims of
+such a course are obviously to develop a knowledge of sources and an
+ability to use intelligently the unorganized data found by the
+student. The results of these pseudo-seminar courses are far from what
+was anticipated. A thorough investigation of such a course will soon
+convince the teacher that the seminar method, whatever its merits in
+university training, must be refined and diluted before it is applied
+to college teaching. Let us see why.
+
+Successful reference reading requires a knowledge of the field
+studied, maturity of mind, discriminating judgment in the selection of
+material, and ability in organization. The university student is not
+only maturer and more serious but has a basis of broader knowledge
+than most undergraduates. Without this equipment of mental powers and
+knowledge, the student cannot judge the merits of contending views nor
+harmonize seeming discrepancies. A student who has no ample foundation
+of economics cannot study the subject by reference reading on the
+problems of economics. To learn the meaning of value he would read the
+psychological explanations of the Austrian schools and the
+materialistic conceptions of the classical writers. He would then find
+himself in a state of confusion, owing to what seemed to him to be a
+superfluity of explanations of value. When one understands one point
+of view, an added viewpoint is a source of greater clarity and a means
+of deeper understanding. But when one is entirely ignorant of
+fundamental concepts, two points of view presented simultaneously
+become two sources of confusion. In the university only the student of
+tried worth is permitted to take a seminar course. In the upper
+classes in college, mediocre students are often welcomed into a
+seminar course in order to help float an unpromising elective.
+
+=Limitations of seminar method in undergraduate teaching=
+
+The college seminar is usually unsuccessful because few students have
+ability to hold the attention of their classmates for a period of
+thirty minutes or more. Language limitations, lack of a knowledge of
+subject matter, inability to illustrate effectively, and the skeptical
+attitude of fellow students all militate against successful teaching
+by a member of the class. Students presenting papers often select
+unimportant details or give too many details. The rest of the class
+listen languidly, take occasional notes, and ask a few perfunctory
+questions to help bring the session to a close. A successful hour is
+rare. The student who prepared the topic of the day undoubtedly is
+benefited, but those who listen acquire little knowledge and less
+power. The course ends without a comprehensive view of the entire
+subject, without that knowledge which comes from the teacher's
+leadership and instruction. This type of reference reading and
+research has value when used as an occasional ten or fifteen minute
+exercise to supplement certain aspects of class work. But as a steady
+diet in a college course, the seminar usually leaves much to be
+desired.
+
+The _laboratory method_ is growing in favor today in college teaching.
+It is employed in the social sciences, in sociology, in economics, in
+psychology, in education, as well as in the physical and the
+biological sciences. Where it is followed the aim is clearly twofold;
+viz., to teach the method by which the specific subject is growing and
+to develop in the students mental power and a scientific attitude
+towards knowledge.
+
+=Value of laboratory method=
+
+Let us illustrate these two aims of the laboratory method. A
+laboratory course in chemistry or biology or sociology may be designed
+to teach the student the use of apparatus and equipment necessary for
+work in a respective field; the method of attacking a problem; a
+standard for distinguishing significant from immaterial data; methods
+of gathering facts; the modes of keeping scientific records,--in a
+word, the essence of the experience of successive generations of
+investigators and contributors. But no successful laboratory results
+can be obtained without a proper mental attitude. The student must
+learn how to prevent his mental prepossessions or his desires from
+coloring his observations; to allow for controls and variables; to
+give most exacting care to every detail that may influence his result;
+to regard every conclusion as a tentative hypothesis subject to
+verification or modification in the light of further test. Unless the
+student acquires a knowledge of the method of science and has achieved
+these necessary modes of thought, his laboratory course has failed to
+make its most significant contribution.
+
+In courses where the aim is to teach socially necessary information or
+to give a comprehensive view of the scope of a specific subject, it is
+obvious that the laboratory method will lead far afield. It is for
+this reason that introductory courses given in recitations, with
+demonstrations by instructors, and occasional lecture and laboratory
+hours, are more liberalizing in their influence upon the beginners
+than courses that are primarily laboratory in character.
+
+=Cautions in the use of the laboratory method=
+
+Most laboratory courses would enhance their usefulness by observing a
+few primary pedagogical maxims. The first of these counsels that we
+establish most clearly the distinctive aim of the course. The
+instructor must be sure that he has no quantitative aim to attain but
+is occupied rather with the problems of teaching the method of his
+specialty. Second, an earnest effort must be made to acquaint the
+students with the general aim of the entire course as well as with the
+specific aim of each laboratory exercise. The students must be made to
+realize that they are not discovering new principles but that by
+rediscovering old knowledge or testing the validity of well-established
+truths they are developing not only the technique of investigational
+work, but also a set of useful mental habits. Much in laboratory work
+seems needless to the student who does not perceive the goal which
+every task strives to attain.
+
+A third requisite for successful laboratory work requires so careful a
+gradation that every type of problem peculiar to a subject is made to
+arise in the succession of exercises. It is wise at times to set a
+trap for students so that they may learn through the consequences of
+error. For this reason students may be permitted to leap to a
+conclusion, to generalize from insufficient data, to neglect controls,
+to overlook disturbing factors, etc. An improperly planned and poorly
+graded laboratory course repeats exercises that involve the same
+problems and omits situations that give training in attacking and
+solving new problems.
+
+Effective laboratory courses afford opportunity to students to repeat
+those exercises in which they failed badly. If each exercise in the
+course is designed to make a specific contribution to the development
+of the student, it is obvious that merely marking the student zero for
+a badly executed experiment is not meeting the situation. He must in
+addition be given the opportunity to repeat the experiment in order
+to derive the necessary variety of experiences from his laboratory
+training. And, finally, the character of the test that concludes a
+laboratory course must be considered. The test must be governed by the
+same underlying aims that determine the entire course. It must seek to
+reveal, not the mastery of facts, but growth in power. It must measure
+what the student can do rather than what he knows. A properly
+organized test serves to reinforce in the minds of students the aims
+of the entire course.
+
+=The college teacher not the university professor=
+
+An analysis of effective teaching is necessarily incomplete that does
+not give due consideration to the only human factor in the teaching
+process--the teacher. We have too long repeated the old adages: "he
+who knows can teach"; "a teacher is born, not made"; "experience is
+the teacher of teachers." These dicta are all tried and true, but they
+have the failings common to platitudes. It often happens that those
+who know but lack in imagination and sympathy are by that very knowing
+rendered unfit to teach. "Knowing" so well, they cannot see the
+difficulties that beset the learner's path, and they have little
+patience with the student's slow and measured steps in the very
+beginnings of their specialty. It is true that some are born teachers,
+but our educational institutions could not be maintained if classes
+were turned over only to those to whom nature had given lavishly of
+pedagogical power. Experience teaches even teachers, but the price
+paid must be computed in terms of the welfare of the student. Teaching
+is one of the arts in which the artist works only with living
+material; yet college authorities still make no demand of professional
+training and apprenticeship as prerequisites for admission to the
+fraternity of teaching artists.
+
+Ineffective college teaching will not improve until professional
+teaching standards are set up by respected institutions. The college
+teacher must be possessed of ample scholarship of a general nature. He
+must have expertness in his specialty, to give him a knowledge of his
+field, its problems and its methods. He must be a constant student,
+so that his scholarship in his specialty will win recognition and
+respect. But part of his preparation must be given over to
+professional training for teaching. Without this, the prospective
+teacher may not know until it is too late that his deficiencies of
+personality unfit him for teaching. With it, he shortens his term of
+novitiate and acquires his experience under expert guidance. The plan
+of college-teacher training, given by Dr. Mezes in Chapter II, so
+complete in scope, so thoroughly sound and progressive in character,
+is here suggested as a type of professional preparation now sorely
+needed.
+
+=Testing the results of instruction=
+
+The usual test of teacher and student is still the traditional
+examination, with its many questions and sub-questions. We still
+measure the results of instruction by fathoming the fund of
+information our students carry away. But these traditional
+examinations test for what is temporary and accidental. Facts known
+today are forgotten tomorrow. The professor himself often comes to
+class armed with notes, but he persists in setting up, as a test of
+the growth of his students, their retentivity of the facts he gave
+from these very notes. In the final analysis, these examinations are
+not tests. The writer does not urge the abolition of examinations, but
+argues rather for a reorganized examination that embodies new
+standards. A real examination must test for what is permanent and
+vital; it must measure the degree to which students approximate the
+aims that were set up to govern the entire course; it must gauge the
+mental habits, the growth in power, rather than facts. Part of an
+examination in mathematics should test students' ability to attack new
+problems, to plan a line of work, to think mathematically, to avoid
+typical fallacies of thought. For this part of the test, books may be
+opened and references consulted. In literature we may question on text
+not discussed in class to ascertain the students' power of
+appreciation or of literary criticism. So, too, in examinations in
+social sciences, physical sciences, foreign languages, and biological
+sciences, the examination must consist, in great measure, of
+questions which test the acquisition of the habits of thought, of
+work, of laboratory procedure--in a word, the permanent contribution
+of any study. This part of an examination should be differentiated
+from the more mechanical and memory questions which seek to reveal the
+student's mastery of those facts of a subject which may be regarded as
+socially necessary. Reduce the socially necessary data of any subject
+to an absolute minimum and frame questions on it demanding no such
+slovenly standard--sixty per cent--as now prevails in college
+examinations. If the facts called for on an examination are really the
+most vital in the subject, the passing grade should be very high. If
+the questions seek to elicit insignificant or minor information, any
+passing mark is too high. It is obvious, therefore, that a student
+should receive two marks in most subjects,--one that rates power and
+another that rates mere acquisition of facts. The passing grade in the
+one would necessarily be lower than in the other. An examination is
+justified only when it is so devised that it reveals not only the
+students' stock of socially useful knowledge but also their growth in
+mental power.
+
+                                                   PAUL KLAPPER
+  _College of the City of New York_
+
+
+
+
+PART TWO
+
+THE SCIENCES
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+   IV  THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY
+           _T. W. Galloway_
+
+    V  THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY
+           _Louis Kahlenberg_
+
+   VI  THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS
+           _Harvey B. Lemon_
+
+  VII  THE TEACHING OF GEOLOGY
+           _T. C. Chamberlin_
+
+ VIII  THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS
+           _G. A. Miller_
+
+   IX  PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE COLLEGE
+           _Thomas A. Storey_
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY
+
+
+BIOLOGY AND EDUCATION
+
+=Biology the science basal to all knowing=
+
+The life sciences, broadly conceived, are basal to all departments of
+knowledge; and the study of biology illumines every field of human
+interest. To the believer in evolution the human body, brain, senses,
+intellect, sensations, impulses, habits, ideas, knowledges, ideals,
+standards, attractions, sympathies, combinations, organizations,
+institutions, and all other powers and possessions of every kind and
+degree are merely crowning phenomena of life itself. The languages,
+history, science, economic systems, philosophies, and literatures of
+mankind are only special manifestations and expressions of life and a
+part, therefore, of the studies by which we as living beings are
+trying to appraise and appreciate the meaning of life and of the
+universe of which life is the most significant product. Life is not
+merely the most notable product of our universe; it is the most
+persuasive key for solving the riddle of the universe, and is the only
+universe product which aspires to interpret the processes by which it
+has reached its own present level.
+
+All knowledge, then, is _biological_ in the very vital sense that the
+living organism is the only _knowing_ thing. The knowing process is a
+life process. Even when knowledge pertains to non-living objects,
+therefore, it is one-half biological; our most worth-while
+knowledge--that of ourselves and other organisms--is wholly so.
+Because all our knowledge is colored by the life process, of which the
+knowing process is derivative, the study of life underlies every
+science and its applications, every art and its practice, every
+philosophy and its interpretations. Biology must be taught in sympathy
+with the whole joint enterprise of living and of learning.
+
+=Adaptation without losing adaptability the goal of life and of education=
+
+The most outstanding phenomenon of life is the _adaptation_ of living
+things to the real and significant conditions of their existence.
+Furthermore, as these conditions are not static, particularly in the
+case of humans, organisms must not merely be adapted, but must
+continue thereafter to be _adaptable_. Now learning is only a special
+case under living, and education a special case under life. Its
+purposes are the purposes of life. It is an artificial and rapid
+recapitulation for the individual, in method and results, of past life
+itself. The purpose of education is "adaptation,--with the retention
+of adaptability." It is to bring the individual into attunement,
+through his own responses and growth, with all the real factors,
+external and internal, in his life,--material, intellectual,
+emotional, social, and spiritual,--and at the same time leave him
+plastic.
+
+Adaptation comes through the habit-forming experiences of stimulus and
+response. The very process of adaptation, therefore, tends toward
+fixity and to destroy adaptability. It is thus the task of education,
+as it is of life, to replace the native, inexperienced and
+physiological plasticity of youth with some product of experience
+which shall be able to revise habits in the interest of new
+situations. The adaptability of the experienced person must be
+psychical and acquired. It must be in the realm of appreciation,
+attitude, choice, self-direction--a realm superior to habit.
+
+In this human task of securing adaptation and retaining adaptiveness
+the life sciences have high rank. In addition to furnishing the very
+conception itself that we have been trying to phrase, they give
+illustrations of all the historic occasions, kinds, and modes of
+adaptation; in lacking the exactness of the mathematical and physical
+sciences they furnish precisely the degree of uncertainty and openness
+of opportunity and of mental state which the act of living itself
+demands. In other words the science of life is, if properly presented,
+the most normal possible introduction to the very practical art of
+living. Because of the parallel meaning of education and life in
+securing progressive adaptation to the essential influential forces of
+the universe, an appreciative study of biology introduces directly to
+the purposes and methods of human education.
+
+
+CHIEF AIMS OF BIOLOGY AS A COLLEGE SUBJECT
+
+=Why study biology in college?=
+
+While students differ in the details of their purposes in life, all
+must learn to make the broad adjustments to the physical conditions of
+life; to the problems of food and nutrition; to other organisms,
+helpful and hurtful; to the internal impulses, tendencies, and
+appetites; to the various necessary human contacts and relations; to
+the great body of knowledge important to life, which human beings have
+got together; to the prevailing philosophical interpretations of the
+universe and of life; and to the pragmatic organizations, conventions,
+and controls which human society has instituted. In addition to these,
+some students of biology are going into various careers, each
+demanding special adjustments which biology may aid notably. Such are
+medicine and its related specialties, professional agricultural
+courses, and biological research of all kinds.
+
+An extended examination of college catalogs shows some consciousness
+of these facts on the part of teachers of biology. The following needs
+are formally recognized in the prospectuses: (1) The disciplinary and
+cultural needs of the general student; (2) the needs of those
+preparing for medicine or other professional courses; and (3) the
+needs of the people proposing to specialize in botany and zoology.
+These aims are usually mentioned in the order given here; but an
+examination of the character of the courses often reveals the fact
+that the actual organization of the department is determined by an
+exact reversal of this order,--that most of the attention is given,
+even in the beginning courses, to the task of preparing students to
+take advanced work in the subject. The theory of the departments is
+usually better than their practice.
+
+In what follows these are the underlying assumptions,--which seem
+without need of argument: (1) The general human needs should have the
+first place in organizing the courses in biology; (2) the
+introductory courses should not be constructed primarily as the first
+round in the ladder of biological or professional specialization, but
+for the general purposes of human life; (3) the preparation needed by
+teachers of biology for secondary schools is more nearly like that
+needful for the general student than that suited to the specialist in
+the subject; and (4) the later courses may more and more be concerned
+with the special ends of professional and vocational preparation.
+
+
+GENERAL AIMS OF BIOLOGY IN EDUCATION
+
+What are the general adaptive contributions of biology to human
+nature? What are the results in the individual which biology should
+aim to bring to every student? There are four classes of personal
+possessions, important in human adaptation, to which biology ministers
+in a conspicuous way: information and knowledge; ability and skills;
+habits; and attitudes, appreciations, and ideals. These four universal
+aims of education are doubtless closely related and actually
+inseparable, but it is worth while to consider them apart for the sake
+of clearness.
+
+
+A. TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE USEFUL IN THE ADAPTATION OF HUMAN
+   BEINGS TO THE MOST IMPORTANT CONDITIONS OF THEIR LIFE
+
+=(1) Study of biology furnishes knowledge of adaptive value=
+
+(1) Some knowledge of the processes by which individual plants and
+animals grow and differentiate, through nutrition and activity; of the
+process of development common to all organisms; and the bearing of
+these facts on human life, health, and conduct.
+
+(2) An outline knowledge of reproduction in plants and animals; the
+origin, nature, meaning, and results of sex; the contribution of sex
+to human life, to social organization and ideals, and its importance
+in determining behavior and controls.
+
+(3) A good knowledge of the external forces most important in
+influencing life; of the nature of the influence; of the various ways
+in which organisms respond and become adjusted individually and
+racially to these conditions. A sense of the necessity of adaptation;
+of the working of the laws of cause and effect among living things, as
+everywhere else; of the fact that nature's laws cannot be safely
+ignored by man any more than by the lower organisms; of the relation
+between animal behavior and human behavior.
+
+(4) Equally a true conception of the known facts about the internal
+tendencies in organisms including man, which we call hereditary. The
+principles underlying plant, animal, and human breeding. Any progress
+in behavior, in legislation, or in public opinion in the field of
+eugenics, negative or positive, must come from the spread of such
+knowledge.
+
+(5) A knowledge of the numerous ways in which plants and animals
+contribute to or interfere with human welfare. This includes use for
+food, clothing, and labor saving; their destruction of other plants or
+animals useful or hurtful to us; their work in producing, spreading,
+or aiding in the cure of disease; their aesthetic service and
+inspiration; the aid they give us in learning of our own nature
+through the experiments we conduct upon them; and many miscellaneous
+services.
+
+(6) A conception of the evolutionary series of plants and animals, and
+of man's place in the series; a reassurance that man's high place as
+an intellectual and emotional being is in no way put in peril by his
+being a part of the series. Some clear knowledge of the general manner
+of the development of the plant and animal kingdoms to their present
+complexity should be gained. The student should have some acquaintance
+with the great generalizations that have meant so much to the science
+and to all human thinking, should understand how they were reached and
+the main classes of facts on which they are based.
+
+(7) The general student should be required to have such knowledge of
+structure and classification as is needed to give foundation and body
+to the evolutionary conceptions of plants and animals, and to the
+various processes and powers mentioned above--and only so much.
+
+(8) Some knowledge of the development of the science itself; of its
+relation to the other sciences; of the men who have most contributed
+to it, and their contributions; of the manner of making these
+discoveries, and of the bearing of the more important of these
+discoveries upon human learning, progress, and well-being.
+
+(9) Something of the parallelism between animal psychology, behavior,
+habits, instincts, and learning, and those of man,--in both the
+individual and the social realm.
+
+(10) An elementary understanding of plant and animal and human
+distribution over the earth, and of the factors that have brought it
+about.
+
+
+B. FORMS OF SKILL WHICH WORK IN BIOLOGY SHOULD BRING TO EVERY STUDENT
+
+=(2) Biological study gives desirable skills=
+
+Skill or ability may be developed in respect to the following
+activities: seeking and securing information, recording it,
+interpreting its significance, reaching general conclusions about it,
+modifying one's conduct under the guidance of these conclusions, and,
+finally, of appraising the soundness of this conduct in the light of
+the results of it. All of these are of basic importance in the human
+task of making conscious adjustments in actual life; and the ability
+to get facts and to use them is more valuable than to possess the
+knowledge of facts. Other sciences develop some of these forms of
+skill better than biology does; nevertheless, we shall find that
+biology furnishes a remarkably balanced opportunity to develop skills
+of the various kinds. It presents a great range and variety of
+opportunity to develop accuracy and skill in raising questions; in
+observation and the use of precise descriptive terms in recording
+results of observation; in experimentation; in comparison and
+classification. It is peculiarly rich in opportunities to gain skill
+in discriminating between important and unimportant data,--one of the
+most vital of all the steps in the process of sound reasoning. In
+practice, a datum may at first sight seem trivial, when in reality it
+is very significant. _Skill_ in estimating values comes only with
+_experience_ in estimating values, and in applying these estimates in
+practice, and in observing and correcting the results of practice.
+
+Finally, skill in adjusting behavior to knowledge is one of the most
+necessary abilities and most difficult to attain. The study of animal
+behavior experimentally is at the foundation of much that we know of
+human psychology and the grounds of human behavior. Even in an
+elementary class it is quite possible so to study animal responses and
+the results of response as to give guidance and facility to the
+individual in interpreting the efficiency of his own responses, and in
+adding to his own controls. As has been said, practice of some kind is
+necessary to determine whether our estimate of values is good. Even
+vicarious experience has educative value.
+
+
+C. HABITS WHICH MAY BE STRENGTHENED BY THE WORK IN BIOLOGY
+
+=(3) Biology may supply adaptive habits=
+
+Habits are of course the normal outcome of repeated action. Indeed,
+skills are in a sense habits from another point of view. Skill,
+however, looks rather toward the output; habit, toward the mode of
+functioning by the person by whom the result is attained. We may then
+develop habits in respect to all the processes and activities
+mentioned above under the term "skills." The teacher of biology should
+have definitely in purpose the securing for the student of habits of
+inquiry, of diligence, of concentration, of accuracy of observation,
+of seeking and weighing evidence, of detecting the essentials in a
+mass of facts, of refusing to rest satisfied until a conclusion, the
+most tenable in the light of all known data, is reached, and of
+reexamining conclusions whenever new evidence is offered.
+
+Of course it is impossible to use biology to get habits of right
+reasoning in students unless we _really allow them to reason_. If we
+insist that their work is merely to observe, record, and hold in
+memory,--as so many of us do in laboratory work,--they may form
+habits of doing these things, but not necessarily any more than this.
+Indeed, they may definitely form the habit of doing _only_ these
+things, _failing to use the results in forming for themselves any of
+the larger conclusions about organisms_. _Seeing_ and _knowing_--without
+the ability and habit of _thinking_--is not an uncommon or surprising
+result of our conventional laboratory work. There is only one way to
+get the habit of right "following through" in reasoning; this is,
+_always to do the thing_. When data are observed or are furnished it
+is a pedagogical sin on the part of the teacher to allow the student
+to stop at that point; and equally so to deduce the conclusion for the
+student, or to allow the writer of the textbook to do so, or at any
+time to induce the student to accept from another a conclusion which
+he himself might reach from the data. We have depended too much on our
+science as a mere observational science,--when as a matter of fact its
+chief glory is really its opportunity and its incentives to coherent
+thinking and careful testing of conclusions.
+
+It is inexact enough, if we are entirely honest, to force us to hold
+our conclusions with an open mind ready to admit new evidence. It is
+entirely the fault of the teacher if the pupil gets a dogmatic,
+too-sure habit of mind as the result of his biological studies. And
+yet, as has been said, it is exact enough to enable us to reach just
+the same sort of approximations to truth which are possible in our own
+lives. The study of biology presents a superb opportunity to prepare
+for living by forming the habits of mind and of life that facilitate
+right choices in the presence of highly debatable situations. In this
+it much surpasses the more "exact" sciences. We may conclude, then, by
+positing the belief that the most important mental habit which human
+beings can form is that of using and applying consciously the
+scientific method as outlined above, not merely to biology alone, but
+to all the issues of personal life as well.
+
+
+D. APPRECIATIONS, ATTITUDES, AND IDEALS AS AIDED BY BIOLOGY
+
+=(4) Attitudes of life perfected by study of the life sciences=
+
+This group of objectives is a bit less tangible, as some think, than
+those that have been mentioned; but in my own opinion they are as
+important and as educable for the good of the youth by means of
+biology as are knowledge, skill, and habit. In a sense these states of
+mind arise as by-products of the getting of information, skills, and
+habits; in turn they heighten their value. We have spoken above of the
+need of skill and habit in making use of the various steps in the
+scientific method in reaching conclusions in life. These are
+essential, but skill and habit alone are not enough to meet the
+necessities in actual life.
+
+In the first place the habit of using the scientific method in the
+scientific laboratory does not in itself give assurance that the
+person will apply this method in getting at the truth in problems in
+his own personal life; and yet this is the essential object of all
+this scientific training. In order to get the individual to carry over
+this method,--especially where feelings and prejudices are
+involved,--we must inculcate in him the scientific ideal and the
+scientific attitude until they become general in their influence. To
+do this he ought to be induced as a regular part of his early courses
+in biology to practice the scientific method upon certain practical
+daily decisions exactly with the same rigor that is used in the
+biological laboratory. The custom of using this method in animal study
+should be transformed into an _attitude of dependence upon it_ as the
+only sound method of solving one's life choices. Only by carrying the
+method consciously into our life's problems, _as a part of the
+exercise in the course in biology_, can we break up the disposition to
+regard the method as good merely in the biological laboratory. We must
+generate, by practice and precept, the _ideal_ of making universal our
+dependence upon our best instrument of determining truth. A personal
+habit in the laboratory must become a general ideal for life, if we
+hope to substitute the scientific method for prejudice in human
+living. There is no department of learning so well capable of doing
+this thing as biology.
+
+In the second place, the scientific method standing alone, because of
+its very excellence as a method, is liable to produce a kind of
+over-sure dogmatism about conclusions, unless it be accompanied by the
+scientific attitude or spirit of open-mindedness. The scientific
+spirit does not necessarily flow from the scientific method at all,
+unless the teacher is careful in his use of it in teaching. We make a
+mistake if, in our just enthusiasm to impress the scientific method
+upon the student, we fail to teach that it can give, at best, only an
+approximation to truth. The scientific attitude which holds even our
+best-supported conclusions subject to revision by new evidence is the
+normal corrective of the possible dogmatism that comes from
+over-confidence in the scientific method as our best means of
+discovering truth.
+
+The student at the end of the first year of biology ought to have more
+appreciation and enjoyment of plants and animals and their life than
+at the beginning,--and increased appreciation of his own relation to
+other animals; some attitude of dependence upon the scientific method
+of procedure not merely in biology but in his own life; a desire,
+however modest, for investigating things for himself; and an ideal of
+open-minded, enthusiastic willingness to subject his own conclusions
+to renewed testing at all times. All these gains should be reinforced
+by later courses.
+
+
+SPECIAL AIMS OF BIOLOGY IN EDUCATION
+
+=(5) Biology a valuable tool for certain technical pursuits=
+
+So far as I can see, the preparation of students for medicine, for
+biological research, or for any advanced application of biology calls
+only for the following,--in addition to the further intensification of
+the emphasis suggested above:
+
+(_a_) An increased recognition of the subject matter in organizing the
+course. In the early courses the subject ought to be subordinated to
+the personal elements. If one is to relate himself to the science in a
+professional way, the logic of the science comes to be the dominant
+objective.
+
+(_b_) Growing out of the above there comes to be a change of emphasis
+on the scientific method. The method itself is identical, but the
+attitude toward it is different. In the early courses it was guided by
+the _teaching_ purpose. We insist upon the method in order that the
+student may appreciate how the subject has grown, may realize how all
+truth must be reached, and may come habitually to apply the method to
+his life problems. In the later courses it becomes the method of
+research into the unknown. The student comes more and more to use it
+as a tool, in whose use he himself is subordinated to his devotion to
+a field of investigation.
+
+(_c_) A greater emphasis upon such special forms of biological
+knowledge as will be necessary as tools in the succeeding steps, and
+the selection of subject matter with this specifically in view. This
+is chiefly a matter of information, making the next steps
+intellectually possible.
+
+(_d_) More specific forms of skill, adapted to the work contemplated.
+Technic becomes an object in such courses. Morphology, histology,
+technic, exact experimentation, repetition, drill, extended
+comparative studies, classifition, and the like become more essential
+than in the elementary courses. Thoroughness and mastery are
+desiderata for the sake both of subject matter and character; and in
+very much greater degree than in the general course.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE IN BIOLOGY
+
+=Biology courses not to be standardized rigidly=
+
+The writer does not feel that standardized programs in biology in
+colleges are either possible or desirable. What is set down here under
+this heading is merely intended as carrying out the principles
+outlined above, and not as the only way to provide a suitable program.
+The writer assumes that the undergraduates are handled by men of
+catholic interests; and that the undergraduate courses are not
+distributed and manipulated primarily as feeders for specialized
+departments of research in a graduate school. This latter attitude is,
+in my opinion, fatal to creditable undergraduate instruction for the
+general student or for the future high school teachers of the subject.
+
+=But they should follow a general principle:=
+
+There are three groups or cycles of courses which may properly be
+developed by the college or by the undergraduate department of the
+university.
+
+_First Group_
+
+=(1) The _first_ group of courses should introduce to life rather than
+to later biological courses=
+
+This group contains introductory courses for all students, but
+organized particularly with the idea of bringing the rich material of
+biology to the service of young people with the aim of making them
+effective in life, and not as a first course for making them botanists
+or zoologists.
+
+Course--_Biology 1._ General Biology
+
+This course should introduce the student to the college method of work
+in the life sciences; should give him the general knowledge and points
+of view outlined above as the chief aims of Biology; should synthesize
+what the student already knows about plants and animals under the
+general conception of life. Ideally the botanical and zoological
+portions should be fused and be given by one teacher, rather than
+presented as one semester of botany and one of zoology. This, however,
+is frequently impracticable. In any event the total result should
+really be biology, and not a patchwork of botany and zoology. Hence
+there should be a free crossing of the barriers in use of materials at
+all times.
+
+A year of biology is recommended because each pupil ought to have some
+work in both fields, and we cannot expect him to take a year in each.
+
+Course--_Biology 2._ History of Biology
+
+This course, dealing with the relation of the development of biology
+to human interests and problems, may be given separately, or as a part
+of Course 1,--which should otherwise be prerequisite to it. This may
+be one of the most humanizing of all the possible courses in biology.
+
+_Second Group_
+
+=(2) A _second_ group should be technical and introductory to
+professional uses=
+
+This group furnishes a series of courses providing a thorough
+introduction to the principles and methods of botany and zoology. They
+provide discipline, drill, comparison, mastery of technic as well as
+increased appreciation of biology and of the scientific method. They
+should prepare for advanced work in biology, and for technical
+applications of it to medicine, agriculture, stock breeding, forestry,
+etc.
+
+  Course--Botany 1: General
+  and Comparative Botany,
+  and the Evolution of
+  Plants.
+
+  Course--Botany 2: Physiology
+  and Ecology of
+  Plants.
+
+  Course--Botany 3: Plant
+  Cytology, Histology, and
+  Embryology.
+
+  Course--Zoology 1: General
+  and Comparative Zoology.
+
+  Course--Zoology 2: Animal,
+  including Human,
+  Physiology.
+
+  Course--Zoology 3: Microtechnic,
+  Histology,
+  Histogenesis, Embryogeny.
+
+  Course--Zoology 4: Animal
+  Ecology.
+
+
+This outline for botany and zoology follows in the main the most
+common arrangement found in the schools of the country. In the
+personal judgment of the writer all undergraduate courses should
+combine aspects of morphology, physiology, ecology, etc., rather than
+be confined strictly to one particular phase; even histology and
+embryology can be better taught when their physiological aspects are
+emphasized. There is no fundamental reason, however, why there may not
+be great latitude of treatment in this group. An alluring feature of
+biological teaching is that a teacher who has a vital objective can
+begin anywhere in our wonderful subject and get logically to any point
+he wishes. These courses may be further subdivided, where facilities
+allow.
+
+_Third Group_
+
+=(3) A _third_ group of special, but cultural, courses=
+
+This group contains certain of the more elementary applications of
+biology to human welfare. While having practical value in somewhat
+specialized vocations, the courses in this group are not proposed as
+professional or technical. They are definitely cultural. Every college
+might well give one or more of them, in accordance with local
+conditions. They ought to be eligible without the courses of the
+second group. The order is not significant.
+
+  Biology 3: Economic Entomology;
+  Biology 4: Bird Course;
+  Biology 5: Tree Course;
+  Biology 6: Bacteriology and Fermentation;
+  Biology 7: Biology of Sex; Heredity and Eugenics;
+  Biology 8: Biology and Education;
+  Biology 9: Evolution and Theoretical Problems.
+
+
+PLACE OF BIOLOGY IN THE COLLEGE CURRICULUM
+
+=The first course ought to be given in such a way that it might fittingly
+be required of all freshmen=
+
+The introductory course (Biology 1) can be given in such a way that it
+ought to be required of all students during the freshman or sophomore
+year, preferably the freshman. In addition to the life value suggested
+above, and its introductory value in later biology courses, such a
+course would aid the student in psychology, sociology, geology,
+ethics, philosophy, education, domestic economy, and physical culture.
+Effort should be made to correlate the biological work with these
+departments of instruction. The course as now given in most of our
+colleges and universities does not possess enough merit to become a
+required study. Perhaps all we have a right at present to ask is that
+biology shall be one of a group of sciences from which all students
+must elect at least one. It is preposterous, in an age of science,
+that any college should not require at least a year of science.
+
+Biology 1 should be prerequisite for botany 1 and zoology 1, and for
+the special biology courses in group three.
+
+Botany 1 and zoology 1 should be made prerequisite for the higher
+courses in their respective fields; but aside from this almost any
+sequence would be allowable.
+
+A major in biology should provide at least for biology 1 and 2, botany
+1, zoology 1, botany 2 and 3, or zoology, 2 and 3. Chemistry is
+desirable as a preparation for the second group of courses.
+
+
+METHODS OF TEACHING AS CONDITIONED BY THE AIMS OUTLINED ABOVE
+
+=Acceptance of biology retarded by poor pedagogy=
+
+Since the laboratory method came into use among biologists, there has
+been a disposition, growing out of its very excellences, to make a
+fetich of it, to refuse to recognize the necessity of other methods,
+to be intolerant of any science courses not employing the laboratory,
+and to affect a lofty disdain of any pedagogical discussion of the
+question whatsoever. The tone in which all this is done suggests a
+boast; but to the discriminating it amounts to a confession! The
+result of it has been to retard the development of biology to its
+rightful place as one of the most foundational and catholic of all
+educational fields. The great variety of aim and of matter not merely
+allow, but make imperative, the use of all possible methods; and there
+is no method found fruitful in education which does not lend itself to
+use in biology. The lecture method, the textbook, the recitation, the
+quiz and the inverted quiz, the method of assigned readings and
+reports, the method of conference and seminar, the laboratory method,
+and the field method are all applicable and needed in every course,
+even the most elementary.
+
+=Prostitution of the laboratory=
+
+Our method has thus crystallized about the laboratory as the one
+essential thing; but worse, we have used the very shortcomings of the
+laboratory as an excuse for extending its sway. The laboratory method
+is the method of research in biology. It is our only way to discover
+unknown facts. Is it, therefore, the best way to rediscover facts?
+This does not necessarily follow, though we have assumed it.
+Self-discovered facts are no better nor more true than communicated
+facts, and it takes more time to get them. The laboratory is the
+slowest possible way of getting facts. We have tried to correct this
+quantitative difficulty by extending the laboratory time, by speeding
+up, by confining ourselves to static types of facts like those of
+structure, and by using detailed laboratory guides for matter and
+method, all of which tends to make the laboratory exercise one of
+routine and the mere observation and recording of facts or a
+verification of the statements in manuals. The correction of these
+well-known limitations of the laboratory must come, in my opinion, by
+a frank recognition of, and breaking away from, certain of our
+misapprehensions about the function of the laboratory. Some of these
+are:
+
+=Real purpose and possibility of laboratory work=
+
+1. That the chief facts of a science should be rediscovered by the
+student in the laboratory. This is not true. Life is too short. The
+great mass of the student's facts must come from the instructor and
+from books. The laboratory has as its function in respect to facts,
+some very vital things: as, making clear certain classes of facts
+which the student cannot visualize without concrete demonstration;
+giving vividness to facts in general; gaining of enough facts at first
+hand to enable him to hold in solution the great mass of facts which
+he must take second hand; to give him skill and accuracy in
+observation and in recording discoveries; to give appreciation of the
+way in which all the second-hand facts have been reached; to give
+taste and enthusiasm for asking questions and confidence and
+persistence in finding answers for them. Anything more than this is
+waste of time. These results are not gained by mere quantity of work,
+but only through constant and intelligent guidance of the student's
+attitude in the process of dealing with facts.
+
+2. A feeling that the laboratory or scientific method consists
+primarily of observation of facts and their record. In reality these
+are three great steps instead of one in this method, which the student
+of biology should master: (1) the getting of facts, one device for
+doing which is observation; (2) the appraisal and discrimination of
+these facts to find which are important; and (3) the drawing of the
+conclusions which these facts seem to warrant. There are two practical
+corollaries of this truth. One is that the laboratory should be so
+administered that the pupil shall appreciate the full scope of the
+scientific method, its tremendous historic value to the race, and the
+necessity of using _all_ the steps of it faithfully in all future
+progress as well as in the sound solution of our individual problems
+and the guidance of conduct. The second is that we may make errors in
+our scientific conclusions and in life conclusions, through failure to
+discriminate among our facts, quite as fatally as through lack of
+facts. Indeed, my personal conviction is that more failures are due to
+lack of discrimination than to lack of observation. The power to weigh
+evidence is at least as important as the power to collect it.
+
+3. A disposition to deny the student the right to reach conclusions in
+the laboratory,--or, as we flamboyantly say, to "generalize." Now in
+reality the only earthly value of _facts_ is to get _truth_,--that is,
+conclusions or generalizations. To deny this privilege is taxation
+without representation in respect to personality. The purpose of the
+laboratory is to enable students to think, to think accurately and
+with purpose, to reach their own conclusions. The getting of facts by
+observation is only a minor detail. In reality, the data the student
+can get from books are much more reliable than his own observations
+are likely to be. Our laboratory training should add gradually to the
+accuracy of his observations, but particularly it should enable him to
+use his own and other persons' facts conjointly, and with proper
+discrimination, in reaching conclusions. To do other than this tends
+to abort the reasoning attitude and power, and teaches the pupil to
+stand passive in the presence of facts and to divorce facts and
+conclusions. The fear is, of course, that the students will get wrong
+conclusions and acquire the habit of jumping prematurely to
+generalizations. But this situation, while critical, is the very glory
+of the method. What we want to do is to ask them continually,--wherever
+possible,--_where_ _their facts seem to lead them_. Their conclusions
+are liable to be quite wrong, to be sure. But our province as teachers
+is to see that the facts ignorance of which made this conclusion wrong
+are brought to their attention,--and it is not absolutely material
+whether they discover these facts themselves or some one else does.
+What we want to compass is practice in reaching conclusions, and the
+recognition of the necessity of getting and discriminating facts in
+doing so, together with a realization that there are probably many
+other facts which we have not discovered that would modify our
+conclusions. This keeps the mind open. In other words, the student may
+thus be brought to realize the meaning of the "working hypothesis" and
+the method of approximation to truth. It makes no difference if one
+"jumps to a conclusion," if he jumps in the light of all his known
+facts and holds his conclusion _tentatively_. It is much better to
+reach wrong conclusions through inadequate facts than to have the mind
+come to a standstill in the presence of facts. Instead of being a
+threat, reaching a wrong conclusion gives us the opportunity to train
+students in holding their conclusions open-mindedly and subject to
+revision through new facts. Reaching wrong or partial conclusions and
+correcting them may be made even more educative than reaching right
+ones at the outset. This would not be true if the conclusion were
+being sought for the sake of the science. But it is being sought
+solely for the sake of the student. The distinction is important. The
+inability to make it is one of the reasons why research men so often
+fail as teachers.
+
+All through life the student will be forced to draw conclusions from
+two types of facts,--both of which will be incomplete: those he
+himself has observed and those which came to him from other observers.
+While he must always feel free to try out any and all facts for
+himself, it is quite as important in practice that he be able to weigh
+other persons' facts discriminatingly. We teach in the laboratory that
+the pupil should not take his facts second hand, though we rather
+insist that he do so with his conclusions. In reality it is often
+much better to take our facts second hand; the stultifying thing is to
+take our conclusions so.
+
+=A normal complete mental reaction for every laboratory exercise=
+
+4. The dependence upon outlines and manuals. This is one of the most
+deadening devices that we have instituted to economize gray matter and
+increase the quantity of laboratory records at the expense of real
+initiative and thinking. It is easy for the reader to analyze for
+himself the mental reaction, or lack of it, of the student in
+following the usual detailed laboratory outline. _Every laboratory
+exercise should be an educative situation calling for a complete
+mental reaction from the pupil._ In the first place, no exercise
+should be used which is not really vital and educative. This assured,
+the full mental reaction of the student should be about as follows:
+
+     (1) The cursory survey of the situation.
+
+     (2) The raising by the student of such questions as seem to him
+     interesting or worthy of solution. (Here, of course, the teacher
+     can by skillful questioning lead the class to raise all necessary
+     problems, and increase the student's willingness to attack them.)
+
+     (3) The determination through class conference of the order and
+     method of attacking the problems, and the reasons therefor.
+
+     (4) The accumulation and record of discovered facts (sharply
+     eliminating all inferences).
+
+     (5) The arrangement (classification) and appraisal
+     (discrimination) of the discovered facts.
+
+     (6) Conclusions or inferences from the facts. (These should be
+     very sharply and critically examined by teacher and class, to see
+     to what extent they are really valid and supported by the facts.)
+
+     (7) Retesting of conclusions by new facts submitted by class, by
+     teacher, or from books, with an effort to diminish prejudice as a
+     factor in conclusions, and to increase the willingness to
+     approach our own conclusions with an open mind.
+
+
+When laboratory outlines are used at all they should consist merely of
+directions, and suggestions, and stimulating questions which will
+start the pupils on the main quest,--the raising and solving of their
+own problems.
+
+
+SOME MOOT PROBLEMS[2]
+
+=Ascending or descending order?=
+
+1. Shall we begin with the simple, little-known, lower forms and
+follow the ascending order, which is analogous at least to the
+evolutionary order? Or shall we begin with the more complex but
+better-known forms and go downward? It seems to the writer that the
+former method has the advantage in actual interest; in its
+suggestiveness of evolution, which is the most important single
+impression the student will get from his course; and in the mental
+satisfactions that come to pupil and teacher alike from the sense of
+progress. However, our material is so rich, so interesting, and so
+plastic that it makes little difference where we begin if only we have
+a clear idea of what we want to accomplish.
+
+=Morphology versus other interests=
+
+2. What proportion of time should be given to morphology in relation
+to other interests? For several reasons morphology has been
+overemphasized. It lends itself to the older conception of the
+laboratory as a place to observe and record facts. It offers little
+temptation to reach conclusions. It calls for little use of gray
+matter. This makes it an easy laboratory enterprise. It is what the
+grade teachers call "busy" work, and can be multiplied indefinitely.
+It can be made to smack of exactness and thoroughness.
+
+Furthermore, morphology _is_ in reality a basal consideration. It is a
+legitimate part of an introductory course,--but never for its own sake
+nor to prepare for higher courses. But morphology is, however, only
+the starting point for the higher mental processes by which different
+forms of organisms are compared, for the correlating of structure with
+activity, for appreciation of adaptations of structure both to
+function and to environmental influence. It thus serves as a
+foundation upon which to build conclusions about really vital matters.
+Experience teaches that sensitiveness, behavior, and other activities
+and powers and processes interest young people more than structure.
+The student's views are essentially sound at this point.
+
+The introductory course should, therefore, be a cycle in which the
+student passes quite freely back and forth between form, powers,
+activities, conditions of life, and the conclusions as to the meanings
+of these. It is important only that he shall know with which
+consideration he is from time to time engaged.
+
+=Few types or many?=
+
+3. Shall a few forms be studied thoroughly, or many forms be studied
+more superficially? There is something of value in each of these
+practices. It is possible to over-emphasize the idea of thoroughness
+in the introductory courses. Thoroughness is purely a relative
+condition anyway, since we cannot really master any type. It seems
+poor pedagogy, in an elementary class particularly, to emphasize small
+and difficult forms or organs because they demand more painstaking and
+skill on the part of the student. My own practice in the elementary
+course is to have a very few specially favorable forms studied with a
+good deal of care, and a much larger number studied partially,
+emphasizing those points which they illustrate very effectively.
+
+=Distribution of time=
+
+4. What proportion of time should be given to the various methods of
+work? Manifestly the answer to this question depends upon the local
+equipment and upon the character of the course itself. The suggestion
+here relates primarily to the general or introductory courses. It
+seems to me that a sound division of time would be: two or three hours
+per week of class exercises (lectures, recitations, reports, quiz,
+etc.) demanding not less than four hours of preparation in text and
+library work; and four to six hours a week of "practical" work with
+organisms, about two hours of which should take the form of studies in
+the field wherever this is possible.
+
+=Weakness of the research man as a teacher for the beginning course=
+
+5. Is the "research" man the best teacher for the introductory
+courses? In spite of a good deal of prejudgment on the part of college
+and university administrators and of the research biologists
+themselves. I am convinced he is not. While there are notable
+exceptions, my own observation is that the investigator, whether the
+head professor or the "teaching fellow," usually does not have the
+mental attitude that makes a successful teacher, at least of
+elementary classes,--and for these reasons: he begrudges the time
+spent in teaching elementary classes, presents the subject as
+primarily preparatory to upper courses, subordinates the human
+elements to the scientific elements, and actually exploits the class
+in the interest of research. The real teacher's question about an
+entering class is this: "How can I best use the materials of our
+science to make real men and women out of these people?" The question
+of the professional investigator is likely to be: "How many of these
+people are fit to become investigators, and how can I most surely find
+them and interest them in the science?" This is a perfectly fine and
+legitimate question; but it is not an appropriate one until the first
+one has been answered. It has been assumed that the answers to the two
+questions are identical. This is one of the most vicious assumptions
+in higher education today, in my opinion. Furthermore, the
+investigator with his interests centering at the margins of the
+unknown cannot use the scientific method as a teacher, whose interest
+must center in the pupil. The points of view are not merely not
+identical; they are incompatible.
+
+=Necessity of differentiation and recognition of the two functions=
+
+Experience indicates the wisdom of having all beginning courses in
+biology in colleges and universities given by teachers and not by
+investigators, mature or immature. All people who propose to teach
+biology in the high schools should have their early courses given from
+this human point of view, that they may be the better able to come
+back to it after their graduate work, in their efforts to organize
+courses for pupils the greater part of whom will never have any but a
+life interest in the subject. The problem of presenting the advanced
+and special courses is relatively an easy one. The investigator is the
+best possible teacher for advanced students in his own special field
+if he is endowed with any common sense at all.
+
+
+TESTS OF EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING
+
+As yet we are notably lacking in regard to the measurement of progress
+as the result of our teaching. Our usual tests--examination,
+recitation, quiz, reports, laboratory notebooks--evaluate in a measure
+work done, knowledge or general grasp acquired, and accuracy
+developed. We need, however, measurements of skill, of habits, and of
+the still more intangible attitudes and appreciations. These may be
+gained in part by furnishing really educative situations and observing
+the time and character of the student's reaction. Every true teacher
+is in reality an experimental psychologist, and must apply directly
+the methods of the psychologist.
+
+=More vital _tests_ of results of teaching must be found=
+
+The laboratory and field furnish opportunity for this sort of testing.
+The student may be confronted with an unfamiliar organism or situation
+and be given a limited time in which to obtain and record his results.
+He may be asked to state and enumerate the problems that are suggested
+by the situation; outline a method of solving them; discover as large
+a body of facts as possible; arrange them in an order that seems to
+him logical, with his reasons; and to make whatever inferences seem to
+him sound in the light of facts,--supporting his conclusions at every
+point. The ability to make such a total mental reaction promptly and
+comprehendingly is the best test of any teaching whatsoever. The
+important thing is that we shall not ourselves lose sight of the
+essential parts of it in our enthusiasm for one portion of it.
+
+In judging attitude and appreciation I think it is possible for
+discriminating teachers to obtain the testimony of the pupil himself
+in appraisal of his own progress and attitude. This needs to be done
+indirectly, to be sure. The student's self-judgment may not be
+accurate; but it is not at all impossible to secure a disposition in
+students to measure and estimate their own progress in these various
+things with some accuracy and fairness of mind. Besides its incidental
+value as a test, I know of no realm of biological observation,
+discrimination, and conclusion more likely to prove profitable to the
+student than this effort to estimate, without prejudice, his own
+growth.
+
+
+THE LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT
+
+=Scarcity of authoritative pedagogical literature in biology=
+
+For various reasons very little attention has been given to the
+pedagogy of college biology by those in the best position to throw
+light upon this vital problem. More information as to the attitude of
+teachers of the subject is to be derived from college and university
+catalogs than elsewhere,--howbeit of a somewhat stereotyped and
+standardized kind. Much more has been written relative to the teaching
+of biology in the secondary schools. In my opinion the most effective
+teaching of biology in America today is being done in the best high
+schools by teachers who have been forced to acquire a pedagogical
+background that would enable them to reconstruct completely their
+presentation of the subject. Most of these people obtained very little
+help in this task from their college courses in biology. For these
+reasons every college teacher will greatly profit by studying what has
+been written for the secondary teachers. _School Science and
+Mathematics_ (Chicago) is the best source for current views in this
+field. Its files will show no little of the best thought and
+investigation that have been devoted to the principles underlying
+instruction in biology. Lloyd and Bigelow, in _The Teaching of
+Biology_ (Longmans, Green & Co.), have treated the problems of
+secondary biology at length. Ganong's _Teaching Botanist_ (The
+Macmillan Company) has high value.
+
+The authors of textbooks of biology, botany, and zoology issued during
+the last ten years have ventured to develop, in their prefaces,
+appendices, and elsewhere, their pedagogical points of view. The
+writer has personal knowledge that teaching suggestions are still
+resented by some college teachers of zoology. Illustrations of the
+tendency to incorporate pedagogical material in textbooks on
+biological subjects can be found in
+
+DODGE, C. W. _Practical Biology._ Harper and Brothers, 1894.
+
+GAGER, C. S. _Fundamentals of Botany._ P. Blakiston's Son & Co., 1916.
+
+GALLOWAY, T. W. _Textbook of Zoology._ P. Blakiston's Son & Co., 1915.
+
+KINGSLEY, J. S. _Textbook of Vertebrate Zoology._ H. Holt & Co.
+
+PETRUNKEVITCH, A. _Morphology of Invertebrate Types._ The Macmillan
+Company, 1916.
+
+                                                 T. W. GALLOWAY
+  _Beloit College_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+CRAMER, F. Logical Method in Biology. _Popular Science Monthly_, Vol.
+44, page 372. 1894.
+
+FARLOW, W. G. Biological Teaching in Colleges. _Popular Science
+Monthly_, Vol. 28, page 581. 1886.
+
+HARVEY, N. A. Pedagogical Content of Zoology. _Proceedings National
+Education Association_, 1899; page 1106.
+
+HODGE, C. F. Dynamic Biology. _Pedagogical Seminar_, Vols. 11-12.
+
+HUXLEY, J. H. Educational Value of Natural History Science. Essay II,
+_Science and Education_. 1854.
+
+RUSK, R. R. _Introduction to Experimental Education._ Longmans, Green
+& Co., 1912.
+
+SAUNDERS, S. J. Value of Research in Education. _School Science and
+Mathematics_, Vol. II, March, 1902.
+
+SMALLWOOD, W. M. Biology as a Culture Study. _Journal of Pedagogy_,
+Vol. 17, page 231.
+
+WELTON, J. _Psychology of Education_ (chapter on "Character"). The
+Macmillan Company, 1911.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[2] These problems relate particularly to the introductory courses.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY
+
+
+=Preparation of entering students a determining factor=
+
+Some of the students entering classes in chemistry in college have
+already had an elementary course in the subject in the high school or
+academy, while others have not. Again, some study chemistry in college
+merely for the sake of general information and culture, while many
+others pursue the subject because the vocation they are planning to
+make their life's work requires a more or less extensive knowledge of
+chemistry. Thus, all students in the natural sciences and their
+applications--as we have them in medicine, engineering, agriculture,
+and home economics--as well as those who are training to become
+professional chemists, either in the arts and industries or in
+teaching, must devote a considerable amount of time and energy to the
+study of chemistry. The teacher of college chemistry consequently must
+take into consideration the preparation with which the student enters
+his classes and also the end which is to be attained by the pursuit of
+the subject in the case of the various groups of students mentioned.
+
+In the larger high schools courses in chemistry are now quite
+generally offered, but this is not yet true of the smaller schools. In
+some colleges those who have had high school chemistry are at once
+placed into advanced work without taking the usual basal course in
+general chemistry which is so arranged that students can enter it who
+have had no previous knowledge of the subject. In other words, in some
+cases the college builds directly upon the high school course in
+chemistry. As a rule, however, this does not prove very successful,
+for the high school course in chemistry is not primarily designed as a
+course upon which advanced college chemistry can be founded. This is
+as it should be, for after all, while the high school prepares
+students for college, its chief purpose is to act as a finishing
+school for those larger numbers of students who never go to college.
+The high school course in chemistry is consequently properly designed
+to give certain important chemical facts and point out their more
+immediate applications in the ordinary walks of life, as far as this
+can properly be done in the allotted time with a student of high
+school age and maturity. The result is consequently that while such
+work can very well be accepted toward satisfying college entrance
+requirements, it is only rarely sufficient as a basis for advanced
+college courses in the subject. As a rule it is best to ask all
+students to take the basal course in general chemistry offered in
+college, arranging somewhat more advanced experiments in the
+laboratory wherever necessary for those who have had chemistry in
+preparatory schools. This has become the writer's practice after
+careful trial of other expedients. The scheme has on the whole worked
+out fairly well, for it is sufficiently elastic to meet the needs of
+the individual students, who naturally come with preparation that is
+quite varied. Almost invariably students who, on account of their
+course in high school chemistry, are excused from the general basal
+course in college chemistry have been handicapped forever afterward in
+their advanced work in the subject.
+
+=Organization of first-year course--General chemistry=
+
+The first year's work in college chemistry consists of general
+chemistry. It is basal for all work that is to follow, and yet at the
+same time it is a finished course, giving a well-rounded survey of the
+subject to all who do not care to pursue it further. This basal course
+is commonly given in the freshman year, though sometimes it is
+deferred to the sophomore year. Its content is now fairly uniform in
+different colleges, the first semester being commonly devoted to
+general fundamental considerations and the chemistry of the
+non-metals, while the metals receive attention in the second semester,
+the elements of qualitative analysis being in some cases taught in
+connection with the chemistry of the metals.
+
+The work is almost universally conducted by means of lectures,
+laboratory work, and recitations. The lectures have the purpose to
+unfold the subject, give general orientation as to the most important
+fundamental topics and points of view, and furnish impetus, guidance,
+and inspiration for laboratory study and reading. To this end the
+lectures should be illustrated by means of carefully chosen and
+well-prepared experiments. These serve not only to illustrate typical
+chemical processes, and fundamental laws, but they also stimulate
+interest and teach the student many valuable points of manipulation,
+for it is well-nigh impossible to watch an expert manipulator without
+absorbing valuable hints on the building up, arranging, and handling
+of apparatus. In the lectures the material should be presented slowly,
+carefully, and clearly, so that it may readily be followed by the
+student. Facts should always be placed in the foreground, and they
+should be made the basis of the generalization we call laws, and then
+the latter naturally lead to theoretical conceptions. It is a great
+mistake to begin with the atomic theory practically the first day and
+try to bolster up that theory with facts later on as concrete cases of
+chemical action are studied. On the other hand, it is also quite
+unwise to defer the introduction of theoretical conceptions too long,
+for the atomic theory is a great aid in making rapid progress in the
+study of chemistry. At least two or three weeks are well spent in
+studying fundamental chemical reactions as facts quite independent of
+any theories whatsoever, in order that the student may thoroughly
+appreciate the nature of chemical change and become familiar with
+enough characteristic and typical cases of chemical action so that the
+general laws of chemical combination by weight and by volume may be
+logically deduced and the atomic and molecular theories presented as
+based upon those laws.
+
+Up to this stage the reactions should be written out in words and all
+formulation should be avoided, so that the student will not get the
+idea that "chemistry is the science of signs and symbols," or that
+"chemistry is a hypothetical science," but that he will feel that
+chemistry deals with certain very definite, characteristic, and
+fundamental changes of matter in which new substances are formed, and
+that these processes always go on in accordance with fixed and
+invariable laws, though they are influenced by conditions of
+temperature, pressure, light, electricity, and the presence of other
+substances in larger or smaller amounts. The theory and formulation
+when properly introduced should be an aid to the student, leading him
+to see that the expression of chemical facts is simplified thereby.
+Thus he will never make the error of regarding the symbol as the
+fundamental thing, but he will from the very outset look upon it
+simply as a useful form of shorthand expression, as it were, which is
+also a great aid in chemical thinking. Facts and theories should ever
+be kept distinct and separate in the student's mind, if he is to make
+real progress in the science.
+
+A thoroughgoing, logical presentation of the subject, leading the
+student slowly and with a sense of perfect comprehension into the
+deeper and more difficult phases, should constitute one of the prime
+features of the work of the first year. Interest should constantly be
+stimulated by references to the historical development of the subject,
+to the practical applications in the arts and industries, to
+sanitation and the treatment of disease, to the providing of proper
+food, clothing, fuel, and shelter, to the problems of transportation
+and communication, to the chemical changes that are constantly going
+on in the atmosphere, the waters, and the crust of the earth as well
+as in all living beings. Nevertheless, all the time the _science_
+should be taught as the backbone of the entire course. The allusions
+to history and the manifold applications to daily life are indeed very
+important, but they must never obscure the science itself, for only
+thus can a thorough comprehension of chemistry be imparted and the
+benefits of the mental drill and culture be vouchsafed to the student.
+
+=Methods of teaching--The Lecture method=
+
+For the freshman and sophomore, two lectures per week are sufficient
+for this type of instruction. In these exercises the student should
+give his undivided attention to what is presented by the lecturer. The
+taking of notes is to be discouraged rather than encouraged, for it
+results in dividing the attention between what is presented and the
+mechanical work of writing. To take the place of the usual lecture
+notes, students of this grade had better be provided with a suitable
+text, definite chapters in which are assigned for reading in
+connection with each lecture. The text thus serves for purposes of
+review, and also as a means for inculcating additional details which
+cannot to advantage be presented in a lecture, but are best studied at
+home by perusing a book, the contents of which have been illuminated
+by the experimental demonstrations, the explanations on the
+blackboard, the charts, lantern slides, and above all the living
+development and presentation of the subject by the lecturer. The
+lectures should in no case be conducted primarily as an exercise in
+dictation and note taking. If the lectures do not give general
+orientation, illumination, and inspiration for further study in
+laboratory and library, they are an absolute failure and had better be
+omitted entirely. On the other hand, when properly conducted the
+lectures are the very life of the course.
+
+=The laboratory work=
+
+The laboratory work should be well correlated with the lectures,
+especially during the first year. The experiments to be performed by
+the student should be carefully chosen and should not be a mere
+repetition of the lecture demonstrations. The laboratory experiments
+should be both qualitative and quantitative in character. They should
+on the one hand illustrate the peculiar properties of the substances
+studied and the typical concomitant changes of chemical action, but on
+the other hand a sufficient number of quantitative exercises in the
+laboratory should be introduced to bring home to the student the laws
+of combining weights and volumes, thus giving him the idea that
+chemistry is exact and that quantitative relations always obtain when
+chemical action takes place. At the same time the quantitative
+exercises lay the basis for the proper comprehension of the laws of
+combining weights and volumes and the atomic and molecular theories.
+At least three periods of two consecutive hours each should be spent
+in the laboratory per week, and the laboratory exercises should be
+made so interesting and instructive that the student will feel
+inclined to work in the laboratory at odd times in addition if his
+program of other studies permits. The laboratory should at all times
+be, as its name implies, a place where work is done. Order and
+neatness should always prevail. Apparatus should be kept neat and
+clean, and in no case should slovenly habits of setting up apparatus
+be tolerated. The early introduction of a certain amount of
+quantitative experimentation in the course makes for habits of order
+and neatness in experimentation and guards against bringing up
+"sloppy" chemists.
+
+=The student's laboratory record=
+
+The laboratory notebook should be a neat and accurate record of the
+work in the laboratory. To this end the entries in the notebook should
+be made in the laboratory at the time when the experiment is actually
+being performed. The writing of data on loose scratch paper and then
+finally writing up the notebook later at home from such sheets is not
+to be recommended, for while thus the final appearance of the notebook
+may be improved, it is no longer a first-hand record such as every
+scientist makes, but rather a transcribed one. The student, in making
+up such a transcription, is only too apt to draw upon his inner
+consciousness to make the book appear better; indeed, when he has
+neglected to transcribe his notes for several days, he is bound to
+produce anything but a true and accurate record, to say nothing about
+being put to the temptation to "fake" results which he has either not
+at all obtained in the laboratory, or has recorded so imperfectly on
+the scratch paper that he can no longer interpret his record properly.
+The only true way is to have the notes made directly in the
+permanently bound notebook at the time when the experiment is actually
+in progress. The student ought not to take the laboratory notebook
+home at all without the instructor's knowledge and permission. Each
+experiment should be entered in the notebook in a brief, businesslike
+manner. Long-winded, superfluous discussions should be avoided. As a
+rule, drawings of apparatus in the notes are unnecessary, it being
+sufficient to indicate that the apparatus was set up according to
+Figure so-and-so in the laboratory manual or according to the
+directions given on page so-and-so. The student should be made to feel
+that the laboratory is the place where careful, purposeful
+experimentation is to be done, that this is the main object of the
+laboratory work, and that the notebook is merely a reliable record of
+what has been accomplished. To this end the data in the notebook
+should be complete, yet brief and to the point, so that what has been
+done can be looked up again and that the instructor may know that the
+experiment has been performed properly, that its purpose was
+understood by the student, and that he has made correct observations
+and drawn logical conclusions therefrom. While in each case the notes
+should indicate the purpose of the experiment, what has actually been
+done and observed, and the final conclusions, it is on the whole best
+not to have a general cut-and-dried formula according to which each
+and every experiment is to be recorded. It is better to encourage a
+certain degree of individuality in this matter on the part of each
+student. Notebooks should be corrected by the teacher every week, and
+the student should be asked to correct all errors which the teacher
+has indicated. A businesslike atmosphere should prevail in the
+laboratory at all times, and this should be reflected in the
+notebooks. Anything that savors of the pedantic is to be strictly
+avoided. Small blackboards should be conveniently placed in the
+laboratory so that the instructor may use them in explaining any
+points that may arise. Usually the same question arises with several
+members of the class, and a few moments of explanation before the
+blackboard enable the instructor to clear up the points raised. This
+not only saves the instructor's time, but it also stimulates interest
+in the laboratory when explanations are thus given to small groups
+just when the question is hot.
+
+It is, of course, assumed that the necessary amount of apparatus,
+chemicals, and other supplies is available, and that the laboratory
+desks, proper ventilation of the rooms, and safeguards in the case of
+all experiments fraught with danger have received the necessary
+painstaking attention on the part of the instructor, who must never
+for a moment relax in looking after these matters, which it is not the
+purpose to discuss here. At all times the student should work
+intelligently and be fully aware of any dangers that are inherent in
+what he is doing. It need hardly be said that a beginner should not be
+set at experiments that are specially dangerous. Having been given
+proper directions, the student should be taught to go ahead with
+confidence, for working in constant trepidation that an accident may
+occur often creates a nervous state that brings about the accident.
+Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon proper, definite laboratory
+instructions, especially as to kinds and amounts of materials to be
+used. Such directions as "take a _little_ phosphorus," for example,
+should be strictly avoided, for the direction as to amount is
+absolutely indefinite and may in the case where phosphorus or any
+other dangerous substance is used lead to dire accidents. The student
+should be given proper and very definite directions, and then he
+should be taught to follow these absolutely and not use more of the
+materials than is specified, as the beginner is so apt to do, thus
+often wasting his time and the reagents as well. Economy and the
+correct use of all laboratory supplies should be inculcated indirectly
+all the time. A fixed set of printed rules for the laboratory is
+generally neither necessary nor desirable when students are properly
+directed to work intelligently as they go, and good directions are
+given in the laboratory manual. Thus a spirit of doing intelligently
+what is right and proper, guarding against accidents, economizing in
+time and materials of all kinds will soon become dominant in the
+laboratory and will greatly add to the efficiency of the workers.
+Minor accidents are almost bound to occur at times in spite of all
+precautions, and the instructor should be ready to cope with these
+promptly by means of a properly supplied first-aid kit.
+
+=Recitations and quizzes=
+
+For students of the first year quizzes or recitations should be held
+at least twice a week. In these exercises the ground covered in the
+lectures and laboratory work should be carefully and systematically
+reviewed. The quiz classes should not be too large. Twenty-five
+students is the upper limit for a quiz section. The laboratory
+sections too should not be larger than this, and it is highly
+desirable that the same instructor conduct both the recitation and the
+immediate laboratory supervision of the student. Lecture classes can,
+of course, be very much larger in number. In most colleges the
+attendance upon classes in chemistry is so large that it is not
+possible for the professor to deliver the lectures and also personally
+conduct all of the laboratory work and recitations. It is consequently
+necessary to divide the class up into small sections for laboratory
+and quiz purposes. It is highly desirable that the student become well
+acquainted with his individual instructor in laboratory and quiz work,
+and therefore it would be unfortunate to have one instructor in the
+laboratory and still another instructor in the quiz. It might be
+argued that it is a good thing to have the student become acquainted
+with a number of instructors, but in the writer's experience such
+practice results to the disadvantage of the student, and is
+consequently not to be recommended.
+
+In the recitations the student is to be encouraged to do the talking.
+He is to be given an opportunity to ask questions as well as to answer
+the queries put by the teacher. Short written exercises of about ten
+minutes' duration can be given to advantage in each of these
+recitations. In this way the entire class writes upon a well-chosen
+question or solves a numerical chemical problem and thus a great deal
+of time is saved. The quiz room should be well provided with
+blackboards which may be used to great advantage in the writing of
+equations and the solution of chemical problems just as in a class in
+mathematics. The textbook, from which readings are assigned to the
+student in connection with the lectures, should contain questions
+which recapitulate the contents of each chapter. When such questions
+are not contained in the book, they ought to be provided by the
+teacher on printed or mimeographed sheets. When properly conducted,
+the recitation aids greatly in clarifying, arranging and fixing the
+important points of the course in the mind of the student. Young
+instructors are apt to make the mistake of doing too much talking in
+the quiz, instead of encouraging the student to express his views. In
+these days, when foreign languages and mathematics are more or less on
+the wane in colleges, the proper study of chemistry, particularly in
+the well-conducted quiz, will go far toward supplying the mental drill
+which the older subjects have always afforded.
+
+=Summary of first-year course=
+
+If the work of the first year has been properly conducted, it will
+have given the student a general view of the whole field of chemistry,
+together with a sufficient amount of detail so securely anchored in
+careful laboratory work and practical experience as to form a basis
+for either more advanced work in chemical lines or in the pursuance of
+the vocations already mentioned in which a knowledge of chemistry is
+basal. It is hardly necessary to add that if well taught, the student
+will at the end of such a course have a desire for more chemistry.
+
+=Organization of second-year course=
+
+The work of the second year of chemistry in college generally consists
+of quantitative analysis, though the more intensive study of the
+compounds of carbon, known as organic chemistry, is also frequently
+taken up at this time, and there is much to be said in favor of such
+practice.
+
+=Content of the course in quantitative analysis=
+
+In the quantitative analysis, habits of neatness and accuracy must be
+insisted upon. It is well to give the general orientation and
+directions by means of lectures. One or two such exercises per week
+will suffice. There should also be recitations. When two lectures per
+week are given, it will suffice to review the work with the student in
+connection with such lectures, provided the class is not too large for
+quiz purposes. Intelligent work should characterize a course in
+quantitative analysis. To this end the student should be taught how to
+take proper representative samples of the material to be analyzed. He
+should then be taught how to weigh or measure out that sample with
+proper care. The manipulations of the analytical process should be
+carried out so that each step is properly understood and its relations
+to the general laws of chemistry are constantly before the mind. In
+carrying out the process, the various sources of error must be
+thoroughly appreciated and guarded against. The final weighing or
+measuring of the form in which the ingredient sought is estimated
+should again be carried out with care, and in the calculation of the
+percentage content due regard should be had for the limits of error of
+experimentation throughout the entire analytical process. The student
+feels that a large number of the exercises in quantitative analysis
+are virtually cases of making chemical preparations of the highest
+possible purity, thus connecting his previous chemical experience with
+his quantitative work. The course in quantitative analysis should
+cover the determination of the more important basic and acid radicals,
+and should consist of both gravimetric and volumetric exercises.
+
+The choice of the exercises is of great importance. It may vary, and
+should vary considerably in different cases. Thus a student in
+agriculture is naturally interested in the methods of estimating lime,
+phosphorus, nitrogen, potash, silica, sulphur, etc., whereas a student
+in engineering would be more interested in work with the heavy metals
+and the ingredients which the commercial samples of such metals are
+apt to contain. Thus, analytical work on solder, bearing metal, iron
+and steel, cement, etc., should be introduced as soon as the student
+in engineering is ready for it. It is quite possible to inculcate the
+principles of quantitative analysis by selecting exercises in which
+the individual student is interested, though, to be sure, certain
+fundamental things would naturally have to be taken by all students,
+whatever be the line for which they are training. A few exercises in
+gas analysis and also water analysis should be given in every good
+course in quantitative analysis that occupies an entire year. Careful
+attention should be given to the notebook in the quantitative work,
+and the student should also be made to feel that in modern
+quantitative analysis not only balances and burettes are to serve as
+the measuring instruments, but that the polariscope and the
+refractometer also are very important, and that at times still other
+physical instruments like the spectroscope, the electrometer, and the
+viscometer may prove very useful indeed.
+
+The quantitative analysis offers a splendid opportunity for bringing
+home to the student what he has learned in the work of the first year,
+showing him one phase of the application of that knowledge and making
+him feel, as it were, the quantitative side of science. This latter
+view can be imparted only to a limited degree in the first year's
+work, but the quantitative course offers an unusual opportunity for
+giving the student an application of the fundamental quantitative laws
+which govern all chemical processes. It is not possible to analyze
+very many substances during any college course in quantitative
+analysis. The wise teacher will choose the substances to be analyzed
+so as to keep up the interest of the student and yet at the same time
+give him examples of all the fundamental cases that are commonly met
+in the practice of analytical work. A careful, painstaking,
+intelligent worker should be the result of the course in quantitative
+analysis. Toward the end of the course, too, a certain amount of speed
+should be insisted upon. The student should be taught to carry on
+several processes at the same time, but care should be taken not to
+overdo this.
+
+=The course in organic chemistry=
+
+In the course in organic chemistry, lectures, laboratory work, and
+recitations, arranged very much as to time as in the first year, will
+be found advantageous. If the intensive work in organic chemistry is
+postponed to the third year in college, there are certain advantages.
+For example, the student is more mature and has had drill and
+experience in the somewhat simpler processes commonly taught in
+general and analytical chemistry. On the other hand, the postponing of
+organic chemistry to the third year has the disadvantage that the
+student goes through his basal training in quantitative analysis
+without the help of that larger horizon which can come to him only
+through the study of the methods of organic chemistry. The general
+work of the first year, to be sure, if well done compensates in part
+for what is lost by postponing organic chemistry till the third year,
+but it can never entirely remove the loss to the student. Teachers
+will differ as to whether the time-honored division of organic
+chemistry into the aliphatic and aromatic series should be maintained
+pedagogically, but they will doubtless all agree that the methods of
+working out the structure of the chemical compound are peculiarly
+characteristic of the study of the compounds of carbon, and these
+methods must consequently constitute an important point to be
+inculcated in organic chemistry. The derivation of the various types
+of organic compounds from the fundamental hydrocarbons as well as from
+one another, and the characteristic reactions of each of these
+fundamental forms which lead to their identification and also often
+serve as a means of their purification, should naturally be taught in
+a thoroughgoing manner. The numerous practical applications which the
+teacher of organic chemistry has at his command will always serve to
+make this subject one of the deepest interest, if not the most
+fascinating portion of the entire subject of chemistry. No student
+should leave the course in organic chemistry without feeling the
+beautiful unity and logical relationship which obtains in the case of
+the compounds of carbon, the experimental study of which has cast so
+much light upon the chemical processes in living plants and animals,
+processes upon which life itself depends. The analysis of organic
+compounds is probably best taught in connection with the course in
+organic chemistry. It is here that the student is introduced to the
+use of the combustion furnace and the method of working out the
+empirical formulae of the compounds which he has carefully prepared and
+purified. The laboratory practice in organic chemistry generally
+requires the use of larger pieces of apparatus. Some of the
+experiments also are connected with peculiar dangers of their own.
+These facts require that the student should not approach the course
+without sufficient preliminary training. Furthermore, the teacher
+needs to exercise special care in supervising the laboratory work so
+as to guard the student against serious accidents.
+
+The historical development of organic chemistry is especially
+interesting, and allusions to the history of the important discoveries
+and developments of ideas in organic chemistry should be used to
+stimulate interest and so enhance the value of the work of the
+student. The practical side of organic chemistry should never be lost
+sight of for a moment, and under no condition should the course be
+allowed to deteriorate into one of mere picturing of structural
+formulae on the blackboard. All chemical formulas are merely compact
+forms of expression of what we know about chemical compounds. There
+are, no doubt, many facts about chemical compounds which their
+accepted formulas do not express at all, and the wise teacher should
+lead the student to see this. There is peculiar danger in the course
+in organic chemistry that the pupil become a mere formula worshiper,
+and this must carefully be guarded against.
+
+The applications of organic chemistry to the arts and industries, but
+especially to biochemistry, will no doubt interest many members of the
+class of a course in organic chemistry if the subject is properly
+taught. This will be particularly the case if the teacher always holds
+before the mind of the pupil the actual realities in the laboratory
+and in nature, using formulation merely as the expression of our
+knowledge and not as an end in itself.
+
+=Place of physical chemistry in the college curriculum=
+
+Physical chemistry, commonly regarded as the youngest and by its
+adherents the most important and all-pervading branch of chemistry, is
+presented very early in the college course by some teachers, and
+postponed to the junior and even the senior year by others. Just as a
+certain amount of organic chemistry should be taught in the first
+year, so a few of the most fundamental principles of physical
+chemistry must also find a place in the basal work of the beginner.
+However, in the first year's work in chemistry so many phases of the
+subject must needs be presented in order to give a good general view,
+that many details in either organic, analytical, or physical chemistry
+must necessarily be omitted. What is to be taught in that important
+basal year must, therefore, be selected with extreme care. Moreover,
+so far as physical chemistry is concerned, it is in a way chemical
+philosophy or general chemistry in the broadest sense of the word, and
+consequently requires for its successful pursuit not only a basal
+course, but also proper knowledge of analytical and organic chemistry,
+as well as a grounding in physics, crystallography, and mathematics.
+At the same time a certain amount of biological study is highly
+desirable. A good course in physical chemistry postulates lectures,
+laboratory work, and recitations. In general, these should be arranged
+much like those in the basal course and the course in organic
+chemistry. If anything, more time should be put upon the lectures and
+recitations; certainly more time should be devoted to exercises of
+this kind than in the course in quantitative analysis, which is best
+taught in the laboratory. At the same time it would be a mistake to
+teach physical chemistry without laboratory practice. Indeed,
+laboratory practice is the very life of physical chemistry, and the
+more of such work we can have, the better. However, since physical
+chemistry, as already stated, delves into the philosophical field,
+discussions in the lecture hall and classroom become of peculiar
+importance.
+
+=Courses in applied chemistry=
+
+Many colleges now give additional courses in chemical technology.
+These would naturally come after the student has had a sufficient
+foundation in general chemistry, chemical analysis, and organic and
+physical chemistry. As a rule such applied courses ought not to be
+given until the junior or senior year. It is a great mistake to
+introduce such courses earlier, for the student cannot do the work in
+an intelligent manner.
+
+=Enthusiastic teaching a vital factor=
+
+In all the courses in chemistry, interest and enthusiasm are of vital
+importance. These can be instilled only by the teacher himself, and no
+amount of laying out courses on paper and giving directions, however
+valuable they may be, can possibly take the place of an able, devoted,
+enthusiastic teacher. Chemistry deals with things, and hence is always
+best taught in the laboratory. The classroom and the library should
+create interest and enthusiasm for further laboratory work, and in
+turn the laboratory work should yield results that will finally
+manifest themselves in the form of good written reports.
+
+=The teacher must continue his researches=
+
+Original work should always be carried on by the college teacher. If
+he fails in this, his teaching will soon be dead. There will always be
+some bright students who can help him in his research work. These
+should be led on and developed along lines of original thought. From
+this source there will always spring live workers in the arts and
+industries as well as in academic lines. Lack of facilities and time
+is often pleaded by the college teacher as an excuse for not doing
+original work. There is no doubt that such facilities are often very
+meager. Nevertheless, the enthusiastic teacher is bound to find the
+time and also the means for doing some original work. A great deal
+cannot be expected of him as a rule because of his pedagogical duties,
+but a certain amount of productive work is absolutely essential to any
+live college teacher.
+
+=Future of chemistry in the college curriculum=
+
+The importance of chemistry in daily life and in the industries has
+been increasing and is bound to continue to increase. For this reason
+the subject is destined to take a more important place in the college
+curriculum. If well taught, college chemistry will not only widen the
+horizon of the student, but it will also afford him both manual
+training and mental drill and culture of the highest order.
+
+                                               LOUIS KAHLENBERG
+  _University of Wisconsin_
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS
+
+
+The need of giving to physics a prominent place in the college
+curriculum of the twentieth century is quite universally admitted. If,
+as an eminent medical authority maintains, no man can be said to be
+educated who has not the knowledge of trigonometry, how much more true
+is this statement with reference to physics? The five human senses are
+not more varied in scope than are the five great domains of this
+science. In the study of heat, sound, and light we may strive merely
+to understand the nature of the external stimuli that come to us
+through touch, hearing and sight; but in mechanics, where we examine
+critically the simplest ideas of motion and inertia, we acquire the
+method of analysis which when applied to the mysteries of molecular
+physics and electricity carries us along avenues that lead to the most
+profound secrets of nature. Utilitarian aspects dwindle in our
+perspective as we face the problem of the structure, origin, and
+evolution of matter--as we question the independence of space and
+time. Modern physics possesses philosophic stature of heroic size.
+
+=Utilitarian value of the study Of physics=
+
+But with regard to everyday occurrences a study of physics is
+necessary. It is trite to mention the development in recent years of
+those mechanical and electrical arts that have made modern
+civilization. The submarine, vitalized by storage battery and Diesel
+engine, the torpedo with its gyroscopic pilot and pneumatic motors,
+the wireless transmission of speech over seas and continents--these
+things no longer excite wonder nor claim attention as we scan the
+morning paper; yet how many understand their mechanism or appreciate
+the spirit which has given them to the world?
+
+=Disciplinary value of the study=
+
+If culture means the subjective transformation of information into a
+philosophy of life, can culture be complete unless it has included in
+its reflections the marvelously simple yet intricate interrelations
+of natural phenomena? The value of this intricate simplicity as a
+mental discipline is equaled perhaps only in the finely drawn
+distinctions of philosophy and in the painstaking statements of
+limitations and the rapid generalizations of pure mathematics; and let
+us not forget the value of discipline, outgrown and unheeded though it
+be in the acquisitive life of the present age.
+
+=Relation of physics to philosophy and the exact sciences=
+
+The professional student, continually increasing in numbers in our
+colleges, either of science or in certain branches of law, finds a
+broad familiarity with the latest points of view of the physicist not
+only helpful but often indispensable. Chemistry can find with
+difficulty any artificial basis for a boundary of its domain from that
+of physics. Certainly no real one exists. The biologist is heard
+asking about the latest idea in atomic evolution and the electrical
+theories of matter, hoping to find in these illuminating points of
+view, he tells us, some analogy to his almost hopelessly complex
+problems of life and heredity. Even those medical men whose interest
+is entirely commercial appreciate the convenience of the X-ray and the
+importance of correctly interpreting the pathological effects of the
+rays of radio-activity and ultra-violet light. One finds a great
+geologist in collaboration with his distinguished colleague in
+physics, and from the latter comes a contribution on the rigidity of
+the earth. Astronomy answers nowadays to the name of astrophysics, and
+progressive observatories recognize in the laboratory a tool as
+essential as the telescope. In a word, the professional student of
+science not only finds that the subject matter of physics has many
+fundamental points of contact with his own chosen field, but also
+recognizes that the less complex nature of its material allows the
+method of study to stand out in bolder relief. Training in the method
+and a passion for the method are vital to a successful and an ardent
+career.
+
+=Should the teaching of college physics change its aim for different
+classes of students?=
+
+In the teaching of physics, then, the aim might at first sight appear
+to be quite varied, differing with different classes of students. A
+careful analysis of the situation, however, will show, we think, that
+this conclusion can with difficulty be justified: that it is necessary
+to conduct college instruction in a fashion dictated almost not at all
+by the subsequent aims of the students concerned. In the more
+elementary work, certainly, adherence to this idea is of great
+importance. The character, design, and purpose of an edifice do not
+appear in the foundations except that they are massive if the
+structure is to be great.
+
+Not infrequently this seems an unnecessary hardship to a professional
+student anxious to get into the work of his chosen field. If such is
+the case, let him question perhaps whether any study of physics should
+be attempted, as this query may have different answers for different
+individuals. But if he is to study it at all, there is but one place
+where the analysis of physical phenomena can begin, and that is with
+fundamentals--space, time, motion, and inertia. How can one who is
+ignorant of the existence and characteristics of rotational inertia
+understand a galvanometer? How can waves be discussed unless in terms
+of period, amplitude, frequency, and the like, that find definition in
+simple harmonic motion? How does one visualize the mechanism of a gas,
+unless by means of such ideas as momentum interchange, energy
+conservation, and forces of attraction?
+
+Let us emphasize here, lest we be misunderstood, that we are
+considering collegiate courses. We do not doubt that descriptive
+physics may be given after one fashion to farmers, quite differently
+to engineers, and from still a third point of view to medical
+students. Unfortunately some collegiate courses never get beyond the
+high school method. Our aim is not to discuss descriptive courses, but
+those that approach the subject with the spirit of critical analysis,
+for these alone do we deem worthy of a place in the college
+curriculum.
+
+=The course in college physics differentiated from the high school course=
+
+The problem of the descriptive course is the problem of the high
+school. Because of failure there, too often we see at many a
+university courses in subfreshman physics. These are made necessary
+where entrance requirements do not demand this subject and where
+subsequent interest along related lines develops among the students a
+tardy necessity of getting it. From the point of view of the
+collegiate course it often appears as if the subfreshman course could
+be raised to academic rank. This is because familiarity with the
+material must precede an analysis of it. Credit for high school
+physics on the records of the entrance examiner, unless this credit is
+based on entrance examination, is often found to stand for very
+little. Consequently the almost continual demand for the high school
+work under the direct supervision of a collegiate faculty. The number
+of students who should go into this course instead of the college
+course is increasing at the present time in the immediate locality of
+the writer.
+
+As contributory testimony here, witness the number of colleges that do
+not take cognizance at all of high school preparation and admit to the
+same college classes those who have never had preparatory physics with
+those who have had it. We are told the difference between the two
+groups is insignificant. Perhaps it is. If so, this fact reflects as
+much on the college as on the high school. If we are looking for a
+solution of our problem in this direction, let us be undeceived; we
+are looking backwards, not forward.
+
+=Need of adequate high school preparation in physics=
+
+No one will affirm that to a class of whose numbers some have never
+had high school physics a course that is really analytical can be
+given. Wherever a rigorous analytic course is given those who have
+been well trained in descriptive physics do well in it in general. Let
+us not beg the question by giving such physics in a college that does
+not require high school preparation. The college curriculum is full
+enough as it is without duplication of high school work, and any
+college physics course that is a first course is essentially a high
+school course.
+
+Let us rather put the responsibility squarely where it lies. The high
+school will respond if the urgency is made clear. Witness some of them
+in our cities already attempting the junior college idea, an idea that
+has not been unsuccessful in some of our private schools. If it is
+made clear that a thoroughgoing course in descriptive physics is a
+paramount necessity in college work and that no effort will be spared
+on the part of the university to insure this quality, the men will be
+found and the proper courses given.
+
+=Preparatory work in mathematics essential for success in college physics=
+
+We favor a comprehensive examination plan in all cases where the
+quality of the high school work is either unknown or open to question.
+
+Familiarity, likewise, with the most elementary uses of mathematics
+should be insured. It would be highly desirable that a course of
+collegiate grade in trigonometry should immediately precede the
+physics. This is not because the details of trigonometry are all
+needed in physics. In fact, a few who have never had trigonometry make
+a conspicuous success in physics. These, however, are ones who have a
+natural facility in analysis. To keep them out because of failure to
+have had a prerequisite course in trigonometry often works an
+unnecessary hardship. We would argue, therefore, for a formal
+prerequisite on this subject, reserving for certain students
+exemption, which should be determined in all cases, if not by the
+instructor himself, at least by his cooperation with some advisory
+administrative officer.
+
+=Need of testing each student's preparation=
+
+Nor is it sufficient with regard to the mathematical preparation or
+the knowledge of high school physics in either case to go exclusively
+by the official credit record of the student. It is our firm
+conviction from several years' experience where widely different aims
+in the student body are represented that above and beyond all formal
+records attention to the individual case is of prime importance. The
+opening week of the course should be so conducted that those who are
+obviously unequipped can be located and directed elsewhere into the
+proper work. How this may best be accomplished can be determined only
+by the circumstances in the individual school, we imagine. Daily tests
+covering the simplest descriptive information that should be retained
+from high school physics and requiring the intelligent use of
+arithmetic, elementary algebra, and geometry will reveal amazing
+incapacity in these things. Tuttle, in his little book entitled _An
+Introduction to Laboratory Physics_ (Jefferson Laboratory of Physics,
+Philadelphia, 1915), gives on pages 15-16 an excellent list of
+questions of this sort. Any one with teaching experience in the
+subject whatever can make up an equally good one suited for his
+special needs and temperament. It should not be assumed that all who
+fail in such tests should be dropped. Some undoubtedly should be sent
+back to high school work or its equivalent; others may need double the
+required work in mathematics to overcome their unreadiness in its use.
+Personal contacts will show that some are drifting into a scientific
+course who have no aptitude for it and who will be doomed to
+disappointment should they continue. In a word, then, we are convinced
+that the more carefully one plans the work of the first week or so the
+more smoothly does the work of the rest of the year follow. The number
+of failures may be reduced to a few per cent without in any way
+relaxing the standard of the course.
+
+=Methods of teaching college physics=
+
+With regard to the organization of the college courses in physics
+there seems to us to be at least one method that leads to a
+considerable degree of success. This is not the lecture method of
+instruction; neither is it a wholly unmitigated laboratory method.
+
+=Lecture method vs. laboratory method=
+
+To kindle inspiration and enthusiasm nothing can equal the contact in
+lectures with others, preferably leaders in their profession, but at
+least men who possess one of these qualities. Such contacts need not
+be frequent; indeed, they should not be. The speaker is apt to make
+more effort, the student to be more responsive, if such occasions are
+relatively rare. Even thus, although real information is imparted at
+such a time, it is seldom acquired. However, perspective is furnished,
+interest stimulated, and the occasion enjoyed.
+
+=Limitations of exclusive use of each method=
+
+For the real acquisition of scientific information, the great method
+is the working out of a laboratory exercise and pertinent problems,
+with informal guidance in the atmosphere of active study and
+discussion engendered among a small group,--the laboratory method.
+Taken alone, it is apt to become mechanical and uninteresting and the
+outlook to be obscured by details. Lectures, especially demonstration
+lectures, are needed to vitalize and inspire. Moreover, many of the
+most vivid illustrations of physical principles that occur on every
+hand to focus the popular attention are never met with in the college
+course because they are unsuited for inexperienced hands or not
+readily amenable to quantitative experimentation. The more informally
+such demonstrations can be conducted, the more enthusiastically they
+are received.
+
+=Aims of the laboratory method=
+
+With regard to laboratory work, accuracy in moderate degree is
+important, but too great insistence upon it is apt to overshadow the
+higher aim; namely, that of the analysis of the phenomena themselves.
+A determination of the pressure coefficient of a gas to half a per
+cent, accompanied by a clear visualization of the mechanism by which a
+gas exerts a pressure and a usable identification of temperature with
+kinetic agitation, would seem preferable to an experimental error of a
+tenth per cent which may be exacted which is unaccompanied by these
+inspiring and rather modern points of view. Especially in electricity
+is a familiarity with the essentials of the modern theories important.
+Here supplementary lectures are of great necessity, for no textbook
+keeps pace with progress in this tremendously important field. Problem
+solving with class discussion is absolutely essential, and should
+occupy at least one third of the entire time. In no other way can one
+be convinced that the student is doing anything more than committing
+to memory, or blindly following directions with no reaction of his
+own.
+
+=Value of the supplementary lecture=
+
+The incorporation recently of this idea into the courses at the
+University of Chicago has been very successful. Five sections which
+are under different instructors are combined one day a week at an hour
+when there are no other university engagements, for a lecture
+demonstration. This is given by a senior member of the staff whenever
+possible. The other meetings during the week are conducted by the
+individual instructors and consist of two two-hour laboratory periods
+and two class periods that usually run into somewhat over one hour
+each. These sections are limited to twenty-five, and a smaller number
+than this would be desirable. The responsibility for the course rests
+naturally upon the individual instructors of these small sections.
+These men also share in the demonstration work, since each is usually
+an enthusiast in some particular field and will make a great effort in
+his own specialty to give a successful popular presentation of the
+important ideas involved. The enthusiasm which this plan has
+engendered is very great. Attendance is crowded and there is always a
+row of visitors, teachers of the vicinity, advanced students in other
+fields of work, or undergraduates brought in by members of the class.
+These latter especially are encouraged, as this does much to offset
+current ideas that physics is a subject of unmitigated severity. The
+particular topics put into these demonstrations will be discussed in
+paragraphs below, which take up in more detail the organization of the
+special subdivisions of the material in a general physics course.
+
+=Mechanics a stumbling block--How to meet the difficulty=
+
+Mechanics is a stumbling block at the outset. As we have indicated
+above, it must form the beginning of any course that is analytic in
+aim. There is no question of sidestepping the difficulty: it must be
+surmounted. A judicious weeding during the first week is the initial
+part of the plan. Interest may be aroused at once in the demonstration
+lectures by mechanical tricks that show apparent violations of
+Newton's Laws. These group around the type of experiment which shows a
+modification of the natural uniform rectilinear motion of any object
+by some hidden force, most often a concealed magnetic field. The
+instinctive adherence of every one to Newton's dynamic definition,
+that acceleration defies the ratio of force to inertia, is made
+obvious by the amusement with which a trick in apparent defiance of
+this principle is greeted. Informality of discussion in such
+experiments, questions on the part of the instructor that are more
+than rhetorical, and volunteer answers and comment from the class
+increase the vividness of the impressions. A mechanical adaptation of
+the "monkey on the string" problem, using little electric hoists or
+clockworks, introduces interesting discussion of the third law in
+conjunction with the second. A toy cannon and target mounted on easily
+rolling carriages bring in the similar ideas where impulses rather
+than forces alone can be measured.
+
+There follow, then, the laboratory experiments of the Atwood machine
+and the force table, where quantitative results are demanded. It is
+desirable to have these experiments at least worked by the class in
+unison. Whatever may be the exigencies of numbers and apparatus
+equipment that prevent it later, these introductions should be given
+to and discussed by all together. In the nature of things,
+fortunately, this is possible. A single Atwood machine will give
+traces for all in a short time under the guidance of the instructor.
+The force table experiment is nine-tenths calculation, and
+verifications may be made for a large number in a short time.
+Searching problems and discussion are instigated at once, and the
+notion of rotational equilibrium and force moments brought in. Because
+of the very great difficulty seeming to attach to force resolutions,
+demonstration experiments and problems using a bridge structure, such
+as the Harvard experimental truss, will amply repay the time invested.
+Another experiment here, which makes analysis of the practice of
+weighing, is possible, although there will be divergence almost at
+once due to the personality of the instructor and the equipment by
+which he finds himself limited. The early introduction of moments is
+important, however, because it seems as if a great amount of
+unnecessary confusion on this topic is continually cropping out later.
+At this point, if limitations of apparatus present a difficulty, a
+group of more or less independent experiments may be started. Ideas of
+energy may be illustrated in the determination of the efficiency and
+the horse power of simple machines, such as water motors, pulleys, and
+even small gas or steam engines.
+
+In discussion of power one should not forget that in practical
+problems one meets power as force times velocity rather more
+frequently than as rate of doing work, and this aspect should be
+emphasized in the experiments. Conservation of energy is brought out
+in these same experiments with reference to the efficiencies involved.
+In sharp contrast here the principle of conservation of momentum may
+be brought in by ballistic pendulum experiments involving elastic and
+inelastic impacts. Most students are unfamiliar with the application
+of these ideas to the determination of projectile velocities, and this
+forms an interesting lecture demonstration. Elasticity likewise is a
+topic that may be introduced with more or less emphasis according to
+the predilection of the instructor. The moduli of Young and of simple
+rigidity lend themselves readily to quantitative laboratory
+experiments. Any amount of interesting material may be culled here
+from recent investigations of Michelson, Bridgman, and others with
+regard to elastic limits, departures from the simple relations,
+variations with pressure, etc., for a lantern or demonstration talk in
+these connections.
+
+By this time the student should have found himself sufficiently
+prepared to take up problems of rotational motion. The application of
+Newton's Laws to pure rotations and combinations of rotation and
+translation, such as rolling motions, are very many. We would
+emphasize here the dynamic definition of moment of inertia, I = Fh/_a_
+rather than the one so frequently given importance for computational
+purposes, S_mr_^{2}. Quantitative experiments are furnished
+by the rotational counterpart of the Atwood machine. Lecture
+demonstrations for several talks abound: stability of spin about the
+axis of greatest inertia, Kelvin's famous experiments with eggs and
+tops containing liquids, which suggest the gyroscopic ideas, and
+finally a discussion of gyroscopes and their multitudinous
+applications. The book of Crabtree, _Spinning Tops and the
+Gyroscope_, and the several papers by Gray in the _Proceedings of the
+Physical Society of London_, summarize a wealth of material. If one
+wishes to interject a parenthetical discussion of the Bernouilli
+principle, and the simplest laws of pressure distributions on plane
+surfaces moving through a resisting medium, a group of striking
+demonstrations is possible involving this notion, and by simple
+combination of it with the precession of a rotating body the boomerang
+may be brought in and its action for the major part given explanation.
+
+Rotational motion leads naturally to a discussion of centripetal
+force, and this in turn is simple harmonic motion. This latter finds
+most important applications in the pendulum experiments, and no end of
+material is here to be found in any of the textbooks. The greatest
+refinement of experimentation for elementary purposes will be the
+determination of "g" by the method of coincidences between a simple
+pendulum and the standard clock. Elementary analysis without use of
+calculus reaches its culmination in a discussion of forced vibrations
+similar to that used by Magie in his general text. Many will not care
+to go as far as this. Others will go farther and discuss Kater's
+pendulum and the small corrections needed for precision, for here does
+precision find bold expression.
+
+It is not our purpose to give a synopsis of the entire general physics
+course. We have made an especially detailed study of mechanics,
+because this topic is the one of greatest difficulty by far in the
+pedagogy. It is too formally given in the average text, and seems to
+have suffered most of all from lack of imagination on the part of
+instructors.
+
+=Suggested content for the study of phenomena of heat and molecular
+physics=
+
+In the field of heat and molecular physics in general there is much
+better textbook material. Experiments here may legitimately be called
+precise, for the gas laws, temperature coefficients, and densities of
+gases and saturated vapor pressures will readily yield in
+comparatively inexperienced hands an accuracy of about one in a
+thousand. In the demonstrations emphasis should be given to the
+visualization of the kinetic theory points of view. Such models as the
+Northrup visible molecule apparatus are very helpful. However, in
+absence of funds for such elaboration, slides from imaginative
+drawings showing to scale conditions in solids, liquids, and vapors
+with average free paths indicated and the history of single molecules
+depicted will be found ideal in getting the visualization home to the
+student. Where we have a theory so completely established as the
+mechanical theory of heat it seems quite fair to have recourse to the
+eye of the senses to aid the eye of the mind. Brownian movements have
+already yielded up their dances to the motion picture camera. Need the
+"movies" be the only ones to profit by the animated cartoon?
+
+Nor should the classical material be forgotten. Boys' experiments in
+soap bubbles have been the inspiration of generations of students of
+capillarity. And if the physicist will consult with the physiological
+chemist he will find a mass of material of which he never dreamed
+where these phenomena of surface tension enter in a most direct
+fashion to leading questions in the life sciences.
+
+=The teacher of scholarship and understanding is the teacher who uses
+sound methods=
+
+Enough has been said to indicate what we consider the methods of
+successful teaching of college physics. It is quite obvious, we think,
+that physics constitutes no exception to the rule that the teacher
+must first of all know and understand his subject. Right here lies
+probably nine tenths of the fault with our pedagogy. No amount of
+study of method will yield such returns as the study of the subject
+itself. The honest student, and every teacher should belong to this
+class or he has no claim to the name, is well aware that most of his
+deficiency in explaining a topic is in direct ratio to his own lack of
+comprehension of it. In physics, as in every other walk of life, we
+suffer from lack of thoroughness, from a kind of superficiality that
+is characteristically human but especially American. We have yet to
+know of any one who really ranks as a scholar in his subject from whom
+students do not derive inspiration and enthusiasm. Such a one usually
+pays little attention to the methods of others, for the divine fire of
+knowledge itself does not need much of tinder to kindle the torches
+of others. Our greatest plea is for our teachers to be men of
+understanding, for then they will be found to be men of method.
+
+=The method of analysis dominant in physics=
+
+The sequence in which heat, electricity, sound, and light follow
+mechanics seems quite immaterial. Several equally logical plans may be
+organized. Preference is usually accorded one or the other on the
+basis of local conditions of equipment, and needs little reference to
+pedagogy. If one gives to mechanics its proper importance, the
+difficulty in giving instruction in the other topics seems very much
+less. The momentum acquired seems to serve for the balance of the
+year. Always must analysis be insisted upon, if our college course is
+going to differ from that of the high school. If we are to let
+students be content to read current from an ammeter with a calibrated
+scale and not have the interest to inquire and the ambition to insist
+upon the knowledge of how that calibration was originally made, we
+have no right to claim any collegiate rank for our courses. But if we
+define electrical current in terms of mechanical force which exhibits
+a balanced couple on a system in rotational equilibrium, there can be
+no dodging of the issue, for in no other way than by the study of the
+mechanics of the situation can the content and the limitations of our
+definition be understood. Any college work, so called, that does less
+than analyze thus is nothing more than a review and amplification of
+the material that should be within the range of the high school
+student and in that place presented to him. The first college course
+reveals a different method, the method of analysis. Science at the
+present time is so far developed that in no branch is progress made by
+mere description and classification. The method of analysis is
+dominant in the biological and the earth sciences as well as in the
+physics and chemistry of today.
+
+=Teaching of advanced courses in physics=
+
+On the more advanced college courses which follow the general physics
+course little comment is needed. Problems and questions here also
+exist, but they have a strongly local color and are out of place in a
+general discussion. The student body is no longer composed of the
+rank and file, half of whom are driven, by some requirement or other,
+into work in which they have but a passing interest at best. It is no
+longer a problem of seeing how much can be made to adhere in spite of
+indifference, of how firm a foundation can be prepared for needs as
+yet unrecognized in the subject of the effort. A very limited number,
+comparatively, enter further work of senior college courses, and these
+have either enthusiasm or ability and often both. Of course, a cold
+neglect or bored indifference in the attitude of the teacher will be
+resented. It will kill enthusiasm and send ability seeking inspiration
+elsewhere. But any one who is fond of his subject, and of moderate
+ability and industry, should have no difficulty in developing senior
+college work. If our instructor in the general course must be a
+scholar to be successful, the man in more advanced work must be one _a
+fortiori_. If he is not, few who come in contact with him have so
+little discernment as to fail to recognize the fact.
+
+=Organization of advanced courses=
+
+Organization of senior college work may be in many ways. One method
+where an institution follows the quarter system is the plan of having
+eight or ten different and rather unrelated twelve-week major courses
+which may be taken in almost any order. Half of these are lecture
+courses, the other half exclusively laboratory courses. There should
+be a correspondence of material to some extent between the two.
+Lectures on the kinetic theory of gases should have a parallel course
+in which the classical experiments of the senior heat laboratory are
+performed,--such experiments, for example, as vapor density,
+resistance and thermocouple pyrometry, bomb calorimetry viscosity,
+molecular conductivity, freezing and boiling points, recalescence,
+etc. A course of advanced electrical measurements should have a
+parallel lecture course in which the theoretical aspects of
+electromagnetism, the classical theories, and the equations that
+represent transitory and equilibrium conditions in complex circuits
+are discussed. In optics, likewise, there is ample material of great
+importance: physical, geometrical optics, spectroscopy, photography,
+X-ray crystallography, etc. The advanced student in these fields finds
+more elasticity and opportunity for cultivating a special interest in
+having a large number of limited interest courses from which to choose
+than in having such material presented in a completely organized
+course covering one or two years of complete work. Instructors who are
+specialists have opportunity of working up courses in their own fields
+which they do more efficiently under this plan. Research begins at
+innumerable places along the way, and the senior college courses so
+organized are the feeders of all graduate work.
+
+=Dangers of formalizing methods of instruction=
+
+In all of the above discussion it should be clearly remembered that no
+single plan or no one particular method has the final word or ever
+will have. As long as a science is growing and unfinished, points of
+view will continually be shifting. We are largely orthodox in our
+teaching. If brought up on the laboratory method of instruction it may
+seem the best one for us, but others may prefer another way which they
+have inherited. Let us appeal, then, for a constructive orthodoxy. Let
+us be as teachers of a subject to which we are devoted, truly and
+sincerely open-minded, quick to recognize and sincere in our efforts
+to adopt what is better wherever we meet it: waiting not to meet it,
+either, but going out to seek it. From the humblest college to the
+greatest university we shall find it here and there. Not alone in
+schools but in the legion of human activities about us on every hand
+are people who are doing things more efficiently, more thoroughly, and
+more skillfully than we do things. If we would be of the number that
+lead, we must be among the first to recognize these facts and profit
+by them.
+
+First, let our work be organized with respect to that of others--the
+high schools; not discounting their labor but having them truly build
+for us.
+
+Second, let us be open-minded enough to see that all methods of
+instruction have their advantages and make such combinations of the
+best elements in each as best suit our purpose.
+
+Above all things, let us know our subject. Here is a task before which
+we quail in this generation of vast vistas. But there is no
+alternative for us. No amount of method will remove the curse of the
+superficially informed. Let us devote ourselves to smaller fields if
+we must, but let us not tolerate ignorance among those who bear the
+burden of passing on, with its flame ever more consuming, the torch of
+knowledge.
+
+                                                HARVEY B. LEMON
+  _University of Chicago_
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+THE TEACHING OF GEOLOGY
+
+
+=Values of the study of geology diverse=
+
+So wide is the scope of the science of the earth, so varied is its
+subject matter, and so diverse are the mental activities called forth
+in its pursuit, that its function in collegiate training cannot be
+summed up in an introductory phrase or two. Geology is so composite
+that it is better fitted to serve a related group of educational
+purposes than a single one alone. Besides this, these possible
+services have not yet become so familiar that they can be brought
+vividly to mind by an apt word or phrase; they need elaboration and
+exposition to be valued at what they are really worth. Geology is yet
+a young science and still growing, and as in the case of a growing
+boy, to know what it was a few years ago is not to know what it is
+today. Its disciplines take on a realistic phase in the main, but yet
+in some aspects appeal powerfully to the imagination. Its subject
+matter forms a constitutional history of our planet and its
+inhabitants, but yet largely wears a descriptive or a dynamic garb.
+
+=Geology a study of the process of evolution=
+
+Though basally historical, a large part of the literature of geology
+is concerned with the description of rocks, structural features,
+geologic terrains, surface configurations and their modes of formation
+and means of identification. A notable part of the text prepared for
+college students relates primarily to phenomena and processes, leaving
+the history of the earth to follow later in a seemingly secondary way.
+This has its defense in a desire first to make clear the modes of the
+geologic processes, to the end that the parts played by these
+processes in the complexities of actions that make up the historical
+stages may be better realized. This has the effect, however, of giving
+the impression that geology is primarily a study of rocks and
+rock-forming processes, and this impression is confirmed by the great
+mass of descriptive literature that has sprung almost necessarily
+from the task of delineating such a multitude of formations before
+trying to interpret their modes of origin or to assign them their
+places in the history of the earth. The descriptive details are the
+indispensable data of a sound history, and they have in addition
+specific values independent of their service as historical data. But
+into the multiplicity and complexity of the details of structure and
+of process, the average college student can wisely enter to a limited
+extent only, except as they form types, or appear in the local fields
+which he studies, where they serve as concrete examples of
+world-forming processes.
+
+=Disciplinary worth of study of geology=
+
+The study of these structures, formations, configurations, and
+processes yields each its own special phase of discipline and its own
+measure of information. The work takes on various chemical,
+mechanical, and biological aspects. As a means of discipline it calls
+for keenness and diligence in observation, circumspection in
+inference, a judicial balancing of factors in interpretation. An
+active use of the scientific imagination is called forth in following
+formations to inaccessible depths or beneath areas where they are
+concealed from view.
+
+While thus the study of structures, formations and configurations
+constitutes the most obtrusive phase of geologic study and has given
+trend to pedagogical opinion respecting its place in a college course,
+such study is not, in the opinion of the writer, the foremost function
+of the subject in a college curriculum that is designed to be really
+broad, basal, and free, in contradistinction to one that is tied to a
+specific vocational purpose.
+
+=This study concerned primarily with the typical college course, not
+with vocational courses=
+
+While we recognize, with full sympathy, that the subject matter of
+geology enters vitally into certain vocational and prevocational
+courses, and, in such relations, calls for special selections of
+material and an appropriate handling, if it is to fulfill these
+purposes effectively, this seems to us aside from the purpose of this
+discussion, which centers on typical college training--training which
+is liberal in the cosmic sense, not merely from the homocentric point
+of view.
+
+=Knowledge of geology contributes to a truly liberal education=
+
+To subserve these broader purposes, geology is to be studied
+comprehensively as the evolution of the earth and its inhabitants. The
+earth in itself is to be regarded as an organism and as the
+foster-parent of a great series of organisms that sprang into being
+and pursued their careers in the contact zones between its rigid body
+and its fluidal envelopes. These contact zones are, in a special
+sense, the province of geography in both its physical and its biotic
+aspects. The evolution of the biotic and the psychic worlds in these
+horizons is an essential part of the history of the whole, for each
+factor has reacted powerfully on the others. An appreciative grasp of
+these great evolutions, and of their relations to one another, is
+essential to a really broad view of the world of which we are a part;
+it is scarcely less than an essential factor in a modern liberal
+education.
+
+=Geology embraces all the great evolutions=
+
+Let us agree, then, at the outset, that a true study of the career of
+the earth is not adequately compassed by a mere tracing of its
+inorganic history or an elucidation of its physical structure and
+mineral content, but that it embraces as well all the great evolutions
+fostered within the earth's mantles in the course of its career.
+
+Greatest among these fostered evolutions, from the homocentric point
+of view, are the living, the sentient, and the thinking kingdoms that
+have grown up with the later phases of the physical evolution. It does
+not militate against this view that each of these kingdoms is, in
+itself, the subject of special sciences, and that these, in turn,
+envelop a multitude of sub-sciences, for that is true of every
+comprehensive unit. Nor is it inconsistent with this larger view of
+the scope of geology that it is, itself, often given a much narrower
+definition, as already implied. In its broader sense, geology is an
+enveloping science, surveying, in a broad historical way, many
+subjects that call for intensive study under more special sciences,
+just as human history sweeps comprehensively over a broad field
+cultivated more intensively by special humanistic sciences. In a
+comprehensive study of the earth as an organism, it is essential that
+there be embraced a sufficient consideration of all the vital factors
+that entered into its history to give these their due place and their
+true value among the agencies that contributed to its evolution. A
+true biography of the earth can no more be regarded as complete
+without the biotic and psychic elements that sprang forth from it, or
+were fostered within its mantles, than can the biography of a human
+being be complete with a mere sketch of his physical frame and bodily
+growth. The physical and biological evolutions are well recognized as
+essential parts of earth history. Although the mental evolutions have
+emerged gradually with the biological evolutions, and have run more or
+less nearly parallel with them--have, indeed, been a working part of
+them--they have been less fully and frankly recognized as elements of
+geological history. They have been rather scantily treated in the
+literature of the subject; but they are, none the less, a vital part
+of the great history. They have found some recognition, though much
+too meager, in the more comprehensive and philosophical treatises on
+earth-science. It may be safely prophesied that the later and higher
+evolutions that grace our planet will be more adequately emphasized as
+the science grows into its full maturity and comes into its true place
+among the sciences. It is important to emphasize this here, since it
+is preeminently the function of a liberal college course to give
+precedence to the comprehensive and the essential, both in its
+selection of its subject matter and in its treatment of what it
+selects. It is the function of a liberal course of study to bring that
+which is broad and basal and vital into relief, and to set it over
+against that which is limited, special, and technical, however
+valuable the latter may be in vocational training and in economic
+application.
+
+=Physical and dynamic boundaries of geology--Implications for teaching=
+
+In view of these considerations--and frankly recognizing the
+inadequacies of current treatment--let us note, before we go further,
+what are the physical and dynamic boundaries of the geologic field,
+that we may the better see how that field merges into the domains of
+other sciences. This will the better prepare us to realize the nature
+of the disciplines for which earth-science forms a suitable basis, as
+well as the types of intellectual furniture it yields to the mind.
+Obviously these disciplines and this substance of thought should
+determine the place of the science in the curriculum of any course
+that assumes the task of giving a broad and liberal education.
+
+Earth-science is the domestic chapter of celestial science. Our planet
+is but a modest unit among the great celestial assemblage of worlds;
+but, modest as it is, it is that unit about which we have by far the
+fullest and most reliable knowledge. The earth not only furnishes the
+physical baseline of celestial observation, but supplies all the
+appliances by which inquiry penetrates the depths of the heavens. Not
+alone earth-science, as such, but several of the intensive sciences
+brought into being through the intellectual evolutions that have
+attended the later history of the earth, have been prerequisites to
+the development of the broad science of the outer heavens. The science
+of the lower heavens is a factor of earth-science in the definition we
+are just about to give. At the same time, the whole earth, including
+the lower heavens, is enveloped by the more comprehensive domain of
+celestial science.
+
+If we seek the most logical limit that may be assigned the realm of
+earth-science, as distinguished from that of celestial science, of
+which it is the home unit, it may be found at that borderline _within
+which_ any passive body obeys the call of the earth, as against the
+call of the outer worlds, and _without which_ such a passive body
+obeys the call of the outer worlds, the call of the sun in particular.
+This limit is the _dynamic dividing line_ between the kingdom of the
+earth and the kingdom of the outer heavens. This boundary, according
+to Moulton, incloses a spheroid whose minimum radius is about 620,000
+miles, and whose maximum radius is about 930,000 miles. We may, then,
+conveniently say that the earth's sphere of control stretches out a
+million kilometers from its center and that this defines its true
+realm. At the same time, this defines the logical limit of the earth's
+ultra-atmosphere and appears to mark a zone of exchange between the
+ultra-atmosphere of the earth and the ultra-atmosphere of the sun. It
+thus appears to imply the place and the mode of an exchange of vital
+elements upon which probably hangs the wonderful maintenance of the
+earth's atmosphere for many millions of years and the equally
+wonderful regulation of the essential qualities of the atmosphere so
+that these have always remained within the narrow range subservient to
+terrestrial life. It is needless to add that this regulation also
+conditions the present intellectual status of the thinking factor
+among the inhabitants of the earth out of which--may I be pardoned for
+saying?--has grown the present educational discussion.
+
+If this last shall seem to squint toward special pleading, let it be
+considered that, as we see things, it is precisely those views that
+take hold of the issues upon which our very being and all its
+activities depend, that serve best to train youth to broad views and
+penetrating thought. Such thinking seems to me to form the very
+essence of a really liberal education.
+
+Not only is this definition of the sphere of geology comprehensive,
+but it has the special merit of being _dynamic_, rather than material.
+Such a dynamic definition comports with the view that earth-study
+should center on the forces and energies that actuated its evolution,
+since these are the most vital feature of the evolution itself. It is
+important to form adequate concepts of the energies that have
+maintained the past ongoings of the earth not only, but that still
+maintain its present activities and predetermine its future. It is the
+study of the forces and the processes of past and of present
+evolutions that constitute the soul of the science, rather than the
+apparently fixed and passive aspects of the earth's formations and
+configurations which are but the products of the processes that have
+gone before. Even the apparent passiveness of the geologic products is
+illusive, for they are in reality expressions of continued internal
+activities of an intense, though occult, order. These escape notice
+largely because they are balanced against one another in a system of
+equilibrium which pervades them and gives them the appearance of
+fixity. To serve their proper functions as sources of higher
+education, the concepts of the constitution of the earth should
+penetrate even to these refined aspects of physical organization and
+should bring the whole into harmony with the most advanced views of
+the real nature of physical organisms. This removes from the whole
+terrestrial organism every similitude of inertness and gives it a
+fundamental refinement, activity, and potency of the highest order. To
+form a true and consistent concept, the enveloping earth-science must
+be assumed to embrace, potentially at least, the essentials of all
+that was evolved within it and from it, with, of course, due
+recognition of what was added from without.
+
+_The history of the earth should therefore be taught in college
+courses as a succession of complex dynamic events, great in the past
+and great in future potentialities._
+
+The formations and configurations left by the successive phases of
+action are to be studied primarily as the vestiges of the processes
+that gave them birth, and hence as their historic credentials. They
+are to be looked upon less as the vital things in themselves, than as
+the _record_ of the events of the time and as the forerunners of the
+subsequent events that may be potential in them. And so, primarily,
+the geologic records are to be scrutinized to find _the deeper
+meanings which they embody_, whether such meanings lie in the
+physical, the biological, or the psychological world.
+
+=Geology the means of developing scientific imagination of time and space=
+
+Turning to specific phases of the subject, it may first be noted that
+geology is singularly suited to develop clear visions of vast
+stretches of time; it opens broad visions of the panorama of world
+events, a panorama still passing before us. While the celestial order
+of things no doubt involves greater lapses of time, these are not so
+easily realized, for they are not so well filled in with a succession
+of records of the passing stages that make up the whole. But even the
+lapses of geologic time are greater than immature minds can readily
+grasp; however, their _powers of realization_ are greatly strengthened
+by studying so protracted a record, built up stage upon stage. The
+very slowness with which the geologic record was made, as well as the
+evidences of slowness in each part of the record, help to draw out an
+appreciation of the immensity of the whole. The round period covered
+by the more legible range of the geologic record rises to the order of
+a hundred million years, perhaps to several hundred million years. The
+large view of history which this implies has already come to form the
+ample background on which are projected the concepts of the broader
+class of thinkers; such largeness of view will quite surely be held to
+be an indispensable prerequisite to the still broader thinking of the
+future for which the better order of students are now preparing.
+
+While this is preeminently true of the concept of time, the concept of
+space is fairly well cultivated by geologic study, though far less
+effectively than is done by astronomical study. Astronomy and geology
+work happily together in contributing to largeness of thought.
+
+The study of the origin and early history of the earth brings the
+student into touch with the most far-reaching problems that have thus
+far called forth the intellectual efforts of man. If rightly handled,
+these great themes may be made to teach the true method of inquiry
+into past natural events whose vastness puts them quite beyond the
+resources of the laboratory. This method finds its key in a search for
+the history of such vast and remote events by a scrutiny of the
+vestiges these events have left as their own automatic record. This
+method stands in sharp contradistinction to simple speculation without
+such search for talismanic vestiges, a discredited method which is too
+often supposed to be the only way of dealing with such themes. To be
+really competent in the field of larger and deeper thinking, every
+courageous mind should be able to cross the threshold of any of the
+profound problems of the universe with safe and circumspect steps,
+however certain it may be that only a slight measure of penetration of
+the problem may be attainable. A well-ordered mind will remain at once
+complacent and wholesome when brought to the limit of its effort by
+the limit of evidence. The problem of the origin of celestial worlds,
+of which the genesis of the earth is the theme of largest human
+interest, is admirably suited to give college students at once a
+modest sense of their limitations and a wholesome attitude toward
+problems of the vaster type. Without having acquired the power to make
+prudent and duly controlled excursions into the vaster fields of
+thought, the mind can scarcely be said to have been liberalized.
+
+=Geology a means of training in thinking in scientific experiences=
+
+From the very outset, the tracing of the earth history forces a
+comprehensive study of the co-workings of the three dominant states of
+matter massively embodied in the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the
+lithosphere, the great terrestrial triumvirate. The strata of the
+earth are the joint products of these three elements and constitute
+their lithographic record. These three cooperating and contending
+elements not only bring into view the three typical phases of physical
+action, but they present this action in such titanic aspects as to
+force the young mind to think along large lines, with the great
+advantage that these actions are controlled by determinate laws, while
+the causes and the results are both tangible and impressive.
+
+While there is a large class of tangible and determinate problems of
+this kind, embracing shiftings of matter on the earth's surface,
+distortions of strata, and changes of bodily form, there are also
+problems of a more hidden nature such as internal mutations. These
+give rise to mathematical, physical, and chemical inquiries while at
+the same time they call into play the use of the scientific
+imagination and are thus rich in the possibilities of training. Thus
+in varied ways geological work joins hands with chemical, physical,
+mechanical, and mathematical work.
+
+When life first appears in the record, there is occasion to raise the
+profound question of its origin, and with this arises a closely
+related question as to the nature of the conditions that invited life,
+which leads on to the further question, what fostered the development
+of life throughout its long history? While the obscurity of the
+earliest record leaves the question of origin indeterminate for the
+present, duly guarded thought upon the subject should foster a
+wholesome spirit toward inquiry in this vital line as well as a
+hospitable attitude toward whatever solution may finally await us. In
+all such studies the student should be invited to look to _the
+vestiges left automatically by the process itself_ for the answer, and
+he should learn to accept the teachings of evidence precisely as it
+presents itself. So also when a problem is, for the present,
+indeterminate, it is peculiarly wholesome for the inquirer to learn to
+rest the case where the light of evidence fails, and to be complacent
+in such suspension of judgment and to wait further light patiently in
+serene confidence that the vestiges left by the actuating agencies in
+their constructive processes are the surest index of the ultimate
+truth and are likely to be sooner or later detected and read truly.
+
+=Relation of geology to botany, zoology, psychology, and sociology=
+
+In the successive records of past life impressed on strata piled one
+upon another until they form the great paleontologic register, there
+is an ample and a solid basis for the study of the historic evolution
+of life. With this also go evidences of the conditions that attended
+this life progress and that gave trend to it. This record of the
+relations of life to the environing physical conditions forms one of
+the most stimulating fields of study that can engage the student who
+seeks light on the great problems of biological progress. Here geology
+joins hands with botany and zoology in a mutual helpfulness that is
+scarcely less than indispensable to each.
+
+Following, or perhaps immediately attending, the introduction of
+physiological life, there appeared signs of sentient life. The
+preservation of certain of the sense organs, taken together with the
+collateral evidences of sense action, as early as Cambrian times,
+furnish the groundwork for a historical study of the progress of
+sentient life, eventuating in the higher forms of mental life. Here
+the problems of geology run hand in hand with the problems of
+psychology. The limitations of the evidence bearing on psychological
+phenomena, while regrettable, are not without some compensation in
+that they center the attention on the simpler aspects of the
+protracted deployment of the psychological functions.
+
+In addition to the clear evidences of psychic action, in at least its
+elementary forms, there appeared early in the stratigraphic records
+intimations of some of the relationships that sentient beings then
+bore to one another; and this relationship gives occasion to study the
+primitive aspects of sociological phenomena. If nothing more is
+learned than the important lesson that sociology is not a thing of
+today, not an untried realm inviting all kinds of ill-digested
+projects, but on the contrary is a field of vast and instructive
+history, the gain will not be inconsiderable. There are intimations of
+the early existence and effective activity of those affections that
+precede and that cluster about the parental relationship, the nucleus
+of the most vital of all the sociological relationships. In contrast
+to the affections, there are distinct evidences of antagonistic
+relations, of pursuit and capture, of attack and defense; there were
+tools of warfare and devices for protection. In time, a wide-ranging
+series of experiments, so to speak, were tried to secure advantage, to
+avoid suffering, to escape death, and to preserve the species. There
+were even suggestions of the cruder forms of government. The many
+stages in the evolution of the various devices, as well as the stages
+of their abandonment, that followed one another in the course of the
+ages recorded the results of a multitude of efforts at sociological
+adjustment. They raise the question whether a common set of guiding
+principles does not underlie all such relationships, earlier and
+later, whatever their rank in our scale of valuation. And so this
+great field of inquiry--too narrowly regarded as merely
+humanistic--comes into view early in the history of the earth. The
+geological and the sociological sciences find in it common working
+ground. If the geologic and the humanistic sciences are given each
+their widest interpretation and their freest application, the
+advantage cannot be other than mutual.
+
+It is perhaps not too much to say that studies in the physiological,
+the psychological, the sociological, and the allied fields necessarily
+lack completeness if they do not bring into their purview the data of
+their common historical record traced as far back as it is found to
+contain intimations of their actual extension.
+
+It is customary to speak of the geologic ages as though they were
+wholly past; they are, indeed, chiefly past as the record now stands,
+but time runs on and earth history continues; the processes of the
+past are still active, and they are likely to work on far into the
+future. And so geologic study links itself fundamentally into all such
+present terrestrial interests as take hold of the distant future. The
+forecast of the earth's endurance, attended by conditions congenial to
+life and to the mental and moral activities, hinges on a sound insight
+into the great actuating forces inherent in the earth, together with
+those likely to come into play from the celestial environment. All
+human interests, in so far as they are dependent on a protracted
+future, center in the prognosis of the earth based on its present and
+its past. The latest phases of geologic doctrine prophesy a long
+future habitability of the earth. They thus give meaning and emphasis
+to the deeper purposes sought in all the higher endeavors, not the
+least of which is education, particularly those phases of education
+that lead to effects which may be handed down from age to age.
+
+=Standard for selecting subject matter for the general college course:
+select fundamentals or that which bears on fundamentals=
+
+Out of all this vast physical, biological, and psychological history,
+the things to be selected for substance of thought and for service in
+mental training in a college course are, first of all, those that are
+either fundamental in themselves, or that have vital bearings on what
+is fundamental. These are chiefly the great dynamic factors, the
+agencies that gave trend to the master events, the forces that
+actuated the basal processes by which the vast results were attained.
+The material formations and the surficial configurations that resulted
+are to be duly considered, to be sure, for they form the basis of
+interpretation and they are, besides, the repositories of economic
+values of indispensable worth; but, as already urged, in a course of
+intellectual training, these are to be regarded rather as the relics
+of the great agencies and the proofs of their actions, than as the
+most vital subjects of study, which are the agencies themselves. As
+already remarked, the geologic formations are to be treated rather as
+the credentials of the potencies that reside in the earth organism,
+than as the vital things themselves. The vestiges of creation and the
+footprints of historical progress embody the soul of the subject; they
+constitute the chief source of inspiration to those who aspire to
+think in large, deep ways of really great things. It is of little
+value, from the viewpoint of liberal culture, to know that there is a
+certain succession of sandstones, shales, and limestones; that
+professional convention has given them certain names, more or less
+infelicitous in derivation and in phonic quality; but it is of vital
+consequence to learn how and why these relics of former processes came
+to be left as they were left, and thus came to be witnesses to the
+history of the far past. It was a wise thing, no doubt, that the
+fathers of geology strongly insisted that there should be a rigorous
+and rather literal adhesion to the terrestrial record in all earth
+studies, because in those times of transition from the loose, more or
+less fantastic thought that marked the adolescent stage of the human
+race, it was imperative that students should stick close to the
+immediate evidence of what had transpired, and should withhold
+themselves from much enlargement of view based on the less tangible
+evidences; but at the present stage, when the general nature of the
+earth's history has been firmly established, it would be an error on
+the part of those who seek for the most liberalizing and broadening
+values of the science, to treat the record merely as a material
+register of immediate import only, to the neglect of the less tangible
+but more vital teachings immanent in its great forces and processes.
+The seeker of liberal culture should direct his attention to the great
+events, and, above all, to the larger and deeper meanings implied by
+these events.
+
+And so--may I be pardoned for reemphasizing?--the teacher of geology
+whose essential purpose is liberal training, leading to broad and firm
+knowledge and to sound processes of thought, will critically observe
+the distinction between geology taught appropriately from the
+collegiate point of view, and geology taught specifically from the
+professional and technical points of view. In these latter, specific
+details in specific lines are important, and may even be essential,
+but it is the function of the college teacher of geology _to select_
+from the great mass of material of the science such factors as are
+basal, vital, and talismanic. He will give these emphasis, while he
+neglects the multitude of details that lack significance as working
+elements or as landmarks of progress, whatever their value in other
+relations. This selection is equally important, whether applied to the
+great physical processes that have shaped the earth into its present
+configuration, or to the great chemical and mineralogical processes
+that have determined its texture and its structure, or to the great
+biological and psychological processes that have given trend to the
+development of its inhabitants.
+
+Even if the undergraduate course in geology is pursued less for the
+purpose of liberal culture than as a means of preparing for a
+professional career as an economic geologist, no essential departure
+from an effort to master first the basal features and the broader
+aspects of the science, especially the dynamic aspects, is to be
+advised. The shortest road to _declared success_ in professional and
+economic geology lies through the early mastery of its fundamentals.
+No doubt immediate and apparent success may often be sooner reached by
+a narrower and shallower study of such special phases of the subject
+as happen just now to be most obviously related to the existing state
+of the industries; but industrial demands are constantly
+changing--indeed, at present, rather rapidly--and new aspects follow
+one another in close succession. These new aspects almost inevitably
+spring from the more basal factors as these rise into function with
+the progress of experience or the stress of new demands. Those who
+have sought only the immediate and the superficial, at the expense of
+the basal, and especially those who have neglected to acquire _the
+power and the disposition to search out the fundamentals_, are quite
+sure to be left among the unfortunates who trail behind; they are
+little likely to be found among those who lead at the times when
+leadership counts. In the judgment of those master minds that lead in
+affairs and that take large and penetrating views, the lines along
+which the most vital contributions to economic interests are being
+made connect closely with basal studies of the actuating agencies that
+condition great enterprises. In the judgment of the writer, it is a
+false view to suppose that any short, superficial study of so vast a
+subject as the constitution and history of the earth can result in
+economic competency. In so far as time for study is limited, it should
+be concentrated on the great underlying factors that constitute the
+essentials of the science. It is here assumed that men who care to
+take a college course at all are seeking for a large success and are
+ambitious for a high personal career. If they look ultimately to
+professional work in economic lines, they may safely be advised that
+the straight road to declared success lies in a search for the vital
+forces, the critical agencies, and the profound principles that make
+for great results, not along the by-paths whose winding, superficial
+courses are turned hither and thither by adventitious conditions whose
+very nature invites distrust rather than confidence.
+
+=Evaluations of methods of teaching=
+
+Turning to some of the more formal phases of treatment, three types of
+work are presented: (1) the use of nature's laboratory, the world
+itself, (2) the use of the college collections and laboratories, and
+(3) the use of the literature of the subject.
+
+(1) Fortunately, there is no place on the face of the earth where
+there is not some natural material for geologic study, for even in the
+most artificialized locations geological processes are active. In
+crowded cities these processes may be easily overlooked, but yet they
+are susceptible of effective use. Within easy access from almost every
+college site there are serviceable fields of study, and these, in any
+live course, will be assiduously cultivated. They may be relatively
+modest in their phenomena; they may seem to lack that impressiveness
+which has played so large a part in the popular notion of the content
+of geology, but they may nevertheless serve as most excellent training
+grounds for young geologists. If students are so situated as to be
+brought at the beginning of study under the influence of very
+impressive displays of geologic phenomena--precipitous mountains,
+rugged cliffs, deep canyons, and the like--there is danger that their
+mental habits may become diffusive rather than close and keen; the
+emotions may be called forth in wonder rather than turned into zest in
+the search for evidence. If students are to be trained to diligence in
+inquiry and to the highest virility in inference and interpretation,
+it is perhaps fortunate for them if they are located where only modest
+records of geological processes are presented for study. In such
+regions they are more likely to be led to scrutinize the field keenly,
+sharply, and diligently for data on which to build their
+interpretations. The scientific use of their imaginations is all the
+better trained if, in their endeavor to build up a consistent concept
+of the whole structure that underlies their field, they are forced to
+project their inferences from a few out-crops far beneath the cover of
+the adjacent mantle that shuts off direct vision. Few teachers have,
+therefore, any real occasion to long for richer fields than those
+accessible to them, if they have the tact to render these fertile in
+stimulus and suggestion.
+
+(2) Laboratory work upon the material collected in the field work, as
+well as laboratory work upon the college collections, are essential
+adjuncts. Ample provisions for this supplementary work, however modest
+the appointments, are important and can usually be secured by
+ingenuity and diligence in spite of financial limitations.
+
+Both field and laboratory work should be well correlated with one
+another and with the systematic work on the text that guides the
+study, so that each shall whet the edge of the other and all together
+accomplish what neither could alone.
+
+(3) The text selected should be such as lends itself, in some notable
+degree at least, to the general purposes set forth above. It should be
+supplemented, so far as may be, by judicious assignments for reading
+and for special study. Lectures may be made a valuable aid to the
+discussions of the classroom, but with college classes they can rarely
+be made an advantageous substitute for the discussions. Lecturing, so
+far as used, is best woven informally into the classroom discussions.
+Supplementary lecturettes may be advised if they are of such an
+informal sort that they may almost unconsciously take their start from
+any vital point encountered in the course of discussion, may run on as
+far as the occasion invites, and may then give way again to the
+discussion with the utmost informality. Such little participations in
+the work of the classroom, on the part of the teacher, are likely to
+be cordially welcomed. At the same time, if well done, they will set
+an excellent example in the presentative art as also in an apt
+organization of thought.
+
+=Organization of courses=
+
+If the stated course in earth-science is limited to the junior and
+senior year by the existing requirements of the curriculum of the
+institution or by the rulings of its officers--as is not uncommonly
+the case at present--it is relatively immaterial whether the sections
+of the course are marshaled under the single name "geology" or whether
+they are given separate titles as sub-sciences, provided the special
+subjects are arranged in logical sequence and in consecutive order.
+If, on the other hand, the teacher's choice of time and relations is
+freer, the more accessible phases of earth study, now well organized
+under the name of "physiography," form an excellent course for either
+freshmen or sophomores. It opens their minds to a world of interesting
+activities about them which have probably been largely overlooked in
+previous years. It gives them substance of thought that will be of
+much service in the pursuit of other sciences. It has been found that
+it is not without rather notable service to young students as the
+basis of efforts in the art of literary presentation, a felicity to
+which teachers of this important art frequently give emphatic
+testimony. The secret seems to lie in the fact that physiography gives
+varied and vivid material susceptible of literary presentation, while
+the fixed qualities of the subject matter control the choice of terms
+and the mode of expression.
+
+If geography and physiography are given in the earlier years, the
+course in historical geology, as well as the study of the more
+difficult phases of geological processes, of the principles of dynamic
+geology, together with mineralogy, petrology, and paleontology, may
+best fall into the later years, even if some interval separates them
+from the geography and physiography.
+
+One hundred and twenty classroom hours, or their equivalent in
+laboratory and field work, are perhaps to be regarded as the
+irreducible minimum in a well-balanced undergraduate course, while
+twice that time or more is required to give a notably strong college
+course in earth-science.
+
+A consideration of the sequences among the geological sub-subjects, as
+also among the subjects that are held to be preliminary to the
+earth-sciences, is important, but it would lead us too far into
+details which depend more or less on local conditions. In the
+experience of American teachers it appears to have been found
+advisable to put geological processes and typical phenomena to the
+front and to take up geological history afterwards. The earlier method
+of taking up the history first, beginning with recent stages and
+working backward down the ages,--once in vogue abroad,--has been
+abandoned in this country. It was the order in which the science was
+developed and it had the advantage of starting with the living present
+and with the most accessible formations, but this latter advantage is
+secured by studying the living processes, as such, first, and turning
+to the history later. This permits the study of the history in its
+natural order, which seems better to call forth the relations of
+cause and effect and to give emphasis to the influence of inherited
+conditions.
+
+Respecting antecedents to the study, the more knowledge of physics,
+chemistry, zoology, and botany, the better, but it is easy to
+over-stress the necessity for such preparation, however logical it may
+seem, for in reality all the natural sciences are so interwoven that,
+in strict logic, a complete knowledge of all the others should be had
+before any one is begun, a _reductio ad absurdum_. The sciences have
+been developed more or less contemporaneously and progressively, each
+helping on the others. They may be pursued much in the same way, or by
+alternations in which each prior study favors the sequent one. They
+may even be taken in a seemingly illogical order without serious
+disadvantage, for the alternative advantages and other considerations
+may outweigh the force of the logical order, which is at best only
+partially logical. It is of prime importance to stimulate in students
+a habit of observing natural phenomena at an early age. It may be wise
+for a student to take up physiography, or its equivalent, early in the
+college course, irrespective of an ideal preparation in the related
+sciences. It is unfortunate to defer such study to a stage when the
+student's natural aptitude for observation and inference has become
+dulled by neglect or by confinement to subjects devoid of naturalistic
+stimulus. To permit students to take up earth-science in the freshman
+and sophomore years, even without the ideal preparation, is therefore
+probably wiser than to defer the study beyond the age of
+responsiveness to the touch of the natural environment. The geographic
+and geologic environment conditioned the mental evolution of the race.
+It left an inherited impress on the perceptive and emotional nature,
+only to be awakened most felicitously, it would seem, at about the age
+at which the naturalistic phases of the youth's mentality were
+originally called into their most intense exercise.
+
+                                               T. C. CHAMBERLIN
+  _The University of Chicago_
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS
+
+
+=Recent changes and some of their sources=
+
+In recent years the teaching of mathematics has undergone remarkable
+changes in many countries, both as regards method and as regards
+content. With respect to college mathematics these changes have been
+evidenced by a growing emphasis on applications and on the historic
+setting of the various questions. To understand one direct source of
+these changes it is only necessary to recall the fact that in about
+1880 there began a steady stream of American mathematical students to
+Europe, especially to Germany. Most of these students entered the
+faculties of our colleges and universities on their return to America
+It is therefore of great importance to inquire what mathematical
+situation served to inspire these students.
+
+The German mathematical developments of the greater part of the
+nineteenth century exhibited a growing tendency to disregard
+applications. It was not until about 1890 that a strong movement was
+inaugurated to lay more stress on applied mathematics in Germany.[3]
+Our early American students therefore brought with them from Germany a
+decided tendency toward investigations in mathematical fields remote
+from direct contact with applications to other scientific subjects,
+such as physics and astronomy, which had so largely dominated
+mathematical investigations in earlier years.
+
+This picture would, however, be very incomplete without exhibiting
+another factor of a similar type working in our own midst. J. J.
+Sylvester was selected as the first professor of mathematics at Johns
+Hopkins University, which opened its doors in 1876 and began at once
+to wield a powerful influence in starting young men in higher
+research. Sylvester's own investigations related mainly to the formal
+and abstract side of mathematics. Moreover, "he was a poor teacher
+with an imperfect knowledge of mathematical literature. He possessed,
+however, an extraordinary personality; and had in remarkable degree
+the gift of imparting enthusiasm, a quality of no small value in
+pioneer days such as these were with us."[4]
+
+=Influence of researches in mathematics on methods of teaching=
+
+Mathematical research was practically introduced into the American
+colleges during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and the
+wave of enthusiasm which attended this introduction was unfortunately
+not sufficiently tempered by emphasis on good teaching and breadth of
+knowledge, especially as regards applications. In fact, the leading
+mathematician in America during the early part of this period was
+glaringly weak along these lines. By means of his bountiful enthusiasm
+he was able to do a large amount of good for the selected band of
+gifted students who attended his lectures, but some of these were not
+so fortunate in securing the type of students who are helped more by
+the direct enthusiasm of their teacher than by the indirect enthusiasm
+resulting from good teaching.
+
+The need of good mathematical teaching in our colleges and
+universities began to become more pronounced at about the time that
+the wave of research enthusiasm set in, as a result of the growing
+emphasis on technical education which exhibited itself most
+emphatically in the development of the schools of engineering. While
+the student who is specially interested in mathematics may be willing
+to get along with a teacher whose enthusiasm for the new and general
+leads him to neglect to emphasize essential details in the
+presentation, the average engineering student insists on clearness in
+presentation and usability of the results. As the latter student does
+not expect to become a mathematical specialist, he is naturally much
+more interested in good teaching than in the mathematical reputation
+of his teacher, even if his reputation is not an entirely
+insignificant factor for him.
+
+During the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first decade
+of the present century the mathematical departments of our colleges
+and universities faced an unusually serious situation as a result of
+the conditions just noted. The new wave of research enthusiasm was
+still in its youthful vigor and in its youthful mood of
+inconsiderateness as regards some of the most important factors. On
+the other hand, many of the departments of engineering had become
+strong and were therefore able to secure the type of teaching suited
+to their needs. In a number of institutions this led to the breaking
+up of the mathematical department into two or more separate
+departments aiming to meet special needs.
+
+In view of the fact that the mathematical needs of these various
+classes of students have so much in common, leading mathematicians
+viewed with much concern this tendency to disrupt many of the stronger
+departments. Hence the question of good teaching forced itself rapidly
+to the front. It was commonly recognized that the students of pure
+mathematics profit by a study of various applications of the theories
+under consideration, and that the students who expect to work along
+special technical lines gain by getting broad and comprehensive views
+of the fundamental mathematical questions involved. Moreover, it was
+also recognized that the investigational work of the instructors would
+gain by the broader scholarship secured through greater emphasis on
+applications and the historic setting of the various problems under
+consideration.
+
+To these fundamental elements relating to the improvement of college
+teaching there should perhaps be added one arising from the
+recognition of the fact that the number of men possessing excellent
+mathematical research ability was much smaller than the number of
+positions in the mathematical departments of our colleges and
+universities. The publication of inferior research results is of
+questionable value. On the other hand, many who could have done
+excellent work as teachers by devoting most of their energies to this
+work became partial failures both as teachers and as investigators
+through their ambition to excel in the latter direction.
+
+=Range of subjects and preparation of students=
+
+It should be emphasized that the college and university teachers of
+mathematics have to deal with a wide range of subjects and conditions,
+especially where graduate work is carried on. Advanced graduate
+students have needs which differ widely from those of the freshmen who
+aim to become engineers. This wide range of conditions calls for
+unusual adaptability on the part of the college and university
+teacher. This range is much wider than that which confronts the
+teachers in the high school, and the lack of sufficient adaptability
+on the part of some of the college teachers is probably responsible
+for the common impression that some of the poorest mathematical
+teaching is done in the colleges. It is doubtless equally true that
+some of the very best mathematical teaching is to be found in these
+institutions.
+
+In some of the colleges there has been a tendency to diminish the
+individual range of mathematical teaching by explicitly separating the
+undergraduate work and the more advanced work. For instance, in Johns
+Hopkins University, L. S. Hulburt was appointed "Professor of
+Collegiate Mathematics" in 1897, with the understanding that he should
+devote himself to the interests of the undergraduates. In many of the
+larger universities the younger members of the department usually
+teach only undergraduate courses, while some of the older members
+devote either all or most of their time to the advanced work; but
+there is no uniformity in this direction, and the present conditions
+are often unsatisfactory.
+
+The undergraduate courses in mathematics in the American colleges and
+universities differ considerably. The normal beginning courses now
+presuppose a year of geometry and a year and a half of algebra in
+addition to the elementary courses in arithmetic, but much higher
+requirements are sometimes imposed, especially for engineering
+courses. In recent years several of the largest universities have
+reduced the minimum admission requirement in algebra to one year's
+work, but students entering with this minimum preparation are
+sometimes not allowed to proceed with the regular mathematical classes
+in the university.
+
+=Variety of college courses in mathematics=
+
+Freshmen courses in mathematics differ widely, but the most common
+subjects are advanced algebra, plane trigonometry, and solid geometry.
+The most common subjects of a somewhat more advanced type are plane
+analytic geometry, differential and integral calculus, and spherical
+trigonometry. Beyond these courses there is much less uniformity,
+especially in those institutions which aim to complete a well-rounded
+undergraduate mathematical course rather than to prepare for graduate
+work. Among the most common subjects beyond those already named are
+differential equations, theory of equations, solid analytic geometry,
+and mechanics.
+
+A very important element affecting the mathematical courses in recent
+years is the rapid improvement in the training of our teachers in the
+secondary schools. This has led to the rapid introduction of courses
+which aim to lead up to broad views in regard to the fundamental
+subjects. In particular, courses relating to the historical
+development of concepts involved therein are receiving more and more
+attention. Indirect historical sources have become much more plentiful
+in recent years through the publication of various translations of
+ancient works and through the publication of extensive historical
+notes in the _Encyclopedie des Sciences Mathematiques_ and in other
+less extensive works of reference.
+
+The problem presented by those who are preparing to teach mathematics
+may at first appear to differ widely from that presented by those who
+expect to become engineers. The latter are mostly interested in
+obtaining from their mathematical courses a powerful equipment for
+doing things, while the former take more interest in those
+developments which illumine and clarify the elements of their subject.
+Hence the prospective teacher and the prospective engineer might
+appear to have conflicting mathematical interests. As a matter of
+fact, these interests are not conflicting. The prospective teacher is
+greatly benefited by the emphasis on the serviceableness of
+mathematics, and the prospective engineer finds that the generality
+and clarity of view sought by the prospective teacher is equally
+helpful to him in dealing with new applications. Hence these two
+classes of students can well afford to pursue many of the early
+mathematical courses together, while the finishing courses should
+usually be different.
+
+The rapidly growing interest in statistical methods and in insurance,
+pensions, and investments has naturally directed special attention to
+the underlying mathematical theories, especially to the theory of
+probability. Some institutions have organized special mathematical
+courses relating to these subjects and have thus extended still
+further the range of undergraduate subjects covered by the
+mathematical departments. The rapidly growing emphasis on college
+education specially adapted to the needs of the prospective business
+man has recently led to a greater emphasis on some of these subjects
+in several institutions.
+
+The range of mathematical subjects suited for graduate students is
+unlimited, but it is commonly assumed to be desirable that the
+graduate student should pursue at least one general course in each one
+of broader subjects such as the theory of numbers, higher algebra,
+theory of functions, and projective geometry, before he begins to
+specialize along a particular line. It is usually taken for granted
+that the undergraduate courses in mathematics should not presuppose a
+knowledge of any language besides English, but graduate work in this
+subject cannot be successfully pursued in many cases without a reading
+knowledge of the three other great mathematical languages; viz.,
+French, German, and Italian. Hence the study of graduate mathematics
+necessarily presupposes some linguistic training in addition to an
+acquaintance with the elements of fundamental mathematical subjects.
+
+Historical studies make especially large linguistic demands in case
+these studies are not largely restricted to predigested material. This
+is particularly true as regards the older historical material. In the
+study of contemporary mathematical history the linguistic
+prerequisites are about the same as those relating to the study of
+other modern mathematical subjects. With the rapid spread of
+mathematical research activity during recent years there has come a
+growing need of more extensive linguistic attainments on the part of
+those mathematicians who strive to keep in touch with progress along
+various lines. For instance, a thriving Spanish national mathematical
+society was organized in 1911 at Madrid, Spain, and in March, 1916, a
+new mathematical journal entitled _Revista de Matematicas_ was started
+at Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic. Hence a knowledge of Spanish is
+becoming more useful to the mathematical student. Similar activities
+have recently been inaugurated in other countries.
+
+=History of college mathematics=
+
+Until about the beginning of the nineteenth century the courses in
+college mathematics did not usually presuppose a mathematical
+foundation carefully prepared for a superstructure. According to M.
+Gebhardt, the function of teaching elementary mathematics in Germany
+was assumed by the gymnasiums during the years from 1810 to 1830.[5]
+Before this time the German universities usually gave instruction in
+the most elementary mathematical subjects. In our own country, Yale
+University instituted a mathematical entrance requirement under the
+title of arithmetic as early as 1745, but at Harvard University no
+mathematics was required for admission before 1803.
+
+On the other hand, _L'Ecole Polytechnique_ of Paris, which occupies a
+prominent place in the history of college mathematics, had very high
+admission requirements in mathematics from the start. According to a
+law enacted in 1795, the candidates for admission were required to
+pass an examination in arithmetic; in algebra, including the solution
+of equations of the first four degrees and the theory of series; and
+in geometry, including trigonometry, the applications of algebra to
+geometry, and conic sections.[6] It should be noted that these
+requirements are more extensive than the usual present mathematical
+requirements of our leading universities and technical schools, but
+_L'Ecole Polytechnique_ laid special emphasis on mathematics and
+physics and became the world's prototype of strong technical
+institutions.
+
+The influence of _L'Ecole Polytechnique_ was greatly augmented by the
+publication of a regular periodical entitled _Journal de l'Ecole
+Polytechnique_, which was started in 1795 and is still being
+published. A number of the courses of lectures delivered at _L'Ecole
+Polytechnique_ and at _L'Ecole Normale_ appeared in the early volumes
+of this journal. The fact that some of these courses were given by
+such eminent mathematicians as J. L. Lagrange, G. Monge, and P. S.
+Laplace is sufficient guarantee of their great value and of their good
+influence on the later textbooks along similar lines. In particular,
+it may be noted that G. Monge gave the first course in descriptive
+geometry at _L'Ecole Normale_ in 1795, and he was also for a number of
+years one of the most influential teachers at _L'Ecole Polytechnique_.
+
+A most fundamental element in the history of college mathematics is
+the broadening of the scope of the college work. As long as college
+students were composed almost entirely of prospective preachers,
+lawyers, and physicians, there was comparatively little interest taken
+in mathematics. It is true that the mental disciplinary value of
+mathematics was emphasized by many, but this supposed value did not
+put any real life into mathematical work. The dead abstract reasonings
+of Euclid's _Elements_, or even the number speculations of the ancient
+Pythagoreans, were enough to satisfy most of those who were looking to
+mathematics as a subject suitable for mental gymnastics.
+
+On the other hand, when the colleges began to train men for other
+lines of work, when the applications of steam led to big enterprises,
+like the building of railroads and large ocean steamers, mathematics
+became a living subject whose great direct usefulness in practical
+affairs began to be commonly recognized. Moreover, it became apparent
+that there was great need of mathematical growth, since mathematics
+was no longer to be used merely as mental Indian clubs or dumb-bells,
+where a limited assortment would answer all practical needs, but as an
+implement of mental penetration into the infinitude of barriers which
+have checked progress along various lines and seem to require an
+infinite variety of methods of penetration.
+
+The American colleges were naturally somewhat slower than some of
+those of Europe in adapting themselves to the changed conditions, but
+the rapidity of the changes in our country may be inferred from the
+fact that in the first half of the nineteenth century Harvard placed
+in comparatively short succession three mathematical subjects on its
+list of entrance requirements; viz., arithmetic in 1802, algebra in
+1820, and geometry in 1844. Although Harvard had not established any
+mathematical admission requirements for more than a century and a half
+after its opening, she initiated three such requirements within half a
+century. It is interesting to note that for at least ninety years from
+the opening of Harvard, arithmetic was taught during the senior year
+as one of the finishing subjects of a college education.[7]
+
+The passage of some of the subjects of elementary mathematics from the
+colleges to the secondary schools raised two very fundamental
+questions. The first of these concerned mostly the secondary schools,
+since it involved an adaptation to the needs of younger students of
+the more or less crystallized textbook material which came to them
+from the colleges. The second of these questions affected the colleges
+only, since it involved the selection of proper material to base upon
+the foundations laid by the secondary schools. It is natural that the
+influence of the colleges should have been somewhat harmful with
+respect to the secondary schools, since the interests of the former
+seemed to be best met by restricting most of the energies of the
+secondary teachers of mathematics to the thorough drilling of their
+students in dexterous formal manipulations of algebraic symbols and
+the demonstration of fundamental abstract theorems of geometry.
+
+=Relation of mathematics in secondary schools and college=
+
+Students who come to college with a solid and broad foundation but
+without any knowledge of the superstructure can readily be inspired
+and enthused by the erection of a beautiful superstructure on a
+foundation laid mostly underground, with little direct evidence of its
+value or importance. The injustice and shortsightedness of the
+tendency to restrict the secondary schools to such foundation work
+would not have been so apparent if the majority of the secondary
+school students would have entered college. As a matter of fact it
+tended to bring secondary mathematics into disrepute and thus to
+threaten college mathematics at its very foundation. It is only in
+recent years that strong efforts have been made to correct this very
+serious mathematical situation.
+
+Much progress has been made toward the saner view of letting secondary
+mathematics build its little structure into the air with some view to
+harmony and proportion, and of requiring college mathematics to build
+_on_ as well as _upon_ the work done by the secondary schools. The
+fruitful and vivifying notions of function, derivative, and group are
+slowly making their way into secondary mathematics, and the graphic
+methods have introduced some of the charms of analytic geometry into
+the same field.
+
+This transformation is naturally affecting college mathematics most
+profoundly. The tedious work of building foundations in college
+mathematics is becoming more imperative. The use of the rock drill is
+forcing itself more and more on the college teacher accustomed to use
+only hammer and saw. As we are just entering upon this situation, it
+is too early to prophesy anything in regard to its permanency, but it
+seems likely that the secondary teachers will no more assume a yoke
+which some of the college teachers would so gladly have them bear and
+which they bore a long time with a view to serving the interests of
+the latter teachers.
+
+As many of the textbooks used by secondary teachers are written by
+college men, and as the success of these teachers is often gauged by
+the success of their students who happen to go to college, it is
+easily seen that there is a serious temptation on the part of the
+secondary teacher to look at his work through the eyes of the college
+teacher. The recent organizations which bring together the college and
+the secondary teachers have already exerted a very wholesome influence
+and have tended to exhibit the fact that the success of the college
+teacher of mathematics is very intimately connected with that of the
+teachers of secondary mathematics.
+
+While it is difficult to determine the most important single event in
+the history of college teaching in America, there are few events in
+this history which seem to deserve such a distinction more than the
+organization of the Mathematical Association of America which was
+effected in December, 1915. This association aims especially to
+promote the interests of mathematics in the collegiate field and it
+publishes a journal entitled _The American Mathematical Monthly_,
+containing many expository articles of special interest to teachers.
+It also holds regular meetings and has organized various sections so
+as to enable its members to attend meetings without incurring the
+expense of long trips. Its first four presidents were E. R. Hedrick,
+Florian Cajori, E. V. Huntington, and H. E. Slaught.
+
+An event which has perhaps affected the very vitals of mathematical
+teaching in America still more is the founding of the American
+Mathematical Society in 1888, called the New York Mathematical Society
+until 1894. Through its _Bulletin_ and _Transactions_, as well as
+through its meetings and colloquia lectures, this society has stood
+for inspiration and deep mathematical interest without which college
+teaching will degenerate into an art. During the first thirty years of
+its history it has had as presidents the following: J. H. Van Amringe,
+Emory McClintock, G. W. Hill, Simon Newcomb, R. S. Woodward, E. H.
+Moore, T. S. Fiske, W. F. Osgood, H. S. White, Maxime Boecher, H. B.
+Fine, E. B. Van Vleck, E. W. Brown, L. E. Dickson, and Frank Morley.
+
+=Aims of college mathematics: methods of teaching=
+
+The aims of college mathematics can perhaps be most clearly understood
+by recalling the fact that mathematics constitutes a kind of
+intellectual shorthand and that many of the newer developments in a
+large number of the sciences tend toward pure mathematics. In
+particular, "there is a constant tendency for mathematical physics to
+be absorbed in pure mathematics."[8] As sciences grow, they tend to
+require more and more the strong methods of intellectual penetration
+provided by pure mathematics.
+
+The principal modern aim of college mathematics is not the training of
+the mind, but the providing of information which is absolutely
+necessary to those who seek to work most efficiently along various
+scientific lines. Mathematical knowledge rather than mathematical
+discipline is the main modern objective in the college courses in
+mathematics. As this knowledge must be in a usable form, its
+acquisition is naturally attended by mental discipline, but the
+knowledge is absolutely needed and would have to be acquired even if
+the process of acquisition were not attended by a development of
+intellectual power.
+
+The fact that practically all of the college mathematics of the
+eighteenth century has been gradually taken over by the secondary
+schools of today might lead some to question the wisdom of replacing
+this earlier mathematics by more advanced subjects. In particular, the
+question might arise whether the college mathematics of today is not
+superfluous. This question has been partially answered by the
+preceding general observations. The rapid scientific advances of the
+past century have increased the mathematical needs very rapidly. The
+advances in college mathematics which have been made possible by the
+improvements of the secondary schools have scarcely kept up with the
+growth of these needs, so that the current mathematical needs cannot
+be as fully provided for by the modern college as the recognized
+mathematical needs of the eighteenth century were provided for by the
+colleges of those days.
+
+There appears to be no upper limit to the amount of useful
+mathematics, and hence the aim of the college must be to supply the
+mathematical needs of the students to the greatest possible extent
+under the circumstances. In order to supply these needs in the most
+economical manner, it seems necessary that some of them should be
+supplied before they are fully appreciated on the part of the student.
+The first steps in many scientific subjects do not call for
+mathematical considerations and the student frequently does not go
+beyond these first steps in his college days, but he needs to go much
+further later in life. College mathematics should prepare for life
+rather than for college days only, and hence arises the desirability
+of deeper mathematical penetration than appears directly necessary for
+college work.
+
+=Advanced work in college mathematics=
+
+Another reason for more advanced mathematics than seems to be directly
+needed by the student is that the more advanced subjects in
+mathematics are a kind of applied mathematics relative to the more
+elementary ones, and the former subjects serve to throw much light on
+the latter. In other words, the student who desires to understand an
+elementary subject completely should study more advanced subjects
+which are connected therewith, since such a study is usually more
+effective than the repeated review of the elementary subject. In
+particular, many students secure a better understanding of algebra
+during their course in calculus than during the course in algebra
+itself, and a course in differential equations will throw new light on
+the course in calculus. Hence college mathematics usually aims to
+cover a rather wide range of subjects in a comparatively short time.
+
+Since mathematics is largely the language of advanced science,
+especially of astronomy, physics, and engineering, one of the
+prominent aims of college mathematics should be to keep in close touch
+with the other sciences. That is, the idea of rendering direct and
+efficient services to other departments should animate the
+mathematical department more deeply than any other department of the
+university. The tendency toward disintegration to which we referred
+above has forcefully directed attention to the great need of
+emphasizing this aspect of our subject, since such disintegration is
+naturally accompanied by a weakening of mathematical vigor. It may be
+noted that such a disintegration would mean a reverting to primitive
+conditions, since some of the older works treated mathematics merely
+as a chapter of astronomy. This was done, for instance, in some of the
+ancient treatises of the Hindus.
+
+=Mathematics and technical education=
+
+The great increase in college students during recent years and the
+growing emphasis on college activities outside of the work connected
+with the classroom, especially on those relating to college athletics,
+would doubtless have left college mathematics in a woefully neglected
+state if there had not been a rapidly growing interest in technical
+education, especially in engineering subjects, at the same time. Naval
+engineering was one of the first scientific subjects to exert a strong
+influence on popularizing mathematics. In particular, the teaching of
+mathematics in the Russian schools supported by the government began
+with the founding of the government school for mathematics and
+navigation at Moscow in 1701. It is interesting to note that the
+earlier Russian schools established by the clergy after the adoption
+of Christianity in that country did not provide for the teaching of
+any arithmetic whatever, notwithstanding the usefulness of arithmetic
+for the computing of various dates in the church calendar, for land
+surveying, and for the ordinary business transactions.[9]
+
+The direct aims in the teaching of college mathematics have naturally
+been somewhat affected by the needs of the engineering students, who
+constitute in many of our leading institutions a large majority in the
+mathematical classes. These students are usually expected to receive
+more drill in actual numerical work than is demanded by those who seek
+mainly a deeper penetration into the various mathematical theories.
+The most successful methods of teaching the former students have much
+in common with those usually employed in the high schools and are
+known as the recitation and problem-solving methods. They involve the
+correction and direct supervision of a large number of graded
+exercises worked out by the students on the blackboard or on paper,
+and aim to overcome the peculiar difficulties of the individual
+students.
+
+The lecture method, on the other hand, aims to exhibit the main facts
+in a clear light and to leave to the student the task of supplying
+further illustrative examples and of reconsidering the various steps.
+The purely lecture method does not seem to be well adapted to American
+conditions, and it is frequently combined with what is commonly known
+as the "quiz." The quiz seems to be an American institution, although
+it has much in common with a species of the French "conference." It is
+intended to review the content of a set of lectures by means of
+discussions in which the students and the teacher participate, and it
+is most commonly employed in connection with the courses of an
+advanced undergraduate or of a beginning graduate grade.
+
+A prominent aim in graduate courses is to lead the student as rapidly
+as possible to the boundary of knowledge along the particular line
+considered therein. While some of the developments in such courses are
+apt to be somewhat special or to be too general to have much meaning,
+their novelty frequently adds a sufficiently strong element of
+interest to more than compensate losses in other directions. Moreover,
+the student who aims to do research work will thus be enabled to
+consider various fields as regards their attractiveness for prolonged
+investigations of his own.
+
+=Preparation of the college teacher of mathematics.=
+
+The fact that the college teacher has need of much more mathematical
+knowledge than he can possibly secure during the period of his
+preparation, especially if he expects to take an active part in
+research and in directing graduate work, has usually led to the
+assumption that the future teacher of college mathematics should
+devote all his energies to securing a deep mathematical insight and a
+wide range of mathematical knowledge.[10] On the other hand, students
+prepared in accord with this assumption have frequently found it very
+difficult to adapt themselves to the needs of large freshman classes
+of engineering students entering upon the duties for which they were
+supposed to have been prepared.
+
+The breadth of view and the sweep of abstraction needed for effective
+graduate work have little in common with accuracy in numerical work
+and emphasis on details which are so essential to the young
+engineering students. The difficulty of the situation is increased by
+the fact that the young instructor is often led to believe that his
+advancement and the appreciation of his services are directly
+proportional to his achievements in investigations of a high order.
+This belief naturally leads many to begrudge the time and thought
+which their teaching duties should normally receive.
+
+The young college teacher of mathematics is thus confronted with a
+much more complex situation than that which confronts the mathematics
+teachers in secondary school work. Here the success in the classroom
+is the one great goal, and the mathematical knowledge required is
+comparatively very modest. Possibly the situation of the college
+teacher could be materially improved if it were understood that his
+first promotion would be mainly dependent upon his success as a
+teacher, but that later promotions involved the element of productive
+scholarship in an increasing ratio.
+
+The schools of education which have in recent years been established
+in most of our leading universities have thus far had only a slight
+influence on the preparation of the college teachers, but it seems
+likely that this influence will increase as the needs of professional
+training become better known. It is probably true that the ratio of
+courses on methods to courses on knowledge of the subject will always
+be largest for the elementary teacher, in view of the great difference
+between the mental maturity of the student and the teacher, somewhat
+less for the secondary teacher and least for the college teacher; but
+this least should not be zero, as is so frequently the case at present,
+since there usually is even here a considerable difference between the
+mathematical maturity of the student and that of the teacher.
+
+It may be argued that the future college teacher will probably profit
+more by noting the methods employed by his instructors than he would
+by the theoretic discussions relating to methods. This is doubtless
+true, but it does not prove that the latter discussions are without
+value. On the other hand, these discussions will often serve to fix
+more attention on the former methods and will lead the student to note
+more accurately their import and probable adaptability to the needs of
+the younger students.
+
+Among the useful features for the training of the future mathematics
+teachers are the mathematical clubs which are connected with most of
+the active mathematical departments. In many cases, at least, two such
+clubs are maintained, the one being devoted largely to the
+presentation of research work while the other aims to provide
+opportunities for the presentation of papers of special interest to
+the students. The latter papers are often presented by graduate
+students or by advanced undergraduates, and they offer a splendid
+opportunity for such students to acquire effective and clear methods
+of presentation. The same desirable end is often promoted by reports
+given by students in seminars or in advanced courses.
+
+Prominent factors in the training of the future college teachers are
+the teaching scholarships or fellowships and the assistantships. Many
+of the larger universities provide a number of positions of this
+type. It sometimes happens that the teaching duties connected with
+these positions are so heavy as to leave too little energy for
+vigorous graduate work. On the other hand, these positions have made
+it possible for many to continue their graduate studies longer than
+they could otherwise have done and at the same time to acquire sound
+habits of teaching while in close contact with men of proved ability
+along this line.
+
+It should be emphasized that the ideal college teacher of mathematics
+is not the one who acquires a respectable fund of mathematical
+knowledge which he passes along to his students, but the one imbued
+with an abiding interest in learning more and more about his subject
+as long as life lasts. This interest naturally soon forces him to
+conduct researches where progress usually is slow and uncertain.
+Research work should be animated by the desire for more knowledge and
+not by the desire for publication. In fact, only those new results
+should be published which are likely to be helpful to others in
+starting at a more favorable point in their efforts to secure
+intellectual mastery over certain important problems.
+
+Half a century ago it was commonly assumed that graduation from a good
+college implied enough training to enter upon the duties of a college
+teacher, but this view has been practically abandoned, at least as
+regards the college teacher of mathematics. The normal preparation is
+now commonly placed three years later, and the Ph.D. degree is usually
+regarded to be evidence of this normal preparation. This degree is
+supposed by many to imply that its possessor has reached a stage where
+he can do independent research work and direct students who seek
+similar degrees. In view of the fact that in America as well as in
+Germany the student often receives much direct assistance while
+working on his Ph.D. thesis, this supposition is frequently not in
+accord with the facts.[11]
+
+The emphasis on the Ph.D. degree for college teachers has in many
+cases led to an improvement in ideals, but in some other cases it has
+had the opposite effect. Too many possessors of this degree have been
+able to count on it as accepted evidence of scientific attainments,
+while they allowed themselves to become absorbed in non-scientific
+matters, especially in administrative details. Professors of
+mathematics in our colleges have been called on to shoulder an unusual
+amount of the administrative work, and many men of fine ability and
+scholarship have thus been hindered from entering actively into
+research work. Conditions have, however, improved rapidly in recent
+years, and it is becoming better known that the productive college
+teacher needs all his energies for scientific work; and in no field is
+this more emphatically true than in mathematics. Some departmental
+administrative duties will doubtless always devolve upon the
+mathematics teachers. By a careful division of these duties they need
+not interfere seriously with the main work of the various teachers.
+
+=The mathematical textbook=
+
+The American teachers of mathematics follow the textbook more closely
+than is customary in Germany, for instance. Among college teachers
+there is a wide difference of view in regard to the suitable use of
+the textbook. While some use it simply for the purpose of providing
+illustrative examples and do not expect the student to begin any
+subject by a study of the presentation found in the textbook, there
+are others who expect the normal student to secure all the needed
+assistance from the textbook and who employ the class periods mainly
+for the purpose of teaching the students how to use the textbook most
+effectively. The practice of most teachers falls between these two
+extremes, and, as a rule, the textbook is followed less and less
+closely as the student advances in his work. In fact, in many advanced
+courses no particular textbook is followed. In such courses the
+principal results and the exercises are often dictated by the teacher
+or furnished by means of mimeographed notes.
+
+The close adherence to the textbook is apt to cultivate the habit on
+the part of the student of trying to understand what the author meant
+instead of confining his attention to trying to understand the
+subject. In view of the fact that the American secondary mathematics
+teachers usually follow textbooks so slavishly, the college teacher of
+mathematics who believes in emphasizing the subject rather than the
+textbook often meets with considerable difficulty with the beginning
+classes. On the other hand, it is clear that as the student advances
+he should be encouraged to seek information from all available sources
+instead of from one particular book only. The rapid improvement in our
+library facilities makes this attitude especially desirable.
+
+An advantage of the textbook is that it is limited in all directions,
+while the subject itself is of indefinite extent. In the textbook the
+subject has been pressed into a linear sequence, while its natural
+form usually exhibits various dimensions. The textbook presents those
+phases about which there is usually no doubt, while the subject itself
+exhibits limitations of knowledge in many directions. From these few
+characteristics it is evident that the study of textbooks is apt to
+cultivate a different attitude and a different point of view from
+those cultivated by the unhampered study of subjects. The latter are,
+however, the ones which correspond to the actual world and which
+therefore should receive more and more emphasis as the mental vision
+of the student can be enlarged.
+
+The number of different available college mathematical textbooks on
+the subjects usually studied by the large classes of engineering
+students has increased rapidly in recent years. On the other hand, the
+number of suitable textbooks for the more advanced classes is often
+very limited. In fact, it is often found desirable to use textbooks
+written in some foreign language, especially in French, German, or
+Italian, for such courses. This procedure has the advantage that it
+helps to cultivate a better reading knowledge of these languages,
+which is in itself a very worthy end for the advanced student of
+mathematics. This procedure has, however, become less necessary in
+recent years in view of the publication of various excellent advanced
+works in the English language.
+
+The greatest mathematical treasure is constituted by the periodic
+literatures, and the larger colleges and universities aim to have
+complete sets of the leading mathematical periodicals available for
+their students. This literature has been made more accessible by the
+publication of various catalogues, such as the _Subject Index_, Volume
+I, published by the Royal Society of London in 1908, and the volumes
+"A" of the annual publications entitled _International Catalogue of
+Scientific Literature_. All students who have access to large
+libraries should learn how to utilize this great store of mathematical
+lore whenever mathematical questions present themselves to them in
+their scientific work. This is especially true as regards those who
+specialize along mathematical lines.
+
+In some of the colleges and universities general informational courses
+along mathematical lines have been organized under different names,
+such as history of mathematics, synoptic course, fundamental concepts,
+cultural course, etc. Several books have recently been prepared with a
+view to meeting the needs of textbooks for such courses. College
+teachers of mathematics usually find it difficult to interest their
+students sufficiently in the current periodic literature, and one of
+the greatest problems of the college teacher is to instill such a
+broad interest in mathematics that the student will seek mathematical
+knowledge in all available sources instead of confining himself to the
+study of a few textbooks or the work of a particular school.
+
+                                                   G. A. MILLER
+  _University of Illinois_
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+For articles on the teaching of mathematics which appeared during the
+nineteenth century, consult 0050 _Pedagogy_ in the _Royal Society
+Index_, Vol. I, Pure Mathematics, 1908. For literature appearing
+during the first twelve years of the present century the reader may
+consult the _Bibliography of the Teaching of Mathematics_, 1900-1912,
+by D. E. Smith and Charles Goldziher, published by the United States
+Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 29. More recent literature
+may be found by consulting annual indexes, such as the _International
+Catalogue of Scientific Literature_, A, Mathematics, under 0050, and
+_Revue Semestrielle des Publications Mathematiques_, under V 1. The
+volumes of the international review entitled _L'Enseignement
+Mathematique_, founded in 1899, contain a large number of articles
+relating to college teaching. This subject will be treated in the
+closing volumes of the large French and German mathematical
+encyclopedias in course of publication.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[3] P. Zuehlke. _Zeitschrift fuer Mathematischen und
+Naturwissenschuftlichen Unterricht_, Vol. 45 (1915), page 483.
+
+[4] Committee No. XII, American Report of the International Commission
+on the Teaching of Mathematics, 1912, page 9.
+
+[5] _Internationale Mathematische Unterrichtskomission_, Vol. 3, No. 6
+(1912), page 2.
+
+[6] _Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique_, Vol. 1 (1896), part 4, page lx.
+
+[7] F. Cajori, _Teaching and History of Mathematics in the United
+States_, 1890, page 22.
+
+[8] A. E. H. Love, _Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society_,
+Vol. 14 (1915), page 183.
+
+[9] V. V. Bobynin, _L'Enseignement Mathematique_, Vol. 1 (1899), page 78.
+
+[10] The Training of Teachers of Mathematics, 1917, by R. C.
+Archibald. Bulletin No. 27, 1917, United States Bureau of Education.
+
+[11] Cf. M. Bocher, _Science_, Vol. 38 (1913), page 546.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE COLLEGE
+
+
+=Lessons for physical education from the world war=
+
+The events of the four years between the summer of 1914 and the winter
+of 1918 have brought us to a full realization of the real significance
+of physical education in the training of youth. America and her allies
+have had very dramatic reasons for regretting their careless
+indifference to the welfare of childhood and youth in former years.
+Only yesterday, we were told that the great war would be won by the
+country that could furnish the last man or fight for the last quarter
+of an hour. America and her allies looked with a new and fearful
+concern upon the army of young men who were found physically unfit for
+military service.
+
+With the danger of war past, there is no lack of evidence that we and
+our allies will make practical application of this particular lesson.
+It will be fortunate indeed if the enlightened people of the earth are
+really permanently awake to the importance of the physical education
+of their citizens-in-the-making.
+
+Governmental agencies have already started the movement to guarantee
+to the coming generation more extensive and more scientific physical
+education. Public and private institutions are joining forces so that
+the advantages of this extended program of physical education will be
+enjoyed by the young men and young women in industry and commerce as
+well as by those in schools and colleges.
+
+It is to be hoped that the American college will do its full share and
+neglect no reasonable measure whereby the college graduate may be
+developed into the vigorous and healthy human being that the mentally
+trained ought to be. It must be admitted that our findings by the
+military draft boards, as well as other evidences secured through
+physical examinations, are not such as to make the American college
+proud of the quality or the extent of physical education which it has
+given in the past. We must express our keen disappointment at the
+prevalence of under-development, remediable defects, and unachieved
+physical and functional possibilities in our college graduates.
+
+=Aims of physical education=
+
+Physical training is concerned with the achievement and the
+conservation of human health. It has to do with conditioning the human
+being for the exigencies of life in peace or in war. Its standards are
+not set by a degree of health which merely enables the individual to
+keep out of bed, eat three meals a day, and run no abnormal
+temperature. Physical training is concerned with developing vigorous,
+enduring health that is based upon the perfect function, coordination,
+and integration of every organ of the human body; health that is not
+found wanting at the military draft; health that meets all its
+community obligations; health that is not affected by diseases of
+decay; and health that resists infection and postpones preventable
+death.
+
+=Formulations of aims and scope of physical education in official
+documents--By Regents of the State of New York=
+
+Official statements and information from reliable sources indicate
+that physical education and hygiene and physical training are regarded
+by authorities as covering about the same general field. The general
+plan and syllabus for physical training adopted by the Regents of the
+University of the State of New York in 1916 interprets physical
+training as covering "(1) Individual health examinations and personal
+health instruction (medical inspection); (2) instruction concerning
+the care of the body and the important facts of hygiene (recitations
+in hygiene); (3) physical examinations as a health habit, including
+gymnastics, elementary marching, and organized, supervised play,
+recreation, and athletics."
+
+=By national committee on physical education=
+
+In March of 1918 a National Committee on Physical Education, formed of
+representatives from twenty or more national organizations, adopted
+the following resolutions:
+
+     I. That a comprehensive, thoroughgoing program of health
+     education and physical education is absolutely needed for all
+     boys and girls of elementary and secondary school age, both rural
+     and urban, in every state in the Union.
+
+     II. That legislation, similar in purpose and scope to the
+     provisions and requirements in the laws recently enacted in
+     California, New York State, and New Jersey, is desirable in every
+     state, to provide authorization and support for state-wide
+     programs in the health and physical education field.
+
+     III. That the United States Bureau of Education should be
+     empowered by law, and provided with sufficient appropriations, to
+     exert adequate influence and supervision in relation to a
+     nationwide program of instruction in health and physical
+     education.
+
+     IV. That it seems most desirable that Congress should give
+     recognition to this vital and neglected phase of education, with
+     a bill and appropriation similar in purpose and scope to the
+     Smith-Hughes Law, to give sanction, leadership, and support to a
+     national program of health and physical education; and to
+     encourage, standardize, and, in part, finance the practical
+     program of constructive work that should be undertaken in every
+     state.
+
+     V. That federal recognition, supervision, and support are
+     urgently needed, as the effective means, under the Constitution,
+     to secure that universal training of boys and girls in health and
+     physical fitness which are equally essential to efficiency of all
+     citizens both in peace and in war.
+
+
+=By five national organizations=
+
+In December, 1918, five national organizations, assembled in regular
+annual meeting, adopted resolutions which read in part as follows:
+
+     First: That this Society shall make every reasonable effort to
+     influence the Congress of the United States and the legislatures
+     of our various states to enact laws providing for the effective
+     physical education of all children of all ages in our elementary
+     and secondary schools, public, institutional and private, a
+     physical education that will bring these children instruction in
+     hygiene, regular periodic health examinations and a training in
+     the practice of health habits with a full educational emphasis
+     upon play, games, recreation, athletics and physical exercise,
+     and shall further make every possible reasonable effort to
+     influence communities and municipalities to enact laws and pass
+     ordinances providing for community and industrial physical
+     training and recreative activities for all classes and ages of
+     society.
+
+     Second: That this Association shall make persistent effort to
+     influence state boards of education, or their equivalent bodies,
+     in all the states of the United States, to make it their
+     effective rule that on or after June, 1922, or some other
+     reasonable date, no applicant may receive a license to teach any
+     subject in any school who does not first present convincing
+     evidence of having covered in creditable manner a satisfactory
+     course in physical education in a reputable training school for
+     teachers.
+
+     Third: And that this Association hereby directs and authorizes
+     its president to appoint a committee of three to take such steps
+     as may be necessary to put the above resolutions into active and
+     effective operation, and to cooperate in every practical and
+     substantial way with the National Committee on Physical
+     Education, the division of physical education of the Playground
+     and Recreation Association of America, and any other useful
+     agency that may be in the field for the purpose of securing the
+     proper and sufficient physical education of the boys and girls of
+     to-day, so that they may to-morrow constitute a nation of men and
+     women of normal physical growth, normal physical development and
+     normal functional resource, practicing wise habits of health
+     conservation and possessed of greater consequent vitality, larger
+     endurance, longer lives and more complete happiness--the most
+     precious assets of a nation.
+
+
+=By the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board=
+
+In January, 1919, the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene
+Board suggested the following organization of a department of hygiene
+for the purpose of establishing such a department in at least one
+normal school, college, or university training school for teachers in
+each state of the Union.
+
+SUGGESTED ORGANIZATION OF A DEPARTMENT OF HYGIENE
+
+I. _Division of Informational Hygiene._ (Stressing in each of its
+    several divisions with due proportion and with appropriate
+    emphasis, the venereal diseases, their causes, carriers, injuries,
+    and prevention):
+
+    (_a_) The principles of hygiene. Required of all students at least
+          twice a week for at least four terms.
+
+      (1) General hygiene. (The agents that injure health, the carriers
+          of disease, the contributory causes of poor health, the defenses
+          of health, and the sources of health.)
+
+      (2) Individual hygiene. (Informational hygiene, the care of the
+          body and its organs, correction, and repair, preventive hygiene,
+          constructive hygiene.)
+
+      (3) Group hygiene. (Hygiene of the home and the family, school
+          hygiene, occupational hygiene, community hygiene.)
+
+      (4) Intergroup hygiene. (Interfamily, intercommunity, interstate,
+          and international hygiene.)
+
+    (_b_) Principles of physical training. (Gymnastics, exercise,
+          athletics, recreation, and play.) Required of all students. To be
+          given at least twice a week for two terms in the Junior or Senior
+          Years.
+
+    (_c_) Health examinations--
+
+      (1) Medical examination required each half year of every student.
+         (Making reasonable provisions for a private, personal,
+         confidential relationship between the examiner and the student.)
+
+      (2) Sanitary surveys and hygienic inspections applied regularly to
+          all divisions of the institution, their curriculums, buildings,
+          dormitories, equipment, personal service, and surroundings.
+
+II. _Division of Applied Hygiene._
+
+    (_a_) Health conference and consultations.
+
+      (1) Every student advised under "c" above (health examinations)
+          must report to his health examiner within a reasonable time, as
+          directed, with evidence that he has followed the advice given, or
+          with a satisfactory explanation for not having done so.
+
+      (2) Must provide student with opportunities for safe, confidential
+          consultations with competent medical advisors concerning the
+          intimate problems of sex life as well as those of hygiene in
+          general.
+
+    (_b_) Physical training.
+
+      (1) Gymnastic exercises, recreation, games, athletics, and
+          competitive sports. Required of all students six hours a week
+          every term.
+
+      (2) Reconstructional and special training and exercise for students
+          not qualified organically for the regular activities covered in
+          "1" above. It is assumed that every teacher-in-training
+          physically able to go to school is entitled to and should take
+          some form of physical exercise.
+
+III. _Division of Research._
+
+    (_a_) Investigations, tests, evaluating measurements, records, and
+        reports required each term covering progress made under each
+        division and subdivision of the department, for the purpose of
+        discovering and developing more effective educational methods in
+        hygiene.
+
+    (_b_) Provide facilities for the sifting, selection, and
+        investigation of problems in hygiene that may be submitted to or
+        proposed by the department of hygiene.
+
+    (_c_) Arrange for frequent lectures on public hygiene and public
+        health from competent members of municipal, state, and national
+        departments of health, and from other appropriate sources.
+
+IV. _Personnel requisite for such a department._--Men and women
+    should be chosen for service in the several divisions of the
+    Department, who have a sane, well-balanced, and experienced
+    appreciation of the importance of the whole field of hygiene as
+    well as of the place and relations of the venereal diseases.
+
+    (1) One director or head of department. Must have satisfactory
+    scientific training and special experience, fitting him for
+    supervision, leadership, teaching, research, and administrative
+    responsibility.
+
+    (2) One medical examiner for men and one medical examiner for
+    women. There should be one examiner for each 500 students. Must be
+    selected with special care because of the presence of
+    extraordinary opportunities to exercise a powerful intimate
+    influence upon the mental, moral, and physical health of the
+    students with whom such examiners come in contact.
+
+    (3) One special teacher of physical training (a "Physical
+    Director") for each group of 500 students. There must be a man for
+    the men and a woman for the women students. The physical training
+    instructors employed in this department should be in charge of and
+    should cover satisfactorily all the directing, training, and
+    coaching carried on in the department and in the institution in
+    its relation to athletics and competitive sports. The men and
+    women who are placed in charge of individual students and groups
+    of students engaged in the various activities of physical training
+    (gymnastics, athletics, recreation and play) should be selected
+    with special reference to their wholesome influence on young men
+    and young women.
+
+    (4) One coordinator (this function may be covered by one of the
+    personnel covered by "1," "2" or "3" above). Will serve to
+    influence every teacher in every department on the entire staff of
+    the institution to meet his obligations, in relation to the
+    individual hygiene of the students in his classes and to the
+    sanitation of the class rooms in which he meets his students. The
+    coordinator should bring information to all teachers and assist
+    them to meet more satisfactorily their opportunities to help
+    students in their individual problems in social hygiene.
+
+    (5) Special lectures on the principles and progress of public
+    hygiene and public health. A close coordination should be secured
+    between this department and community agencies like the Department
+    of Health that are concerned with public hygiene.
+
+    (6) Sufficient clerical, stenographic and filing service to meet
+    the needs of the department.
+
+
+In February, 1919, the field service of the National Committee on
+Physical Education issued a tentative outline for a state law for
+physical education, suggested for use in planning future legislation.
+The purposes of physical education as stated in the preamble of this
+law read as follows:
+
+     1. In order that the children of the State of .... shall receive
+     a quality and an amount of physical education that will bring to
+     them the health, growth and a normal organic development that is
+     essential to their fullest present and future education,
+     happiness and usefulness; and in order that the future
+     citizenship of the State of .... may receive regularly from the
+     growing and developing youth of the Commonwealth a rapidly
+     increasing number of more vigorous, better educated, healthier,
+     happier, more prosperous and longer lived men and women, we, the
+     people of the State of .... represented in the Senate and
+     Assembly do enact as follows:
+
+
+=By Legislative Committee of National Committee on Physical Education=
+
+In February, 1919, the legislative committee of the National Committee
+on Physical Education prepared a bill for federal legislation for the
+purpose of assisting the states in establishing physical education in
+their schools. This proposed federal law stated the purpose and aim of
+physical education as follows:
+
+     The purpose and aim of physical education in the meaning of this
+     act shall be: more fully and thoroughly to prepare the boys and
+     girls of the nation for the duties and responsibilities of
+     citizenship through the development of bodily vigor and
+     endurance, muscular strength and skill, bodily and mental poise,
+     and such desirable moral and social qualities as courage,
+     self-control, self-subordination and obedience to authority,
+     cooperation under leadership, and disciplined initiative. The
+     processes and agencies for securing these ends shall be
+     understood to include: comprehensive courses of physical training
+     activities, periodical physical examination; correction of
+     postural and other remediable defects; health supervision of
+     schools and school children; practical instruction in the care of
+     the body and in the principles of health; hygienic school life,
+     sanitary school buildings, playgrounds, and athletic fields and
+     the equipment thereof; and such other means as may be conducive
+     to these purposes.
+
+
+An analysis of these several authoritative and more or less official
+documents indicates very clearly a unanimity as to scope and aims of
+physical education, for they all seek to promote and conserve, in the
+broadest sense of the term, the health of the nation.
+
+=Poor type of physical education in secondary schools intensifies problem
+in the college=
+
+The problem of physical education in the college is intensified by the
+fact that freshmen come to their chosen institutions with a variety of
+experience in physical training, but unfortunately this experience is,
+too often, either inadequate or ineffective. The natural physical
+training of the earlier age periods produces whatever neuro-muscular
+development, whatever neuro-muscular coordination, whatever
+neuro-muscular control, and whatever other organic growth,
+development, or functional perfection is achieved by the young human
+concerned. A program of physical training wisely planned with
+reference to infancy, childhood, and early youth would include types
+of exercises, play, games, and sports, that would perfect the
+neuro-muscular and other functions far more completely than is
+commonly accomplished through the natural unsupervised and undirected
+physical training of those early age periods either in city or in
+rural communities. The force of modern habits of life has led to the
+destruction of those natural habits of work, play, and recreation that
+gave a proportion of our forebears a fairly complete natural program
+of physical exercise during the plastic or formative periods of life.
+As a result, many students reach college nowadays with stunted growths
+and with poorly developed, poorly trained, or poorly controlled
+neuro-muscular equipment. Some of these matriculates are physically
+weak. They lack alertness; their response is slow. Others are awkward
+and muscularly inefficient, though their physical growth is
+objectively--height and weight--normal or even above normal.
+
+The College Department faces these problems through special provisions
+made for the purpose of supplying a belated neuro-muscular training to
+such cases. It often happens that successful training along these
+lines is possible only through individual instruction of a most
+elementary sort, taking the student through simple exercises that
+ought to have been a part of his experience in early childhood.
+
+=Individual needs of students augment problem of department of physical
+education=
+
+For the same reasons that are stated above, the College Department of
+Physical Training finds it necessary to concern itself with individual
+students who need special attention directed to specified organs or
+groups of organs whose training or care could have been accomplished
+ordinarily far better at an earlier period. These students present
+problems of posture, lung capacity, and regional weakness.
+
+=Supervision of athletics and recreation adds further to its problem=
+
+The College Department of Physical Training finds also a significant
+opportunity and an urgent duty in the fact that various types of
+physical exercise are intimately associated with social, ethical, and
+moral consequences. No other human activity gives the same opportunity
+for the development of a social spirit and personal ethical standards
+as do play, games, and sports of children and adolescents.
+Unsupervised, these activities degenerate and bring unmoral practices
+and an anti-social spirit in their wake.
+
+Because of these opportunities and obligations, College Departments of
+Physical Training are including within their programs and
+jurisdictions more and more supervision of college athletics, and
+assume an ever increasing role in the direction of recreational
+activities of college students. It remains true, however, that these
+influences of supervised play and athletics should operate long before
+the individual reaches college age.
+
+The intense interest of college students in athletic competitions,
+united with the opportunity which athletics offer for social and
+character training, has decided a number of colleges to turn athletic
+training over to the Department of Physical Training. This preparation
+for the supreme physical and physiological test must be built upon a
+foundation of safe and sound health. There is no more fitting place
+in the collegiate organization for these athletic and recreational
+activities.
+
+=Organization of Department of Physical Education=
+
+The college departments that cover this field in whole or in part are
+known by various names. We have departments of Physical Training; of
+Physical Education; of Physical Culture; of Hygiene; of Physiology and
+Physical Education; of Hygiene and Physical Education; of Physical
+Training and Athletics, and so on.
+
+An analysis of these college departments shows that they all concern
+themselves with much the same important objects, although they differ
+in their lines of greater emphasis. We find, too, that in some
+colleges the department includes activities that form separate, though
+related departments in other institutions.
+
+The activities of such departments fall into three large divisions,
+each one of which has its logical subdivisions. One of these large
+divisions may be called the division of health examination. It has to
+do with the health examination of the individual student and with the
+health advice that is based on and consequent to such examination. The
+second division has to do with health instruction covering the subject
+matter of physical training. The third division covers directed
+experiences in right living and the formation of health habits, and
+includes the special activities noted above.
+
+We often refer to the first division noted above as the division of
+medical inspection, physical examination, or health examination; to
+the second as hygiene, physiology, biology, or bacteriology; and to
+the third as gymnastics, physical exercise, organized play,
+recreation, athletics, or narrowly as physical training.
+
+The prime purpose of collegiate physical training, then, is to furnish
+the student such information and such habit-forming experiences as
+will lead him to formulate and practice an intelligent policy of
+personal health control and an intelligent policy of community health
+control. The collateral and special objects of physical training vary
+with the individual student under the influence of his previous
+training and his present and future life plans.
+
+The Collegiate Department of Physical Training is primarily concerned,
+therefore, with the acquisition and conservation of human
+health--mental, moral, and physical health. Because of his physical
+training, the college man should live longer; he should meet his
+environments obligations more successfully; he should be better able
+to protect himself from, and better able to avoid, injury; he should
+lose less time on account of injury, poor health, and sickness; he
+should get well more rapidly when he is sick; he should be better able
+to recover his health and strength after injury or illness; and he
+should therefore give to society a fuller, happier, and more useful
+life.
+
+Such a department is concerned secondarily with (_a_) those special
+defects of earlier physical training that bring to college, students
+in need of neuro-muscular training and organic development, (_b_) with
+social, ethical, and character training, and (_c_) with the
+conditioning and special training of students for athletic competition
+or for other extraordinary physical and physiological demands.
+
+In the light of the above statements, the objects of physical training
+may be summarized as follows:
+
+     I. The fundamental and ever present object of physical training
+        is the acquisition and conservation of vigorous, enduring health,
+        the summated effect of perfect functions in each and every organ
+        of the human body.
+
+     II. The special objects of physical training vary in their needs
+         for emphasis at different age periods and under the changing
+         stresses of life. Among the more important of these special
+         objects are:
+
+     (1) General, normal growth. An object in the early age periods.
+
+     (2) Neuro-muscular development, coordination, and control.
+         Accomplished best in early age periods.
+
+     (3) Special organic (anatomical and functional) development.
+         Optimum period in childhood and youth.
+
+     (4) Social, ethical, and moral training. Character building.
+         Objects more easily secured in childhood and youth.
+
+     (5) Preparation for some supreme physical and physiological test;
+         e.g., athletic competition, police or fire service, military
+         service. Most desirable training period in late youth and early
+         maturity. Must depend, however, on the effects of earlier
+         physical training.
+
+     (6) The formation of health habits. Best accomplished in early
+         life but commonly an important function of the College
+         Department of Physical Training.
+
+     (7) The conservation of health. Always an object, but more
+         particularly so in the middle and later life.
+
+
+THE MEDICAL EXAMINATION
+
+In the American college of today, the student's first contact with the
+Department of Physical Training is very likely to be in the examining
+room. In the College of the City of New York[12] it has become the
+established custom to require a satisfactory health examination before
+admitting the applicant to registration as a student in the college.
+Entering classes are enrolled in this institution at the beginning of
+each term, and in each list of applicants there are always a few to
+whom admission is denied because of unsatisfactory health conditions.
+
+In each case in which admission is denied because of unsatisfactory
+health, the individual is given careful advice relative to his present
+and probable future condition, and every effort is made to help the
+applicant plan his life so that he may be able at a later time to
+enter the college. Of course, it occasionally happens that applicants
+are found with serious and incurable health defects which make it very
+improbable that they will ever be in condition to attempt a college
+education.
+
+=Scope of health examination=
+
+The health examination of the student should cover those facts in his
+family and personal health history that are likely to have a bearing
+upon his present or future health, and the examination should include
+a very careful investigation of the important organs of his body. This
+examination calls for expert medical and dental service.
+
+=How to conduct health examination=
+
+The most useful examiner is he who is at the same time a teacher.
+Nowhere else is a better or even an equally good opportunity given to
+drive home impressively, and sometimes dramatically, important lessons
+in individual hygiene. Through a pair of experimental lenses placed by
+his examiner before his hitherto undiscovered visual brain cells, the
+young student who has had poor vision and has never known it, may
+obtain, for the first time, a glimpse of the beauty in his
+surroundings.
+
+The dental examiner who finds bad teeth and explains bad teeth to the
+student whose health is being, or may be, destroyed by such teeth, has
+before him all the elements necessary for very effective health
+instruction.
+
+The health examination should be a personal and private affair. It is
+often best not to have even a recorder present. The student should
+understand that whatever passes between him and his examiner is
+entirely confidential.
+
+All advice given a student at these examinations should be followed up
+if it is the kind of advice that can be followed up. If the advice
+involves the attention of a dentist or treatment by a physician, time
+should be allowed for making arrangements and for securing the
+treatment necessary. After that time has elapsed the student should be
+called upon to report with information from his parent or guardian, or
+from his family health adviser, indicating what has been done or will
+be done for the betterment of the conditions for which the advice was
+originally given. In the hands of a tactful examiner--one who is a
+teacher as well as an examiner--the student and parent, particularly
+the parent, will cooperate effectively in this plan for the
+development of health habits of the student. Less than three tenths
+of one per cent of the parents of City College students refuse to
+secure special health attention for their boys when we do so advise.
+
+These examinations should be repeated at reasonable intervals
+throughout the entire college course. We have found in the College of
+the City of New York that a repetition every term is none too
+frequent. Visual defects, dental defects, evidences of heart trouble
+and signs of pulmonary tuberculosis, and other defects, not
+infrequently arise in cases of individuals who have been seen several
+times before without showing any evidence of poor health. It is hoped
+that these repeated examinations may lead to the continuation of such
+habits of bodily care in postgraduate years.
+
+A careful and concise record must be made covering the main facts of
+each examination and of each conference with the student subsequent to
+his examination. These memoranda enable the examiner at each later
+examination to talk to the student with a knowledge of what has been
+found and what has been said and what has been done on preceding
+examinations, and on preceding follow-up conferences. As a result, the
+examiner-teacher is in position to be very much more useful not only
+because of significant facts before him concerning the student with
+whom he is talking, but also because of the greater confidence which
+the student will necessarily have in an examiner who is obviously
+interested in him and who possesses such an accurate record of his
+health history.
+
+These examinations should apply to every student in a college or a
+university, regardless of the division to which he belongs. The need
+for health instruction or for the establishment of health habits, in
+order that one may be physically trained for the exigencies of life,
+is not peculiar to any student age period or to any academic or
+technicological group, or to a college for men or a college for women.
+
+One of the dangers present in these college examinations is the
+tendency of the examiner to become more interested in the number of
+students examined and the number of diagnoses made than in the good
+influence he may have upon the health future of the student.
+
+Every "case" should be treated by the health examiner as if it were
+the first and only case on hand for the day. The student certainly
+classifies the examiner as the first and only one he has had that day.
+The examiner should plan to make every contact he has with a student a
+help to the student.
+
+
+HEALTH INSTRUCTION
+
+A second large division of physical training deals with health
+instruction. As has been pointed out above, the division of health
+examination produces a very important and very useful opportunity for
+individual health instruction.
+
+=Content of hygiene instruction=
+
+Hygiene, however, is presented commonly to groups of students in class
+organization rather than individually. Anatomy, physiology,
+psychology, bacteriology, pathology, general hygiene, individual
+hygiene, group hygiene, and intergroup hygiene are sciences, or
+combinations of sciences, from which physical training draws its
+facts. These sciences and those phases of economics and sociology that
+have to do with the economic and social influences of health and
+disease, of physical efficiency and physical degeneracy, supply
+physical training with its general subject matter.
+
+Health instruction, then, as a part of physical training, draws its
+content from these sources. A logical plan of class instruction would,
+therefore, include the elements of anatomy, physiology, psychology,
+bacteriology (and general parasitology), pathology, economics, and
+sociology, as a basis for a more complete presentation of the facts of
+general hygiene, individual hygiene, group hygiene, and intergroup
+hygiene.
+
+=Method of health instruction=
+
+The most satisfactory presentation of these subjects involves the
+grouping of students into small classes, the employment of laboratory
+methods, the use of reference libraries, and the assignment of
+problems for investigation and study, with a general group discussion
+of these problems.
+
+Unfortunately, college classes are large and the number of teachers
+employed in the department of physical training, or in those
+departments from which physical training draws its science and its
+philosophy, is small, so that it is impractical to plan to give this
+instruction to small groups of students covering this range of subject
+matter.
+
+As a result, the lecture method with its obvious defects and
+shortcomings is the common medium for the health instruction of
+college students organized into classes. The more intimate and
+detailed instruction in these subjects is secured in special courses
+and in professional schools.
+
+In the College of the City of New York, we expect that students who
+come to us from high schools and preparatory schools have had the
+elements of anatomy and physiology either in courses on those subjects
+or in courses in biology.[13] Our health instruction, therefore, has
+been developed along the lines of lectures on general hygiene,
+individual hygiene, group hygiene, and intergroup hygiene running
+through the four terms of the freshman and sophomore years.
+
+These lectures are given in periods of from ten to fifteen minutes
+each, preceding class work in various forms of physical exercise. They
+are often called "floor talks." The shortness of the presentation
+favors vigor of address; necessitates a concise organization of
+material and a clarity and brevity of statement; and is more likely to
+command student attention and concentration. It has, however, its
+obvious defects. In these lectures persistent effort is made to
+influence the daily habits of the student. The lecture content is
+selected with reference to the practical problems of the daily life of
+the individual and of the community of which he is a part. It is
+obvious that the amount of time devoted to the presentation of the subject
+matter is utterly inadequate.
+
+Short written tests are given once each month, and a longer written
+test is given at the end of each term. These examinations stimulate
+the student to organize his information and make it more completely
+his own property. The classes are too large[14] and the instructional
+force relatively too small to permit the assignment of references,
+presentation of reports, and the conduct of investigations.
+
+Further instruction in physiology and bacteriology is secured in this
+institution through elective courses open to students in their junior
+and senior years. These elective courses, however, are not planned
+primarily for the health education of the student, but rather for his
+partial preparation as a teacher of physical training, a student of
+medicine, a scientific specialist, or for public health work.
+
+
+HEALTH-FORMING ACTIVITIES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
+
+The third division of activities contains the health-habit-forming
+influences covered by the Department of Physical Training. These
+influences are formed partly in connection with the follow-up
+activities associated with the health examinations and advice noted
+above; partly through impressions made by way of individual and class
+instruction concerning the laws of health (also noted above); and
+partly through systematic class work, group work, and individual work
+in gymnastics, organized recreation, games, play, and athletics.
+
+The student who has been given a health examination each term
+throughout his college career will be very likely to continue the
+practice as a habit after graduation. This habit will follow more
+surely if the examiner has been a real health teacher and not a
+perfunctory recorder of observations made upon the student. A lack of
+sympathy and tact may easily prejudice the student against the
+examination.
+
+The student who has been led regularly to care for defects of one sort
+or another; whose contact with his examiner-teacher in conferences
+following up the advice that has been given at the time of examination
+has been accompanied by the right sort of explanation and mutual
+understanding, will be more likely to continue to exercise that sort
+of care for the welfare of his body after he is no longer under the
+influence of the college.
+
+The student who has seen the application of class health talks to his
+everyday problems is likely to be influenced to the practice of
+consequent health habits, particularly if those short lectures serve
+to correlate his various habit-forming experiences while in college.
+
+And finally, the student who is brought into contact with regular
+systematic exercise may, if the exercise is attractive and
+interesting, achieve a health habit that will be carried out into his
+postgraduate life.
+
+The existence of the Department of Physical Training would be amply
+justified if its influence upon the health and vigor of the student
+were limited to the period of his stay in college. The full success of
+this department, however, like that of all other college departments,
+must be measured by its influence upon the life of the student after
+he has left college. The formation of lasting health habits is,
+therefore, the most important object of this department.
+
+=Place of physical exercise in program for physical education=
+
+Regular appropriate physical exercise is one of our most important
+health habits. It is perhaps safe to say that for the average
+individual it is the most important health habit. This is true because
+of its intimate and impressive influence upon all the fundamental
+organic functions of the body. Physical exercise in the American
+college is provided either as organized class work in the gymnasium,
+or by means of voluntary recreational opportunities, or through
+athletics.
+
+=Class work in physical exercise=
+
+Class work may include: marching, mass drills with or without light
+apparatus, work on heavy apparatus, games, dancing, swimming, and
+track and field work. This class work may be indoors or outdoors,
+depending on the season or climate.
+
+=Additional facilities for physical exercise=
+
+Voluntary recreational opportunities are offered through free mass
+drills open to all students who may desire to take them regularly or
+irregularly; through open periods for apparatus work; and through
+facilities and space for games, swimming, mass athletics, and so on.
+
+=Recreational activities and athletics=
+
+Competitive athletics are typical of the American college.
+Theoretically, athletics are open to all students. Practically, in
+many of our colleges athletics are made available only to the student
+with leisure time and exceptional physique. Consistent effort is being
+made today by college authorities to provide opportunities for
+intramural (interclass, intergroup, and mass) athletics for the whole
+student body; at the same time preserving the desirable features of
+the more specialized intercollegiate competitions.
+
+=Inculcating habits of physical exercise=
+
+Physical exercise in these various forms has its immediate and
+valuable influence upon the health condition of the individual
+student, if taken in sufficient quantity. It has its lasting and very
+much more important influence in those cases in which physical
+exercise becomes a habit. It has, therefore, become the increasing
+concern of the college teacher of physical training to develop
+activities in physical exercise that the student may use after
+graduation. Teachers of physical training have become more and more
+impressed with the importance of interesting exercise, not only
+because interesting exercise is more likely to become habitual
+exercise, but also because exercise that is accompanied by the play
+spirit, by happiness and joy, is physiologically and therefore
+healthfully of very much more value to the individual. The
+relationship between cheerfulness and good health has become very
+firmly established through the scientific researches of the modern
+physiologist. We know that health habits which are associated with
+cheerfulness and happiness are bound to be more effective.
+
+=Opportunities for character building=
+
+The teacher of physical training finds opportunity for incidental and
+yet very important instruction leading to the formation of fine
+qualities of character and fine standards of personal conduct. These
+opportunities arise constantly in the various general types of
+physical exercise found in the curriculum of the department of
+physical training. They are especially present in those activities in
+which competition occurs, as in play, games, and athletics. These
+activities do not in themselves produce excellent qualities of
+character or high standards of conduct, but the teacher--whether he be
+called a coach or a trainer or a professor of hygiene--who sets a good
+example and who insists that every game played, and every contest,
+whether it be in a handball court between college chums or on the
+football field between college teams, shall be clean and fair, is
+using in the right way one of the opportunities present in the entire
+college life of the student, for the formation of fine character.
+
+
+SPECIAL EXERCISES FOR SPECIAL GROUPS
+
+In any given group of college students one will find a number of
+individuals in need of special or modified physical exercise. These
+students may be grouped commonly under the following heads: (1)
+undeveloped, (2) bad posture, (3) awkward, (4) originally weak, (5)
+deformed.
+
+Some of these students suffer from defects that are remediable, Some
+of these defects are due to poor physical training in earlier years.
+Some are the results of disease. All of them call for modified
+exercise and recreation. The fact that a student may fall into one of
+these groups in no way justifies the assumption that he is therefore
+no longer subject to the laws of health or to the need for rational
+health habits. As a matter of fact, such cases generally call for
+greater care and attention in the formulation and operation of a
+rational policy of right living.
+
+Every student physically able to go to college is physically able to
+exercise. No student in attendance on recitations anywhere can offer a
+rational plea for exemption from exercise, The individual whose
+physical condition contraindicates all forms of exercise needs
+careful medical advice and probably needs hospital or sanitarium
+treatment.
+
+College Departments of Physical Training are planning for cases in
+need of special or modified exercise, through the organization of
+special classes and through individual attention. In the College of
+the City of New York we attempt to group the weak students in a given
+class, into squads of four such students with a squad leader, a
+student. The awkward students are grouped in the same manner. The
+exercise of the cripple and the student with serious organic weakness
+is individualized. These special individualized cases are under the
+direct supervision of a physician on the staff.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDENTS FOR PRESCRIBED WORK IN THE COLLEGE
+COURSES
+
+In this college, organized, directed physical exercise as outlined
+above is covered in the division of physical training, the division of
+recreation, and the division of athletics, all of which are
+subdivisions of the Department of Hygiene.
+
+The enrollment in the required classes in the division of Physical
+Training varies from thirty in the smaller classes to over two hundred
+in the larger. The total enrollment has been approximately eleven
+hundred each term for several years. These courses are required of all
+students during the first four collegiate terms. Each of these four
+courses requires three hours a week, distributed over two or into
+three periods, and credits the student with one half point toward
+graduation. This time allowance is, however, inadequate.
+
+The class organization in the division of the Department of Hygiene is
+based on a unit composed of five students. Each of these units or
+squads contains one student who is designated as the "leader" of that
+unit.
+
+Persistent effort is made to assign students of like physical
+development and needs to the same squads. In this manner a single
+class of a hundred young men will have a graduation on the basis of
+proficiency which makes it possible for the teacher to come very near
+to the rational application of exercise for the individual student.
+
+These units or squads are organized into divisions, each division
+being made up of four squads. Each division is under the supervision
+and instruction of a member of the departmental staff. In any given
+class, then, there is a regular instructor for each group of twenty
+students, and a student leader for each group of four students. The
+aim in this organization is to establish a relationship between the
+instructor and his twenty students that will secure for him an
+intimate knowledge of each young man, relating to his physical
+training needs, general and special.
+
+=A class period in physical exercise=
+
+A typical class period is made up of a short health talk, 10 minutes;
+a mass drill, 10 minutes; apparatus period, two changes, 20 minutes;
+and a play period, 15 minutes. If the health talk is not given the
+play period is lengthened.
+
+The mass drills referred to above are made up of drill in marching and
+in gymnastics with and without hand apparatus. These drills are graded
+within the term and from term to term so that a desirable variety is
+secured. They are devised for disciplinary, postural, developmental,
+and health purposes. During the progress of the drill the instructors
+present inspect the posture and work of the students in their
+divisions.
+
+The apparatus periods referred to include work on the conventional
+pieces of gymnastic apparatus, with the addition of chest weights, an
+indoor track, and a swimming pool. The squad organization for this
+work gives opportunity for the development of student leadership which
+is often of extraordinary educational value to the individual boy.
+These periods, because of this squad organization, may be utilized for
+such _special exercise_ emphasis as may be decided upon for any given
+group of students. It is here that _special conditioning_ may be given
+those young men who are planning for military training or who need
+selected exercise for neuro-muscular development.
+
+The play period in the regular class program is devoted largely to
+looser games that contain a predominating element of big muscle
+activities. Competition is a fairly constant factor. Here, again, our
+squad unit permits us to assign selected groups of students to special
+types of games. It is feasible, in this organization, to satisfy a
+need for the training that is furnished by highly organized games,
+fighting games, and by games and out-of-door events that develop
+special groups of muscles and special coordinations.
+
+A well-organized Collegiate Department of Physical Training could
+cooperate very effectively with a Collegiate Department of Military
+Training. The squad organization in apparatus periods and in play
+periods offers the best possible avenue for a successful emphasis of
+several of the very important phases of military physical training.
+
+=Recreational facilities in addition to prescribed work=
+
+The division of recreation in the Department of Hygiene in the College
+of the City of New York, takes charge of all recreational and athletic
+space and all recreational and intramural athletic activities in those
+periods of the day in which regular class work does not take
+precedence. Students of all classes are admitted freely throughout
+their four collegiate years to these activities, and a studied effort
+is made to increase their attractiveness as well as to secure from
+them their full social and character-training values. Such values
+depend to a very large degree upon the experienced supervision and
+direction given these activities. It does not follow that the creation
+of play opportunity is bound to produce good citizenship. The quality
+of the product depends upon the quality of the man or men in charge of
+the enterprise.
+
+The most important mission of the Recreational Division is its purpose
+to furnish the student lasting habits of play and recreation based
+upon the physical development he has secured in his earlier
+experiences in physical training. After all, one's physical training
+should begin at birth and continue throughout life.
+
+The Division of Athletic Instruction is concerned with all plans for
+intercollegiate athletics, including organization, financing,
+training, coaching, and scheduling. All these activities are under the
+direction of members of the staff of the Department of Hygiene. There
+is no one employed in this relationship who is not a member of the
+staff. Constant attempts are made, in every reasonable way, to
+accomplish the athletic ideals that have been set up by the National
+Collegiate Athletic Association. Clean play, honorable methods, and
+sportsmanly standards dominate the theory and practice of this
+athletic instruction and supervision.
+
+The scope and content of physical training which I have attempted to
+present in these pages is brought out more clearly by the following
+announcement of the Department of Hygiene of the College of the City
+of New York:
+
+                        HYGIENE (1916-17)
+
+     The Department of Hygiene is made up of the divisions of Physical
+     Training, Physiology, Bacteriology, Health Examination,
+     Recreational Instruction, and Athletics.
+
+     Through these divisions the Department attempts to train young
+     men for the exigencies of life through the establishment of
+     enduring habits of health examination and repair, health
+     information and individual and community protection against the
+     agents that injure health and cause disease, and through the
+     establishment of wise habits of daily life.
+
+     This organization gives opportunity for the development of
+     neglected organic and neuromuscular growth, coordination and
+     control; for the social, ethical, and moral training (character
+     building influences) inherent in wisely supervised athletic and
+     recreational experiences; and for the special conditioning that
+     accompanies training for severe physical and physiological
+     competition and other tests.
+
+     Finally, preparation may be secured for life work along certain
+     lines of research, certain medical sciences, various phases of
+     public health, physical training and social work.
+
+     In addition, this Department is concerned with all those
+     influences within the College which affect the health of the
+     student. Every reasonable effort is made to keep the institution
+     safe and attractive to the clean, healthy individual.
+
+
+  DIVISION OF PHYSICAL TRAINING
+
+  1. _Course One._
+
+      (_a_) Lectures. "Some of the common causes of disease."
+
+      (_b_) Physical Exercise.
+
+  i. Graded mass drills.
+
+      (_a_) Elementary drills are used in order to develop obedience,
+      alertness, and ready response to command, accurate execution,
+      good posture and carriage and facility of control.
+
+      (_b_) More advanced drills are given in which movements are made
+      in response to commands. Strength, endurance, and coordination
+      are brought into play.
+
+  ii. Apparatus work. Continuation of graded exercises for squads of
+  five students each.
+
+  iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and play.
+
+  iv. Swimming. Each student is required to learn to swim with more than
+  one variety of stroke.
+
+  Prescribed. Freshman, first term; three hours a week; counts 1/2.
+
+
+  2. _Course Two._
+
+      (_a_) Lectures. "The carriers of disease."
+
+      (_b_) Physical Exercise.
+
+  i. Graded mass drills. Two-count movements. These drills are
+  continuations of, but more advanced than those given in the
+  preceding term.
+
+  ii. Apparatus work. Continuation of graded exercises for squads of five.
+
+  iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and play.
+
+  iv. Swimming. Each student is required to develop endurance in swimming.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 1.
+
+  Prescribed. Freshman, second term; three hours a week; counts 1/2.
+
+
+  3. _Course Three._
+
+      (_a_) Lectures. "The contributory causes and carriers of disease."
+
+      (_b_) Physical Exercise.
+
+  i. Graded mass drills. Four-count movements. More advanced work.
+
+  ii. Apparatus work. Continuation of graded exercises for squads of five.
+
+  iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and play.
+
+  iv. Swimming. Diving, rescue and resuscitation of the drowning.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 2.
+
+  Prescribed. Sophomore, first term; three hours a week; counts 1/2.
+
+
+  4. _Course Four._
+
+      (_a_) Lectures. "Defenses against poor health and disease."
+
+      (_b_) Physical Exercise.
+
+  i. Advanced graded mass drills. Eight-count movements.
+
+  ii. Advanced graded apparatus work. For squads of five.
+
+  iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and play.
+
+  iv. Swimming. Advanced continuation of requirements outlined for
+  Courses 2 and 3.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 3.
+
+  Prescribed. Sophomore, second term; three hours a week; counts 1/2.
+
+
+  _Modified Course._
+
+  In each of the above required courses provision is made for those
+  students whose organic condition may permanently disqualify them for
+  the regular scheduled work. This special work is under the immediate
+  direction of a medical member of the Staff.
+
+
+  5. _Intermediate Physical Training._
+
+  This course is planned to supply the student with such organic
+  development and efficiency as will enable him to demonstrate
+  successfully as a teacher various type exercises for classes in
+  elementary and intermediate indoor and outdoor gymnastics, aquatics,
+  games, play and athletics.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 4. Three hours a week; counts 1/2.
+
+
+  6. _Advanced Physical Training._
+
+  This course is a continuation of Course 5, and is designed for the
+  physical equipment of teachers of more advanced physical work.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 5. Three hours a week; counts 1/2.
+
+
+  7. _Class Management._
+
+  This course supplies the practical instruction and experience needed
+  for the training of special teachers in the management of elementary
+  and intermediate classes in various forms of physical exercise.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 6 and 32. Fall term, three hours a week; counts 1.
+
+
+  8. _Class Management._
+
+  This course is a continuation of Course 7. It is planned to give a
+  training in the management of more advanced classes.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 7. Spring term, three hours a week; counts 1.
+
+
+  9. _Control of Emergencies and First Aid to the Injured._
+
+  This course supplies instruction concerning the management and
+  protective care of common emergencies. The instruction is practical
+  and rational. It covers such emergencies as: sprains, fractures,
+  dislocations, wounds, bruises, sudden pain, fainting, epileptic
+  attacks, unconsciousness, drowning, electric shock, and so on.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 32. Fall term, two hours a week; counts 1.
+
+
+  10. _Theory and Practice of Individual Instruction in Hygiene and
+  in Departmental Sanitation._
+
+  Students taking this subject will be given practical first hand
+  experience of special use to teachers; (a) in connection with health
+  examination, inspection, conference, consultation, and follow up
+  service carried on in the departmental examining room; and (b) in
+  connection with the sanitary supervision carried on by the department.
+
+  Prerequisites or Co-requisites: Hygiene 32, 41 and 48. Spring term,
+  six hours a week in two periods of three hours each; counts 2.
+
+
+  DIVISION OF PHYSIOLOGY
+
+  32. _Elements of Physiology._
+
+  This subject deals with the general concepts of the science of
+  physiology, the chemical and physical conditions which underlie and
+  determine the action of the individual organs, and the integrative
+  relationship of the parts of the body.
+
+  One lecture, one recitation and two laboratory hours a week; counts 3.
+
+  33. _Special Physiology._
+
+  A study of the fundamental facts of physiology and methods of
+  investigation. The aim is to give a complete study of certain topics:
+  the phenomena of contraction, conduction, sense perception and the
+  various mechanisms of general metabolism. Laboratory work is arranged
+  to show the methods of physiologic experimentation and to emphasize
+  the necessity of using care and accuracy in their application.
+
+  Spring term, two lectures and three laboratory hours a week; counts 3.
+
+  34. _Physiology of Nutrition._
+
+  The aim of this subject is to study broadly the metabolism of the
+  human body. In the development of this plan the following topics will
+  be considered: the food requirements of man, the nutritive history of
+  the physiologic ingredients, the principles of dietetics and their
+  application to daily living.
+
+  Fall term, two lectures and three laboratory hours a week; counts 3.
+
+
+  DIVISION OF BACTERIOLOGY
+
+  41. _General Bacteriology._
+
+  Lectures, recitations and laboratory work introducing the student to
+  the technique of bacteriology and to the more important facts about
+  the structure and function of bacteria. Special applications of
+  bacteriology to agriculture and the industries are discussed, and
+  brief references are made to the activities of allied microbes, the
+  yeasts and molds. The general relations of bacteria to disease and the
+  principles of immunity and its control are included.
+
+  One lecture, one recitation and four laboratory hours a week; counts 3.
+
+  42. _Bacteriology of Foods._
+
+  This includes the bacteriologic examination of water, sewage, air,
+  milk, the various food products together with the methods used in the
+  standardization of disinfectants, a detailed study of yeast and
+  bacterial fermentation and their application to the industries.
+  Numerous trips to industrial plants will be made.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 41.
+
+  Fall term, one lecture and six laboratory hours a week; counts 3.
+
+  43. _Bacteriology of Pathogenic Micro-organisms._
+
+  This subject is devoted to the laboratory methods of biology as
+  applied in the state and municipal boards of health. Practice will be
+  given in the methods used for the diagnosis of diphtheria,
+  tuberculosis, malaria, rabies, and other diseases caused by
+  micro-organisms, together with a detailed study of the groups to which
+  they belong.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 41.
+
+  Spring term, one lecture and six laboratory hours a week; counts 3.
+
+  44. _Potable and Industrial Water._
+
+  Very few industries are independent of a water supply. No one is
+  independent of the source of his drinking water. Water varies in its
+  usefulness for definite purposes.
+
+  This subject differentiates between various waters, takes them up from
+  industrial and hygienic standpoints, considers softening, filtering,
+  purifying and water analysis.
+
+  Work is divided into three groups.
+
+    A. Industrial Water      )
+                             } given in the Chemistry Department.
+    B. Potable Water         )
+
+    C. Water Bacteriology    )
+                             } given in the Department of Hygiene.
+       (microscopy of water) )
+
+  Municipal students may elect any or all of the three groups.
+
+  Prerequisite: Chemistry 4 and Hygiene 41. Chemistry 9 is desirable.
+
+  Spring term, seven hours a week; counts 3.
+
+  48. _Municipal Sanitation._
+
+  Lectures, discussions and visits to public works of special
+  importance. The principles which underlie a pure water supply and the
+  means by which the wastes of the city, its sewage and garbage may be
+  successfully disposed of, and the problems of pure milk and pure food
+  supplies, the housing question with its special phase of ventilation
+  and plumbing, and the methods by which a municipal board of health is
+  organized to fight tuberculosis and other specific diseases will be
+  studied.
+
+  Fall term, two lectures and one field trip a week; counts 3.
+
+  49. _Municipal Sanitary Inspection._
+
+  _Professor B---- and Bureau of Foods and Drugs, New York City
+  Department of Health._
+
+  The seminar work of this subject is done in the College and the field
+  work in company with and under the direct supervision of an Inspector
+  of the Department of Health of the City. The subject is limited to six
+  students each semester, and is intended for those planning to go into
+  this branch of the City's service. The qualifications will be based
+  upon individuality, personality playing an important part.
+
+  Prerequisite: Hygiene 41 and 48 and Chemistry 19.
+
+  Spring term, two seminar hours, one recitation and one inspection tour
+  a week; counts 3.
+
+  50. _Research._
+
+  Seniors who have completed satisfactorily a sufficient amount of work
+  in the Department may be assigned some topic to serve as a basis for a
+  thesis which will be submitted as credit for the work at its
+  completion. The student will receive the advice of the instructor in
+  the subject in which the research falls, but as much independent work
+  as possible will be insisted upon. The purpose is to introduce the
+  student into research methods, and also to foster independence.
+
+
+  DIVISION OF HEALTH EXAMINATION
+
+  I. _Individual Instruction in Hygiene._
+
+  This instruction is of a personal confidential character, and
+  is given in the form of advice based upon medical history supplied
+  by the individual, and upon medical and hygienic examinations
+  and inspections of the individual.
+
+  (_a_) Medical and hygienic history and examination.
+
+  In this relationship with the student the Department attempts to secure
+  such information concerning environmental and habit influences in the
+  life of the student as may be used as a basis for supplying him with
+  helpful advice concerning the organization of his policy of personal
+  health control. The medical examinations are utilized for the purpose of
+  finding remediable physical defects whose proper treatment may be added
+  to the physiological efficiency and therefore to the health
+  possibilities of the student.
+
+  Prescribed: freshman, sophomore, junior, senior and special students.
+  Once each term. No credits.
+
+  (_b_) Hygiene inspections.
+
+  These inspections are applied in the mutual interest of personal,
+  departmental and institutional hygiene.
+
+  Prescribed: freshman and sophomore.
+
+  (_c_) Conferences.
+
+  All students who have been given personal hygienic or medical advice are
+  required to report in conference by appointment in order that the advice
+  may be followed up.
+
+  All individuals found with communicable diseases are debarred from all
+  classes until it is shown in conference that they are receiving proper
+  medical treatment, and that they may return to class attendance with
+  safety to their comrades.
+
+  All individuals found with remediable physical or hygienic defects are
+  required to report in conference with evidence that the abnormal
+  condition has been brought to the serious attention of the parent,
+  guardian or family medical or hygienic adviser. Students failing to
+  report as directed may be denied admission to all classes.
+
+  II. _Medical and Sanitary Supervision._
+
+  (_a_) Sanitary supervision.
+
+  An "Advisory Committee on Hygiene and Sanitation" with the Professor of
+  Hygiene as Chairman, has been appointed by the President. This committee
+  has been instructed to "inquire from time to time into all our
+  institutional influences which are likely to affect the health of the
+  student and instructor, and to make such reports with recommendations to
+  the President as may seem wise and expedient."
+
+  (_b_) A medical examination is required of all applicants for admission
+  to the College. Approval of the Medical Examiner must be secured before
+  registration is permitted.
+
+  (_c_) Medical consultation.
+
+  Open to all students. (Optional.)
+
+  (_d_) Medical examination of Athletes.
+
+  Required of all students before admission to athletic training and
+  repeated at intervals during the training season.
+
+  (_e_) Treatment.
+
+  Emergency treatment is the only treatment attempted by the Department.
+  Such treatment will be applied only for the purpose of protecting the
+  individual until he can secure the services he selects for that purpose.
+
+  (_f_) Conferences.
+
+  (See "c" under I.)
+
+  (_g_) Laboratory: The Department Laboratories are equipped for
+  bacteriological and other analyses. The water in the swimming pool is
+  examined daily. The laboratory service is utilized to identify disease
+  carriers, and in every other reasonable way to assist in the protection
+  of student health.
+
+
+  DIVISION OF RECREATIONAL INSTRUCTION
+
+  Liberal provision is made by the College for voluntary recreational
+  activities indoors and outdoors during six days of the week and
+  throughout vacation periods. Emphasis is laid on recreation as a
+  health habit and a means of social training.
+
+
+  DIVISION OF ATHLETICS
+
+  (1) _Athletic Supervision._
+
+  Three organizations are concerned:
+
+  (_a_) The Faculty Athletic Committee, which has to do with all
+  athletic activities that involve academic relationships.
+
+  (_b_) The Athletic Council, a committee of the Department of Hygiene,
+  charged with the supervision of all business activities connected with
+  student athletic enterprises.
+
+  (_c_) The Athletic Association of the Student Body.
+
+
+  (2) _Athletic Instruction._
+
+  The Department utilizes various intramural and extramural athletic
+  activities for the purpose of securing a further influence on the
+  promotion of health habits, the development of physical power, and the
+  establishment and maintenance of high standards of sportsmanly conduct
+  on part of the individual and the group.
+
+  At present the schedule includes the following sports: baseball,
+  basket ball, track and field, swimming and water polo, tennis, soccer
+  foot ball, and hand ball.
+
+                                     THOMAS ANDREW STOREY, M.D.
+  _College of the City of New York_
+
+
+[It was hoped that it would be possible to include with Professor
+Storey's chapter a number of forms and photographs calculated to serve
+as aids in the organization and conduct of a College Department of
+Hygiene. As Professor Storey's work is very distinctive, other
+institutions which are striving to organize effective departments of
+physical education would have found his experiences as graphically
+depicted in these photographs and summed up in these charts extremely
+helpful. Unfortunately it has proved impossible to print them here on
+account of limitations of space, but all who are interested in
+securing further information can obtain these valuable guides in the
+introductory stages of the inauguration of a Department of Hygiene by
+applying to the College of the City of New York. EDITOR.]
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[12] The construction of this chapter on the teaching of physical
+training is based very largely upon the experiences and organization
+of the Department of Hygiene in the College of the City of New York.
+
+[13] This precollegiate instruction is, unfortunately, uniformly poor
+in so far as it relates to health.
+
+[14] The present enrollment in these classes, February, 1919, is
+approximately 1500.
+
+
+
+
+  PART THREE
+
+  THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+    X  THE TEACHING OF ECONOMICS
+           _Frank A. Fetter_
+
+   XI  THE TEACHING OF SOCIOLOGY
+           _A. J. Todd_
+
+  XII  THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+        A. AMERICAN HISTORY
+           _H. W. Elson_
+
+        B. MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
+           _Edward Krehbiel_
+
+ XIII  THE TEACHING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
+           _Charles Grove Haines_
+
+  XIV  THE TEACHING OF PHILOSOPHY
+           _Frank Thilly_
+
+   XV  THE TEACHING OF ETHICS
+           _Henry Neumann_
+
+  XVI  THE TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY
+           _Robert S. Woodworth_
+
+ XVII  THE TEACHING OF EDUCATION
+        A. TEACHING THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION
+           _Herman H. Horne_
+
+        B. TEACHING EDUCATIONAL THEORY
+           _Frederick E. Bolton_
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE TEACHING OF ECONOMICS
+
+
+=Conception and aims of economics=
+
+Even though economics be so defined as to exclude a large part of the
+field of the social sciences, its scope is still very broad. Economics
+is less homogeneous in its content, is far less clearly defined, than
+is any one of the natural sciences. A very general definition of
+economics is: The study of men engaged in making a living. More fully
+expressed, economics is a study of men exercising their own powers and
+making use of their environment for the purposes of existence, of
+welfare, and of enjoyment. Within such a broad definition of economics
+is found room for various narrower conceptions. To mention only the
+more important of these we may distinguish individual economics,
+domestic economics, business economics, governmental economics (public
+finance), and political (or national) economics. Any one of these
+subjects may be approached and treated primarily either with regard to
+its more immediate financial, material, acquisitive aspects, or to its
+more far-reaching social, psychical, and welfare aspects. These
+various ideas appear and reappear most confusingly in economic
+literature.
+
+The aims that different students and teachers have in the pursuit of
+economics are as varied as are the conceptions of its nature. The
+teaching aims are, indeed, largely determined by those conceptions.
+Moreover, the teaching aims are modified by still other conditions,
+such as the environment of the college and its constituency, and such
+as the temperament, business experience, and scholarly training of the
+teacher. We may distinguish broadly three aims: the vocational, the
+civic, and the cultural.
+
+_The vocational aim_ is the most elementary and most usual. Xenophon's
+treatise on domestic "economy" was the nucleus from which have grown
+all the systematic formulations of economic principles. Vocational
+economics is the economics of the craftsman and of the shop. Every
+practical craft and art has its economic aspect, which concerns the
+right and best use of labor and valuable materials to attain a certain
+artistic, mechanical, or other technical end in its particular field.
+Economics is not mere technology, which has to do with the mastery of
+materials and forces to attain any material end. Vocational economics,
+however, modifies and determines technical practice, which, in the
+last analysis, is subject to the economic rule. The economic engineer
+should construct not the best bridge that is possible, mechanically
+considered, but the best possible or advisable for the purpose and
+with the means at hand. The economic agriculturist should not produce
+the largest crop possible, but the crop that gives the largest
+additional value. The rapidly growing recognition of the importance,
+in all technical training, of cultivating the ability to take the
+economic view has led to the development of household economics in
+connection with the teaching of cooking, sewing, decorating, etc.; of
+the economics of farm management to supplement the older technical
+courses in natural science, crops, and animal husbandry; of the
+economics of factory management in connection with mechanical
+engineering; of the economics of railway location in connection with
+certain phases of civil engineering; and many more such special
+groupings and formulations of economic principles with reference to
+particular vocations and industries.
+
+The ancient and the medieval crafts and mysteries undoubtedly had
+embodied in their maxims, proverbs, traditional methods, and
+teachings, many economic principles suitable to their comparatively
+simple and unchanging conditions. The rapid changes that have
+occurred, especially in the last half century, in the natural sciences
+and in the practical arts have rendered useless much of this wisdom of
+the fathers. Recently there has been a belated and sudden awakening to
+the need of studying, consciously and systematically, the economic
+aspects of the new dynamic forces and industrial conditions. Hence
+the almost dramatic appearance of vocational, or technical, economics
+under such names as "scientific management" and the "economics of
+engineering." Viewed in this perspective such a development appears to
+be commendable and valuable in its main purpose. Unfortunately, some,
+if not all, of the adherents of this new cult of "economy" and
+"efficiency" fail to appreciate how very restricted and special it is,
+compared with the whole broad economic field.
+
+_The civic aim_ in teaching economics is to fit the student to perform
+the duties of a citizen. We need not attempt to prove here that a
+large proportion of public questions are economic in nature, and that
+in a democracy a wise decision on these questions ultimately depends
+on an intelligent public opinion and not merely on the knowledge
+possessed by a small group of specialists.
+
+The civic conception of economics, seen from one point of view, shows
+little in common with the vocational conception. Yet from another
+point of view it may be looked upon as the vocational conception "writ
+large" and is the art of training men to be citizens in a republic.
+Good citizenship involves an attitude of interest, a capacity to form
+judgments on public economic issues, and, if need be, to perform
+efficiently public functions of a legislative, executive or judicial
+nature. The state-supported colleges usually now recognize very
+directly their obligation to provide economic training with the civic
+aim, and, in some cases, even to require it as a part of the work for
+a college degree. Often also is found the thought that it is the duty
+of the student while obtaining an education at public expense, to take
+a minimum of economics with the civic aim even if he regards it as in
+no way to his individual advantage or if it has in his case no direct
+vocational bearings. In the privately endowed institutions this policy
+may be less clearly formulated, but it is hardly less actively
+practiced. Indeed, the privately endowed institutions have been
+recognizing more and more fully their fiduciary and public nature.
+Their public character is involved in their charters, in their
+endowments, in their exemption from taxation, and in their essential
+educational functions. The proudest pages in their history are those
+recording their services to the state.[15]
+
+=Evaluations of aims of teaching economics in college=
+
+_The cultural aim_ in economics is to enable the student to comprehend
+the industrial world about him. It aims to liberate the mind from
+ignorance and prejudice, giving him insight into, and appreciation of,
+the industrial world in which he lives. In this aspect it is a liberal
+study. Economics produces in some measure this cultural result, even
+when it is studied primarily with the vocational or with the civic
+aim. But in vocational economics the choice of materials and the mode
+of treatment are deliberately restricted by the immediate utilitarian
+purposes; and in economic teaching with a civic purpose there is the
+continual temptation to arouse the sympathies for an immediate social
+program and to take a view limited by the contemporary popular
+interest in specific proposals for reform. Economics at its highest
+level is the search for truth. It has its place in any system of
+higher education as has pure natural science, apart from any immediate
+or so far as we may know, any possible, utilitarian application. It is
+a disinterested philosophy of the industrial world. Though it may not
+demonstrably be a _means_ to other useful things, it is itself a
+worthy _end_. It helps to enrich the community with the immaterial
+goods of the spirit, and it yields the psychic income of dignity and
+joy in the individual and national life. And as a final appeal to any
+doubting Philistine it may be said that just as the cult of pure
+science is necessary to the continual and most effective progress in
+the practical arts, so the study of economics on the philosophical
+plane surely is necessary to the highest and most lasting results in
+the application of economics to the arts and to civic life.
+
+The differences in aims set forth in this paragraph result in much of
+the futile discussion in recent years regarding methods of teaching.
+Enthusiastic innovators have debated at cross purposes about teaching
+methods as if they were to be measured by some absolute standard of
+pedagogic values, not recognizing that the chief differences of views
+as to teaching methods were rooted in the differing aims. This truth
+will reappear at many points in the following discussion. "What will
+you have," quoth the Gods, "pay the price and take it."
+
+=Place of economics in the college curriculum=
+
+The place assigned to economics in the college curriculum in respect
+to the year in which the student is admitted to its study is very
+different in various colleges. In the last investigation of the
+subject it appeared that the first economics course might be taken
+first
+  in the freshman year in 14 per cent of cases,
+  in the sophomore year in 31 per cent of cases,
+  in the junior year in 42 per cent of cases,
+  in the senior year in 13 per cent of cases.[16]
+Among those institutions giving an economic course in the freshman
+year are some small and some large institutions (some of the latter
+being Stanford, New York University, Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr, and the
+state universities of California, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota,
+Colorado, Utah). Frequently the elementary course given to freshmen is
+in matter and method historical and descriptive, rather than
+theoretical, and is planned to precede a more rigid course in the
+principles.[17]
+
+The plan of beginning economics in the sophomore year is the mode
+among the state universities and larger colleges, including nearly all
+of the larger institutions that do not begin the subject in the
+freshman year. This group includes Yale, Hopkins, Chicago,
+Northwestern, Mount Holyoke, Wellesley, Vassar, and (after 1919)
+Princeton.
+
+The group of institutions beginning economics in the junior year is
+the largest, but consists mostly of small colleges having some
+advanced economics courses, but no more than can be given in the
+senior year. It contains, besides, a few colleges of arts which
+maintain a more strictly prescribed curriculum for underclassmen
+(freshmen and sophomores), such as Dartmouth, Columbia, Smith, and
+Simmons. It should be observed also that in a great many institutions,
+where economics may be taken by some students in the first two years,
+it is in fact scheduled as late as junior or senior year in the
+prescribed courses of students in special departments such as
+agriculture, engineering, and law. This statement applies doubtless to
+many thousands of technical students.[18]
+
+In view of these divergencies in practice we must hesitate to declare
+that the subject should be begun at precisely this or that point in
+the college course. These differences, to be sure, are in many cases
+the result of accidental factors in the college curriculum, and often
+have been determined by illogical departmental rivalries within the
+faculty rather than by wise and disinterested educators studying the
+merits of the case. But in large part these differences are the
+expression of different purposes and practical needs in planning a
+college curriculum, and are neither quite indefensible nor necessarily
+contradictory in pedagogic theory. In the small college with a nearly
+uniform curriculum and with limited means, a general course is perhaps
+best planned for the senior year, or in the junior year if there is an
+opportunity given to the student to do some more advanced work the
+year following. At the other extreme are some larger institutions in
+which the pressure of new subjects within the arts curriculum has
+shattered the fixed curriculum into fragments. This has made possible
+specialization along any one of a number of lines. Where this idea is
+carried out to the full, every general group of subjects eventually
+must make good its claim to a place in the freshman year for its
+fundamental course. But inasmuch as, in most institutions, the
+freshman year is still withheld from this free elective plan by the
+requirement of a small group of general subjects, economics is first
+open to students in the sophomore year. The license of the elective
+system is of course much moderated by the requirement to elect a
+department, usually at the beginning either of the sophomore or of the
+junior year, and within each department both a more or less definite
+sequence of courses and a group of collateral requirements are usually
+enforced. Where resources are very limited it is probably best to give
+the economics course in the last two years, but where several more
+specialized courses in economics are given, it should be introduced as
+early as the sophomore year. If a freshman course in the subject is
+given it should be historical, descriptive, or methodical (e.g.,
+statistical methods, graphics, etc.) rather than theoretical. The
+experience (or lack of experience) and knowledge of the industrial
+world, past and present, possessed by the average American college
+student is such that courses of that kind meet a great need.[19]
+
+=Time to be given to economics in a college curriculum=
+
+Teachers of economics today are doubtless attempting the impossible in
+compressing the present "general course" into three hours for two
+semesters. No other department of a university attempts to treat in
+such a brief time so broad a subject, including both principles and
+applications. Such a course was quite long enough in the days when all
+economic instruction was given by gray-haired theologians, philosophers,
+mathematicians, and linguists, dogmatically expounding the _pons asinorum_
+of economics, and quizzing from a dusty textbook of foreign authorship.
+But now the growing and vigorous tribe of specialized economic teachers is
+bursting with information and illustrations. Moreover, the range of
+economic topics and of economic interests has expanded wonderfully.
+
+The resulting overcrowded condition of the general course is possibly
+the main cause of the difficulties increasingly felt by teachers in
+handling that course satisfactorily. As a part of a general college
+curriculum "general economics" cannot be satisfactorily treated in
+less than three hours a week for two years. The additional time should
+not be spent in narrow specialization but rather in getting a broader
+understanding of the subject through economic history and geography,
+through observation and description of actual conditions, through a
+greater use of problems and examples, and through more detailed, less
+superficial study of the fundamental principles. As a part of sixteen
+years of the whole educational scheme from primary grade to college
+diploma such a course would claim but 2-1/2 per cent of the student's
+whole time, while the subjects of English, mathematics, and foreign
+linguistics each gets about 20 per cent, in the case even of students
+who do not specialize in one of these branches.
+
+Of the replies[20] from nearly three hundred colleges to the question
+whether economics was required for graduation, about 55 per cent were in
+the affirmative. Unfortunately the question was ambiguous, and the
+replies apparently were understood to mean generally that it was
+required in one or more curricula, not of all graduates (though in some
+cases the question was probably taken in the other sense). It is
+noteworthy that more frequently economics is required in the smaller
+colleges having but one curriculum, that of liberal studies. In the
+larger institutions economics is usually not required of students in the
+humanities, although of late it has increasingly been made a part of the
+technical college curricula, especially in engineering and
+agriculture.[21] So we are in a fair way to arrive at the situation
+where no student except in those "liberal" arts courses can get a
+college diploma without studying economics; only in a modern course in
+the humanities may the study of human society be left out.
+
+The economists have not been active in urging their subject as a
+requirement. The call for increasing requirements in economics has
+come from the public and from the alumni. The steady increase in the
+number of students electing economic courses without corresponding
+additions to the teaching forces has made the overworked professors of
+the subject thankful when nothing more was done to increase by faculty
+requirements the burden of their class work. It is charged and it is
+admitted in some institutions that the standards of marking are
+purposely made more severe in the economics courses than in courses in
+most other subjects. The purpose avowed is "to cut out the dead
+timber," so that only the better students will be eligible for
+enrollment in the advanced economics courses. An unfortunate result is
+to discourage some excellent students, ambitious for high marks or
+honors, from electing courses in economics because thereby their
+average grades would be reduced. In many cases, for this reason, good
+students take the subject optionally (without credit), though doing
+full work in it.
+
+=Organization of the subject in the college curriculum=
+
+We have already, in discussing the place of economics, necessarily
+touched upon the organization of the courses. In most colleges this
+organization is very simple. The whole economic curriculum consists of
+the "general" course, or at most of that plus one or more somewhat
+specialized courses given the next year. The most usual year of
+advanced work consists of one semester each of money and banking and
+of public finance. A not unusual plan, well suited to the situation
+in a small college where economics takes the full time of one teacher,
+is to give the general course in the sophomore year, and to offer a
+two-year cycle of advanced work, the two courses being given in
+alternate years, the class consisting of juniors and seniors. In this
+plan the additional courses may be in transportation, in labor
+problems, in trusts and corporations, and frequently of late, in
+accounting. Ordinarily the "general" course itself involves a logical
+sequence, the first term dealing with fundamental concepts and
+theories, and the second term covering in a rapid survey a pretty wide
+range of special problems. The majority of the students take only the
+general course. Those who go on to more advanced courses retrace the
+next year some of the ground of the second semester's work, but this
+is probably for few of them a loss of time. Indeed, in such a subject
+as economics this opportunity to let first teachings "sink in," and
+strange concepts become familiar, is for most students of great value.
+Yet the plan was adopted and is followed as a compromise, using one
+course as a ready-made fit for the differing needs of two groups of
+students. We have seen above (page 221) that preceding the general, or
+systematic, course, there is in a number of colleges a simpler one. In
+some cases[22] the experiment has been undertaken of studying first
+for a time certain broad institutional features of our existing
+society, such as property, the wage system, competition, and the
+amount and distribution of wealth. The need of such a course is said
+to be especially great in the women's colleges. If so, it is truly
+urgent, for most young men come to college with very meager experience
+in economic lines. Few, if any, teachers would deny that such an
+introductory course preceding the principles is distinctly of
+advantage.[23] Some would favor it even at the price of shortening
+materially the more general course. But most teachers would agree that
+together the introductory course and the general course should take
+two full years (three hours a week, twelve college credit hours, as
+usually reckoned), an amount of time which cannot be given by the
+"floater" electing economics. And to accommodate both those who have
+had the introductory course and those who have not, the general course
+would have to be given in two divisions and in two ways. Again we come
+to the thought, suggested above, that probably we are attempting too
+much in too brief a time in the general course today. A longer time
+for the study would permit of a sequence that would be more logically
+defensible. It would begin with historical and descriptive studies,
+both because they are fundamentally necessary and because, being of
+more concrete nature, they may be given in a form easier for the
+beginner to get. In this period a good deal of the terminology can be
+gradually familiarized. Then should come the more elementary
+analytical studies and fundamental principles, followed by a
+discussion of a number of practical problems. In conclusion should
+come a more systematic survey of general principles, of which most
+students now get but a superficial idea. The work in the specialized
+elective courses would then be built upon much firmer foundation than
+is the case at present.
+
+=Methods of teaching=
+
+The main methods that have been developed and tested in the teaching
+of undergraduate classes in economics may be designated as the lecture
+method, the textbook method, the problem method. Any one of these may
+be used well-nigh exclusively, or, as is more usual, two or more may
+be combined in varying proportions; e.g., lectures with
+"supplementary" (or "collateral") readings, with or without an
+occasional meeting in a quiz section. Along with these main methods
+often are used such supplementary methods as topical reports requiring
+individual library work; laboratory exercises, as in statistics,
+accounting, etc.; individual field work to study some industrial
+problem; and visits, as a class, and with guidance, to factories and
+industrial enterprises.
+
+The choice of these particular methods of teaching is, however,
+largely conditioned by the teacher's antecedent choice between the
+deductive or the inductive forms of presentation. This is an old
+controversy ever recurring. But it should be observed that the
+question here is not whether induction or deduction is a greater aid
+in arriving at new truth, but it is whether the inductive or the
+deductive process is the better for the imparting of instruction to
+beginners. In teaching mathematics, the most deductive of the
+sciences, use may be made of such inductive aids as object lessons,
+physical models, and practical problems; and _per contra_, in the
+natural sciences, where induction is the chief instrument of research,
+elementary instruction is largely given in a deductive manner by the
+statement of general propositions, the workings of which are then
+exemplified. The decision of the question which is the better of these
+two pedagogic methods in a particular case, depends (_a_) partly on
+the average maturity and experience of the class; (_b_) partly on the
+mental quality of the students; and (_c_) partly on the interest and
+qualifications of the teacher.
+
+(_a_) The choice of the best method of teaching is of course dependent
+on the same factors that have been shown above to affect the nature
+and sequence of the courses. The simpler method leading to more
+limited results is more suitable for the less mature classes; but the
+scientific stage in the treatment of any subject is not reached until
+general principles are discussed. If one is content with a vocational
+result in economic teaching, stopping short of the theoretical,
+philosophic outlook, more can be accomplished in a short time by the
+concrete method. But such teaching would seem to belong in a trade
+school rather than in a college of higher studies, and in any case
+should be given by a vocational teacher rather than by a specialist in
+social, or political, economy.
+
+=Various methods evaluated=
+
+(_b_) Every college class presents a gradation of minds capable
+(whether from nature or training) of attaining different states of
+comprehension. Of students in the lower half of the classes in
+American colleges, it may be said broadly that they never can or will
+develop the capacity of thinking abstractly and that the concrete
+method of teaching would give better results in their cases. Therefore
+the teacher attempts to compromise, to adopt a method that fits the
+"mode," the middle third of the class, wasting much of the time of the
+brighter (or of the more earnest) students, and letting those in the
+lowest third trail along as best they can. This difficulty may be met
+with some success where there are several sections of a class by
+grouping the men in accordance with their previous scholarship
+records. This grouping is beneficial alike to those lower and to those
+higher than the average in scholarship.
+
+(_c_) Quite as important in this connection as this subjective quality
+of the students, is the characteristic quality of the teacher. A
+particular teacher will succeed better or worse with any particular
+method according as it fits his aim and is in accord with his
+endowment and training. If he is himself of the "hard-headed"
+unimaginative or unphilosophic type, he will of course deem effort
+wasted that goes beyond concrete facts. He will give little place to
+the larger aspects and principles of "political" economy, but will
+deal exhaustively with the details of commercial economy. If the
+teacher is civic-minded and sympathetic, he will be impelled to trace
+economic forces, in their actions and interactions, far beyond the
+particular enterprise, to show how the welfare of others is affected.
+To do this rightly, knowledge of the conditions must be combined with
+a deeper theoretical insight; but the civic aim operates selectively
+to limit the choice of materials and analysis to those contemporary
+issues that appeal at the time to the textbook writer, to the teacher,
+or to the public. Still different is the case of the teacher who finds
+his greatest joy in the theoretical aspects of economics, possesses a
+clean-cut economic philosophy (even though it may not be ultimate
+truth), and has faith in economics as a disciplinary subject. Such a
+teacher will (other things being equal) have, relatively, his greatest
+success with the students of greatest ability; he will get better
+results in teaching the "principles" than in teaching historical and
+descriptive facts. None will deny that this type of education has an
+important place. Even in the more descriptive courses appeal should be
+made to the higher intellectual qualities of the class, leaving a
+lasting disciplinary result rather than a memory stored with merely
+ephemeral and mostly insignificant information.
+
+The teacher with colorless personality and without interest in, and
+knowledge of, the world of reality, will fail, whatever be the purpose
+of his teaching. The higher the teacher's aim, the farther may he fall
+below its attainment. A college teacher whose message is delivered on
+the mental level of grammar school children should, of course, score a
+pretty high percentage of success in giving a passing mark to
+sophomores, juniors, and seniors in American colleges. But is this
+really a success, or is it rather not evidence of a failure in the
+whole school curriculum, and of woful waste in our system of so-called
+"higher" education? Are colleges for the training of merely mediocre
+minds?
+
+=Aim and attitude more fundamental than method of instruction=
+
+These questions of aim and of attitude are more fundamental than is
+the question of the particular device of instruction to be used, as
+lecture, textbook, etc. Yet the latter question is not without its
+importance. In general it appears that practice has moved and still
+moves in a cycle. In the American college world as a whole each
+particular college repeats some or all of the typical phases with the
+growth of its economic department.
+
+(1) First is the textbook, with recitations in small classes. (2)
+Next, the lecture gradually takes a larger place as the classes grow,
+until, supplemented by required readings, it becomes the main tool of
+instruction, this being the cheapest and easiest way to take care of
+the rapidly growing enrollment. (3) Then, when this proves
+unsatisfactory, the lectures are perhaps cut down to two a week, and
+the class is divided into quiz sections for one meeting a week under
+assistants or instructors, the lecture still being the main center of
+the scheme of teaching. (4) This still being unsatisfactory (partly
+because it lacks oversight of the students' daily work, and partly
+because the lecture is unsuited to the development of general
+principles that require careful and repeated study for their mastery),
+a textbook is made the basis of section meetings, held usually twice a
+week, and the lectures are reduced to one a week, given to the
+combined class, and so changed in character as to be merely
+supplementary to the class work. The lectures are given either in
+close connection week by week with the class work or bearing only a
+general relation with the term's work as a whole. This may be deemed
+the prevailing mode today in institutions where the introductory
+course has a large enrollment.[24] (5) Another change completes the
+cycle; the lecture is dropped and the class is divided, each section,
+consisting of twenty to thirty students, meeting with the same teacher
+regularly for class work. This change was made after mature
+consideration in "the College" in Columbia University; is in operation
+in Chicago University, where the meetings are held five times a week;
+and has been adopted more recently still in New York University. There
+have been for years evidences of the growing desire to abolish the
+lecture from the introductory course and also to limit its use in some
+of the special undergraduate courses. The preceptorial plan adopted in
+1905 by Princeton University is the most notable instance of the
+latter change.[25] Even in graduate teaching in economics there has
+been a growing opinion and practice favorable to the "working" course
+or "seminar" course to displace lecture courses.[26] Thus the lecture
+seems likely to play a less prominent role, especially in the
+introductory courses, but it is not likely to be displaced entirely in
+the scheme of instruction.
+
+=Selection of a textbook=
+
+Numerous American textbooks on political economy (thirty, it is said)
+have been published in the last quarter of a century, a fact which has
+now and then been deplored by the pessimistic critic.[27] Few share
+this opinion, however. The textbooks have, to be sure, often served,
+not to unfold a consistent system of thought, but to reveal the lack
+of one. But they have afforded to the teachers and students, in a
+period of developing conceptions on the subjects, a wide choice of
+treatment of the principles much more exactly worked out and carefully
+expressed than is possible through the medium of lectures as recorded
+in the students' hastily written notes.
+
+Questions, exercises, and test problems are widely used as supplementary
+material for classroom discussion.[28] Separately printed collections of
+such material date back at least to W. G. Sumner's _Problems in
+Political Economy_ (1884), which in turn acknowledged indebtedness to
+other personal sources and to Milnes' collection of two thousand
+questions and problems from English examination papers. With somewhat
+varying aims, further commented upon below, and in varying degrees, all
+teachers of economics now make use of such questions in their teaching
+of both general and special courses. Unquestionably there are, in the
+use of the problem method, possibilities for good which few teachers
+have fully realized.[29]
+
+The selection and arrangement of materials for supplementary readings
+is guided by various motives, more or less intermingling. It may be
+chiefly to parallel a systematic text by extracts taken largely from
+the older "classics" of the subject (as in C. J. Bullock's _Selected
+Readings in Economics_, 1907); or to provide additional concrete
+material bearing mostly upon present economic problems (as in the
+author's _Source Book in Economics_, 1912); or to supplement a set of
+exercises and problems (as in F. M. Taylor's _Some Readings in
+Economics_, 1907); or to constitute of itself an almost independent
+textbook of extracts, carefully edited with original introductions to
+chapters (as Marshall, Wright, and Field's _Materials for the Study of
+Elementary Economics_, 1913, and W. H. Hamilton's _Readings in Current
+Economic Problems_, 1914).
+
+Whatever be the particular tool of instruction, whether lecture,
+textbook with classroom discussion, problem study, or collateral
+readings, its use may be very different according as the teacher seeks
+to develop the subject positively or negatively, to present a single
+definite and (if he can) coherent body of doctrines, or a variety of
+opinions that have been held, among which the student is encouraged to
+choose. Evidently the conditions determining choice in the case of
+advanced courses are different from those in the introductory course.
+For the beginner time is required in order that economic principles
+may sink in, and so he is bewildered if at first he is introduced to a
+number of theories by different authors. Materials that supplement the
+general course of principles should therefore be limited to subject
+matter that is descriptive, concrete, and illustrative. The beginner,
+somewhat dazed with the variety of new facts, ideas, terminology, and
+problems in the field into which he has entered, needs guidance to
+think clearly step by step about them.[30] Not until the pupil has
+learned to see and apprehend the simpler economic phenomena near him
+can he be expected to survey the broader fields and to form
+independent judgments concerning complex situations. He must creep
+before he can run. In fact, teachers are often self-deceived when they
+imagine that they are leaving students to judge for themselves among
+various opinions or to find their way inductively to their own
+conclusions. The recitation, in truth, becomes the simple game of "hot
+and cold." The teacher has in mind what he considers the right answer;
+the groping student tries to guess it; and as he ventures this or that
+inexpert or lucky opinion he is either gently chided or encouraged.
+At length some bright pupil wins the game by agreeing with the
+teacher's theretofore skilfully concealed opinion. This is called
+teaching by the inductive method.
+
+Undoubtedly it is more desirable to develop in the student the ability
+to think independently about economic questions than it is to drill
+him into an acceptance of ready-made opinions on contemporary
+practical issues. The more fundamental economic theory--the more
+because its bearing on pecuniary and class interests is not close or
+obvious--is an admirable organ for the development of the student's
+power of reasoning. But to give the student this training it is not
+necessary to keep him in the dark as to what he is to learn. The
+Socratic method is still unexcelled in the discussion of a text and of
+lectures in which propositions are clearly laid down and explained.
+The theorem in geometry is first stated, and then the student is
+conducted step by step through the reasoning leading to that
+conclusion. Should not the student of economics have presented to him
+in a similar way the idea or principle, and then be required to follow
+the reasoning upon which it is based? Then, through questions and
+problems,--the more the better, if time permits of their thorough
+discussion and solution,--the student may be exercised in the
+interpretation of the principles, and by illustrations drawn from
+history and contemporary conditions may be shown the various
+applications of the principle to practical problems. To get and hold
+the student's _interest_, to fascinate him with the subject, is equal
+in importance to the method, for without interest good results are
+impossible.[31]
+
+=Tests or teaching results=
+
+It must be confessed that no exact objective measure of the efficiency
+of teaching methods in economics has been found. At best we have
+certain imperfect indices, among which are the formal examination, the
+student's own opinion at the close of the course, and the student's
+revised opinion after leaving college.
+
+The primary purpose of the traditional examination is not to test the
+relative merits of the different methods of teaching, but to test the
+relative merits of the various students in a class, whatever be the
+method of teaching. Every teacher knows that high or low average marks
+in an entire class are evidences rather of the standard that he is
+setting than it is of the merits of his teaching methods,--though in
+some cases he is able to compare the results obtained after using two
+different methods of exposition for the same subject. But, as was
+indicated above, such a difference may result from his own temperament
+and may point only to the method that he can best use, not to the best
+absolutely considered. Moreover, the teacher may make the average
+marks high or low merely by varying the form and content of the
+examination papers or the strictness of his markings.
+
+Each ideal and method of teaching has its corresponding type of
+examination. Descriptive and concrete courses lend themselves
+naturally to memory tests; theoretical courses lend themselves to
+problems and reasoning. A high type of question is one whose proper
+answer necessitates knowledge of the facts acquired in the course
+together with an interpretation of the principles and their
+application to new problems. Memory tests serve to mark off "the sheep
+from the goats" as regards attention and faithful work; reasoning
+tests serve to give a motive for disciplinary study and to measure its
+results. It may perhaps seem easier to test the results of the
+student's work in memory subjects; but even as to that we know that
+there are various types of memory and how much less significant are
+marks obtained by "the cramming process" than are equally good marks
+obtained as a result of regular attention to daily tasks.
+
+The students' revised and matured judgment of the value of their
+various college studies generally differ, often greatly, from their
+judgments while taking or just after completing the courses. Yet even
+years afterward can man judge rightly in his own case just what has
+been the relative usefulness to him of the different elements of his
+complex college training, or of the different methods employed?[32]
+But the evidence that comes from the most successful alumni to the
+college teacher in economics is increasingly to the effect that the
+college work they have come to value most is that which "teaches the
+student to think." Our judgments in this matter are influenced by the
+larger educational philosophy that we hold. Each will have his
+standard of spiritual values.
+
+=Moot questions in economics affecting the teaching of the subject=
+
+The moot questions in the teaching of the subject have, perhaps, been
+sufficiently indicated, but we may here add a word as to the bearings
+which certain moot questions in the theory of the subject may have on
+the methods of teaching. The fundamental theory of economics has,
+since the days of Adam Smith, been undergoing a process of continuous
+transition, but the broader concepts never have been more in dispute
+than in the last quarter century in America. The possibility of such
+diversity of opinion in the fundamentals among the leading exponents
+of the subject argues strongly that economics is still a philosophy--a
+general attitude of mind and system of opinion--rather than a positive
+science. At best it is a "becoming science" which never can cease
+entirely to have a speculative, or philosophic character. This is not
+the place to go into details of matters in controversy. Suffice it to
+say that in rivalry to the older school--which is variously designated
+Ricardian, Orthodox, English, or classical--newer ideas have been
+developed, dating from the work of the Austrian economists, of Jevons,
+and of J. B. Clark in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The
+older school had sought the explanation of value and the theory of
+distribution in objective factors,--partly in the chemical qualities
+of the soil, partly in labor, partly in the costs (or outlays) of the
+employing class. The psychological factor in value had been almost
+eliminated from this older treatment of value and price, or at best
+was imperfectly recognized under the name of "utility." The newer
+school made the psychological element primary in the positive
+treatment of economic principles, and launched a negative criticism
+against the older terms and ideas that effectively exposed their
+unsoundness considered separately and their inconsistency as a system
+of economic thought. Both the negative criticisms and the proposed
+amendments taken one by one gained wide acceptance among economists.
+But when it came to embodying them in a general theory of economics,
+many economists have balked.[33] Most of the American texts in
+economics and much of our teaching show disastrous effects of this
+confusion and irresolution. The newer concepts, guardedly admitted to
+have some validity, appear again and again in the troubled discussions
+of recent textbook writers, which usually end with a rejection, "on
+the whole," of the logical implications of these newer concepts. Many
+teachers thus have lost their grip on any coordinating theory of
+distribution. They no longer have any general economic philosophy. The
+old Ricardian cock-sureness had its pedagogic merits. Without faith,
+teaching perishes. The complaints of growing difficulty in the
+teaching of the introductory course seem to have come particularly
+from teachers that are in this unhappy state of mind. They declare
+that it is impossible longer to interest students successfully in a
+general theoretical course, and they are experimenting with all kinds
+of substitutes--de-nicotinized tobacco and Kaffee Hag--from which
+poisonous theory has been extracted. At the same time, economics "with
+a punch in it," economics "with a back bone," is being taught by
+strong young teachers of the new faith more successfully, perhaps,
+than economics has ever been taught in the past. This greater question
+of the teacher's conception of economics dominates all the minor
+questions of method. Economics cannot be taught as an integrated
+course in principles by teachers without theoretical training and
+conceptions; in such hands its treatment is best limited to the
+descriptive phases of concrete special problems,--valuable, indeed, as
+a background and basis, but never rising to the plane upon which alone
+economics is fully worth the student's while as a college subject.
+
+                                            FRANK ALBERT FETTER
+  _Princeton University_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+The literature on the teaching of economics in the secondary schools,
+its need and its proper scope and method, is somewhat extensive.
+Another goodly group of articles discusses the teaching of economic
+history and of other social sciences related to economics, either in
+high schools or colleges. A somewhat smaller group pertains to
+graduate instruction in the universities. The following brief list of
+titles, arranged chronologically, is most pertinent to our present
+purpose:
+
+"The Relation of the Teaching of Economic History to the Teaching of
+Political Economy" (pages 88-101), and "Methods of Teaching Economics"
+(pages 105-111), _A. E. A. Economic Studies_, Vol. 3, 1898.
+
+Proceedings of a conference on the teaching of elementary economics,
+_Journal of Political Economy_, Vol. 17, December, 1909.
+
+TAYLOR, F. M. "Methods of Teaching Elementary Economics," _Journal of
+Political Economy_. Vol. 17, December, 1909, page 688.
+
+WOLFE, A. B. "Aim and Content of a College Course in Elementary
+Economics," _Journal of Political Economy_, Vol. 17, December, 1909,
+page 673.
+
+Symposium by Carver, Clark, Seager, Seligman, Nearing, _et al._,
+_Journal of Political Economy_, Vol. 18, 1910.
+
+Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Economics, _Journal of
+Political Economy_, Vol. 19, 1911, pages 760-789.
+
+ROBINSON, L. N. "The Seminar in the Colleges," _Journal of Political
+Economy_, Vol. 21, 1913, page 643.
+
+WOLFE, A. B. "The Aim and Content of the Undergraduate Economics
+Curriculum," _Journal of Political Economy_, Vol. 21, 1913, page 1.
+
+PERSONS, CHARLES E. "Teaching the Introductory Course in Economics,"
+_Quarterly Journal of Economics_, November, 1916.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[15] See article by Charles E. Persons, on Teaching the Introductory
+Course in Economics, in _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ Vol. XXXI,
+November, 1916, for a strong presentation of this civic ideal in
+economic study.
+
+[16] Compiled by the writer from data in the report of the committee
+appointed by the conference on the teaching of elementary economics,
+1909; _Journal of Political Economy_, November, 1911, Vol. 19, pages
+760-789.
+
+[17] See page 767 of the committee report cited above.
+
+[18] Evidently it is not possible to draw from these data any definite
+conclusions as to the proportion of students beginning economics in
+each of the four years respectively. But probably three-fourths of
+all, possibly four-fifths, take the general course either in the
+sophomore or the junior year. Most of the institutions giving
+economics only in the senior year are small, with a very restricted
+curriculum, often limited to one general course. But it is a widely
+observed fact that many students in large institutions postpone the
+election of the subject till their senior year.
+
+[19] Of this see further below, page 226.
+
+[20] Article cited, _Journal of Political Economy_, Vol. 19, page 768.
+
+[21] The society for the Promotion of Engineering Education has had a
+standing committee on economics, since 1915. The first committee was
+composed of three engineers (all of them consulting and in practice
+and two of them also teachers) and the present writer.
+
+[22] In Amherst, as described in _Journal of Political Economy_ by
+Professor W. H. Hamilton, on "The Amherst Program in Economics"; and
+in Chicago University beginning in 1916. See also, by the same writer,
+a paper on "The Institutional Approach to Economic Theory", in the
+_American Economic Review_, Supplement, page 309, March, 1919.
+
+[23] At the meeting of the American Economic Association in 1897, at
+which was discussed "The Relation of the Teaching of Economic History
+to the Teaching of Political Economy," the opinion was expressed by
+one teacher that economic history should follow the general course.
+But all the others agreed that such a course should begin the
+sequence, and this seems to be the almost invariable practice. See
+_Economic Studies_, Volume III. pages 88-101, Publications of the
+American Economic Association, 1898.
+
+[24] This plan has at various times been followed at Stanford,
+Cornell, Harvard, and Princeton, to cite only a few of the numerous
+examples.
+
+[25] In this plan the sections are small (three to seven students) and
+the preceptor is expected to give much time to the personal
+supervision of the student's reading, reports, and general
+scholarship. The preceptorial work is rated at more than half of the
+entire work of the term. The one great difficulty of the preceptorial
+system is its cost.
+
+[26] A strong plea is made for the "retirement of the lectures" by C.
+E. Persons, in the _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, Vol. XXXI,
+"Teaching the Introductory Course in Economics," November, 1916, pages
+96-98.
+
+[27] Professor J. H. Hollander, _American Economic Review_, Vol. VI,
+No. 1, Supplement (March, 1916), page 135. See dissenting opinions in
+the discussion that followed.
+
+[28] Professor C. E. Persons (art. cited page 86, November, 1916)
+gives the titles of ten separate books or pamphlets of this kind;
+since which date have appeared the author's "Manual of References and
+Exercises," Parts I and II, to accompany _Economic Principles_, 1915,
+and _Modern Economic Problems_, 1916, respectively.
+
+[29] Among those most elaborately developing this method has been
+Professor F. M. Taylor of the University of Michigan. See his paper on
+the subject and discussion in the _Journal of Political Economy_, Vol.
+VII, pages 688-703 (December, 1909). Marshall, Wright, and Field
+published the _Outline of Economics_, developed as a series of
+problems in 1910, which they used for a time as the main tool of
+instruction in the introductory course in Chicago University.
+
+[30] A thoughtful discussion of some phases of this problem is given
+by Persons, art. cited, pages 98 ff., favoring the more positive
+treatment with less distracting multiplicity of detail.
+
+[31] To a former student of mine and now a successful teacher, Dean J.
+R. Turner of New York University, I am indebted for the suggestion of
+the following practical rules, a few among many possible, which should
+be helpful to younger teachers:
+
+(_a_) Keep the student expecting a surprise, afraid to relax attention
+for fear of missing something.
+
+(_b_) By Socratic method lead him into error, then have him (under
+cross fire and criticism of class) reason his way out.
+
+(_c_) Make fallacious argument, then call for criticism giving
+distinction to him who renders best judgment.
+
+(_d_) Set tasks and have members of class compete in intellectual
+contests.
+
+(_e_) Make sure that each principle learned is seen in its
+relationship to practical affairs.
+
+(_f_) Enliven each dry principle with an anecdote or illustration to
+elucidate it, for principles devoid of interesting features cannot
+secure attention and so will not be remembered.
+
+(_g_) Accompany the discussion with charts and board work to visualize
+facts and questions to stimulate thought.
+
+(_h_) Ask questions and so handle the class discussions that a few
+will not do all the talking, that foreign subject matter is not
+introduced, that a consistent and logical development of thought is
+strictly adhered to.
+
+(_i_) The last few minutes of the period might well be devoted to the
+assignment for the next meeting. The best manner of assignment must
+depend upon the nature of task, the advancement of the student, the
+purpose in view.
+
+[32] An interesting study made by the department of education of
+Harvard University of the teaching methods and results in the
+department of economics was referred to in President Lowell's report.
+According to the answers of the alumni their work in economics is now
+valued mainly for its civic and disciplinary results (these do not
+seem to have been further distinguished). In the introductory course
+reading was ranked first, class work next, and lectures least, in
+value. In the advanced courses the lecture was ranked higher and class
+work lower, but that may be because the lecture plays a more important
+role there than in the lower classes. Answers regarding such matters
+are at most significant as indicating the relative importance of the
+various methods as they have actually been employed in the particular
+institution, and have little validity in reference to the work and
+methods of other teachers working under other conditions, and with
+students having different life aims.
+
+[33] The typical attitude of many economists is expressed about as
+follows: It is one thing to give assent to refinements when they are
+used in the discussion of some single point of theory, and it is quite
+another thing to accept them when one sees how, in their combined
+effect, they would carry us away from "the old familiar moorings."
+
+Such a view, it need not be urged, reflects an unscientific state of
+mind. The real cause of the rejection of the ideas probably is the
+shrinking of over-busy men, in middle life, and absorbed in teaching
+and in special problems, from the intellectual task of restudying the
+fundamentals and revising many of their earlier formed opinions--to
+say nothing of rewriting many of their old lectures and manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE TEACHING OF SOCIOLOGY
+
+
+=Growth of sociology as a college subject=
+
+The teaching of sociology as a definite college subject in the United
+States began at Yale nearly forty-five years ago. Since 1873 it has
+been introduced into nearly 200 American colleges, universities,
+normal schools, and seminaries. A study of this teaching in 1910
+revealed over 700 courses offered to over 8000 undergraduates and 1100
+graduate students. It is safe to assume a steady growth during the
+last six years. Hence the problem of teaching is of no little concern
+to sociologists. The American Sociological Society early recognized
+this fact and in 1909 appointed a Committee of Ten to report on
+certain aspects of the problem. But that all teachers of sociology
+have not grasped the bearing of pedagogy upon their work is clear from
+complaints still heard from students that sociology is vague,
+indefinite, abstract, dull, or scattered. Not long ago some bright
+members of a class were overheard declaring that their professor must
+have been struck by a gust of wind which scattered his notes every day
+before getting to his desk.
+
+=The pedagogy of sociology the pedagogy of all college subjects=
+
+Sociology is simply a way of looking at the same world of reality
+which every other science looks at in its own way. It cannot therefore
+depart far from the pedagogical principles tried out in teaching other
+subjects. It must utilize the psychology of attention, interest,
+drill, the problem method, procedure from the student's known to the
+new, etc. The universal pitfalls have been charted for all teachers by
+the educational psychologists. In addition, sociology may offer a few
+on its own account, partly because it is new, partly because a general
+agreement as to the content of fundamentals in sociology courses is
+just beginning to make itself felt, partly because there is so far no
+really good textbook available as a guide to the beginner.
+
+=Methods of teaching sociology determined by a complex of vital factors=
+
+Specific methods of teaching vary according to individual temperament,
+the "set" of the teacher's mind; according to his bias of class,
+birth, or training; according to whether he has been formed or
+deformed by some strong personality whose disciple he has become;
+according to whether he is a radical or a conservative; according to
+whether he is the dreamy, idealistic type or whether he hankers after
+concrete facts; according to whether sociology is a primary interest
+or only an incidental, more or less unwelcome.
+
+Hence part of the difficulty, though by no means all, comes from the
+fact that sociology is frequently expounded by men who have received
+no specific training themselves in the subject, or who have had the
+subject thrust upon them as a side issue. In this connection it is
+interesting to note that in 1910 sociology was "given" in only 20
+cases by sociology departments, in 63 by combinations of economics,
+history, and politics, in 11 by philosophy and psychology, in 2 by
+economics and applied Christianity or theology, in 1 by practical
+theology!
+
+=Guiding principles in the teaching of sociology--The teacher as keen
+analyst, not revivalist=
+
+Whatever the path which led into the sociological field or whatever
+the bias of temperament, experience justifies several preliminary
+hints for successful teaching. First, avoid the voice, the yearning
+manner, and the gesture of the preacher. Sociology needs the
+cool-headed analyst rather than the social revivalist. Let the
+sentimentalist and the muck-raker stay with their lecture circuits and
+the newspapers. The student wants enthusiasm and inspiration rather
+than sentimentality.
+
+=Avoiding the formal lecture=
+
+Second, renounce the lecture, particularly with young students. There
+is no surer method of blighting the interest of students, of murdering
+their minds, and of ossifying the instructor than to persist in the
+pernicious habit of the formal lecture. Some men plead large classes
+in excuse. If they were honest with themselves they would usually find
+that they like large classes as a subtle sort of compliment to
+themselves. Given the opportunity to break up a class of two hundred
+into small discussion groups they would frequently refuse, on the
+score that they would lose a fine opportunity to influence a large
+group. Dodge it as you will, the lecture is and will continue to be an
+unsatisfactory, even vicious, way of attempting to teach social
+science. No reputable university tries to teach economics or politics
+nowadays in huge lecture sections. Only an abnormal conceit or abysmal
+poverty will prevent sociology departments from doing likewise.
+Remember that education is always an exchange, never a free gift.
+
+=Adjusting instruction to the capacities of your students=
+
+Third, do not be afraid to utilize commonplace facts and
+illustrations. A successful professor of sociology writes me that he
+can remember that what are mere commonplaces now were revelations to
+him at twenty-one. Two of the greatest teachers of the nineteenth
+century, Faraday and Huxley, attributed their success to the simple
+maxim, take nothing for granted. It is safe to assume that most
+students come from homes where business and petty neighborhood doings
+are the chief concern, and where a broad, well-informed outlook on
+life is rare. Since so many of my colleagues insist that young Ph.D.'s
+tend constantly to "shoot over the heads" of their students, the best
+way of avoiding this particular pitfall seems to lie along the road of
+simple, elementary, concrete fact. The discussion method in the
+classroom will soon put the instructor right if he has gone to the
+other extreme of depreciating his students through kindergarten
+methods. Likewise he can guard against being oracular and pedantic by
+letting out his superior stores of information through free discussion
+in the Socratic fashion. Nothing is more important to good teaching
+than the knack of apt illustration. While to a certain extent it can
+be taught, just as the art of telling a humorous story or making a
+presentation speech can be communicated by teachers of oral English,
+yet in the long run it is rather a matter of spontaneous upwellings
+from a well-stored mind. For example, suppose a class is studying the
+factors of variation and selection in social evolution: the instructor
+shows how Nature loves averages, not only by statistics and
+experiments with the standard curve of distribution, but also, if he
+is a really illuminated teacher, by reference, say, to the legend of
+David and Goliath, the fairy tale of _Little One-Eye, Little Two-Eye,
+Little Three-Eye_, and Lincoln's famous aphorism to the effect that
+the Lord must love the common people because he made so many of them.
+Sad experience advises that it is unsafe for an instructor any longer
+to assume that college sophomores are familiar with the Old Testament,
+classic myths, or Greek and Roman history. Hence he must beware of
+using any recondite allusions or illustrations which themselves need
+so much explanation that their bearing on the immediate problem in
+hand is obscured. An illustration, like a funny story, loses its
+pungency if it requires a scholium.
+
+=Pedagogical suggestions summarized=
+
+Fourth, adhere to what a friend calls the 16 to 1 basis--16 parts fact
+and 1 part theory. Fifth, eschew the professor's chair. The blackboard
+is the teacher's "next friend." Recent time-motion studies lead us to
+believe that no man can use a blackboard efficiently unless he stands!
+The most celebrated teaching in history was peripatetic. Sixth,
+postpone the reconciling of discrepant social theorizings to the
+tougher-hided seniors or graduate students, and stick to the
+presentation of "accessible realities." Finally, an occasional
+friendly meeting with students, say once or twice a semester at an
+informal supper, will create an atmosphere of cooperative learning,
+will break down the traditional barriers of hostility between master
+and pupil, and may incidentally bring to the surface many useful hints
+for the framing of discussion problems.
+
+=The course of study--(a) Determined by the maturity of the students=
+
+To a certain extent teaching methods are determined by the age of the
+students. In 1910, of all the institutions reporting, 73 stated that
+sociology instruction began in the junior year; 23 admitted
+sophomores, 4 freshmen, 39 seniors. But the unmistakable drift is in
+the direction of introducing sociology earlier in the college
+curriculum, and even into secondary and elementary schools. Hence the
+cautions voiced above tend to become all the more imperative.
+Moreover, while in the past it has been possible to exact history,
+economics, political science, philosophy, psychology, or education as
+prerequisite to beginning work in sociology, in view of the downward
+trend of sociology courses it becomes increasingly more difficult to
+take things for granted in the student's preparation. Until the dream
+of offering a semester or year of general social science to all
+freshmen as the introduction to work in the specialized branches of
+social science comes true, the sociologist must communicate to his
+elementary classes a sense of the relations between his view of social
+phenomena and the aspects of the same phenomena which the historian,
+the economist, the political scientist, and the psychologist handle.
+
+=(b) Determined by its aims=
+
+Both the content and methods of sociological instruction are
+determined also in part by what its purpose is conceived to be. A
+study of the beginnings of teaching this subject in the United States
+shows that it was prompted primarily by practical ends. For example,
+the American Social Science Association proposal (1878), in so far as
+it covered the field of sociology, included only courses on punishment
+and reformation of criminals, public and private charities, and
+prevention of vice. President White of Cornell in 1871 recommended a
+course of practical instruction "calculated to fit young men to
+discuss intelligently such important social questions as the best
+methods of dealing practically with pauperism, intemperance, crime of
+various degrees and among persons of different ages, insanity, idiocy,
+and the like." Columbia University early announced that a university
+situated in such a city, full of problems at a time when "industrial
+and social progress is bringing the modern community face to face with
+social questions of the greatest magnitude, the solution of which will
+demand the best scientific study and the most honest practical
+endeavor," must provide facilities for bringing university study into
+connection with practical work. In 1901 definite practical courses
+shared honors of first place with the elementary or general course in
+college announcements. The situation was practically the same ten
+years later. Still more recently Professor Blackmar, one of the
+veterans in sociology teaching, worked out rather an elaborate program
+of what he called a "reasonable department of sociology for colleges
+and universities." In spite of the fact that theoretical, biological,
+anthropological, and psychological aspects of the subject were
+emphasized, his conclusion was that "the whole aim is to ground
+sociology in general utility and social service. It is a preparation
+for social efficiency."
+
+=(c) Determined by the social character of the community=
+
+The principle of adaptation to environment comes into play also in the
+choice of teaching methods. An urban department can send its students
+directly into the field for first-hand observation of industry,
+housing, sanitation, congestion, playgrounds, immigration, etc., and
+may encourage "supervised field work" as fulfilling course
+requirements. But the country or small town department far removed
+from large cities must emphasize rural social study, or get its urban
+data second hand through print, charts, photographs, or lantern
+slides. A semester excursion to the city or to some state charitable
+institution adds such a touch of vividness to the routine class work.
+But "slumming parties" are to be ruthlessly tabooed, particularly when
+featured in the newspapers. Social science is not called upon to make
+experimental guinea pigs of the poor simply because of their poverty
+and inability to protect themselves.
+
+=The introductory course the vital point of contact between student and
+the department=
+
+For many reasons the most serious problems of teaching sociology
+center about the elementary or introductory course. Advanced
+undergraduate and graduate courses usually stand or fall by the
+inherent appeal of their content as organized by the peculiar genius
+of the instructor. If the student has been able to weather the storms
+of his "Introduction," he will usually have gained enough momentum to
+carry him along even against the adverse winds of bad pedagogy in the
+upper academic zones. Since the whole purpose of sociology is the very
+practical one of giving the student mental tools with which to think
+straight on societal problems (what Comte called the "social point of
+view"), and since usually only a comparatively small number find it
+possible to specialize in advanced courses, the introductory course
+assumes what at first sight might seem a disproportionate importance.
+Only one or two teachers of sociology, so far as I know, discount the
+value of an elementary course. The rest are persuaded of its
+fundamental importance, and many, therefore, consider it a breach of
+trust to turn over this course to green, untried instructors. Partly
+as a recruiting device for their advanced courses, partly from this
+sense of duty, they undertake instruction of beginners. But it is
+often impossible for the veteran to carry this elementary work: he
+must commit it to younger men. For that reason the remainder of this
+chapter will be given over to a discussion of teaching methods for
+such an elementary course, with younger teachers in mind.
+
+=Teaching suggestions for the introductory course=
+
+First, two or three general hints. It is unwise, to say the least, to
+attempt to cover the social universe in one course. Better a few
+simple concepts, abundantly illustrated, organized clearly and
+systematically. Perhaps it is dangerous to suggest a few recurrent
+catch phrases to serve as guiding threads throughout the course, but
+that was the secret of the old ballad and the folk tale. Homer and the
+makers of fairy tales combined art and pedagogy in their use of
+descriptive epithets. Such a phrase as Ward's "struggle for existence
+is struggle for structure" might furnish the framework of a whole
+course. "Like-mindedness," "interest-groups," "belief-groups," and
+"folk-ways" are also convenient refrains.
+
+Nobody but a thoroughgoing pedant will drag his students through two
+weeks' lectures and a hundred pages of text at the beginning of the
+course in the effort to define sociology and chart all its affinities
+and relations with every other science. Twenty minutes at the first
+class meeting should suffice to develop an understanding of what the
+scientific attitude is and a tentative definition of sociology. The
+whole course is its real definition. At the end of the term the very
+best way of indicating the relation of sociology to other sciences is
+through suggestions about following up the leads obtained in the
+course by work in biology, economics, psychology, and other fields.
+This correlation of the student's program gives him an intimate sense
+of the unity in diversity of the whole range of science.
+
+If the student is to avoid several weeks of floundering, he should be
+led directly to observe societal relations in the making. This can
+perhaps be accomplished best through assigning a series of four
+problems at the first class meetings.
+
+Problem I: To show how each student spins a web of social
+relationship. Let him take a sheet of paper, place a circle
+representing himself in the middle of it, then add dots and connecting
+lines for every individual or institution he forms a contact with
+during the next two or three days. He will get a figure looking
+something like this:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+Problem II: To show how neighborhoods are socially bound up. Let the
+student take a section, say two or three blocks square, in a district
+he knows well, and map it,--showing all the contacts. Again he will
+get a web somewhat like this:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+These diagrams are adapted from students' reports. If they seem
+absurdly simple, it is well to remember that experience reveals the
+student's amazing lack of ability to vizualize social relationships
+without some such device. These diagrams, however, should serve merely
+as the point of departure. Add to them charts showing the sources of
+milk and other food supplies of a large city, and a sense of the
+interdependence and reciprocity of city and country will develop. Take
+a Mercator's projection map of the world and draw the trade routes and
+immigration streams to indicate international solidarities. Such
+diagrams as the famous health tract "A Day in the Life of a Fly" or
+the story of Typhoid Mary are helpful in establishing how closely a
+community is bound together.
+
+Problem III: To show the variety and kinds of social activities, i.e.,
+activities that bring two or more people into contact. Have the
+student note down even the homeliest sorts of such activities, the
+butcher, the postman, the messenger boy; insist that he go out and
+look instead of guessing or reading; require him to group these
+activities under headings which he may work out for himself. He will
+usually arrive at three or four, such as getting a living, recreation,
+political. It may be wise to ask him to grade these activities as
+helpful, harmful, strengthening, or weakening, in order to accustom
+him to the idea that sociology must treat of good, bad, and
+indifferent objects.
+
+Problem IV: To determine what the preponderant social interests and
+activities are as judged by the amount of time men devote to them. Let
+the student try a "time budget" for a fortnight. For this purpose
+Giddings suggests a large sheet of paper ruled for a wide left-hand
+margin and 32 narrow columns: the first 24 columns for hours of the
+day, the 25th for the word "daily," and the last seven for the seven
+days of the week. In the margin the student writes the names of every
+activity of whatever description during the waking hours. This will
+furnish excellent training in exact habits of observation and
+recording, and inductive generalization. When the summary is made at
+the end of the fortnight, the student will have worked for himself the
+habitual "planes of interest" along which social activities lie.
+
+At this point he ought to have convinced himself that the subject
+matter of sociology is concrete reality, not moonshine. Moreover, he
+should be able to lay down certain fundamental marks of a social
+group, such as a common impulse to get together, common sentiments,
+ideas, and beliefs, reciprocal service. From the discovery of habitual
+planes of interest (self-maintenance, self-perpetuation,
+self-assertion, self-subordination, etc.) it is a simple step to show
+diagrammatically how each interest impels an activity, which tends to
+precipitate itself into a social habit or institution.
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  INNER URGE OR INTEREST |  MOTOR EXPRESSION IN | RESULTANT GROUP HABIT
+  (INSTINCT OR           |  ACTIVITY            |  OR INSTITUTION
+  DISPOSITION)           |                      |
+  -----------------------+----------------------+----------------------
+  HUNGER; WILL-TO-LIVE   |  The food-quest      |  Economic technique
+  Self-Maintenance       |                      |  property, invention,
+                         |                      |  material arts of life
+  -----------------------+----------------------+----------------------
+  SEX  :                 |  Procreation and     |  The family, ancestor
+    Self-Perpetuation    |  parenthood          |  worship, courts of
+                         |                      |  domestic relations,
+                         |                      |  patriarchal government,
+                         |                      |  etc.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+=To make sociology real make it egocentric=
+
+The way is now clear for the two next steps, the concepts of causation
+and development. Here again why not follow the egocentric plan of
+starting with what the student knows? Ask him to write a brief but
+careful autobiography answering the questions--How have I come to be
+what I am? What influences personal or otherwise have played upon
+me?[34] The student is almost certain to lay hold of the principle of
+determining or controlling forces, and of evolution or change; he may
+even be able to analyze rather clearly the different types of control
+which have cooperated in his development.
+
+From this start it is easy to develop the genetic concept of social
+life. The individual grows from simple to complex. Why not the race?
+Here introduce a comparison between the social group known to the
+student, a retarded group (such as MacClintock's or Vincent's study of
+the Kentucky Mountaineers[35]) or a frontier community, and a
+contemporary primitive tribe (say, the Hupa or Seri Indians, Negritos,
+Bontoc Igorot, Bangala, Kafirs, Yakuts, Eskimo, or Andaman Islanders).
+Require a detailed comparison arranged in parallel columns on such
+points as size, variety of occupation, food supply, security of life,
+institutions, family life, language, religion, superstitions, and
+opportunities for culture.
+
+These two points of departure--the student's interest in his own
+personality and the community influences that have molded it, and the
+comparative study of a primitive group--should harmonize the two chief
+rival views of teaching sociologists; namely, those who urge the
+approach to sociology through anthropology and those who find the best
+avenue through the concrete knowledge of the _socius_. Moreover, it lays
+a foundation for a discussion of the antiquity of man, his kinship with
+other living things, and his evolution; that is, the biological
+presupposition of human society. Here let me testify to the great help
+which Osborn's photographs[36] of reconstructions of the
+Pithecanthropos, Piltdown, Neanderthal, and Cro-Magnon types have
+rendered in clearing away prejudices and in vivifying the remote past.
+Religious apprehensions in particular may be allayed also by referring
+students to articles on race, man, evolution, anthropology, etc., in
+such compilations as the _Catholic Encyclopedia_ and Hastings'
+_Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_. The opening chapters in Marett's
+little book on _Anthropology_ are so sanely and admirably written that
+they also clear away many prejudices and fears.
+
+With such a concrete body of facts contrasting primitive with modern
+civilized social life the student will naturally inquire, How did
+these changes come about? At this point should come normally the
+answer in terms of what practically all sociologists agree upon;
+namely, the three great sets of determining forces or phenomena, the
+three "controls": (1) the physical environment (climate, topography,
+natural resources, etc.); (2) man's own nature (psycho-physical
+factors, the factors in biological evolution, the role of instinct,
+race, and possibly the concrete problems of immigration and eugenics);
+(3) social heredity (folk-ways, customs, institutions, the arts of
+life, the methods of getting a living, significance of tools,
+distribution of wealth, standards of living, etc.) A blackboard
+diagram will show how these various factors converge upon any given
+individual.[37]
+
+The amplification of these three points will ordinarily make up the
+body of an introductory course so far as class work goes. Ethnography
+should furnish rich illustrative material. But to make class
+discussions really productive the student's knowledge of his own
+community must be drawn upon. And the best way of getting this
+correlation is through community surveys. The student should be
+required as parallel laboratory work to prepare a series of chapters
+on his ward or part of his ward or village, covering the three sets of
+determining factors. The instructor may furnish an outline of the
+topics to be investigated, or he may pass around copies of such brief
+survey outlines as Aronovici's _Knowing One's Own Community_ or Miss
+Byington's _What Social Workers Should Know about Their Own
+Communities_; he may also refer them to any one of the rapidly growing
+number of good urban and rural surveys as models. But he should not
+give too much information as to where materials for student reports
+may be obtained. The disciplinary value of having to hunt out facts
+and uncover sources is second only to the value of accurate
+observation and effective presentation. If the aim of a sociology
+course is social efficiency, experience shows no better way of getting
+a vivid, sober, first-hand knowledge of community conditions. And
+there is likewise no surer way of compelling students to substitute
+facts for vapid wordiness and snap judgments.
+
+Toward the end of the course many of us have found it profitable to
+introduce a brief discussion of what may be called the highest term of
+the series; namely, the evolution of two or three typical
+institutions, say law and government, education, religion, and the
+family. These topics will serve to clinch the earlier discussions and
+to crystallize a few ideas on social control and perhaps even social
+progress.
+
+Normally such a course will close with a fuller definition of the
+meaning of sociology, its content, its value in the study of other
+sciences, and, if time permits, a brief historical sketch of the
+development of sociology as a separate science.
+
+=The use of a text for study=
+
+I have no certified advice to offer on the question of textbooks. But
+the almost universal cry of sociology teachers is that so far no
+really satisfactory text has been produced. Some men still use
+Spencer, some write their own books, some try to adapt to their
+particular needs such texts as are issued from time to time, some use
+none at all but depend upon a more or less well-correlated syllabus or
+set of readings. There is undoubtedly a profitable demand for a good
+elementary source book comparable to Thomas's _Source Book on Social
+Origins_ or Marshall, Wright, and Field's _Materials for the Study of
+Elementary Economics_. Nearly any text will need freshening up by
+collateral reading from such periodicals as _The Survey or The New
+Republic_. In order to secure effective and correlated outside
+reading, many teachers have found it helpful to require the students
+to devote the first five or ten minutes of a class meeting once a week
+or even daily to a written summary of their readings and of class
+discussions. Such a device keeps readings fresh and enables the
+teacher to emphasize the points of contact between readings and class
+work.
+
+=The social museum=
+
+Every university should develop some sort of a social museum, to cover
+primitive types of men, the evolution of tools, arts of life, manners
+and customs, and contemporary social conditions. These can be
+displayed in the form of plaster casts, ethnographic specimens,
+photographs, lantern slides, models of housing, statistical charts,
+printed monographs, etc. The massing of a series of these
+illustrations sometimes produces a profound effect. For example, the
+corridor leading to the sociology rooms at the University of Minnesota
+has been lined with large photographs of tenement conditions, child
+labor, immigrant types, etc. The student's interest and curiosity have
+been heightened immensely. Once a semester, during the discussion of
+the economic factor in social life, we stage what is facetiously
+called "a display of society's dirty linen." The classroom is
+decorated with a set of charts showing the distribution of wealth,
+wages, cost of living, growth of labor unions and other organizations
+of economic protest. The mass effect is a cumulative challenge.
+
+=Field work: values and limitations=
+
+Finally, a word about "field work" as a teaching device. Field work
+usually means some sort of social service practice work under
+direction of a charitable agency, juvenile court, settlement, or
+playground. But beginning students are usually more of a liability
+than an asset to such agencies; they lack the time to supervise
+students' work, and field work without strict supervision is a
+farcical waste of time. If such agencies will accept a few students
+who have the learner's attitude rather than an inflated persuasion of
+their social Messiahship, field work can become a very valuable
+adjunct to class work. In default of such opportunities the very best
+field work is an open-eyed study of one's own community, in the
+attempt to find out what actually is rather than to reform a
+hypothetical evil.[38]
+
+                                                 ARTHUR J. TODD
+  _University of Minnesota_
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[34] In order to secure frank statements, both these autobiographies
+and the time budgets may be handed in anonymously.
+
+[35] _American Journal of Sociology_, 4:1-20; 7:1-28, 171-187.
+
+[36] In his _Men of the Old Stone Age_.
+
+[37] See such a diagram in Todd, _Theories of Social Progress_, page
+240.
+
+[38] While accepting full responsibility for the opinions herein set
+forth, I wish to express my appreciation of assistance rendered by a
+large group of colleagues in the American Sociological Society.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+
+A. THE TEACHING OF AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+=Function of the teacher of history=
+
+History as a science attempts to explain the development of
+civilization. The investigator of the sources of history must do his
+part in a truly scientific spirit. He must examine with the utmost
+scrutiny the many sources on which the history of the past has its
+foundation. He reveals facts, and through them the truth is
+established.
+
+But history is more than a science. It is an art. The investigator is
+not necessarily a historian, any more than a lumberman is an
+architect. The historian must use all available material, whether the
+result of his own researches or that of others. He must weigh all
+facts and deduct from them the truth. He must analyze, synthesize,
+organize, and generalize. He must absorb the spirit of the people of
+whom he writes and color the narrative as little as possible with his
+own prejudices. But the historian must be more than a narrator; he
+must be an interpreter. As an interpreter he should never lose sight
+of the fact that all his deductions should be along scientific lines.
+Even then he will not escape errors. In pure science error is
+inadmissible. In history minor errors of fact are unavoidable, but
+their presence need not seriously affect the general conclusions. In
+spite of many misstatements of fact, a historical work may be
+substantially correct in the main things--in presenting and
+interpreting with true perspective the life and spirit of the people
+of whom it treats.
+
+The historian must be more than a chronicler and an interpreter. He
+must be master of a lucid, virile, attractive literary style. The
+power of expression, indeed, must be one of his chief accomplishments.
+The old notion, it is true, that history is merely a branch of
+literature is quite as erroneous as the later theory that history is
+a pure science and must be dissociated from all literary form.
+
+=The teacher of history as the teacher of the evolution of civilization=
+
+The pioneer investigator who patiently delves into sources and brings
+to light new material deserves high praise, but far rarer is the gift
+of the man who sees history in its true perspective, who can construct
+the right relationships and can then reproduce the past in compelling
+literary form. A historian without literary charm is like an architect
+who cares only for the utility and nothing for the grace and beauty of
+his building.
+
+=The chronological point of view=
+
+The history teacher who slavishly follows old chronological methods
+has not kept pace with modern progress; but the teacher who has
+discarded the chronological method has ventured without a compass on
+an unknown sea. Chronology, the sequence of events, is as necessary in
+history as distance and direction in geography.
+
+=The economic point of view=
+
+A modern school of history teachers would make economics the sole
+background of history, would explain all historic events from the
+economic standpoint--to which school this writer does not belong.
+Economics has played a great part in the course of human events, but
+it is only one of many causes that explain history. For example, the
+Trojan War (if there was a Trojan War), the conquests of Alexander,
+the Mohammedan invasions, were due chiefly to other causes.
+
+=The culture viewpoint=
+
+Nor would we agree with the school of modern educators who would
+eliminate the culture studies from the curriculum, retaining only
+those which make for present-day utilitarianism. A general education
+imparts power and enlarges life, and such an education should precede
+all technical and specialized training. If a young man with the solid
+foundation of a liberal education fail in this or that walk of life,
+the fault must be sought elsewhere than in his education. The late E.
+H. Harriman made a wise observation when he said that though a high
+school graduate may excel the college graduate in the same employment
+for the first year, the latter would at length overtake and pass him
+and henceforth remain in the lead.
+
+=Aims of history in the college curriculum=
+
+The uses of the study of history are many, the most important of which
+perhaps is that it aids us in penetrating the present. Our
+understanding of every phase of modern life is no doubt strengthened
+by a knowledge of the past. It is trite but true to say that the study
+of history is a study of human nature, that a knowledge of the origin
+and growth of the institutions we enjoy makes for a good citizenship,
+that the study of history is a cultural study and that it ranks with
+other studies as a means of mental discipline. Finally, the reading of
+history by one who has learned to love it is an abiding source of
+entertainment and mental recreation. It is one of the two branches of
+knowledge (the other being literature) which no intelligent person,
+whatever his occupation, can afford to lay aside after quitting
+school.
+
+=What can the study of American history give the college student?=
+
+The most important historical study is always that of one's own
+country. In our American colleges, therefore, the study of American
+history must take precedence over that of any other, though an
+exception may be made in case a student is preparing to teach the
+history of some other country or period. It must not be forgotten,
+however, by the student of American history that a study of the
+European background is an essential part of it.
+
+From its very newness the history of the United States may seem less
+fascinating than that of the older countries, and, indeed, it is true
+that the glamour of romance that gathers around the stories of royal
+dynasties, orders of nobility, and ancient castles is wanting in
+American history. But there is much to compensate for this. The coming
+of the early settlers, often because of oppression in their native
+land, their long struggle with the forest and with the wild men and
+wild beasts of the forest, the gradual conquest of the soil, the
+founding of cities, the transplanting of European institutions and
+their development under new environment--the successful revolt against
+political oppression and the fearless grappling with the problem of
+self-government when nearly all governments in the world were
+monarchical--these and many other phases of American history furnish
+a most fascinating story as a mere story.
+
+=To the college student American history must be presented as evidence
+of the success of democracy=
+
+But to the student of politics and history the most unique and
+interesting thing, perhaps, in American history lies in the fact that
+the United States is the first great country in the world's history in
+which the federal system has been successful--if we assume that our
+experimental period has passed. Perhaps the greatest of all
+governmental problems is just this: How to strike the right balance
+between these opposing tendencies--liberty and union, democracy and
+nationality--so that the people may enjoy the benefits of both. The
+United States has, no doubt, come nearer than any other country to
+solving this problem, and the fact greatly enhances the interest in
+our history. This is a question of political science rather than of
+history, it is true, but the history of any country and its government
+are inseparably bound together.
+
+=Utilitarian value=
+
+In the regular college curriculum there should be, in my opinion, two
+courses in American history.
+
+=Organization of courses and methods of teaching=
+
+_Course I_--about 3 hours for one academic year (6 semester-hours) in
+the freshman or sophomore year, covering the whole story of the United
+States. About one third of the year's work should cover the Colonial
+and Revolutionary periods. Of the remaining two thirds of the year I
+should devote about half to the period since the Civil War.
+
+This course should be required of all students taking the A.B. degree
+and in all other liberal arts courses; an exception may be made in the
+case of those taking certain specialized scientific courses--for these
+students, the history required in the high school may be deemed
+sufficient.
+
+In this course a textbook is necessary, and if the class is large it
+is desirable that the text be uniform. The text should be written by a
+true historian with broad and comprehensive views, by one who knows
+how to appraise historic values, and, if possible, by one who commands
+an attractive literary style. If the textbook is written by Dr.
+Dry-as-dust, however learned he may be, the whole burden of keeping
+the class interested rests with the teacher; and, moreover, many of
+the students will never become lovers of the subject to such a degree
+as to make it a lifelong study.
+
+The exclusive lecture system is intolerable, and the same is true of
+the quiz. A teacher will do his best work if untrammeled by rules. He
+should conduct a class in his own way and according to his own
+temperament. It is doubtful if the teacher who carefully plans and
+maps out the work he intends to present to the class is the most
+successful teacher. A teacher who is free, spontaneous, without a
+fixed method, ready in passing from the lecture to the quiz and vice
+versa at any moment, quick in asking unexpected questions, will
+usually have little trouble in keeping a class alert. Above all, a
+teacher of college history must explain the meaning of things with far
+greater fullness than is possible in a condensed textbook, and it is a
+most excellent practice to ask opinions of members of the class on
+almost all debatable questions that may arise. The reason for this is
+obvious.
+
+The usual method of the writer, in as far as he has a method, is to
+spend the first fifteen or twenty minutes of the class hour in hearing
+reports from two or three students on special topics that have been
+assigned them a week or two before, topics that require library
+reference work and that could not possibly be developed from the
+textbook. These topics are not on the subject of the day's lesson, but
+of some preceding lesson. After commenting on these reports and often
+asking for opinions and comments of the class, we plunge into the
+day's lesson.
+
+The use of a current periodical in class should be encouraged. It
+brings the learner into direct contact with life and often illuminates
+the past.
+
+Current events as presented in the daily papers should often be the
+subject of comment, but the daily newspaper is not suitable for class
+use. Even the weekly is, for several reasons, less desirable than the
+monthly. It must not be forgotten that the basal, fundamental work of
+the class is, not to keep posted on current affairs, but to study the
+elements under the guidance of a textbook and an inspiring teacher to
+interpret it. The weekly is less accurate than the monthly and less
+literary in form, and, moreover, it comes too often. It is apt to take
+too much time from the study of the fundamentals. The use of the
+periodical in the history class has probably come to stay and it
+should stay, but it should be only incidental and supplementary.
+
+_Course II_ should be given in the junior or senior year. It should be
+elective, should cover at least two year-hours, and should be wholly
+devoted to the national period of American history. Only those having
+taken Course I should be eligible to this class.
+
+Every student who expects to read law, to enter journalism or
+politics, or to teach history or political science should take this
+course. The class will be smaller than in Course I. Uniform textbooks
+need not be required, or the class may be conducted without a text.
+Most of the work must be done from the library.
+
+It is assumed that the members of this class have a good knowledge of
+the narrative, and it is needless to follow it closely again. A better
+plan is to choose an important phase of the history here and there and
+study intensively. Much use should be made of original sources such as
+Presidents' messages, _Congressional Record_, speeches and writings of
+the times, but the class must not ignore the fact that a vast amount
+of good material may be had from the historians. It must also be
+remembered that original research is for the graduate student and the
+specialist rather than for the undergraduate.
+
+=Testing the results of instruction=
+
+In conclusion, I shall explain a method of examination that I have
+frequently employed with apparently excellent results. Two or three
+weeks before the time of the examination I give the class a series of
+topics, perhaps fifty or more, carefully chosen from the entire
+subject that has been studied during the semester. Instead of having
+the usual review of the text, we talk over these subjects in class
+during the remainder of the semester. The examination is oral, not
+written. The time for examination is divided into three, four, or five
+minute periods, according to the number in the class. When a student's
+name is called, he comes forward and draws from a box one of the
+topics and dilates on it before the class during his allotted time. If
+he fails on the first topic he may have another draw, but his grade
+will be reduced. A second failure would mean a "flunk," unless the
+class marks are very high.
+
+There are three or four real advantages in this form of examination:
+(1) It saves the teacher hours of labor in reading examination papers;
+(2) the teacher, in selecting the topics, omits the unimportant and
+chooses only the salient, leading subjects such as every student
+should master and remember; (3) the student, knowing that no new
+questions will be sprung for the examination, will be almost sure to
+be prepared on every question. Failures under this system have been
+much less frequent than under the old system of written examinations;
+(4) it practically eliminates all chance of cheating in examination.
+
+                                                 HENRY W. ELSON
+  _Thiel College_
+
+
+B. MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
+
+=History to be taught as an evolutionary process=
+
+Teaching European history in colleges is, in many ways, not different
+from teaching any other history. In each instance it is to be
+remembered that history includes all activities of man and not merely
+his political life, that facts and data are not intrinsically valuable
+but are merely a means to an end, that the end of history is to inform
+us where man came from, what experiences he passed through, and
+_chiefly_, what were the fundamental forces behind his experiences.
+The emphasis should be put on the stimuli--economic, political,
+religious, or social--that lead man to act, instead of narrating his
+action. In a word, not _what_ happened or _when_ it happened, but
+_why_ it happened, is of importance in college history. Stressing the
+stimuli in history will almost inevitably lead to treating history as
+a continuous or evolutionary process, which of itself greatly
+increases the interest of the subject.
+
+=Because history is an evolution it must explain the present=
+
+It is highly desirable that in teaching modern history very much more
+time be given to recent history than has generally been the case.
+Frederick William I showed that he accepted this when he instructed
+the tutors of Frederick (later the Great) to teach the history of the
+last fifty years to the exactest pitch. So important is this that,
+even when teaching early periods, constant contrasts or comparisons
+with present conditions should be made, and the descent of ideas and
+institutions to modern times should be sketched, as it shows the
+student that remote events or institutions have a relationship to
+current life.
+
+=Disciplinary values of history=
+
+Certain special aims of history have been advocated. It is held to be
+of disciplinary value, especially in strengthening the memory. Though
+this is true, it is hardly a good reason for studying history, as the
+memory can be perfected on almost anything, on the dictionary, poetry,
+formulae, family records, gossip, or cans on grocery shelves, some of
+which may indeed be of more practical value than dates. In college, at
+least, history should aim to explain social tendencies and processes
+in a rational way rather than to develop the memory. The latter method
+tends to make the student passive and narrow, the former requires
+cerebration and develops breadth and depth of vision. Understanding
+history, rather than memorizing it, has cultural value. To be sure,
+understanding presupposes information; but where there is a desire to
+understand, the process of seeking and acquiring the information is
+natural and tends to care for itself.
+
+History is not a prerequisite to professional careers in the way
+mathematics is to engineering; still, special periods, chiefly the
+modern, are highly useful to lawyers, journalists, publicists,
+statesmen, and others, each of whom selects what he finds most useful
+to his purposes.
+
+=Organization of courses in history--What to teach in the beginning course=
+
+The point of view in history teaching is more material than the
+machinery or methods employed. These must and should vary with persons
+and conditions. Ordinarily, however, it seems preferable to offer some
+part of European history as the first-year college course, because
+students have usually had considerable American history in high
+school, and the change adds new interest. Whether this course be
+general, medieval, or modern European history is of little importance,
+though, of course, medieval should precede modern history. In any
+case, the course should offer the student a good deal more than he may
+have had in high school, if for no other reason than to justify the
+profound respect with which he ordinarily comes to college. It should
+come often enough a week to grip the student, especially the history
+major.
+
+=Gradation of courses determined by content=
+
+Gradation of courses in history on the basis of subject matter is
+largely arbitrary, and turns upon the method of presentation. General
+courses naturally precede period courses. A sound principle is to
+select courses adapted to the stages of the student's development. On
+this principle it has already been suggested that the first college
+course should be, not American but European history. English, ancient,
+medieval, or modern history immediately suggest themselves, with
+strong arguments in favor of the first if but one freshman course is
+offered, as it forms a natural projection of American history into the
+past. Beyond this, what subject matter is offered in the several years
+is largely a matter of local convenience, as the college student
+understands the general history of all nations or periods about
+equally well. It is now clear, however, that the student should know
+more modern and contemporary European history than he has been
+getting, and the sound training of an American of the future should
+include thorough training in modern European history.
+
+=Gradation of courses may be determined by method of teaching=
+
+Gradation based on the method of presentation is more nearly possible.
+Graduate courses presuppose training in the auxiliary sciences, in the
+necessary languages, in research methods, in the special field of
+research, as well as a knowledge of general history. This establishes
+a sort of sequence of the methods to be employed, irrespective of
+subject matter.
+
+=Method of teaching introductory courses--Lecture method=
+
+The lecture method is convenient for the elementary courses,
+especially if, as is so often the case, these have a large number of
+students. It cannot, however, be gainsaid that convenience or, worse
+still, economy is a weak argument in favor of the lecture course,
+especially for the first-year student. To him the lecture method is
+unknown, and he flounders about a good deal if he is left to work out
+his own salvation; and then, too, just when he needs personal
+direction and particularly when, as a youth away from home for the
+first time, he needs some definite and unescapable task that shall
+teach discipline and duty as well as give information, the lecture
+system gives him the maximum of liberty with the minimum of aid or
+direction. These considerations strongly advocate small classes for
+freshmen, frequent recitations, discussions, tests, papers and maps,
+library problems--in short, a laboratory system. Every student should
+always have at least one course in which he is held to rigid and exact
+performance. These courses should be required, no matter what the
+special field or period of history, and should form a sequence leading
+to a degree and providing training for a technical and professional
+career. In addition to these courses, designed to assure personal work
+and supervision, enough other, presumably lecture, courses should be
+required to secure a general knowledge of history. Beyond that there
+are always enough electives to satisfy any personal wish or whim of
+the student.
+
+=Topical method in European history=
+
+There is much to be said, especially in modern history, for the
+topical treatment of institutions. In a very specialized course a
+single institution may be treated; but even in a general course,
+treating the several human institutions as evolutionary organisms
+seems preferable and is more interesting than a chronological
+narrative, which grows more inane the more general the course. Courses
+which come to modern times can trace existing institutions and their
+immediate antecedents, thus giving an advantage that many instructors
+neglect from the mere tradition that history does not come down to
+living man. No primitive superstition needs to be dispelled more than
+this, if history is to maintain its hold in the modern college.
+Indeed, whenever possible--which is always with modern history--a
+course should start from the present by dwelling on the existing
+conditions the historical antecedents of which are to be traced. If
+this is done, the student forthwith secures a vital interest and feels
+that he is trying to understand his own rather than past times. After
+this preliminary the past can be traced chronologically or topically
+as preferred, the textbook serving as a quarry for data, the teacher
+seeing to it that the change or progress toward the present condition
+is perceived and understood, and furnishing corroborative and
+analogous materials from the history of other nations and periods.
+
+=Assigned reading=
+
+It is the general practice of college courses in history to require
+outside reading. Though this rests on the sound ground that the
+student ought to get a large background and learn to know books and
+writers, it is very doubtful whether this aim is, in fact, achieved.
+The student often has too much work to permit of much outside reading,
+and often the library is too limited to give him a good choice, or to
+permit him to keep a desirable book until he has finished reading it.
+Unguided reading is almost certainly a failure; reading guided only by
+putting a selected list of books before the student is not sure to be
+a success. The instructor ought from time to time to tell his class
+something about the books he suggests, and about their authors and
+their careers, viewpoints and merits, as a reader always profits by
+knowing these things. As the reading of snatches from collateral books
+is hardly profitable, so the perusal of longer histories is often
+impossible, and generally confines the student for a long time to the
+minutiae of one period while the class is going forward. In view of
+these difficulties there is much to be said in favor of putting a
+large textbook into the hands of a class, and requiring a thorough
+reading and understanding of it, and correspondingly reducing outside
+readings. If collateral reading is demanded, it is a good plan to
+require students to read a biography or a work on some special
+institution falling within the scope of the course,--some selected
+historical novel even,--for in that way the student reads, as he will
+in later life, something he selects instead of a required number of
+pages, a specific thing is covered, an author's acquaintance is made,
+and therefore a significant test can be conducted. Furthermore, as
+some students will buy special volumes of this kind, the pressure on
+the library is reduced. Direct access to reference shelves is always
+recommended. One of our universities has a system of renting preferred
+books to students.
+
+=Tests on outside reading=
+
+Tests on outside reading are always difficult, but they must be
+employed if the reading is not to become a farce. By having weekly
+reading reports on uniform cards, one can often arrange groups of
+students who have read the same thing and can therefore be tested by a
+single question. By extending this over several weeks the majority of
+students, even in a large class, can be tested with relatively few
+questions. Some instructors require students to hand in their reading
+notes, others check up the books the students use in the library,
+still others have consultation periods in which they inquire into the
+student's reading. Quiz sections, if there are any, offer a good
+opportunity to test collateral reading.
+
+=Miscellaneous aids in teaching history=
+
+Map making, coordinated with the recitations and so designed as to
+require more than mere tracing, is desirable in introductory courses.
+The imaginative historical theme written by the student is
+employed--and successfully, it is declared--in one college. A syllabus
+is highly useful in the hands of students in lecture courses. It can
+be mimeographed at comparatively slight expense for each lecture, thus
+permitting changes in successive years--a distinct advantage over the
+printed syllabus.
+
+=The problem of suitable examination=
+
+How to give a fair and telling examination is the college teacher's
+perennial problem. The less he teaches and insists on facts and
+details, the greater his quandary. A majority of students incline to
+parrot what they have heard, to the dismay of the teacher who wants
+them to make the subject their own. Hence tests calling the memory
+only into play do not satisfy the true teacher or the thoughtful
+student. At the least there should be some questions requiring
+constructive or synthetic thinking by the student. Above all, the
+instructor of introductory work should form a first-hand personal
+opinion of the student by requiring him to come to the office for
+consultation. Nothing can take the place of the personal touch. Quiz
+masters are better than no touch; but they are a poor substitute for
+the small class and direct contact, even if the instructor is not one
+of the masters of the profession.
+
+=The worth of topical or institutional treatment=
+
+The topical or institutional treatment of history has been mentioned
+above as being particularly applicable to modern history. If carefully
+worked out beforehand it can be made to embrace virtually
+everything--certainly everything significant--that is contained either
+in the text or in a chronological narrative. To be sure, a topical
+treatment of this kind places more emphasis on the common experiences
+of mankind than does national history, and, as some nations or peoples
+precede others in a given development, history becomes continuous
+instead of fragmentary. Perhaps, too, the way certain matters are
+introduced into "continuous" history may appear forced, unless it be
+remembered that this impression is created merely by its dissimilarity
+from the usual interpretation, which is just as arbitrary and forced
+until one gets accustomed to it.
+
+=Classification in topical treatment=
+
+It will be serviceable in arranging a topical treatment of any period
+of history, which shall show a sense of historical continuity and keep
+in mind the fundamental stimuli and causes of human action, to note
+that virtually all human interests can be classified under one of the
+following six heads: physical, economic, social, religious, political,
+and intellectual (or cultural). Though these are never wholly isolated
+and are always interactive, one or the other may be specially
+significant in a given era, and thus we speak of a religious age, an
+age of rationalism, or the period of the industrial revolution.
+
+
+SUGGESTED TOPICAL OUTLINE OF MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
+
+To apply this more specifically to modern European history, there
+follows an outline of topics. It is general to about 1789, and more
+detailed for the period since that time (IV below), the endeavor being
+to show how a topical treatment of the development of democracy can be
+made to include practically everything of significance. There are
+certain cautions necessary here: that the outline is suggestive only,
+that it does not pretend or aim to be complete, that specific data
+often found in the sub-heads are to serve as illustrations and not as
+a complete statement of sub-topics; and that it is in fact merely a
+skeleton which can be extended and amplified indefinitely by
+insertions.
+
+  I. Background of the modern period.
+    _A._ Economic and social conditions at the close of the Middle Age.
+    _B._ Political nature of feudalism.
+         The governments of the 15th century.
+    _C._ The medieval church.
+
+  II. The development of religious liberty.
+    _A._ The Reformation.
+    _B._ Varieties of Protestant sects, from state churches to
+         individualistic sects.
+    _C._ The Religious Wars, and toleration.
+
+  III. Absolute monarchy.
+    _A._ Dynastic states.
+    _B._ Dynastic wars and the balance of power.
+
+  IV. The development of democracy.
+   _A._ The dynastic feudal state (_Ancien Regime_).
+      1. Description of the _Ancien Regime_.
+      2. Proponents of the _Ancien Regime_.
+         Dynasties (divine right monarchs).
+         Feudal landlords.
+         Higher clergy and state churches.
+         The army command (younger sons of the nobility).
+         The schools (education for privileged classes only).
+    _B._ The revolutionary elements.
+      1. The dissatisfied feudal serf.
+      2. The intellectuals, rationalists, political theorists.
+         The "social compact." ... Popular sovereignty.
+      3. Religious dissenters.
+      4. Industrial elements.
+         _a._ The Industrial Revolution.
+              Resulting in exportation, markets, and _laissez-faire_
+              doctrines.
+         _b._ The bourgeoisie (employers) ... The Third Estate.
+         _c._ The proletariat ... Unorganized labor elements.
+    _C._ The Revolutionary Period, 1789-1800.
+      1. Triumph of bourgeoisie over feudal aristocracy in France,
+           1789-1791.
+         Limited monarchy. Mirabeau.
+      2. Increasing influence and rise to control of France of the Parisian
+         proletariat. The Republic ... The Terror ... Robespierre.
+      3. Radiation of revolutionary ideas to other nations.
+      4. Wars between revolutionary France and monarchical Europe.
+           The rise of Napoleon.
+    _D._ The decline of the revolutionary elements, 1800-1815.
+      1. France converted from a republic to an empire by Napoleon.
+      2. The Napoleonic Wars.
+         _a._ Reveal Napoleon's dynastic ambition.
+         _b._ Lead Europe to combine against him and to blame democratic
+              ideas for the sorrows of the time.
+         _c._ Result in the defeat of Napoleon and the triumph of
+              anti-democratic or reactionary elements.
+    _E._ The fruits of the principle of popular sovereignty during the
+         19th century (chronologically England and France lead the other
+         countries in most of these developments).[39]
+      1. Constitutions, embodying ever-increasing popular rights and
+         powers.
+      2. Extension of suffrage. Political parties and party politics.
+      3. The spirit of nationality.
+         Independence of Greece and Belgium.
+         Unification of Italy and Germany.
+         National revivals in Poland, Bulgaria, Servia, Rumania, Bohemia,
+           Finland, Ireland, and elsewhere.
+         Pan-Germanism, Pan-Slavism, Imperial Federation.
+      4. Class consciousness and strife.
+         Feudal aristocratic class--leans toward absolute monarchy.
+         Bourgeoisie (employing capitalists)--leans toward limited
+           monarchies or republics.
+         Labor--leans toward socialism. (The other elements in the society
+           are slow in developing a group consciousness.)
+      5. Abolition of feudal forms and tenures.
+         Fight on great landlords. Encouragement of independent farmers.
+         Emancipation and protection of peasants: France, 1789; Prussia,
+           1808; Austria, 1848; Russia, 1861.
+      6. Social, socialistic, and humanitarian legislation.
+         Factory acts, minimum wage laws, industrial insurance, old age
+           insurance, labor exchanges, child labor laws, prison reform
+           acts, revision of penal codes, abolition of slavery and slave
+           trade, government control or ownership of railways, telephones,
+           telegraph, and mails.
+      7. Opposition to state or national churches.
+         Disestablishment agitations ... Separation of church and state.
+      8. Demand for free public schools to replace church or other private
+         schools. State lay schools in England ... Suppression of teaching
+         orders in France ... Kulturkampf in Germany ... Expulsion of
+         Jesuits ... Tendency toward compulsory non-sectarian education.
+      9. Imperialism.
+         Industrial societies depend on imports, exports, and markets as
+           means of keeping labor employed and people prosperous.
+         This means export of capital, hence, plans for colonies, closed
+           doors, preferential markets, and demands for the protection of
+           citizens abroad and political stability in backward areas.
+         Partition of Africa, Asia, and Near East.
+      10. Militarism.
+          Expansion and colonial acquisition by one country exclude
+           another, thus unsettling the balance of power. Therefore
+           rival nations depend on force and go in for military and
+           naval programs.
+    _F._ The conflict between reactionary and bourgeois
+           interests, 1815-1848.
+      1. Reactionary elements in control--opposed to democracy and
+         revolutionary doctrines.
+         _a._ Restore Europe as nearly as possible on old lines at Vienna,
+                1815.
+              Ignore liberal tendencies and national sentiments.
+         _b._ Seek to maintain _status quo_.
+              Metternich ... Holy Alliance.
+              Carlsbad Decrees ... Congresses of Troppau, Laibach,
+                Verona ... Intervention in Naples, Piedmont, and Spain.
+              Proposal to restore Latin America to Monarchy.
+              Opposed by Great Britain in compliance with bourgeois
+                interests.
+              Monroe Doctrine.
+         _c._ Failed to prevent:
+              Greek revolution and independence (national movement).
+              Separation of Belgium from the Netherlands (national).
+              Revival of liberal demands in various quarters, producing the
+                revolution of 1830 in France and elsewhere.
+      2. The ascendancy of the bourgeoisie, 1830-1848.
+         _a._ Industrialism on the continent.
+         _b._ The bourgeois (capitalist employer) secures political power
+                to advance his interests.
+              Revolution of 1830.
+              Reform bill of 1832.
+              Legislation against labor organizations and for tariffs
+                favoring trade.
+         _c._ The development of organized labor and socialism.
+              Legislation hostile to labor. Chartism.
+              Labor in France, Germany, and Belgium.
+              Spread of socialist doctrines.
+         _d._ The Revolution of 1848.
+              Socialist republican state in France, 1848.
+              The winning of constitutions in Prussia, Austria, and
+                elsewhere--breach in the walls of reaction.
+    _G._ The broadening base of democracy, 1848-1914.
+      1. The organization of labor.
+      2. The spread of socialistic views and of class consciousness.
+         Karl Marx.
+      3. The resistance of the old aristocratic class and the bourgeoisie,
+           who gradually fuse to form the conservative element in all
+           nations.
+         Napoleon III restores the Empire in France.
+         In Austria and Prussia, Bismarck and Francis Joseph II retrieve
+           losses of 1848.
+         Disraeli and Conservatives in England.
+      4. The progress toward universal suffrage after 1865, strengthening
+           political position of lower classes.
+         Vindication of democratic government through triumph of the North
+           in the United States gave impetus to democracy abroad.
+         Electoral reform bills in Great Britain, 1867, 1884, 1885.
+         Franco-Prussian War and the Third French Republic. Universal
+           suffrage.
+         Unification of Germany and universal suffrage.
+         Russian Revolution, 1917.
+         Woman suffrage.
+      5. Popular sovereignty and its consequences.
+         _a._ Triumph of republicans and radicals in France over
+                monarchists and clericals.
+         _b._ Liberal ministries in United Kingdom.
+              Lloyd George Budget ... Parliament Act. Social legislation.
+         _c._ Growth of Social Democratic party in Germany.
+              Bismarck and state socialism.
+         _d._ In recent times the many divergent political parties fall
+              rather instinctively into three groups which have opposing
+              views and policies on almost every question, and which may
+              be called:
+                Conservatives (Tories, aristocrats, monarchists, Junkers,
+                  clericals, capitalists, imperialists, militarists);
+                  peasants and farmers, being conservative, are usually
+                  politically allied to this group.
+                Liberals (progressives, democrats, labor parties,
+                  Socialists, social democrats, Dissenters,
+                  anti-imperialists, anti-militarists).
+              Radicals, Bolsheviki or revolutionists seeking change of the
+                economic and social order.
+      6. Effects of the war
+         _a._ Extensive nationalization and socialization of industry and
+              human rights in all belligerent countries.
+         _b._ Develops into a "war for democracy," and for moral as opposed
+              to materialistic aims.
+         _c._ Culminates in an attempt to secure a righteous and lasting
+              peace through the instrumentality of a league of nations.
+
+                                                EDWARD KREHBIEL
+
+  _Leland Stanford Junior University_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+TEXTS
+
+ANDREWS, C. M. _Historical Development of Modern Europe._ Two vols. G.
+P. Putnam's Sons, 1900.
+
+HAYES, CARLTON J. H. _A Political and Social History of Modern
+Europe._ Two vols. The Macmillan Company, 1916.
+
+ROBINSON, J. H., and BEARD, C. A. _The Development of Modern Europe._
+Two vols. Ginn and Co., 1907, 1908.
+
+SCHEVILL, FERDINAND. A_ Political History of Modern Europe._ Charles
+Scribner's Sons, 1907.
+
+PERIOD HISTORIES
+
+BOURNE, HENRY ELDREDGE. _The Revolutionary Period in Europe._ The
+Century Company, 1914.
+
+_Cambridge Modern History._ Thirteen vols. and maps. I. the
+Renaissance; II. The Reformation; III. The Wars of Religion; IV. The
+Thirty Years' War; V. The Age of Louis XIV; VI. The Eighteenth
+Century; VII. The United States; VIII. The French Revolution; IX.
+Napoleon; X. The Restoration; XI. The Growth of Nationalities; XII.
+The Latest Age; XIII. Genealogical Tables and Lists and General Index;
+also on atlas, in another volume. Cambridge, the University Press,
+1902-1912.
+
+HAZEN, CHARLES DOWNER. _Europe since 1815._ Henry Holt & Co., 1910.
+
+LINDSAY, T. M. _A History of the Reformation._ Two vols. Charles
+Scribner's Sons, 1906-1907.
+
+LOWELL, E. J. _The Eve of the French Revolution._
+
+SCHAPIRO, JACOB SALWYN. _Modern and Contemporary European History._
+Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O. _The Ascendancy of France._ The Macmillan Company,
+1894.
+
+SOURCE BOOKS
+
+ANDERSON, FRANK MALOY. _The Constitutions and Other Select Documents
+Illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1901._ H. W. Wilson
+Company, Minneapolis, 1904.
+
+FLING, FRED MORROW. _Source Problems of the French Revolution._ Harper
+and Brothers, 1913.
+
+ROBINSON, J. H. _Readings in European History._ Two vols. Ginn and
+Co., 1904.
+
+---- _Readings in European History._ Abridged Edition. Ginn and Co.,
+1906.
+
+ROBINSON, J. H., and BEARD, C. A. _Readings in Modern European
+History._ Two vols. Ginn and Co., 1908.
+
+---- _Readings in Modern European History._ Abridged Edition. Ginn and
+Co., 1909.
+
+ATLASES
+
+_Cambridge Modern History._ Volume of Maps. Cambridge, the University
+Press, 1912.
+
+DOW, EARLE W. _Atlas of European History._ Henry Holt & Co., 1909.
+
+DROYSE, GUSTAV. _Allgemeiner historischer Kandatlas._ Velhagen und
+Klasing, Leipzig, 1886.
+
+GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON. _A School Atlas of English History._
+Longmans, Green & Co., 1910.
+
+POOLE, REGINAL LANE. _Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from the
+Decline of the Roman Empire._ H. Frowde, 1896-1902.
+
+PUTZGER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM. _Historischer Schul-atlas zur alten,
+mittleren, und neunen Geschichte._ Velhagen und Klasing, Leipzig,
+1910.
+
+SHEPHERD, WILLIAM ROBERT. _Historical Atlas._ Henry Holt & Co., 1911.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
+
+ADAMS, CHARLES KENDALL. _A Manual of Historical Literature._ Harper
+and Brothers, 1888.
+
+ANDREWS, GAMBRILL, and TALL. _A Bibliography of History for Schools
+and Libraries._ Longmans, Green & Co., 1911.
+
+PEDAGOGICAL
+
+Committee of Seven. American Historical Association. _The Study of
+History in the Schools._ The Macmillan Company, 1899.
+
+Committee of Five. American Historical Association. _The Study of_
+_History in the Secondary Schools._ The Macmillan Company, 1911.
+
+DUNN, ARTHUR WILLIAM. _The Social Studies in Secondary Education._
+Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 28,
+1916.
+
+JOHNSON, H. _The Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary
+Schools._ 1915.
+
+ROBINSON, JAMES HARVEY. _The New History; Essays Illustrating the
+Modern History Outlook._ The Macmillan Company, 1912.
+
+HISTORICAL FICTION
+
+BAKER, E. A. _History in Fiction._ Two vols. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1907.
+
+NIELD, JONATHAN. _A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and Tales._ G.
+P. Putnam's Sons.
+
+PERIODICALS
+
+_The American Historical Review._ Published by the American Historical
+Association, Washington, D. C.
+
+_The History Teacher's Magazine._ McKinley Publishing Company,
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[39] This summary of the consequences of the doctrines of democracy is
+allowed to break into the topical development of the outline, as it
+gives a sort of general introduction to tendencies since 1815. It will
+not escape the teacher that he could treat history since 1815 by
+taking up in order the topics given under this heading.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+THE TEACHING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+
+=Scope of political science=
+
+Certain phases of what is known as political science form to no small
+degree the content of courses in other branches of study. The
+engineering schools in their effort to set forth the regulation of
+public utilities with respect to engineering problems have begun to
+offer courses which deal extensively with politics and government. In
+political and constitutional history, considerable attention is given
+to the organization and administration of the various divisions of
+government. To a greater degree, however, the allied departments of
+economics and sociology have begun, in the development of their
+respective fields, to analyze matters which are primarily of a
+political nature. Especially in what is designated as applied
+economics and applied sociology there is to be found material a large
+part of which relates directly to the regulation and administration of
+governmental affairs. Thus in portions of the courses designated as
+labor problems, money and banking, public finance, trust problems,
+public utility regulation, problems in social welfare, and
+immigration, primary consideration is frequently given to government
+activities and to the influences and conditions surrounding government
+control.
+
+While these courses, then, deal in part with subject matter which
+belongs primarily to the science of politics and while any
+comprehensive survey of instruction in political science would include
+an account of the phases of the subject presented in other
+departments, for the present purpose it has been advisable to limit
+the consideration of the teaching of political science to the subjects
+usually offered under that designation.[40] Some attention, however,
+will be given later to the relation of political science to allied
+subjects.
+
+A difference of opinion exists as to the meaning of political science,
+some institutions using the term in a broad sense to embody courses
+offered in history, economics, politics, public law, and sociology,
+and others giving the word a very narrow meaning to include a few
+specialized courses in constitutional and administrative law. There
+is, nevertheless, a strong tendency to have the term "political
+science" comprise all of the subjects which deal primarily with the
+organization and the administration of public affairs.
+
+=Courses usually offered in political science=
+
+Through an exhaustive survey made by the Committee on Instruction of
+the American Political Science Association, covering instruction in
+political science in colleges and universities, the subjects which are
+usually offered may be indicated in two groups:
+
+LEADING COURSES FOR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES[41]
+
+(Given in order of number of instruction hours, with highest ranked
+first.)
+
+  _A._ Major Courses.
+
+    1. American government--including national, state, and local.
+    2. General political science--mainly political theory, with some
+       comparative government.
+    3. Comparative government--devoted chiefly to a study of England,
+       France, Germany, and the United States.
+    4. International law.
+    5. Commercial law.
+    6. Municipal government.
+    7. Constitutional law.
+
+  _B._ Minor Courses.
+
+    1. Jurisprudence, or elements of law.
+    2. Political theories.
+    3. Diplomacy.
+    4. State government.
+    5. Political parties.
+    6. Government of England.
+    7. Legislative methods of procedure.
+    8. Roman law.
+    9. Regulation of social and industrial affairs.
+
+While the purposes and objects of instruction in this rather extensive
+group of subjects vary considerably, it seems desirable to analyze the
+chief objects in accordance with which political science courses are
+presented to students of collegiate grade.
+
+=Aims of instruction in government=
+
+The aims of instruction in government are (1) to train for
+citizenship; (2) to prepare for professions such as law, teaching,
+business, and journalism; (3) to train experts and prepare specialists
+for government positions; (4) to provide facilities and lead students
+into research material and research methods. Each of these aims
+affects to a certain extent a different class of students and renders
+the problem as to methods of instruction correspondingly difficult.
+
+=1. Training for citizenship=
+
+In a certain sense all instruction may be looked upon as giving
+training for the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, and
+undoubtedly a great deal of instruction in other subjects aids in the
+process of citizenship training. Nevertheless, a heavy responsibility
+rests upon departments of political science to lead students into the
+extensive literature on government as well as to instruct them with
+respect to the organizations and methods by which the political and
+social affairs are being conducted. In short, one of the primary aims
+of government instruction and one which is kept foremost in the
+arrangement of courses is elementary training for the average student
+in the principles, the practices, and the technique of governmental
+affairs. For such citizenship training, which is usually given in
+large elementary classes, a special method of instruction and system
+of procedure are pursued. It is necessary to provide subject matter
+which is informational in character, as the lack of knowledge of the
+governments of home and foreign countries is ordinarily appalling, and
+which will open up by way of discussion and comparison many of the
+leading problems of modern politics. More necessary and indispensable
+is a method of study which will aid in pursuing inquiries along the
+many and varied lines which will devolve upon the citizen performing
+his multifarious duties and discharging his many responsibilities. As
+many of the students will take but a single course, the opening up to
+them of the vast field of government literature is one of the aims to
+be constantly kept in mind. Moreover, while all of the above are
+essential matters in the elementary courses, the most important
+consideration of all is that the teaching of politics and government
+will have utterly failed unless there are created a desire and an
+interest which will lead into many lines of investigation beyond those
+offered in a single introductory course. The development of this
+interest and appreciation is the all-important object.
+
+=2. Preparation for the professions=
+
+Many who enter the introductory courses in government select the
+subject with the idea of continuing their preparation for professional
+life in their chosen fields. Among the professions which particularly
+seek instruction in government are chiefly law, teaching, business,
+and journalism. For these groups of students, many of whom continue
+the study of the subject for several years, often going on into the
+advanced courses in graduate departments, it is recognized that
+beginning work which is too general and discursive may be less useful
+than a specialized course which may be rounded out by a series of
+correlated courses. Consequently, there is a question whether the
+professional student, interested in the study of government, should
+begin his work under the same conditions and with the same methods as
+the student who does not expect to continue the subject. The number of
+those who are preparing for the professions is often so large as to
+require separate consideration and to affect seriously the
+determination of the method and content of the introductory course.
+This difficulty is obviated where professional courses are provided,
+giving instruction in government and citizenship, as is now the
+practice in certain law schools, in some departments of journalism,
+and in a few engineering schools. For each of the major professions in
+which government instruction is particularly sought a different type
+of course is desired. For the law student comparative public law,
+jurisprudence, and specialized government courses in various fields
+are usually demanded. For the journalist, general subjects dealing
+with specific countries and with the political practices of all
+governments are regarded of special benefit. For the teaching
+profession the study of some one line and specialization in a
+particular field seem to be a necessity. Which is the better, such
+specialized government courses for professional students, or a general
+course for all introductory students, is still an undetermined
+problem. The fact that most of the conditions and problems of
+citizenship are similar for all these groups and that there is great
+difficulty in providing separate instruction for each group renders it
+necessary to provide an elementary course which is adapted to the
+needs and which will serve the purpose of the citizen seeking a
+general introduction in one course and the professional student who
+seeks entrance to advanced courses.
+
+=3. Training for public service and preparation of specialists for
+government positions=
+
+Colleges and universities have recently begun to give special
+instruction for the training of those who desire to enter the
+government service. A few institutions are offering courses and a
+considerable number are beginning to adapt instruction which will be
+of service not only to those who anticipate entrance into some form of
+public work, but also to those who are engaged in performing public
+service in some department of government. As a matter of fact, the
+training of specialists must in large measure be cared for by
+professional and technical schools, such as the provision for
+directors of public health by medical schools, the training of
+sanitary engineers by the engineering schools, the training of
+accountants, statisticians, and financial experts by the schools of
+commerce and finance. Nevertheless, departments offering instruction
+in general political subjects are expected to give some consideration
+to and to make special arrangements for advanced courses in the way of
+preparing those who seek to enter the various divisions of the
+government service, such as the consular and diplomatic affairs,
+charitable and social work, and the administrative regulation of
+public utilities, industrial affairs, and the public welfare. Through
+the introduction of specialized courses in municipal, state, and
+national administration it is possible to prepare more adequately for
+various branches of public administration.
+
+=4. Special courses in research and research methods=
+
+Although research methods and graduate courses of instruction in
+political science developed rather slowly, a substantial beginning has
+been made by the universities in the offering of advanced courses in
+which a specialized study is made of some of the problems of
+government and the methods of administration. Through these courses
+valuable contributions have been made to the historical and
+comparative phases of the subject and to some extent to the analytical
+study of government in operation. The primary aim has been to provide
+an avenue and an opportunity for those who look forward to teaching or
+to entering the field of special research work in politics and
+governmental affairs. The results of the research work have been
+rendered available to government officials and departments through
+bureaus of research and other agencies devised to aid in improving the
+public service. Only a few universities separate the graduate from the
+undergraduate students, and as a result the instruction cannot be of
+strictly graduate character and quality. Much of the present research
+is done with small groups of students in a seminar where personal
+direction is given to investigations and where the methods of research
+are developed under direct supervision.
+
+=Value of the subject=
+
+Any determination of the value of a subject in the school curriculum
+is necessarily based upon the opinions of individuals whose judgment
+will vary in large measure according to their respective training,
+influences, and predilections. The value of the subject which is
+usually placed first is its usefulness in imparting information. Much
+instruction in government is descriptive and informational in
+character and is offered primarily to increase the stock of knowledge
+and to give information with respect to the present and the future
+interests of the citizen. While this descriptive material has served a
+useful purpose, it is doubtful whether, as in the formal civics of the
+public schools, the method of imparting information has not been used
+so extensively as to have a detrimental effect. Too much attention has
+been given to the memorization of facts and the temporary accumulation
+of information more or less useful, and correspondingly too little to
+thinking on the great political and social issues of the day.
+
+When governments are engaging in endless activities which affect the
+welfare of society in its social and aesthetic, as well as political
+aspects, government instruction becomes increasingly necessary and
+valuable as a cultural study. The recent development in European
+political affairs has impressed upon the citizens of this country as
+never before the results of a profound ignorance with respect to
+conditions in foreign countries. While the knowledge of the affairs of
+the great nations of the world has hitherto appeared advisable, it has
+now come to be regarded as a necessity. From the standpoint of culture
+a knowledge of the institutions of one's own country and of other
+countries is one of the cardinal elements of education and provisions
+for such instruction ought to be placed among the few primary topics
+in the preparation of all educational programs. If culture involves an
+understanding of the social and political conditions of the past and
+present as well as some appreciation of the problems which confront
+the individual in his activities of life, then the study of both
+history and government must be given a foremost rank among the
+subjects now classified as cultural.
+
+With respect to formal discipline government instruction has been
+rated lower than that of the more exact subjects, the languages and
+mathematics. While it is true that from the standpoint of formal
+discipline and exact methods government instruction has not measured
+up to that of some other subjects, it must be remembered that the
+standardization of instruction, and the methods pursued in other
+subjects, have developed through a long process of years to the
+present effectiveness in mental discipline. As the study of government
+becomes more specialized, the material in the field worked into more
+concrete form for purposes of instruction, the methods better
+developed with the formulation of standard plans and principles, the
+disciplinary value of the subject will be increased. The development
+now in process is bringing about changes which will greatly enhance
+not only the usefulness but in a large measure the disciplinary value
+of the subject.
+
+=Place in college curriculum=
+
+Instruction in government is usually offered only to students who have
+acquired sophomore standing. A few institutions now give a course in
+government in the freshman year, and the practice seems to be meeting
+with success. Sentiment is growing in favor of this plan. The argument
+presented for this change is that a large percentage of the freshman
+class does not continue college work, and consequently many students
+have no opportunity to become acquainted with the special problems of
+politics and government. To meet the need of those who spend but one
+year in college, it is claimed that an introduction should be given to
+the study of government problems. While there are strong reasons in
+support of this change, the prevailing sentiment for the present
+favors the requirement of a year's work in college as a prerequisite.
+The advocates of this arrangement contend that in view of the fact
+that most of the high schools are now giving a half of a year or a
+year to civic instruction on somewhat the same plan as would be
+necessary in a first-year college course, it seems better from the
+standpoint of the student as well as of the department to defer the
+introductory course until better methods of study and greater maturity
+of mind are acquired.
+
+Sophomore standing is the only prerequisite for the elementary course
+except in a few institutions where the selection of a course in
+history in the freshman year is required. A few colleges are offering
+to freshmen an introductory course in the social sciences, comprising
+mainly some elementary material from economics, sociology, and
+political science. While there are some advantages in the effort to
+give a general introduction to the social sciences, no practicable
+content or method for such a course has yet been prepared. Moreover,
+it seems likely now that such a general introduction will be
+attempted either in the junior or in the senior high school. For
+advanced work in the senior high school and for the introductory
+college course reason and practice both favor a separation of these
+subjects, with close correlation and constant consideration of the
+interrelations.
+
+=The introductory course=
+
+It is customary to introduce students to the study of government
+through a general course in American government, dealing briefly with
+national, state, and local institutions. Other subjects, such as
+comparative government,--including a consideration of some
+representative foreign countries along with American government,--an
+introductory course in political science, and international law, are
+sometimes used as basic courses to introduce students to subsequent
+work. The general practice in the introductory course seems to be
+approaching a standard in which either American government is made the
+basis of study, with comparisons from European practices and methods,
+or European governments are studied, with attention by way of
+comparison to the American system of government. The Committee of
+Seven of the American Political Science Association offered the
+following suggestions relative to the introductory course, which it
+seems well to quote in full. The Committee recommended that:
+
+     American government be taken as the basis for the introductory
+     course because it is convinced that there is an imperative need
+     for a more thorough study of American institutions, because the
+     opportunity for this study is not now offered in any but a few of
+     the best secondary schools, and because it is exceedingly
+     important that the attention of an undergraduate be directed
+     early in his course to a vital personal interest in his own
+     government, national, state, and local. Instruction in political
+     science is rarely given until the second or third year of the
+     college work, and thus unless American government is selected for
+     the first course only a small percentage of students receive
+     encouragement and direction in the study of political affairs
+     with which they will constantly be expected to deal in their
+     ordinary relations as citizens. But the committee believes that
+     this study of American government can be distinctly vitalized by
+     the introduction of such comparisons with European practices and
+     forms as will supply the student with a broader basis of
+     philosophical conclusions as to constitutional development and
+     administrative practices.
+
+     The Committee is of the opinion that despite the very marked
+     increase of courses in American government within the past few
+     years, one of the immediate needs is the further extension and
+     enlargement of these courses. In only a few institutions is
+     enough time given to the subject to permit anything more than the
+     most cursory survey of the various features of the government,
+     and almost invariably state and local government suffer in the
+     cutting process which is necessary. About seventy institutions
+     only give courses in which state and local government are the
+     basis of special study. In order that state and local government
+     shall be given more consideration, and in order that judicial
+     procedure and administrative methods shall receive more than
+     passing notice, it is absolutely necessary that the time allotted
+     to American government be increased. Nothing short of a full year
+     of at least three hours a week gives the necessary time and
+     opportunity do anything like full justice to the national, state,
+     and local units.[42]
+
+
+Because of the fact that only a small percentage of the student body
+elects this course under present conditions, and because the majority
+of those who do elect it never have an opportunity to continue the
+study of government, it is thought that the selection of American
+government for the beginning subject has the tendency to foster
+provincialism. When but one course is taken this one, it is contended,
+should deal with foreign governments, to supply a broader basis for
+the comparison of political institutions. As the study of government
+is introduced in the grades and thorough and effective instruction is
+offered in the high school, it will become increasingly practicable to
+introduce the comparative method in introductory courses.
+
+=Sequence of courses=
+
+One of the difficulties in the instruction in political science which
+has received less consideration than it deserves is that of the sequence
+of courses. In the determination of sequence it is customary to have an
+introductory course, such as American government, European government,
+or political theory, and to make this subject a prerequisite for all
+advanced courses. As the introductory course requires sophomore
+standing, it renders entrance into advanced courses open only to
+students of junior rank or above. After passing the first course, there
+are open for election a number of subjects, mainly along specialized
+lines. This condition is to be found, particularly, in the large
+universities, where a group of instructors offer specialized work, with
+either little or no advice to students as to the proper arrangement or
+sequence of courses. The ordinary classification is into three groups:
+(1) an elementary course, prerequisite for advanced instruction; (2)
+courses for graduate and undergraduate students, seldom arranged on a
+basis of sequence or logical order;--the lack of sequence is due in part
+to the fact that after taking elementary work the student in government
+frequently wishes to specialize in the field of federal government, or
+of state government, or of international law, or possibly of political
+theory; (3) courses for graduate students, which are intended primarily
+for investigation and research. Students who specialize in government
+are generally advised by the head of the department or the professor
+under whom their work is directed, as to the proper arrangement and
+correlation of courses. It is, however, questionable whether some plan
+of sequence more definitely outlined than that now to be found in most
+catalogs ought not to be prepared in advance for the consideration of
+those who look forward to specializing in political science. Such an
+arrangement of sequence has been prepared by the department of political
+science of the University of Chicago, which divides its work into (1)
+elementary, (2) intermediate, (3) advanced--the advanced courses being
+subdivided into (_a_) theory, (_b_) constitutional relations, (_c_)
+public administration, and (_d_) law. Suggestions are offered as to the
+principal and secondary sequences for various groups of students.
+
+The sequence of courses could be better arranged provided a freshman
+course were offered. A freshman course in American government could be
+given, with some attention by way of comparison to European methods
+and practices, and followed by an intermediate course dealing with
+some select foreign governments, again using the comparative method
+and viewpoint. Two courses of this character would offer a greater
+opportunity to give the instruction now desired from the standpoint of
+the average student and citizen, and would serve as a better basis for
+advanced instruction than the single course now customarily offered
+either in American or comparative government. After taking the
+elementary courses the student could then be allowed to select from a
+group of subjects in one of the various lines, according to the
+special field in which he is interested. In short, the arrangement of
+the sequence of courses will necessarily be unsatisfactory as long as
+the elementary course is offered only to those of at least sophomore
+rank, a practice which unfortunately necessitates in many cases the
+beginning of the work in the junior or senior year. It will be
+necessary to introduce the subject earlier in the curriculum, in order
+to arrange such a sequence as would seem desirable from the standpoint
+of thorough and effective instruction.
+
+=Methods of instruction=
+
+Methods of instruction[43] vary according to the size of the
+institution and the number in the classes. In the preliminary courses
+the system of informal lectures is combined with recitations,
+discussions, reports, and quizzes. The students in the advanced
+courses are obliged to carry on independent work under the
+supervision of the instructor. For seniors and graduate students the
+seminar has been found most satisfactory in developing a keen interest
+in the problems of politics. Unfortunately, where the classes are
+small and the time is limited, it is customary to rely largely on
+textbooks and recitations, with a moderate amount of special readings
+and occasional class reports. But, on the other hand, courses in
+government have been improved recently by the appearance of good
+textbooks. American and European governments are now presented in
+texts which have proved satisfactory and which have aided in the
+development of standard courses for these elementary subjects. Then,
+too, interest has been aroused and better results obtained through the
+use of texts and manuals dealing with the actual work and the problems
+of government. The neglected fields of state government and
+administrative practices are just beginning to receive attention.
+
+One method of government instruction, and a very valuable one, is to
+encourage the examination of evidence and to consider different
+viewpoints on public questions, with the purpose of forming judgments
+based on the facts. For this purpose extensive reading and frequent
+reports are necessary to check up the work completed. It is possible
+to keep in constant touch with the amount of work and the methods of
+study or investigation by means of discussions in small sections for
+one or two hours each week and by the use of the problem sheet.
+
+In the courses offered in departments of government in such subjects
+as constitutional law, international law, commercial law, and to some
+extent in courses in jurisprudence and government regulation of public
+utilities and social welfare, the case method has been adopted quite
+extensively. This method has been sufficiently tried and its
+effectiveness has been demonstrated in the teaching of law, so that
+nothing need be said in its defense. The introduction of the case
+method in political science and public law has undoubtedly improved
+the teaching of certain phases of these subjects. That the use of
+cases and extracts may be carried to an extreme which is detrimental
+is becoming apparent, for opinions and data change so rapidly that any
+collection of cases and materials is out of date before it issues from
+the press. Moreover, the use of such collections encourages the
+reliance on secondary sources and secondary material, a tendency which
+ought to be discouraged. Every encouragement and advantage should be
+given to have students and investigators in government deal with
+original rather than secondary sources.
+
+There is, in addition to the use of textbooks, lectures, extensive
+reference reading, case books, and the writing of papers, a tendency
+to introduce the problem method of instruction and to encourage field
+work, observation, and, so far as practicable, a first-hand study of
+government functions and activities.
+
+Another line in which the study of government is undergoing
+considerable modification is the emphasis placed on administration and
+administrative practices. While special attention heretofore has been
+given either to the history of politics and political institutions or
+to political theories and principles, the tendency is now to give
+import to political practices and the methods pursued in carrying on
+government divisions and departments. The introduction of courses in
+the principles of administration, with the consideration of problems
+in connection with public administration in national, state, and local
+affairs, is tending to modify the content as well as the methods of
+the teaching of government. New methods and a new content are changing
+the emphasis from the formal, theoretical, and historical study of
+government and turning attention to the practical phases and to the
+technique of administration. As a result of this change and through
+the work which is being undertaken by bureaus of reference and
+research, instruction is brought much closer to public officers and
+greater service is rendered in a practical way to government
+administration.
+
+=Some unsolved problems=
+
+Among the difficulties and unsolved problems in the teaching of
+political science are, first, the beginning course; second, the
+relation of courses in government to economics, sociology, history,
+and law; third, the extent to which field investigation and the
+problem method can be used to advantage in offering instruction and
+the development of new standards and of new tests which are applicable
+to these methods; fourth, the introduction of the scientific method.
+
+=1. The introductory course=
+
+While the elementary course in government is now usually American
+government and is, as a rule, offered to sophomores, both the content
+and the present position of the course in the curriculum are matters
+on which there is considerable difference of opinion. Where the
+subject matter now offered to beginning students is comprised of
+comparative material selected from a number of modern governments, it
+is contended that this arrangement is preferable to confining
+attention to American institutions with which there is at least
+general but often vague familiarity. If provision is made in the high
+school, by which the majority of those who enter the university have
+had a good course in American government, there seems to be a strong
+presumption that the beginners' course should be devoted to
+comparative government. It is quite probable that the introductory
+course will cease to be confined to a distinct and separate study of
+either foreign governments or of American government and that the most
+satisfactory course will be the development of one in which main
+emphasis is given to one or the other of these fields and in which
+constant and frequent comparisons will be made for purposes of
+emphasis, discussion, and the consideration of government issues and
+problems. In some cases it is undoubtedly true that emphasis should be
+given to foreign governments, and as the high schools improve their
+instruction in our local institutions, national and state, it will
+become increasingly necessary in colleges to turn attention to the
+study of foreign governments in the beginners' course.
+
+There appears to be a desire to introduce government into the freshman
+year, and it is likely that provision will be made to begin the study
+of the subject in the first college year, thereby rendering it
+possible for those who enter college to profit by a year's work and to
+give an earlier start to those who wish to specialize.
+
+Another difficulty in connection with the introductory course which is
+still not clearly determined is the time and attention which may be
+given to lectures, to discussions, to the writing of papers or theses,
+to the investigation and report on problems, and the extent to which
+use may be made of some of the practical devices such as field
+investigation. There is a general belief that in the elementary
+course only a slight use may be made of practical methods, but that it
+is necessary to begin these methods in the elementary years and to
+render instruction practical and concrete to a larger extent than is
+now done, by means of problems and the discussion of matters of direct
+interest to all citizens. No doubt as the problem method and field
+study are more definitely systematized and the ways of supervision and
+checking up the work developed, these devices will be used much more
+extensively. The preparation of problem sheets and of guides to the
+selection of concrete material gives promise of a more general and
+effective use of the problem method.
+
+=2. Relation of instruction in government to other subjects=
+
+The proper relationship and correlation of instruction in government
+with that of other subjects has not yet been determined
+satisfactorily. The matter of correlation is slowly being worked out
+along certain lines; for example, the relationship between courses in
+history and in government is coming to be much better defined. Such
+subjects as constitutional history and the development of modern
+governments are being treated almost entirely in departments of
+history, and less attention is being given to the historical
+development of institutions in departments of political science. As
+long as it is impossible to make certain history courses prerequisites
+before beginning the study of government, it becomes necessary to give
+some attention in political science to the historical development of
+political institutions. By correlation and by proper arrangement of
+courses, however, the necessity of introducing government courses with
+historical introductions ought to be considerably reduced.
+
+The relation between work in government and in economics and sociology
+is a more difficult problem and one which has not as yet been
+satisfactorily adjusted. Some of the courses given in departments of
+economics and sociology deal to a considerable extent with the
+regulation of public affairs. In these courses, including public
+finance, the regulation of public utilities, the regulation of trusts,
+labor organizations, and the administration and regulation of social
+and industrial affairs, a more definite correlation between political
+science and so-called applied economics and applied sociology must be
+made. While it is undoubtedly necessary for the economist and the
+sociologist to deal with government regulation of economic and social
+affairs, and while it is very desirable that these departments should
+emphasize the practical and applied phases of their subjects, it is
+nevertheless true that courses which are, to a large extent, comprised
+of government instruction should be given under the direction of the
+department of political science, or, at least, in an arrangement of
+definite cooperation therewith. There is no reason why in such a
+subject as the regulation of public utilities a portion of the course
+might not be given in the department of economics and a portion in the
+department of government. Or it may be better, perhaps, for a course
+to be arranged in the regulation of public utilities, continuing
+throughout the year, in which the professors of economics, government,
+commerce, finance, and engineering participate in the presentation of
+various phases of the same subject. At all events, the present
+separation into different departments of the subject matter of
+government regulation of such affairs as public utilities, taxation,
+and social welfare regulation is, to say the least, not producing the
+best results.
+
+The relation of government courses to instruction in law is likewise a
+partially unsolved problem. A few years ago, when the curricula of law
+schools dealt with matters of law and procedure in which only the
+practitioner was interested, it became necessary to introduce the
+study of public law in departments of government and political
+science. Thus we find courses in international law, constitutional
+law, Roman law, and elements of law and jurisprudence being offered in
+large part in departments of political science. The recent changes in
+law school curricula, however, by which many of these subjects are now
+offered in the law school and in some cases are offered to qualified
+undergraduate students, render the situation somewhat more difficult
+to adjust. There is a tendency to introduce these courses into the
+law school for law students and to offer a similar course in the
+department of government for undergraduates and graduates. The problem
+has been further complicated by the provision in some of the leading
+law schools of a fourth year, in which the dominant courses relate to
+public and international law, legal history and foreign law,
+jurisprudence and legislative problems.[44] As these courses become
+entirely legal in nature and content and require a background of three
+years of law, it becomes practically impossible for any but law
+students to be admitted to them. With the prospect of a permanent
+arrangement for a fourth year of law devoted primarily to subjects
+formerly given in departments of political science, it seems to be
+necessary to provide instruction in constitutional law and
+international law, at least, for those advanced students in political
+science who seek this instruction but who do not expect to take the
+private law instruction required to admit them to a fourth-year law
+class. The preferable arrangement may prove to be one in which a
+thorough course is offered which will be open to qualified seniors and
+graduate students and to law students, thus avoiding the duplication
+which is now characteristic of instruction in law and the public law
+phases of government. In this matter, as in the relation of economics
+and sociology, the most appropriate and effective adjustment for
+cooperation remains to be formulated.
+
+=3. Problem method of instruction=
+
+As the criticism of eminent specialists in government and politics has
+impressed upon instructors the idea that too large a portion of the
+teaching of the subject is theoretical, treating of what ought to be
+rather than of what actually occurs, dealing with facts only on a
+limited scale and with superficial attention to actual conditions,
+there has developed the necessity of revising the methods of
+instruction. This revision is being made largely in the introduction
+of field investigation, observation of government activities, and the
+problem and research methods. The prevailing practice of the teaching
+of politics, which involves lectures, recitations, and the reading and
+writing of theses, with a considerable amount of supplementary work,
+is being revised by means of a research and reference division, by the
+constant use of field investigation and by the study of governmental
+problems. The difficulty with all these devices lies in the indefinite
+and vague way in which so much of this work must be done. For the
+present, in only a few instances, such as the New York Bureau of
+Municipal Research, has the technique for field investigation and the
+research method been effectively developed. One of the chief lines for
+the improvement of the teaching of government is in the
+standardization and systematization of the problem method and its more
+extensive use in the elementary and advanced government instruction.
+
+=4. Introduction of the scientific method=
+
+In the past and to a great extent at the present time that part of the
+study of government which has to do with political theory and with a
+descriptive and historical account of government has comprised the
+greater portion of what is usually designated as political science.
+The nature of these studies is such as to render inapplicable the use
+of the scientific method. If the study of government is to be
+developed as a science in the true sense, then the above subjects must
+be supplemented by exhaustive inductive studies and research in the
+actual operation of government. Such methods are now being employed in
+the examination of government records and the comparison of
+administrative practices. And there is being developed also a science
+of government based on the practices and the technique of public
+administration.
+
+This science now finds its exemplification in some of the exceptional
+work of the graduate schools. Unfortunately, the connection between
+these schools and the government departments has not been such as to
+secure the best results. Moreover, departments of political science
+are not now doing their part to place the results of scientific
+investigations at the disposal of government officials. The
+introduction of courses in extension departments and evening classes
+has in part met this deficiency. But much remains to be done to render
+through the department of political science effective service in the
+practical operation of government. With the introduction of the
+problem method and field investigation in the elementary instruction,
+so far as seems feasible, with the development of standard methods and
+the technique of research for advanced instruction, the teaching of
+government will be rendered not only more valuable to the citizen, but
+colleges and universities may render aid to government officials and
+citizens interested in social and political affairs.
+
+A significant development as an aid for research and for rendering
+more effective public service has come in the establishment of bureaus
+of government research. The method of investigation and research which
+has been applied to the problems of government by private
+organizations has been found applicable to the handling of research
+material in the universities. Through a bureau of this character
+recent publications and ephemeral material may be collected for the
+use of advanced students, digests may be prepared on topics of special
+interest to legislators and administrators, and publications of
+particular interest to the citizens may be issued. Such a bureau
+serves as a government laboratory for the university and can be placed
+at the service of public officials and others who desire to use a
+reference department in securing reliable data on governmental
+affairs. Thus it is coming to be realized that research in government
+may be encouraged and the resources of higher institutions may be so
+organized as to render a distinct and much appreciated public service.
+
+                                           CHARLES GROVE HAINES
+  _University of Texas_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+ALLIX, E. H. NEZARD, and MEUNIER, A. _Instruction Civique._ Paris, F.
+Juven, 1910; pages 238. American Political Science Association.
+Report of the Committee on Instruction in Political Science in
+Colleges and Universities. _Proceedings_, 1913; pages 249-270.
+
+---- Report of Committee of Seven on Instruction in Colleges and
+Universities. _Political Science Review_, Vol. IX, pages 353-374.
+
+---- The Teaching of Government. Report to the American Political
+Science Association by the Committee on Instruction. The Macmillan
+Company, 1916; pages 135-226.
+
+BALDWIN, SIMEON E. _The Relations of Education to Citizenship._ Yale
+University Press, 1912; pages 178.
+
+BEACH, W. G. The College and Citizenship. _Proceedings of the
+Washington Educational Association._ School Journal Publishing Co.,
+1908; pages 55-57.
+
+BEARD, C. A. _The Study and Teaching of Politics._ Columbia University
+Press, June, 1912; Vol. XII, pages 268-274.
+
+---- _Politics_, Columbia University Press, 1912; pages 35.
+
+---- _Training for Efficient Public Service._ Annals of the American
+Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1916.
+
+BOITEL, J., and FOIGUET, R. _Notions elementaires d'instruction
+civique de droit usuel et d'economie politique._ Paris, Delagrave,
+1910; pages 307.
+
+BOURGUEIL, E. _Instruction civique._ Paris: F. Nathan, 1910; pages
+223.
+
+BRYCE, JAMES. _The Hindrances to Good Citizenship._ Yale University
+Press, 1910; pages 138.
+
+DROWN, THOMAS M. Instruction in Municipal Government in American
+Educational Institutions. _National Municipal League: Proceedings_,
+Boston, 1902; pages 268-271.
+
+FAIRLIE, JOHN A. Instruction in Municipal Government. _National
+Municipal League: Proceedings_, Detroit, 1903; pages 222-230.
+
+FREUND, ERNST. Correlation of Work for Higher Degrees in Graduate
+School and Law School. _Illinois Law Review_, Vol. XI, page 301.
+
+HALL, G. STANLEY. Civic Education. _Educational Problems_, New York,
+1911, Vol. II, pages 667-682.
+
+HILL, DAVID J. _A Plan for a School of the Political Sciences._ 1907,
+pages 34.
+
+HINMAN, GEORGE W. The New Duty of American colleges. 63d Congress, 1st
+session. Senate Document No. 236, 1913.
+
+LOWELL, A. LAWRENCE. Administrative Experts in Municipal Governments.
+_National Municipal Review_, Vol. IV, pages 26-32.
+
+---- The Physiology of Politics, _American Political Science Review_,
+February, 1910.
+
+---- _Public Opinion and Popular Government_, Chapters 17-19.
+
+MOREY, WILLIAM C. _American Education and American Citizenship._
+Rochester, N. Y., pages 20.
+
+MUNRO, W. B. The Present Status of Instruction in Municipal Government
+in the Universities and Colleges of the United States. _National
+Municipal League: Proceedings._ Pittsburgh, 1908, pages 348-366.
+
+---- Instruction in Municipal Government in the Universities and
+Colleges of the United States. _National Municipal Review_, Vol. II,
+pages 427-438, and Vol. V, pages 565-574.
+
+National Municipal League. Report of the Committee on Instruction in
+Municipal Government. _Proceedings_, Rochester, 1901; pages 218-225.
+
+Report of the Committee on Organized Cooperation between the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Commonwealth of
+Massachusetts. _Bulletin of the Alumni Association_, 1914, No. 3.
+
+Report of the Committee on Training for Public Service. Columbia
+University. Charles A. Beard, Chairman. _Bulletin_, March 27, 1915.
+
+ROBINSON, FREDERICK B. The Municipal Courses. _City College (N. Y.)
+Quarterly_, Vol. XII, page 18.
+
+ROWE, J. S. University and Collegiate Research in Municipal
+Government. _National Municipal League: Proceedings._ Chicago, 1904,
+pages 242-248.
+
+SCHAPER, W. A. What Do Students Know about American government before
+Taking College Courses in Political Science? _Journal of Pedagogy_,
+June, 1906. Vol. XVIII, pages 265-288.
+
+Society for the Promotion of Training for the Public Service. E. A.
+Fitzpatrick, Director. Madison, Wisconsin. _The Public Servant._
+Issued monthly.
+
+---- Universities and Public Service. _Proceedings of the First
+National Conference._ Madison, 1914, pages 289.
+
+Training for Public Service. New York Bureau of Municipal Research,
+Annual Reports.
+
+WHITE, A. D. The Provision for Higher Instruction Bearing Directly
+upon Public Affairs. _House Executive Document No. 42_, part 2, 46th
+Congress, 3d Session.
+
+---- Education in Political Science. Baltimore, pages 51.
+
+---- European Schools of History and Politics. _Johns Hopkins
+University Studies_, Series 5, Vol. XII.
+
+WILSON, WOODROW. _The Study of Politics. An Old Master and Other
+Essays._ Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893, pages 31-57.
+
+WOLFE, A. B. Shall We Have an Introductory Course in Social Sciences?
+_Journal of Political Economy_, Vol. XXII, pages 253-267.
+
+YOUNG, JAMES T. University Instruction in Municipal Government.
+_National Municipal League: Proceedings._ Rochester, 1901; pages
+226-234.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[40] The courses usually given in departments of political science
+are:
+
+  1. American government, (_a_) National, (_b_) State and local,
+     (_c_) Municipal.
+  2. General political science.
+  3. Comparative government.
+  4. English government.
+  5. International law.
+  6. Diplomacy.
+  7. Jurisprudence or elements of law.
+  8. World politics.
+  9. Commercial law.
+  10. Roman law.
+  11. Administrative law.
+  12. Political theories (History of political thought).
+  13. Party government.
+  14. Colonial government.
+  15. Legislative methods and legislative procedure.
+  16. Current political problems.
+  17. Municipal corporations.
+  18. Law of officers and taxation.
+  19. Seminar.
+  20. Additional courses, such as the government of foreign countries, the
+      regulation of public utilities, and the political and legal status of
+      women.
+
+Cf. _The Teaching of Government_, page 137. Published by the Macmillan
+Company, 1916. With the permission of the publishers some extracts
+from the report of the committee on instruction have been used. The
+report should be consulted for the presentation of data and for a
+further consideration of some questions of instruction which cannot be
+taken up fully within the compass of this chapter.
+
+[41] Cf. _The Teaching of Government_, page 182.
+
+[42] _The Teaching of Government_, pages 206-207.
+
+[43] The discussion of methods follows in part the Report of the
+Committee on Instruction, pages 192-194.
+
+[44] See especially article by Ernst Freund on "Correlation of Work
+for Higher Degrees in Graduate School and Law School," Vol. XI,
+_Illinois Law Review_, page 301.
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+
+THE TEACHING OF PHILOSOPHY
+
+
+The study of philosophy covers such a wide range of subjects that it
+is difficult to generalize in attempting to answer the basal questions
+which call for consideration in a book like this. In the great
+European universities it includes psychology, logic, ethics,
+aesthetics, epistemology, metaphysics, the history of philosophy, and
+sometimes even the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history,
+the philosophy of law, and the philosophy of the State. Although
+special courses may not be offered in every one of these fields in our
+American colleges, their philosophical territory is sufficiently
+extensive and the separate provinces sufficiently unlike to baffle any
+one seeking to describe the educational aims and methods of the domain
+as a whole. In order, therefore, to do full justice to our task it
+would be necessary to treat each one of the various philosophical
+branches separately and to expand the space assigned to us into a
+fair-sized volume. Since this is not to be thought of, we shall have
+to confine ourselves to a consideration of the traits common to all
+the subjects, without forgetting, however, such differences as may
+call for different educational treatment.
+
+=The unified college course in philosophy=
+
+The difficulty of which we have spoken becomes less formidable when
+the teacher of the traditional philosophical subjects regards them not
+as so many independent and disconnected fields of study, but as parts
+of a larger whole held together by some central idea. The great
+systematic thinkers, from Plato down to Herbert Spencer, have aimed at
+"completely unified knowledge" and have sought to bring order and
+coherence into what may seem to the casual onlooker as a disunited
+array of phenomena. Philosophical teaching will be the more fruitful,
+the more it is inspired by the thought of unity of aim, and the more
+consciously the teachers of the different disciplines keep this idea
+in mind. That is the reason why philosophical instruction given in a
+small college and by one man is, in some respects, often more
+satisfactory than in the large university with its numberless
+specialists, in which the beginning student frequently does not see
+the forest for the trees. It is not essential that the teacher present
+a thoroughly worked-out and definitive system of thought, but it is
+important that he constantly keep in mind the interrelatedness of the
+various parts of his subject and the notion of unity which binds them
+together,--at least as an ideal.
+
+And perhaps this notion of the unity of knowledge ought to be made one
+of the chief aims of philosophical instruction in the college. The
+ideal of philosophy in the sense of metaphysics is to see things
+whole, to understand the interrelations not only of the branches
+taught in the department of philosophy but of all the diverse subjects
+studied throughout the university. The student obtains glimpses of
+various pictures presented by different departments and different men,
+and from different points of view. Each teacher offers him fragments
+of knowledge, the meaning of which, as parts of an all-inclusive
+system, the pupil does not comprehend. Indeed, it frequently happens
+that the different pieces do not fit into one another; and he is
+mystified and bewildered by the seemingly disparate array of facts and
+theories crowding his brain which he cannot correlate and generally
+does not even suspect of being capable of correlation. To be sure,
+every teacher ought to be philosophical, if not a philosopher, and
+indicate the place of his specialty in the universe of knowledge; but
+that is an ideal which has not yet been realized. In the meanwhile,
+the study of philosophy ought to make plain that knowledge is not a
+mere heap of broken fragments, that the inorganic, organic, and mental
+realms are not detached and independent principalities but kingdoms in
+a larger empire, and that the world in which we live is not a chaos
+but a cosmos. An introductory course in philosophy, the type of course
+given in many German universities under the title "Einleitung in die
+Philosophie" and attended by students from all sections of the
+university, will help the young student to find his bearings in the
+multifarious thought-world unfolded before him and will, at the same
+time, put him in the way of developing some sort of world-view later
+on.
+
+Philosophical instruction that succeeds in the task outlined above
+will have accomplished much. Nevertheless, it cannot attain its goal
+unless the student is introduced to the study of the human-mental
+world which constitutes a large portion of the field assigned to the
+philosophical department: the study of psychology, logic, ethics, and
+the history of philosophy. These branches deal with things in which
+the human race has been interested from its early civilized beginnings
+and with which the young persons entering college have had little or
+no opportunity of becoming acquainted. And they deal with a world
+which no man can ignore who seeks to understand himself and his
+relation to the natural and social environment in which his lot is
+cast. A knowledge of the processes of mind (psychology), of the laws
+of thought (logic), of the principles of conduct (ethics), and of the
+development of man's interpretation of reality (history of philosophy)
+will supplement the knowledge acquired by the study of physical
+nature, preventing a one-sided and narrow world-view, and will serve
+as a preparation for intelligent reflection upon the meaning of
+reality (philosophy in the sense of metaphysics).
+
+=Controlling aims in the teaching of philosophy=
+
+All these subjects, therefore, have as one of their aims the training
+of the powers of thought (judgment and reasoning); and philosophical
+teaching should never lose sight of this. Thinking is a difficult
+business,--an art which is practiced, to be sure, in every field of
+study, but one for which the philosophical branches provide unusual
+opportunity and material. It has become a habit with many of recent
+years to decry the study of logic as an antiquated discipline, but it
+still remains, if properly taught, an excellent means of cultivating
+clear thinking; there is no reason why a consciousness of correct
+ways of thinking and of the methods employed in reaching reliable
+judgments should not prove useful to every one.
+
+We should say, therefore, that the study of philosophy has a high
+cultural value: it encourages the student to reflect upon himself and
+his human and natural surroundings (society and nature) and to come to
+grips with reality; it frees him from the incubus of transmitted
+opinions and borrowed beliefs, and makes him earn his spiritual
+possessions in the sweat of his face,--mindful of Goethe's warning
+that "he alone deserves freedom and life who is compelled to battle
+for them day by day";--it helps him to see things in their right
+relations, to acquire the proper intellectual and volitional attitude
+toward his world through an understanding of its meaning and an
+appreciation of its values; in short, it strengthens him in his
+struggle to win his soul, to become a person. This is its ideal; and
+in seeking to realize it, philosophy cooperates with the other studies
+in the task of developing human beings, in preparing men for complete
+living, and is therefore practical in a noble sense of the term. It
+has a high disciplinary value in that it trains the powers of analysis
+and judgment, at least in the fields in which it operates. And the
+habit acquired there of examining judgments, hypotheses, and beliefs
+critically and impartially, of testing them in the light of experience
+and of reason, cannot fail to prove helpful wherever clear thinking is
+a requisite.
+
+The teacher should keep all these aims in view in organizing his
+material and applying his methods. He should not forget that
+philosophy is above all things a reflection upon life; he should
+endeavor to train his pupils in the art of interpreting human
+experience, of grasping its meaning. His chief concern should be to
+make _thinkers_ of them, not to fasten upon them a final philosophic
+creed,--not to give them a philosophy, but to teach them how to
+philosophize. If he succeeds in arousing in them a keen intellectual
+interest and a love of truth, and in developing in them the will and
+the power to think a problem through to the bitter end, he will have
+done more for them than would have been possible by furnishing them
+with ready-made formulas. There is nothing so hopelessly dead as a
+young man without the spirit of intellectual adventure, with his mind
+made up, with the master's ideas so deeply driven into his head that
+his intellectual career is finished. The Germans call such a person
+_vernagelt_, a term that fitly describes the case. What should be
+aimed at is the cultivation of the mind so that it will broaden with
+enlarging experience, that it will be hospitable to new ideas and yet
+not be overwhelmed by them, that it will preserve inviolate its
+intellectual integrity and keep fresh the spirit of inquiry. Such a
+mind may be safely left to work out its own salvation in the quest for
+a _Weltanschauung_.
+
+    "Young, all lay in dispute; I shall know, being old."
+
+
+In emphasizing the need of such central aims in instruction we do not
+wish to be understood as not appreciating the utilitarian value of the
+philosophical branches and their importance as a preparation for
+professional activity. Like all knowledge, these subjects have their
+worth not merely as means of developing human personality but also as
+means of equipping the student with such knowledge of facts, methods,
+and theories as will prove useful to him in his other studies and in
+the daily affairs of life. The teacher, the physician, the lawyer, the
+clergyman, the artist, the engineer, the business man, will be
+benefited by an understanding of the workings of the human mind, of
+the laws of human thinking, and of the principles of human conduct. It
+is not absolutely necessary, however, in our opinion, that separate
+classes specially designed for the different professions be formed in
+the colleges; after all, it is the same human mind that operates in
+all the fields of human activity, and a knowledge of mental life in
+general will serve the purposes of every vocation. Doubtless, courses
+in psychology, logic, and ethics, for example, might be offered having
+in view the particular needs of prospective members of the various
+callings, but such courses would, in order to meet the situation,
+presuppose an acquaintance with the respective professional fields in
+question which only students well along in their professional studies
+could be expected to possess. Courses of this character might
+profitably be given for the benefit of professional students who have
+already taken the introductory subjects necessary to their proper
+understanding.
+
+=Introduction of philosophy in the college course=
+
+It is not easy to determine the most favorable period in a student's
+college career at which philosophical subjects should be taught. The
+more mature the student is, the more successful the instruction is apt
+to be; but this may be said of many other studies. There is no reason
+why an intelligent freshman may not begin the study of psychology and
+logic and perhaps of some other introductory philosophical branches;
+but as a rule better results may be obtained by admitting only such
+persons to these classes as have familiarized themselves with
+university methods.
+
+=Problems of philosophy and the development of thought to be emphasized,
+rather than the historical sequence=
+
+We should recommend that every student in the college devote at least
+three hours a week for four terms to the study of psychology, logic,
+ethics, and the history of philosophy. In case not all these
+fundamental courses can be taken, the student will most likely derive
+the greatest benefit by giving a year to the study of the history of
+philosophy, or one term to the introduction to philosophy, where he
+has only that much time at his disposal. It seems easier, however, to
+arouse a philosophical interest in the average student through a study
+of the basal philosophical questions from the standpoint of
+contemporaneous thinking than through the study of the history of
+philosophy. He is generally lacking in the historic sense, and is apt
+to be wearied and even confused by the endless procession of systems.
+This is particularly the case when the teacher fails to emphasize
+sufficiently the progressive nature of philosophical thinking in its
+history, when he regards this as a mere succession of ideas rather
+than as a more or less logical unfolding of problems and solutions--as
+a continuous effort on the part of the universal mind, so to speak,
+to understand itself and the world. A course in the introduction to
+philosophy acquainting the student with the aims of philosophy and its
+relation to other fields of study, and placing before him an account
+of the most important problems of metaphysics and epistemology as well
+as of the solutions which have been offered by the great thinkers,
+together with such criticisms and suggestions as may stimulate his
+thought, will awaken in him a proper appreciation of a deeper study of
+the great systems and lead him to seek light from the history of
+philosophy.
+
+=Methods of instruction=
+
+The place and relative worth of the various methods of instruction in
+the province of philosophy will, of course, depend, among other
+things, upon the character of the particular subject taught and the
+size and quality of the class. In nearly all the introductory
+philosophical branches in which the classes are large the lecture
+method will prove a valuable auxiliary. In no case, however, should
+this method be employed exclusively; and in formal logic, it should be
+used rather sparingly. Ample opportunity should always be given in
+smaller groups for raising questions and discussing important issues
+with a view to clearing up obscure points, overcoming difficulties,
+developing the student's powers of thought, and enabling him to
+exercise his powers of expression. It is also essential that the
+student be trained in the difficult art of reading philosophical
+works. It is wise as a rule to refer him to a good textbook, which
+should be carefully studied, to passages or chapters in other standard
+manuals, and in historical study to the writings of the great masters.
+And frequent opportunity to express himself in the written word must
+be afforded him; to this end written reports giving the thought of an
+author in the student's own language, occasional critical essays, and
+written examinations appealing not only to his memory but to his
+intelligence should be required during the term. Such exercises keep
+the student's interest alive, increase his stock of knowledge, develop
+maturity and independence of thought, and create a sense of growing
+intellectual power. The written tests encourage members of the class
+to review the work gone over and to discuss with one another important
+phases of it; in the effort to organize their knowledge they obtain a
+much better grasp of the subject than would have been possible without
+such an intensive re-appraisal of the material.
+
+=Logic to be related to the intellectual life of the student=
+
+In the course on formal logic a large part of the time should be spent
+in examining and criticizing examples of the processes of thought
+studied (definitions, arguments, methods employed in reaching
+knowledge) and in applying the principles of correct thinking in
+written discourses. It is a pity that we have no comprehensive work
+containing the illustrative material needed for the purpose. As it is,
+the teacher will do well to select his examples from scientific works,
+speeches, and the textbooks used in other classes. As every one knows,
+nothing is so likely to deaden the interest and to make the study of
+logic seem trivial as the use of the puerile examples found in many of
+the older treatises. With the proper material this subject can be made
+one of the most interesting and profitable courses in the
+curriculum,--in spite of what its modern detractors may say.
+
+=Students to be familiarized with sources and original writings of the
+leading philosophers=
+
+In the history of philosophy the lectures and textbook should be
+supplemented by the reading of the writings of the great philosophers.
+Wherever it is possible, the learner should be sent to the sources
+themselves. It will do him good to finger the books and to find the
+references; and by and by he may be tempted to read beyond the
+required assignment--a thing greatly to be encouraged, and out of the
+question so long as he limits himself to some one's selections from
+the writings of the philosophers.
+
+In the advanced courses the research method may be introduced; special
+problems may be assigned to the student who has acquired a knowledge
+of the fundamentals, to be worked out under the guidance of the
+instructor.
+
+=Lecture method should arouse dynamic interest and a desire to master
+the problems of philosophy=
+
+In the lecture intended for beginners the teacher should seek to
+arouse in his hearers an interest in the subject and the desire to
+plunge more deeply into it. He should not bewilder the student with
+too many details and digressions but present the broad outlines of the
+field, placing before him the essentials and leaving him to fill in
+the minutiae by a study of the books of reference. Each lecture ought
+to constitute an organic whole, as it were, in which the different
+parts are held together by a central idea; and its connection with the
+subject matter of the preceding lectures should be kept before the
+hearer's mind. All this requires careful and conscientious preparation
+on the part of the teacher, who must understand the intellectual
+quality of his class and avoid "shooting over their heads" as well as
+going to the other extreme of aiming below the level of their mental
+capacities. Lecturing that is more than mere entertainment is an art
+which young instructors sometimes look upon as an easy acquisition and
+which older heads, after long years of experience, often despair of
+ever mastering. The lecture aims to do what books seldom
+accomplish--to infuse life and spirit into the subject; and this ideal
+a living personality may hope to realize where a dead book fails.
+
+=How to secure active participation by students through lecture method=
+
+In order, however, that the philosophical lecture may not fail of its
+purpose, the hearer must be more than a mere listener; he must bring
+with him an alert mind that grasps meanings and can follow
+thought-sequences. And he cannot keep his attention fixed upon the
+discourse and understand the relations of its parts unless other
+senses cooperate with the sense of hearing and unless the motor
+centers are called into play also. He should carefully cultivate the
+art of taking notes, an accomplishment in which the average student is
+sadly lacking and to acquire which he needs the assistance of the
+instructor, which he seldom receives. An examination of the student's
+notebook frequently reveals such a woeful lack of discrimination on
+the writer's part that one is led to doubt the wisdom of following
+this method at all; wholly unimportant things are set down in faithful
+detail and essential ones wholly ignored. The hour spent in the
+lecture room, however, can and should be made a fruitful means of
+instruction, one that will awaken processes of thought and leave its
+mark. But in order to get the best result, the student should be urged
+to study his notes and the books to which he has been referred while
+the matters discussed in the lecture are still fresh in his mind; he
+will be able to clear up points he did not fully grasp, see
+connections that have escaped him, understand the force of arguments
+which he missed; and he will assume a more independent and critical
+attitude toward what he has heard than was possible on the spur of the
+moment, when he was driven on and could not stop and reflect. At home,
+in the quiet of his study, he can organize the material, see the parts
+of the discourse in their relations to each other, and re-create the
+whole as it lived and moved in the mind of the teacher. In doing this
+work he is called on to exercise his thinking and takes an important
+step forward. It is for this reason that I am somewhat skeptical of
+the value of the syllabus prepared by the teacher for the use of
+classes in philosophy,--it does for the student what he should do for
+himself. Whatever value the syllabus may have in other fields of
+study, its use in the philosophical branches ought to be discouraged.
+The great weakness of the lecture method lies in its tendency to
+relieve the hearer of the necessity of doing his own thinking, to
+leave him passive, to feed him with predigested food; and this defect
+is augmented by providing him with "helps" which rob him of the
+benefit and pleasure of putting the pieces of the puzzle-picture
+together himself.
+
+However, even at its best, the lecture method, unless supplemented in
+the ways already indicated, runs the danger of making the student an
+intellectual sponge, a mere absorber of knowledge, or a kind of
+receptacle for professors to shoot ideas into. As was said before, the
+student must cultivate the art of reading books and of expressing his
+thoughts by means of the spoken and written word. At the early stages
+and in some fields of philosophical study, however, the reading of
+many books may confuse the beginner and leave his mind in a state of
+bewilderment. It is indispensable that he acquire the working concepts
+and the terminology of the subject, and to this end it is generally
+wise to limit his reading until he has gained sufficient skill in
+handling his tools, as it were. In the elementary courses many members
+of the class will be unable to do more than follow the lectures and
+study the textbook; the more gifted ones, however, should be
+encouraged to extend the range of their reading under the guidance of
+the instructor.
+
+=Organization of undergraduate courses in philosophy=
+
+An answer to the question concerning the desired sequence of courses
+in philosophy will depend upon many considerations,--upon one's
+conception of philosophy and of the various subjects generally
+embraced under it, upon one's notion of the aims of philosophical
+instruction, upon one's estimate of the difficulties encountered by
+the student in the study of the different branches of it, and so on.
+There is wide divergence of opinion among thinkers on all these
+points. Philosophy is variously conceived as metaphysics, as theory of
+knowledge, as the science of mind (_Geisteswissenschaft_), as the
+science of values (_Werttheorie_), or as all of these together. Logic
+is conceived by some thinkers as dependent upon psychology, by others
+as the presupposition of _all_ the sciences, including psychology.
+Ethics is regarded both as a branch of psychology, or as dependent
+upon psychology, and as an independent study having nothing whatever
+to do with psychology. Psychology itself is treated both as a natural
+science, its connection with philosophy being explained as a
+historical survival, and as the fundamental study upon which all the
+other subjects of the philosophical department must rest. Where there
+is such a lack of agreement, it will not be easy to map out a
+sequential course of study that will satisfy everybody. Even when
+philosophy is defined in the old historic sense as an attempt to reach
+a theory of the world and of life, men may differ as to the exact
+order in which the basal studies should be pursued. By many the
+history of philosophy is considered the best introduction to the
+entire field, while others would place it at the end of the series of
+fundamentals (psychology, logic, ethics), holding that a student who
+has studied these will be best equipped for a study that includes the
+history of their development. As a matter of fact, given students of
+mature mind and the necessary general preparation, either order may be
+justified. The average underclassman is, however, too immature to
+plunge at once into the study of the history of philosophy, and the
+present writer would recommend that it be preceded by courses in
+general psychology, logic and ethics. The average sophomore will have
+little difficulty in following courses in psychology and logic; and it
+is immaterial which of these he takes up first. The course in the
+theory of ethics should come in the junior or senior year and after
+the student has gained some knowledge of psychology (preferably from a
+book like Stout's _Manual of Psychology_). And it would be an
+advantage if the course in ethics could be preceded by a study of the
+development of moral ideas, of the kind, let us say, presented in
+Hobhouse's _Morals in Evolution_. For reasons already stated, the
+entire course in philosophy should be inaugurated by the Introduction
+to Philosophy. Advanced courses in metaphysics and the theory of
+knowledge should come at the end and follow the history of philosophy.
+The ideal sequence would, therefore, be in the view of the present
+writer: Introduction to Philosophy, Psychology or Logic, the
+Development of Moral Ideas, Theory of Ethics, History of Philosophy,
+Metaphysics, and Theory of Knowledge. It must be admitted, however,
+that a rigorous insistence upon this scheme in the American college,
+in which freedom of election is the rule, would impair the usefulness
+of the department of philosophy. Few students will be willing to take
+all these subjects, and there is no reason why an intelligent junior
+or senior should not be admitted to a course in ethics or the history
+of philosophy without having first studied the other branches. A
+person possessing sufficient maturity of mind to pursue these studies
+will be greatly benefited by them even when he comes to them without
+previous preparation; and it would be a pity to deprive him of the
+opportunity to become acquainted with a field in which some of the
+ablest thinkers have exercised their powers. At all events, he should
+not leave college without having had a course in the history of
+philosophy, which will open up a new world to him and may perhaps
+stimulate him to read the best books in the other branches later on.
+
+It would not be possible, of course, to prescribe all the fundamental
+philosophical courses, even if it were desirable,--few faculties would
+go so far,--but it would be wise to require every candidate for the
+bachelor's degree to give at least six hours of his time (three hours
+a term, on the two-term basis) to one or two of the elementary
+courses, preferably in the sophomore year. Ethics and the history of
+philosophy could then be chosen as electives and be followed by the
+more advanced and specialized courses.
+
+=Moot questions: controversy between philosopher and psychologist=
+
+We have already touched upon some of the debatable questions in the
+sphere of philosophical education. The dispute concerning the place of
+psychology in the scheme of philosophical instruction has its cause in
+differences of view concerning the aims, nature, and methods of that
+subject. Philosophers ask for an introductory course in psychology
+which shall serve as a propaedeutic to the philosophical studies,
+while teachers of education wish to have it treated in a way to throw
+light upon educational methods and theory. "Some biologists treat
+mental phenomena as mere correlates of physiological processes....
+Others, including a number of psychologists also, regard psychological
+phenomena as fully explicable in terms of behavior, and as
+constituting therefore a phase of biological science." The Committee
+of the American Psychological Association on the Academic Status of
+Psychology recommends "that the Association adopt the principle that
+the undergraduate psychological curriculum in every college or
+university, great or small, should be planned from the standpoint of
+psychology and in accordance with psychological ideals, rather than to
+fit the needs and meet the demands of some other branch of
+learning."[45] This declaration of principle might lead to peace
+between the philosophers and the psychologists if there were agreement
+concerning the "psychological ideals" in accordance with which the
+subject is to be studied. The desideratum of the philosophers is a
+psychology which will give the student an understanding of the various
+phases of mental life; but they do not believe that this can be
+reached by an exclusive use of the natural-scientific method. The
+objection of some psychologists, that the philosophers wish to inject
+metaphysics into the study of mental processes, is met by the
+rejoinder that the natural-scientific psychology is itself based upon
+an unconscious metaphysics, and a false one at that. What the
+philosophers desire is psychological courses which will do full
+justice to the facts of the mental life and not falsify them to meet
+the demands of a scientific theory or method--courses of the kind
+given in European universities by men whose reputation as
+psychologists is beyond suspicion.
+
+=Divergent views as to nature of introductory course in philosophy=
+
+We have likewise alluded, in this chapter, to the controversy over the
+need and nature of an introductory course in philosophy. Of those who
+favor such a philosophical propaedeutic some recommend the History of
+Philosophy, others an Introduction to Philosophy of the type described
+in the preceding pages. Some teachers regard as the ideal course a
+study of the evolving attitudes of the individual toward the world,
+after the manner of Hegel's Phenomenology of the Spirit; some the
+Philosophy of History; some _Kulturgeschichte_, that is, the study of
+"the evolution of science, morality, art, religion, and political
+life,--in short, the history of institutions"; some the study of the
+great literatures; and some would seek the approach to the subject
+through the religious interest.[46] It is plain that the History of
+Philosophy will receive help from all these sources; and a wise
+teacher will make frequent use of them. Nor can the course in the
+Introduction to Philosophy afford to ignore them; it will do well to
+lay particular stress upon the philosophical attitudes, the embryonic
+philosophies which are to be found in the great literatures, in the
+great religions, in science, and in the common sense of mankind.
+Wherever the human mind is at work, there philosophical
+conceptions,--world-views, crude or developed,--play their part; and
+they form the background of the lives of peoples as well as of
+individuals. In the systems of the great thinkers they are formulated
+and made more or less consistent; but everywhere they are the result
+of the mind's yearning to understand the meaning of life in its
+manifold expressions. When the student comes to see that philosophy is
+simply an attempt to do what mankind has always been doing and will
+always continue to do, in a rough way, that it is "only an unusually
+obstinate attempt to think clearly and consistently,"--to continue the
+process of thinking to the bitter end,--his attitude toward it will be
+one of intelligent interest and respect. But not one of these subjects
+taken by itself will serve the purpose of an introductory course.
+
+=The "case method" in the teaching of philosophy=
+
+Another moot question is concerned with the use of the "case method,"
+employed in law instruction, in ethics. The case method seeks to know
+what the moral law is by studying the moral judgments of society; or,
+more definitely, to quote the words of Professor Coxe,[47] one of its
+champions: "to discover, if possible, a law running through the
+judgments _which society has made through its duly appointed
+officials_." "Historical cases, properly attested, alone give us the
+means of objective judgment." There can be no doubt that this method
+will prove serviceable, if judiciously applied; but its exclusive use
+either as a method of study or as a method of instruction,--even in an
+introductory course in ethics,--is not to be recommended.[48] The
+student will not gain an adequate conception of morality from a study
+of the varying and often contradictory "historical cases," much less
+from a study of the judgments which society has made "through its duly
+appointed officials." The legal "case" literature of our country does
+indeed furnish valuable and interesting material for ethical study,
+but it would require a riper mind than that of a beginner to discover
+and to evaluate the moral principles which lie embodied in it.
+
+=Testing the results of instruction=
+
+The problem of testing the effectiveness of one's teaching presents
+few difficulties in classes which are small and in which individual
+instruction is possible. Wherever teacher and student come in close
+personal contact and opportunity is afforded for full and frequent
+discussions as well as for written exercises, it is a comparatively
+easy matter to judge the mental caliber of the members of the class
+and to determine the extent of their progress. In the case of the
+large classes, however, which crowd into the lecture halls of the
+modern university, the task is not so simple. Here every effort should
+be made to divide such concourses of students into numerous sections,
+small enough to enable the instructor to become acquainted with those
+under his charge and to watch their development. The professor who
+gives the lectures should take one or more of these sections himself
+in order that he may understand the minds to which he is addressing
+himself, and govern himself accordingly. The tests should consist of
+discussions, essays, and written and oral examinations; by means of
+these it is not impossible to determine whether the aims of the
+subject have been realized in the instruction or not. But the tasks
+set should be of such a character as to test the student's power of
+thought, his ability to understand what he has read and heard with all
+its implications, his ability to assume a critical attitude toward
+what he has assimilated, and his ability to try his intellectual wings
+in independent flights. A person who devotes himself faithfully to his
+work during the entire term, who puts his mind upon it, takes an
+active part in the discussions, and is encouraged to express himself
+frequently by means of the written word, will surely give some
+indication of the progress he has made, even in a written
+examination--it being a fair assumption that one who knows will
+somehow succeed in revealing his knowledge. Care must be taken, of
+course, that the test is not a mere appeal to the memory; it is only
+when the examination makes demands upon the student's intelligence
+that it can be considered a fair measure of the value of philosophical
+instruction. It must not be forgotten, however, that the examination
+may reveal not only the weakness of the learner but the weakness of
+the teacher. It is possible for a student, even in philosophy, to make
+a fine showing in a written examination by repeating the words of the
+master which he does not understand, without having derived any real
+benefit from the course. The teacher may set an examination which will
+hide the deficiencies of the instruction, and the temptation to do
+this in large classes which he knows have not been properly taught is
+great.
+
+                                                   FRANK THILLY
+  _Cornell University_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+COXE, G. C. The Case Method in the Study and Teaching of Ethics.
+_Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, Vol. X,
+13, page 337.
+
+DAVIES, A. E. Education and Philosophy, _Journal of Philosophy,
+Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, Vol. VI, 14, page 365.
+
+HINMAN, E. L. The Aims of an Introductory Course in Philosophy.
+_Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, Vol. VII,
+21, page 561.
+
+HOeFLER, A. _Zur Propaedeutik-Frage._
+
+HOeFLER, A. Zur Reform der philosophischen Propaedeutik. _Zeitschrift
+fuer die Oesterreichischen Gymnasien_, Vol. L, 3, page 255.
+
+HUDSON, J. W. Hegel's Conception of an Introduction to Philosophy.
+_Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, Vol. VI,
+13, page 337.
+
+---- An Introduction to Philosophy through the Philosophy of History.
+_Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods._ Vol. VII,
+21, page 569.
+
+---- The Aims and Methods of Introduction Courses: A Questionnaire.
+_Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, Vol. IX,
+2, page 29.
+
+LEHMANN, R. _Der deutsche Unterricht_, pages 389-437.
+
+LEUCHTENBERGER, G. _Die philosophische Propaedeutik auf den hoeheren
+Schulen._
+
+OVERSTREET, H. A. Professor Coxe's "Case Method" in Ethics. _Journal
+of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, Vol. X, 17, page
+464.
+
+PAULSEN, F. _German Universities and University Studies._ English
+translation by Frank Thilly and W. W. Elwang, Book III and Book IV.
+
+---- _Ueber Vergangenheit und Zukunft der Philosophie im gelehrten
+Unterricht, Central-Organ fuer die Interessen des Realschulwesens_,
+Vol. XIV, 1, page 4.
+
+---- _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts_, Conclusion.
+
+Report of the Committee on the Academic Status of Psychology,
+published by the American Psychological Association, December, 1914.
+
+TUFTS, J. H. Garman as a Teacher. _Journal of Philosophy, Psychology,
+and Scientific Methods_, Vol. IV, 10, page 263.
+
+WEISSENFELS, O. Die Philosophie auf dem Gymnasium. _Zeitschrift fuer
+das Gymnasialwesen_, Vol. LIII, 1, page 1.
+
+WENDT, G. _Didaktik und Methodik des deutschen Unterrichts, Handbuch
+der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fuer hoehere Schulen._
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[45] The sentences quoted are taken from the Report of this committee,
+which was published in December, 1914.
+
+[46] See the articles of J. W. Hudson and others in the Bibliography.
+
+[47] See Bibliography.
+
+[48] See Professor Overstreet's Discussion mentioned in the Bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+
+THE TEACHING OF ETHICS
+
+
+=Interest in the study of ethics determined by the aim of instruction=
+
+Nowhere does academic tediousness work a more dire mischief than in
+the teaching of ethics. It is bad to have students forever shun the
+best books because of poor instruction in literature; the damage is
+worse when it is the subject of moral obligation which they associate
+with only the duller hours of their college life. Not that the aim of
+a course in ethics is to afford a number of entertaining periods. The
+object rather is to help our students realize that here is a subject
+which seeks to interpret for them the most important problems of their
+own lives present and to come. Where this end is kept in view, the
+question of interesting them is settled. A sincere interpretation of
+life always takes the interest when once it is grasped that this is
+what is really being interpreted.
+
+=Viewpoint in the past=
+
+The procedure in the past (and still quite common) was to introduce
+the subject by way of its history. A book like Sidgwick's _History of
+Ethics_ was studied, with supplements in the shape of the students'
+own reading of the classics, or lectures, with quotations, by the
+teacher. That this method was frequently of much service is
+undeniable. Teachers there are with rare gifts of inspiration who can
+put freshness into any course which ordinary teachers leave hopelessly
+arid. But this should not blind us to the fact that certain modes of
+procedure are in general more likely to be fruitful than others.
+
+=The business of right living the aim of ethics teaching=
+
+These methods depend upon the aim; and the aim, we venture to hold,
+should be eminently practical. The content of ethics is not primarily
+a matter of whether Kant's judgments are sounder than Mill's or
+Spencer's. Its subject is human life and the business of right living:
+how should people--real people, that is, not textbook illustrations--live
+with one another? This is the essential concern of our subject matter,
+and in it our student is intimately and practically involved. Charged
+with the fact, he may deny the impeachment. He refuses to worry over
+the merits of hedonism versus rigorism, the distinction between
+hypothetical and categorical imperatives, or the claim of ethics to be
+called a science. Ethics, that is, as an intellectual discipline
+through the survey of historic disputations is indeed remote from the
+concerns that touch his life. But all the time there is no subject of
+greater interest when approached from the side of its bearing on
+practical problems. Consider the earnestness with which the student
+will discuss with his friends such questions as these: What sense is
+there in a labor strike? Is a conscientious objector justified in
+refusing military service? Why should any one oppose easy divorce
+laws? May a lawyer defend a rogue whom he knows to be guilty? Can one
+change the nature with which he was born? Is violence justified in the
+name of social reform? If what is right in one age or place is wrong
+in another, is it fair to object when moral laws are broken? If a
+practice like prostitution is common, what makes it wrong?
+
+These do not sound like the questions likely to receive a welcome
+hearing in the classroom; but it is precisely upon the interest in
+such topics as these that the course in ethics should build; for its
+subject is right living, a matter in which the student may indeed be
+assumed to feel a genuine concern. If the questions that he wants
+answered are not all as broad in their significance as the foregoing,
+there are others of a more immediate personal kind which arise in his
+life as a student, as a friend, as a son and brother, problems in
+which standards of fair play and "decency" are involved, and upon
+which it may be taken for granted that he has done some thinking,
+howsoever crude. These interests are invaluable. Out of them the finer
+product is to be created in the shape of better standards, higher
+ideals, and habits of moral thoughtfulness, leading in turn to still
+better standards and still worthier conduct. The course in ethics
+should be practical in the sense that both its starting point and its
+final object are found in the student's management of his life.
+
+=Illustrations of the problems of right living=
+
+Consider, for example, how his interest in problems of friendship may
+be used as the point of departure for an extremely important survey
+over general questions of right relationship. Just because friendship
+is so vital a concern of adolescent years, he can be led to read what
+Aristotle, Kant, Emerson, have to say upon this subject and be
+introduced as well to that larger life of ideal relationships from
+which these writers regard the dealings of friends. The topic of right
+attitudes toward a friend broadens out readily into such
+considerations as treating persons aright for their own sake or
+regarding them as ends _per se_, a dead abstraction when approached as
+it is by Kant, but a living reality when the students get Aristotle's
+point about magnanimous treatment of friends. They can then proceed by
+way of contrast to note, for example, how this magnanimity was limited
+to friends in the upper levels of Athenian society, and went hand in
+hand with approval of slave labor and other exploitations which a
+modern conscience forbids. To give sharper edge to the conception of
+man as deserving right treatment for his own sake, the class might go
+on to examine other notable violations of personality in past and
+present; e.g., slavery (read for instance Sparr's _History of the
+African Slave Trade_) or the more recent cruelties toward the natives
+in the rubber regions of the Congo and the Amazon. Reference may also
+be made (without undue emphasis) to the white-slave traffic of today
+and the fact be noted that a right sense of chivalry will keep a man
+from partnership in the degradation which creates both the demand for
+white slavery and ultimately its supply. We mention this to show how a
+common practical interest can be employed to introduce the students to
+so fundamental an ethical conception as the idea of inviolable human
+worth. It may, no doubt, be highly unconventional for them to begin
+with a discussion of friendship and after a few periods find
+themselves absorbed in these other questions; but if care is exercised
+to sum up and to emphasize the big conceptions underlying the topic,
+we may be sure that their grasp of the subject will be no less firm
+than under the older method. Their acquaintance with a study requiring
+hard, abstract thinking will surely not be hurt, to say the least, by
+an introduction which is concrete and practical.
+
+Or take another matter of real concern to the student at this period
+of his life. He is certain to be giving some thought to the matter of
+his future vocation; and here again is a topic which, properly
+handled, broadens out into the most far-reaching inquiries. It is to
+be regretted that as yet the vocational-guidance movement has been
+occupied in the main with external features--comparing jobs, making
+objective tests of efficiency, and so on. The central ethical
+conceptions are usually slighted. That one's vocation is a prime
+influence in the shaping of personality in oneself, in one's fellow
+workers, in the public served (or disserved) by one's work, in the
+world of nations in so far as war and peace are connected with
+commerce and other interchange of vocational products--all this is
+matter for the teacher who wishes the ethics course to work over into
+better living.[49] Nor again, as will be noted later in the chapter,
+need the claims of the subject as a scholarly discipline suffer from
+such treatment. Questions of the nature of moral standards, of the
+distinction between expedient and right, etc., can be taken up more
+profitably when, instead of dealing with the academic questions
+forming the stock in trade of most textbooks, the course examines a
+few vocations, let us say, business, teaching, art, law, medicine,--in
+the light of such standards as these: A history of the calling; e.g.,
+what has it contributed to the elevation of mankind, to the
+development of the arts and sciences, and to specific kinds of human
+betterment? What is the best service it can accomplish today? What
+traits does it require in those who pursue it? What traits is it
+likely to encourage in them for better and for worse? Report on great
+leaders in the calling, with special reference to what their work made
+of them. What are the darker sides of the picture? What efforts are
+being made today to raise the moral code in this vocation? Sum up the
+ideal rewards.
+
+We do not mean, of course, that the only problems are those which
+center around the demands of today for a more just economic and social
+order. On the contrary, we believe that the movement for social
+justice is greatly in need of precisely that appreciation of the
+claims of moral personality which it is the main business of ethical
+study to promote. But we shall never get our students to profit from
+their work in social ethics, or in ethical theory, or in any branch of
+the subject whatever, unless we keep fresh and close the contact with
+their own experiences and ambitions.
+
+Indeed, we venture to assert that unless this connection is kept
+unbroken, the subject is not ethics at all but an abstraction which
+ought to take some other name. Ethics deals with human volitions; but
+the latter term is meaningless to the student save as he interprets it
+by his own experiences in the preference of better ways to lower. He
+knows the difficulties that arise in his own group-associations,--his
+home or his class or his club, for example,--the conflicts of
+ambitions, the readiness to shirk one's share of common
+responsibility, the discordant prides and appetites of one sort and
+another which lead to overt injustices. All these should be used to
+throw light upon the living moral problems of group-life in the
+vocations, in the civic world, in the international order.
+
+Temperamentally, to be sure, the teacher may be inclined to handle his
+subject in what he prefers to regard as academic detachment. But where
+the subject is ethics and not dead print, complete aloofness is out of
+the question. There would be no textbooks in ethics if the men whose
+convictions are there recorded had not grappled earnestly with
+problems of vital moment to their day and generation. The crucial
+questions raised by a changing Athenian democracy were no matters of
+air-born speculation to Socrates and Plato and Aristotle. Nor is it an
+accident that the philosopher who so sought to vindicate the worth of
+man as an end _per se_ should have sent from his apparently isolated
+study in Koenigsberg his glad acclaim of the French Revolution. The
+abounding interest of the English Utilitarians in the economics, the
+politics, the social reform, of the nineteenth century needs no
+comment. There are texts for study today because the men who wrote
+them were keenly concerned about a nobler mode of life for mankind. To
+invite the student to share their reflections without expecting
+worthier conduct is to ignore the essential purpose by which those
+reflections were prompted.
+
+=Governing aim in ethics teaching=
+
+Hence our first recommendation--that the _content of the ethics
+courses be determined by the principal aim of so interpreting the
+experiences and interests of the student as to stimulate worthier
+behavior through a better understanding of the general problem of
+right human relationships_.
+
+Our second recommendation as to aims is suggested by certain extremes
+in the practice of today. Reference to problems of immediate concern
+does not mean that ultimate considerations are to be shelved. Indeed,
+it must rather be stressed that such discussions miss their best
+object, _if they fail to lead to searching reflection upon ultimate
+standards_. The temptation to forego such inquiry today is strong. In
+their desire to be practical and up-to-date, many teachers are
+altogether too ready to rest the case for moral obligation upon a kind
+of easy-going hedonism, the fallacy of provisionalism, as Professor
+Felix Adler calls it. Tangible "goods" like happiness or "social
+values" are held up as standards, as if these values were ends in
+themselves and the problem of an ultimate human worth were irrelevant.
+
+It may very well be a modest attitude to say that we can no longer
+busy ourselves with the nature of ultimate ends and that we can best
+employ our energies in trying to define the various goods which
+contribute now and here to human betterment. Let the effort be made,
+by all means. But when the last of empirical goods have been examined
+and appraised (assuming for the moment that we can indeed appraise
+without possessing ultimate norms) the cardinal question still waits
+for answer: To what are all these goods instrumental? What kind of
+life is best? What is it that permits man, with all his faults, his
+sordid appetites, his meannesses and gross dishonors, to hold his head
+erect as one yet worthy of the tribute implied in the fact that we
+have duties toward him?
+
+An answer satisfying to all may never be reached; but to evade these
+questions is to abdicate the teacher's function. Many young people are
+led by the biologic teachings of the day to regard man as the utterly
+helpless product of his environment. Or they are so impressed with the
+obvious and immediate needs of whole masses for better food, better
+homes, greater opportunities for culture, that they do not stop to ask
+whether these goods are worth while in themselves, or if not, what is
+the deeper purpose to which they should minister. A conception of
+personality is needed, sufficiently exalted to permit the various
+immediate utilities to find their due place as tributes to the ideal
+excellence latent in man; and on the other hand there is need for a
+view of the spiritual life free from the misuse to which that term is
+put by the various cults evoked by reaction against modern mechanism.
+Painstaking inquiry into the grounds upon which the assurance of human
+dignity can justify itself, has never been more urgently required.[50]
+
+
+=Ideals and tendencies in ethics teaching=
+
+Let us beware of surrendering to the common but often pernicious
+demand of our swift-moving America that in order to receive
+consideration a new idea should prove itself capable of yielding
+immediate dividends. There seems to be a certain hesitancy today among
+some in our educated classes about speaking of "ideals." Ideals
+connote a long look ahead. They imply a sense that there is something
+perfect even though the steps toward embodying or approximating it
+will be many and arduous, perhaps discouragingly hard. They betoken
+the likelihood of appearing before men as the victims of ultimately
+unworkable dreams. In refreshing contrast is the seeming
+practicability of encouraging present tendencies. Your tendency is no
+far-off projection of mere thought; it is something solid and "real,"
+here and now, respected at the bank, in the newspaper office, and
+other meeting places of those whose heads are hard. Tendencies turn
+elections; ideals carry no such palpable witness of their power.
+"Hence let us study tendencies."
+
+This characterization is perhaps extreme, but the danger to which it
+refers is all too frequent. A strike, for instance, sets most of us to
+discussing ways by which this particular disturbance can be ended
+quickly. It is only the few who are willing to hold in mind both terms
+of the problem, namely the procedure for tomorrow morning and the
+positive ideal toward which all our vocational life should set its
+face even if the distant tomorrow is still so far ahead. So of our
+conceptions of political life. A given election may indeed involve an
+immediate moral issue; but even the issue of next month can be faced
+properly only when it is related to an ideal of public life which may
+have to wait long years for appreciation by the majority. Nothing is
+more necessary in a democracy than a leadership trained in the long
+forward look, trained in distinguishing morally right and morally
+wrong from expedient, and best from merely better, trained in the
+courage to champion a distant ideal in the face of clamor to accept
+some inferior but belligerently present substitute.
+
+In short, the student should be offered every encouragement to
+thinking out the ultimate obligations of his own life and of his
+various groups and to reaching the conviction that there is such a
+reality as a permanent human worth, a fundamentally right way for men
+and women to seek, a rightness whose authority is undiminished by the
+blunders of the human mind in trying to define it. An ever more
+earnest attempt to find that way, and to find it by practice illumined
+by all the knowledge that can be brought to bear, should be the
+leading object. Not a series of definitions and quotations, nor yet a
+little information about the social movements of our time, but a truer
+understanding of life as the result of interpreting it in terms of the
+obligation to create right human adjustments--such an aim saves
+college ethics alike from dryness and from superficial attempts to
+sprinkle interest over a subject of inherent and intense practical
+importance.
+
+It is not essential that an introductory course in ethics should enter
+into the philosophy of religion. This may be left to other agencies,
+like the church, or to later courses, with every confidence that the
+outcome will be sound if mind and soul and will (to use the old
+formula) are first enlisted in behalf of noble conduct. Whatever
+thinking the student may do along these lines will be the better if
+its nurture is drawn first from moral thinking and moral practice.[51]
+
+=Course in ethics prescribed, and early in college course=
+
+From the foregoing it follows that the ethics course should be taken
+by all the students. The earlier it can be given the better, inasmuch
+as its demands upon their conduct apply to all the years of their
+life, and because the whole career at college is more likely to
+benefit from beginning early such reflections as this study
+particularly invites.
+
+=Sequence determined by development of the student=
+
+The sequence of courses will perhaps be best determined by remembering
+the need of following the natural growth of the student. Experiences
+come first and then the interpretations. Hence the insistence upon the
+practical content of the introductory courses. Theory and history
+should follow, not precede. Nobody is interested in the history or the
+theory of a thing unless he is interested in the thing itself.
+Furthermore, we must bear in mind the needs of those students who are
+not likely to care enough for the more theoretical aspects to continue
+the subject. If the introductory course is to be all that they take,
+obviously the more practical we can make it the better.
+
+=In teaching ethics follow the maxim from the concrete to the abstract=
+
+As to method, a variety of profitable ways abounds if only the contact
+with life is kept close and the principles studied are tested by their
+outcome in the life which the student knows best. In general, the best
+procedure is to work back from concrete instances to the principles
+underlying the problem, formulate the principles and test them in
+other fields. Our illustrative strike, for instance, can be used to
+throw light upon the actual and the ideal principles involved in human
+relationship in some such manner as the following:
+
+=Method of procedure illustrated=
+
+What do the employers want? What do they mean by liberty? What were
+the circumstances under which Mill formulated his principle of
+"liberty within the limits of non-infringement?" What have been the
+consequences in America of reliance upon this formula? Why does it
+break down in practice? Compare it with the theory of the balance of
+power in international relations. What is likely to be the effect of
+the possession of power upon the possessor himself?
+
+Restate the ideal of liberty in terms of duty, not of privilege. What
+are the obstacles to the fulfillment of such an ideal in industry? In
+homes? What are the personal obstacles to clear understanding of the
+meaning of right?
+
+What do the workers want? Examine each of their demands--shorter
+hours, more pay, recognition of the union, etc. What should the
+granting of these demands contribute to their lives? Give instances to
+show whether "better off" means better persons or not.
+
+Compare the working man's use of the word "liberty" with that of the
+employer. Why do workers often become oppressors when they themselves
+become employers? What is the difference between demanding a redress
+of your grievance and making a moral demand? What makes the cry of
+fraternity as uttered by the workers repugnant to those who otherwise
+would accept fraternity as an ideal?
+
+How would you formulate the ideal for the vocational life of the
+factory worker? Apply it to other vocations--journalism, law,
+teaching. Sum up the ideal rewards of work.
+
+Make tentative definitions of liberty, rights, duty, justice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Each of the questions mentioned above--and many more will occur in the
+course of the discussion--furnishes occasion for extended
+considerations that call upon the student for scholarly gathering of
+facts, for close thinking, and--not least--for reflection upon his own
+experiences and volitions. Other problems will suggest themselves. It
+is obvious how the interest of the student in prison reform, for
+example, can be employed in like manner as a motive to searching
+reflection upon questions of moral responsibility. The principle that
+punishment should be a means of awaking in the offender the
+consciousness of a self which can and should hold itself to account
+despite the magnitude of its temptations is of special usefulness, in
+the years when a broadening altruism (and we might add, a tendency to
+self-pity) is likely to lead to loose notions of personal obligation.
+
+=Place of the textbook in ethics teaching=
+
+The use of a textbook is a minor matter. To prevent the courses from
+running off into mere talk--and even ethics classes are not averse to
+"spontaneous" recitation on their own part or to monologues by the
+teacher--a textbook may be required, with, let us say, monthly reports
+or examinations. So much depends, however, upon the enthusiasm of the
+instructor that here particularly recommendations can be only of the
+most general kind. Some of the most effective work in this subject is
+being done by teachers who forget the textbook for weeks at a time in
+order to push home a valuable inquiry suggested by an unforeseen
+problem raised in the course of the discussion. Others use no
+textbooks at all. Some outline the year's work in a series of cases or
+problems with questions to be answered in writing after consulting
+selected passages in the classics or in current literature or in
+both.[52] This method has the advantage of laying out the whole year's
+work beforehand and of guaranteeing that the student comes to the
+classroom with something more than a facility in unpremeditated
+utterance. It is generally found to be of greater interest because it
+follows the lines of his own ordinary thinking--first the problem and
+then the attempt to find the principles that will help to solve it.
+
+=Moral concepts deepened by participation in social or philanthropic
+endeavors=
+
+More important than any of these details of technique is the need of
+helping the student to clarify his thinking by engaging in some
+practical moral endeavor. The broadening and deepening of the
+altruistic interests is a familiar feature of adolescent life. The
+instructor in ethics, in the very interest of his own subject, is the
+one who should take the lead in encouraging these expressions, not
+only because of the general obligation of the college to make the most
+of aptitudes which, neglected in youth, may never again be so
+vigorous, but also because of the truth in Aristotle's dictum that
+insight is shaped by conduct. Hence the work in ethics should be
+linked up wherever possible with student self-government and other
+participation in the management of the college, and with
+philanthropics like work in settlements or in social reform groups or
+cosmopolitan societies. For the students of finer grain it is
+eminently worth the trouble to form clubs to intensify the spirit of
+the members by activities more pointedly directed to the refining of
+human relationships. They might engage in activities in which the task
+of elevating the personality is specially marked, that is, in problems
+which have to do with mutual interpretation--e.g., black folk and
+white, foreign and native stocks in America, delinquents and the
+community, immigrant parents and unsympathetic children. They might
+organize clubs for one or more of these purposes, for discussing
+intimately the problems of personal life, for public meetings on the
+ethics of the vocations and on the more distinctly ethical phases of
+political and international progress. Such organizations can be made
+to do vastly more good for their members then the average debating
+society, with its usual premium on mere forensic skill, or the
+fraternity, with its encouragement of snobbishness. The wholesome
+thing about the spirit of fraternity should be set to work upon some
+such creative activities as we have mentioned. Not only does the
+comradeship strengthen faith in right doing, but these practical
+endeavors offer a notable help to the deepening, extending, and
+clarifying of that interest in moral progress without which there can
+be none of the intelligent leadership for which our democracy looks to
+its colleges.
+
+=Peculiar difficulty of applying usual test to courses in ethics=
+
+To test how far the subject has been of value to the student is
+unusually difficult. His interest in the discussions is by no means an
+unfailing index. There are those who may be both eager and skilled in
+the intellectual combat incidental to the course but whose lives
+remain untouched for the better. The worthier outcome is hard to
+trace. It is quite possible for the teacher to take credit for the
+instilling of an ideal whose generation was due to some agency wholly
+unknown, perhaps even to the student himself. On the other hand, the
+best results may take years for overt appearance. In the nature of the
+case, their more intimate expressions can never be recorded.
+
+Moreover, students vary in the force of character which they bring
+with them to the study. A lad whose home training has been deficient
+may take more time than the best teacher can give in order to reach
+the degree of excellence to which others among his classmates ascend
+more quickly. Or a lad whom the course has moved with a desire to take
+up some philanthropic endeavor may hesitate to pursue it through lack
+of the necessary gift or failure in self-confidence. The forces which
+enter into the making of character are so complex, including as they
+do not only acquisitions of new moral standards, but temperamental
+qualities, early training, potent example, physical stamina, dozens of
+accidental circumstances, that it is unfair to use the tests
+applicable, let us say, to a course in engineering.
+
+Hence we must be beware of testing the value of the work by immediate
+results. Something may be gathered by having the students write
+confidentially what they think the course has done for them and where
+it could be improved. This they can do both at the end of the course
+and years later when time has brought perspective. But tests are of
+minor importance. The ethical shortcomings of our time, the constant
+need of our students for ever finer standards, convey challenge
+enough. Even though the obvious results fall short of our hopes, we
+can make the most of our resources with every assurance that they are
+amply needed. Are young men more likely to be the better for setting
+time aside to obtain with the help of an earnest student of life a
+clearer insight into the principles of the best living? If they are
+the courses are justified, even though some who take them can show
+little immediate profit.
+
+                                           HENRY NEUMANN, Ph.D.
+  _Ethical Culture School, New York_
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[49] See Adler: _The Present World-Crisis and Its Meaning_, chapter on
+"An Ethical Program of Social Reform": also _An Ethical Philosophy of
+Life_, Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
+
+[50] From this point of view the ethical justification for the war on
+the slum becomes: (_a_) to make possible for the slum-dweller the
+better performance of his various duties as parent, worker, citizen;
+(_b_) to drive home to all concerned the meaning of interdependence;
+(_c_) to clarify for all of us the ideals to which better living
+conditions should minister. There is every need today to further the
+conviction that the highest service we can perform for another is not
+to make him happier, but to help him make himself a better person
+through the better performance of his duties.
+
+[51] Note the emphasis placed by modern philosophy upon ethical value
+as the point of approach to the problem of Godhead.
+
+[52] Professor Sharp of Wisconsin has found this method so serviceable
+that he has interested many teachers in his state and elsewhere in
+using it with high school students for purposes of moral instruction.
+See "A Course in Moral Instruction for High Schools," by F. C. Sharp;
+_Bulletin, University of Wisconsin_.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+
+THE TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY
+
+
+=Place of psychology in the curriculum=
+
+Historically, as an offshoot, and rather a recent offshoot, from
+philosophy, psychology has been under the care of the department of
+philosophy in colleges and universities, foreign as well as American,
+and has been taught by professors concerned in part with the courses
+in philosophy. Though this state of affairs still obtains to a
+considerable extent, the tendency is undoubtedly towards allowing
+psychology an independent position in the organization and curriculum
+of the college. In recent appointments, indeed, the affiliation of
+psychology with education has frequently been emphasized instead of
+its affiliation with philosophy, for the professional applications of
+psychology lie more in the field of education than elsewhere. As a
+required study, our science is more likely to find a place in the
+college for teachers than in the college of arts. But, on the other
+hand, the applications to medicine, business, and industry are
+increasing so rapidly in importance as to make it logical to maintain
+an independent position for the science. Only in an independent
+position can the psychologist be free to cultivate the central body of
+his subject, the "pure" as distinguished from the applied science;
+and, with the multiplication of practical applications, it is more
+than ever important to center psychological teaching in the person of
+some one who is simply and distinctively a psychologist.
+
+=The introductory course to be general, not vocationally applied
+psychology=
+
+For a similar reason, psychologists are wont to insist that the
+introductory course in their subject, no matter for what class of
+students, with general or with professional aims, should be definitely
+a course in _psychology_ as distinguished from educational or medical
+or business psychology. Illustrative material may very well be chosen
+with an eye to the special interests of a class of students, but the
+general principles should be the same for all classes, and should not
+be too superficially treated in the rush for practical applications.
+Some years ago, a Committee of the American Psychological Association
+was appointed to make a survey of the teaching of psychology in
+universities, colleges, and normal schools, and the Report of this
+Committee (1), still the most important contribution to the pedagogy
+of the subject, emphasizes the concurrent view of psychologists to the
+effect just stated, that the study of psychology should begin with a
+course in the central body of doctrine. The psychological point of
+view must be acquired before intelligent application can be made,
+whether to practical pursuits or to other branches of study such as
+philosophy and the social sciences, to which psychology stands in the
+relation of an ancillary science.
+
+During the war, the applications of psychology in the testing and
+selection of men and training them for specified military and naval
+work, in rating officers, in morale and intelligence work, and in
+several other lines, became so important that it was decided to give
+psychology a place as an "allied subject" in the curriculum of the
+Students' Army Training Corps; and the report of the committee of
+psychologists that prepared the outline of a course for this purpose
+deserves attention as a contribution to the pedagogy of the subject.
+They proposed a course on "Human Action," to be free from questions of
+a speculative or theoretical nature and concentrated on matters
+relevant to military practice and the military uses of psychology. The
+aim was to enlist the student's practical concern at the very outset,
+and to give him the psychological point of view as applied to his
+problems as a member of the Army and a prospective officer. In method,
+the course was to depend little on lectures, or even on extensive
+readings, and much on the student's own solution of practical
+psychological problems. Evidently the psychologists who prepared this
+plan were driven by the emergency to abandon "academic" prepossessions
+in favor of a course in pure psychology as the necessary prerequisite
+to any study of applications; and it is quite possible that courses
+in psychology for different groups of students could be prepared that
+should follow this general plan and be intensely practical from the
+start. It would still remain true that the thorough psychologist
+should be the one to plan and conduct such courses.
+
+=The psychological point of view must be emphasized in the introductory
+course=
+
+The psychological point of view means attentiveness to certain matters
+that are neglected in the usual objective attitude toward things. It
+is identified by many with introspection, but there is at present
+considerable dissent from this doctrine, the dissenters holding that
+an objective type of observation of human behavior is distinctively
+psychological and probably more significant and fruitful than the
+introspective attitude. However this may be, both introspection and
+behavior study require attention to matters that are commonly
+disregarded. Every one is of course interested in what people do, or
+at least in the outcome of their activities; but psychology is
+interested in the activities themselves, in how the outcome is reached
+rather than in the outcome itself. Ordinarily, we are interested in
+the fact that an inventor has solved a problem, but regard it as
+rather irrelevant if he proceeds to tell us the mental process by
+which he reached the solution. We are interested in the fact that a
+child has learned to speak, but devote little thought to the question
+as to how he has learned. It is to bring such psychological questions
+to light and arouse intelligent interest in them, with some knowledge
+of the answers that have been found, that the psychologist is chiefly
+concerned when initiating beginners into his science. This primary aim
+is accomplished in the case of those students who testify, as some do,
+that the course in psychology has "opened their eyes" and made them
+see life in a different light than hitherto.
+
+=Values of the study of psychology--cultural rather than disciplinary=
+
+Whether this primary value of psychology is to be counted among the
+disciplinary or among the cultural values may be a matter of doubt.
+Psychologists themselves have seldom made special claims in behalf of
+their science as a means of formal discipline, many of them, in fact,
+taking a very negative position with regard to the whole conception of
+such discipline. What psychology can give of general value is a point
+of view, and a habit of attentiveness to the mental factor. The need
+of some systematic attention to these matters often comes to light in
+the queer efforts at a psychology made by intelligent but uninstructed
+persons in the presence of practical problems involving the mental
+factor.
+
+=The practical value=
+
+Besides this "cultural" value, and besides the special uses of
+psychology as a preparation for teaching and certain other
+professions, there is a very real and practical value to be expected
+from an understanding of the mental mechanism. Since every one works
+with this mechanism, every one can make practical use of the science
+of it. Most persons get on passably well, perhaps, without any expert
+knowledge of the machinery which they are running; yet the machine is
+not entirely "fool proof," by any means, but sometimes comes to grief
+from what is in essence a lack of psychological wisdom either in the
+person himself or in his close companions. Mental hygiene, in short,
+depends on psychology. The college student, looking forward to a life
+of mental activity, is specially in a position to utilize information
+regarding the most economical working of the mental machine; and, as a
+matter of experience, some students are considerably helped in their
+methods of mental work by what they learn in the psychology class.
+Among the results of recent investigation are many bearing on economy
+and efficiency of mental work. This value of psychology, it will be
+seen, is practical without being professional--except in so far as all
+educated men can be said to adopt the profession of mental engineer.
+Much more emphasis than has been customary might well be laid on this
+side of the subject in elementary courses.
+
+=Content of the introductory course in psychology=
+
+The content of the first course in psychology is just now undergoing a
+certain amount of revision. Traditionally the aim has been, not so
+much, as in most other subjects, to initiate the student into a range
+of facts lying outside his previous experience, as to bring definitely
+to his attention facts lying within the experience of all, and to
+cause him to classify these so as to refer any given mental process to
+the class or classes where it belongs. This calls for definition, the
+making of distinctions, the analysis of complex facts, the use of a
+technical vocabulary, and in general for much more precision of
+statement than the student has been used to employ in speaking of such
+matters. Some laws of mental action, verifiable within ordinary
+experience, are also brought to light in such a course, and some
+account of the neural mechanisms of mental life is usually included;
+but its chief accomplishment is in leading the student to attend to
+mental processes and gain a point of view that may remain his future
+possession.
+
+With the great expansion of psychological knowledge in recent decades,
+due to research by experimental and other empirical methods, it has
+become possible to give a course more informational in character and
+going quite beyond the range of the student's previous experience; and
+this new material is finding its way into elementary texts and
+courses. Many of the results of research are not at all beyond the
+comprehension of the beginner; indeed, they are often more tangible
+than the distinctions and analyses that give the stamp to the
+traditional course. These empirical results also have the advantage,
+in many cases, of throwing light on the practical problems of mental
+health and efficiency; and some inclusion of such material is
+desirable if only to fit the needs of the considerable number of
+students who cannot become interested in a course of the traditional
+sort. Practice in this matter is at present quite variable, some
+teachers basing the introductory course as far as possible on the
+results of experiment, and others adhering closely to the older plan.
+
+=Methods of teaching psychology--Practical exercises=
+
+There is certainly some advantage in keeping the first course
+untechnical. The student can then be set to observing for himself,
+instead of depending on books. Many of the facts of psychology are so
+accessible, at least in a rough form, as to make the subject a good
+one for appealing to the spirit of independence in the student. Some
+teachers are, in fact, accustomed to introduce each part of the
+subject by exercises, introspective or other, designed to bring the
+salient facts home to the student in a direct way, before he has
+become inoculated with the doctrine of the authorities. "The essential
+point is that the student be led to observe his own experience, to
+record his observation accurately--in a word, to psychologize; and to
+make the observation before, not after, discovering from book or from
+lecture what answers are expected to these questions. Individual
+experiments should so far as possible be performed in like manner
+before the class discussion of typical results. In all cases the
+results of these introspections should be recorded in writing;
+representative records should be read and commented on in class; and
+the discussion based on them should form the starting point for
+textbook study and for lecture." The plan thus highly recommended by
+Professor Calkins[53] she found not to be widely used at the time of
+her inquiry; a commoner practice was the assignment of reading for the
+student's first introduction to a given topic. This alternative plan
+is a line of less resistance; and it is also true that exercises in
+original observation by beginners in psychology are likely to be
+instructive mostly as evidence of the ineptness of the beginner in
+psychological observation. Moreover, when the content of the course is
+informational and based on the results of research, preliminary
+exercises by the student are of rather limited value, though they
+still could serve a useful purpose in bringing forcibly to his
+attention the problems to be studied.
+
+The use of "exercises," somewhat analogous to the examples of algebra
+or the "originals" of geometry, is quite widespread in introductory
+courses in psychology, and several much-used textbooks offer sets of
+exercises with each chapter. Several types are in vogue: (1) some call
+for introspections, as, for example, "Think of your breakfast table as
+you sat down to it this morning--do you see it clearly as a scene
+before your mind's eye?" (2) some call for a review and generalization
+of facts presumably already known, as "Find instances of the
+dependence of character upon habit;" (3) many consist of simple
+experiments demanding no special apparatus and serving to give a
+direct acquaintance with matters treated in the text, such as
+after-images or fluctuations of attention; and (4) many call for the
+application of the principles announced in the text to special cases,
+the object being to "give the student some very definite thing to do"
+(Thorndike), in doing which he will secure a firm hold of the
+principles involved. In general, teachers of psychology aim to "keep
+the student doing things, instead of merely listening, reading, or
+seeing them done" (Seashore, 1, page 83). In a few colleges,
+laboratory work of a simple character forms part of the introductory
+course, and in one or two the laboratory part is developed to a degree
+comparable with what is common in chemistry or biology. As a rule,
+however, considerations of time and equipment have prevented the
+introduction of real laboratory work into the first course in
+psychology.
+
+=Classroom methods--The lecture=
+
+Of classroom methods, perhaps all that are employed in other subjects
+find application also in psychology, some teachers preferring one and
+some another. The lecture method is employed with great success by
+some of the leaders, who devote much attention to the preparation of
+discourse and demonstrations. One professor (anonymous) is quoted[54]
+as follows:
+
+"I must here interject my ideas on the lecture system. The lecture has
+a twofold advantage over the recitation. (1) It is economical, since
+one man handles a large number of students; the method of recitation
+is extravagant. This fact alone will mean the retention of the lecture
+system, wherever it can possibly be employed with success. (2) It is
+educationally the better method, for the average student and the
+average teacher. For the reconstruction of a lecture from notes means
+an essay in original work, in original thinking; while the recitation
+lapses all too readily into textbook rote and verbal repetition.
+
+"It is, nevertheless, true that sophomore students are on the whole
+inadequate to a lecture course. They cannot take notes; they cannot
+tear the heart out of a lecture. (They are also, I may add, inadequate
+to the reading of textbooks or general literature, in much the same
+way.) Hence one has to supplement the lecture by syllabi, by lists of
+questions (indexes, so to speak, to the lectures), and by personal
+interviews....
+
+"The sum and substance of my recommendations is that you provide a
+competently trained instructor, and let him teach psychology as he
+best can. What the student needs is the effect of an individuality, a
+personality; and the lecture system provides admirably for such
+effect."
+
+=The recitation=
+
+Though the lecture system is used with great success by a number of
+professors, the general practice inclines more to the plan of oral
+recitations on assigned readings in one or more texts, and large
+classes are often handled in several divisions in order to make the
+recitation method successful. Not infrequently a combination of
+lectures by the professor and recitations conducted by his assistants
+is the plan adopted, the lecturer to add impressiveness to the course,
+and the recitations to hold the student up to his work. Written
+exercises, such as those already mentioned, are often combined with
+the oral recitation; and in some cases themes are to be written by the
+students. Probably the seminar method, in which the subject is chiefly
+presented in themes prepared by the students, is never attempted in
+the introductory course.
+
+=Class discussion=
+
+On the other hand, a number of successful teachers reject both the
+lecture and the recitation methods, and rely for the most part upon
+class discussions, with outside readings in the textbooks, and
+frequent written recitations as a check on the student's work. A
+champion of the discussion method writes as follows:[55]
+
+"A teacher has not the right to spend any considerable part of the
+time of a class in finding out by oral questions ... whether or not
+the student has done the work assigned to him. The good student does
+not need the questions and is bored by the stumbling replies which he
+hears; and even the poor student does not get what he needs, which is
+either instruction _a deux_, or else a corrected written
+recitation.... Not in this futile way should the instructor squander
+the short hours spent with his students. The purpose of these hours is
+twofold: first, to give to the students such necessary information as
+they cannot gain, or cannot so expediently gain, in some other way;
+second, and most important, to incite them to 'psychologize' for
+themselves. The first of these purposes is best gained by the lecture,
+the second by guided discussion. 'Guided discussion' does not mean a
+reversal of the recitation process--an hour in which students ask
+questions in any order, and of any degree of relevancy and
+seriousness, which the instructor answers. On the contrary, the
+instructor initiates and leads the discussion; he chooses its subject,
+maps out its field, pulls it back when it threatens to transgress its
+bonds, and, from time to time, summarizes its results. This he does,
+however, with the least possible show of his hand. He puts his
+question and leaves it to the student interested to answer him; he
+restates the bungling answer and the confused question; he leaves one
+student to answer the difficulties of another.... The advantage of the
+discussion over the lecture is, thus, that it fosters in the student
+the active attitude of the thinker in place of the passive attitude of
+the listener.... Obviously it is simplest to teach large classes by
+lecturing to them. Yet a spirited and relevant discussion may be
+conducted in a class of a hundred or so. Of course no more than eight
+or twelve, or, at most, twenty of these will take even a small part on
+a given day; perhaps a half or two thirds will never take part; and
+some will remain uninterested. But there will be many intelligent
+listeners as well as active participants; and these gain more, I
+believe, by the give and take of a good discussion than by constant
+lectures however effective."
+
+=Class experiments=
+
+Brief mention should be made of a form of class exercise peculiar to
+psychology, the "class experiment." This is in some respects like a
+demonstration, but differs from that in calling for a more active
+participation on the part of the student. Any psychological experiment
+is performed _on_ a human (or animal) subject, and many experiments
+can be performed on a group of subjects together, each of them being
+called on to perform a certain task or to make a certain observation.
+Each of the class having made his individual record, the instructor
+may gather them together into an average or summary statement, and the
+individual variations as well as the general tendency may thus be
+brought to light. Very satisfactory and even scientific experiments
+can thus be performed, with genuine results instructive to the class.
+
+=Checking the work of the students=
+
+Of methods of holding the student to his work, mention has already
+been made of the much-used written recitation. The usual plan is to
+have frequent, very brief written examinations. Sometimes the practice
+is to correct and return all the papers; sometimes to place them all
+on file and correct samples chosen at random for determining the
+student's "term mark." A plan that has some psychological merit is to
+follow the examination immediately by a statement of the correct
+answers, with brief discussion of difficulties that may arise, and to
+ask each student to estimate the value of his own paper in the
+standard marking system. The papers are then collected and examined,
+and returned with the instructor's estimate.
+
+Since an examination is, in effect, a form of psychological test, it
+is natural that psychologists should have attempted to introduce some
+of the technique of psychological testing into the work of examining
+students, in the interest of economy of the student's time as well as
+that of the examiner. The teacher prepares blanks which the student
+can quickly fill out if he knows the subject, not otherwise. To
+discover how far the student has attained a psychological point of
+view, written work or examination questions often demand some
+independence in the application to new cases of what has been learned.
+Far-reaching tests of the later value to the student of a course in
+psychology have not as yet been attempted.
+
+=Place of psychology in the college course=
+
+No attempt has yet been made to obtain the consensus of opinion among
+psychologists as to whether the introductory course should be required
+of all arts students, and probably opinions would differ, without
+anything definitive to be said on either side. In quite a number of
+colleges psychology forms part of a required general course in
+philosophy. Where a separation has occurred between philosophy and
+psychology, the latter is seldom absolutely required. As a general
+rule, however, the introductory course, even if not required, is taken
+by a large share of the arts students. The traditional position for
+the course in psychology is late in the college curriculum, originally
+in the senior but more recently in the junior year. In many of the
+larger colleges it is now open to sophomores or even to freshmen. One
+motive for pushing the introductory course back into the earlier years
+is naturally to provide for more advanced courses in the subject; and
+another is the desire to make psychology prerequisite for courses in
+philosophy, education, or sociology. Still another motive tending in
+the same direction is the desire to make the practical benefits of
+psychological study available for the student in the further conduct
+of his work as a student in whatever field. If considerable attention
+is devoted in the introductory course to questions of mental hygiene
+and efficiency, the advantage of bringing these matters early to the
+attention of the student outweighs the objection which is often raised
+by teachers of psychology, as of other subjects, to admitting the
+younger students, on the ground of immaturity. The teachers who get
+the younger students may have to put up with immaturity in order that
+the benefit of their teaching may be carried over by the students into
+later parts of the curriculum.
+
+=Length of the introductory course=
+
+When the introductory course in psychology forms part of a course in
+philosophy, it is usually restricted to one semester, with three hours
+of class work per week. When psychology is an independent subject in
+the curriculum, a two-semester course is usually provided, since it is
+the feeling of psychologists that this amount of time is needed in
+order to make the student really at home in the subject, and to
+realize for him the values that are looked for from psychology. Often
+there is a break between the two semesters of such a course, the
+second being devoted to advanced or social or applied psychology.
+Sometimes, on the other hand, the two-semester course is treated as a
+unit, the various topics being distributed over the year; this latter
+procedure is probably the one that finds most favor with
+psychologists. Still, good results can be obtained with the semester
+course supplemented by other courses.
+
+=Content of advanced courses in psychology=
+
+The most frequent advanced course is one in experimental psychology.
+This is taken by only a small fraction of those who have taken the
+introductory course, partly because the laboratory work attached to
+the experimental course demands considerable time from the student,
+partly because students are not encouraged to go into the laboratory
+unless they have a pretty serious interest in the subject. For a
+student who has it in him to become somewhat of an "insider" in
+psychology, no course is the equal of the laboratory course,
+supplemented by judicious readings in the original sources or in
+advanced treatises. Next in frequency to the experimental course
+stands that in applied psychology, since the recent applications of
+psychology to business, industry, vocational guidance, law, and
+medicine appeal to a considerable number of college students. Other
+courses which appear not infrequently in college curricula are those
+in social, abnormal, and animal psychology. No precise order is
+necessary in the taking of these courses, and it is not customary to
+make any beyond the introductory course prerequisite for the others.
+
+                                            ROBERT S. WOODWORTH
+  _Columbia University_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Many of the textbooks contain, in their prefaces, important
+suggestions toward the teaching of the subject. There are also
+frequent articles in the psychological journals on apparatus for
+demonstrations and class or laboratory experiments.
+
+1. Report of the Committee of the American Psychological Association
+on the Teaching of Psychology. _Psychological Monographs_, No. 51,
+1910.
+
+2. American Psychological Association, Report of the Committee on the
+Academic Status of Psychology, 1915: "The Academic Status of
+Psychology in the Normal Schools."
+
+3. Same Committee, 1916: "A Survey of Psychological Investigations
+with Reference to Differentiations between Psychological Experiments
+and Mental Tests." Concerned with the availability of mental tests as
+material for the experimental course.
+
+4. Courses in Psychology for the Students' Army Training Corps.
+_Psychological Bulletin_, 1918, 15, 129-136. See also the Outlines of
+parts of the course in the same journal, pages 137-167, 177-206; and a
+note on the success of the courses by Edgar S. Brightman, in the
+_Bulletin_ for 1919, pages 24-26.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[53] In Report, pages 50-51.
+
+[54] By Sanford, 1, page 66.
+
+[55] Calkins, 1, pages 47-48.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+
+THE TEACHING OF EDUCATION
+
+
+A. TEACHING THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN COLLEGE
+
+=Kinds of educational values=
+
+There are three main kinds of educational value; viz., practical,
+cultural, and disciplinary. These three types of educational value
+probably originated in the order in which they are here mentioned. In
+early educational periods, all values are practical, or utilitarian.
+With the growth of social classes, some values become cultural; viz.,
+those pursued by the upper classes. The disciplinary values are
+recognized when studies cease to have the practical and cultural
+values.
+
+=Meaning of educational values=
+
+By the "educational value" of a subject we mean, of course, the
+service which the pursuit of that subject renders. Any one subject
+will naturally have all three values, but no two subjects will have
+the same values mixed in the same proportion. The practical value of a
+subject depends on the use in life to which it can be put, especially
+its use in making a living. The cultural value of a subject depends
+largely on the enjoyment it contributes to life. While culture does
+not make a living, it makes it worth while that a living should be
+made. The disciplinary value of a subject depends on the amount of
+mental training that subject affords. Such mental training is
+available in further pursuit of the same, or a similar, subject. It is
+the fashion of educational thinking in our day to put greatest stress
+on the practical values, less on the cultural, and least on the
+disciplinary. There is no denying the reality of each type of value.
+
+=Value of the history of education=
+
+Now, what is the value of the history of education? There are no
+experimental studies as yet, nor scientific measurements, upon which
+to base an answer. The poor best we can do is to express an opinion.
+This opinion is based on the views of others and on the writer's
+experience in teaching the history of education ten years in a liberal
+college (Dartmouth) and ten years in a professional graduate school
+(New York University). On this basis I should say that the aim of the
+history of education, at least as recorded in existing texts, is first
+cultural, then practical, and last disciplinary. Texts yet to be
+written for the use of teachers in training may shift the places of
+the cultural and the practical. This new type of text will give the
+history, not of educational epochs in chronological succession, but of
+modern educational problems in their origin and development.[56]
+
+=Its cultural value=
+
+As cultural, the history of education is the record of the efforts of
+society to project its own ideals into the future through shaping the
+young and plastic generation. There comes into this purview the
+successive social organizations, their ideals, and the methods
+utilized in embodying these ideals in young lives. Interpretations of
+the nature of social progress, the contribution of education to such
+progress, and the goal of human progress, naturally arise for
+discussion, and the history of education well taught as the effort of
+man to improve himself is both informing and inspiring. This is the
+cultural value of the history of education. The sense of the meaning
+and value of human life is enhanced. As President Faunce says,[57] "A
+college of arts and sciences which has no place for the study of
+student life past and present, no serious consideration of the great
+schools which have largely created civilization, is a curiously
+one-sided and illiberal institution."
+
+=Its practical value=
+
+As practical, the history of education, even when taught from the
+customary general texts, throws some light on such everyday school
+matters as educational organization, the best methods of teaching, the
+right principles of education for women, how to manage classes, and
+the art of administering education. History cannot give the final
+answer to such questions, but it makes a contribution to the final
+answer in reporting the results of racial experience and in assisting
+students to understand present problems in the light of their past.
+The history of education has a practical value, but it is not alone
+the source of guidance.
+
+=Its disciplinary value=
+
+As disciplinary, the history of education shows the value of all
+historical study. The appeal is mainly to the memory and the judgment.
+The teaching is inadequate, if the appeal is only to the memory. The
+judgment must also be requisitioned in comparing, estimating,
+generalizing, and applying. Memory is indispensable in retaining the
+knowledge of the historical facts, and judgment is utilized in seeing
+the meaning of these facts. With all studies in general, history
+shares in training perceptive, associative, and effortful activities.
+Training in history is commonly supposed also to make one
+conservative, in contrast with training in science, which is supposed
+to make one progressive. But this result is not necessary, being
+dependent upon one's attitude toward the past. If past events are
+viewed as a lapse from an ideal, the study of history makes one
+conservative and skeptical about progress. If, on the other hand, the
+past is viewed as progress toward an ideal, the study of history makes
+one progressive, and expectant of the best that is yet to be. But,
+even so, familiarity with the past breeds criticism of quick
+expedients whereby humanity is at last to arrive. On the whole, the
+disciplinary value of the history of education is attained as an
+incident of its cultural and practical values. We are no longer trying
+to discipline the mind by memorizing lists of names and dates, though
+they be such euphonious names as those of the native American Indian
+tribes, but we are striving to understand man's past and present
+efforts at conscious self-improvement.
+
+=The various aims of students=
+
+College students will elect a course in the history of education with
+many different motives. They may like the teacher, they may like
+history in any form, they may like the hours at which the class is
+scheduled, some person who had the course recommended it, or they have
+an idea they may teach for a while after graduating. A few know they
+are going into teaching as a vocation in life, and appreciate in a
+measure the increasing exactitudes of professional training. Thus,
+from the student standpoint, the aims are eclectic. The results with
+them will be that as human beings they have a wider view of life; as
+citizens, perhaps as members of school boards, they are more
+intelligent in school matters; and as teachers they make a start in
+their progressive equipment. The general course in the history of
+education is pursued by a group of students with varying but
+undifferentiated motives.
+
+=A student's reaction=
+
+Once I asked a group of college students to write a frank reaction on
+a sixty-hour course they had just completed in the general history of
+education. One wrote as follows: "The history of education makes me
+feel that a number of what we call innovations today are a renaissance
+of something as 'old as the hills.' We hear a lot about pupil
+self-government, and we find it back in the seventeenth century. The
+trade school also is not a modern tendency.
+
+"I also feel that maybe we are not giving our boys and girls a liberal
+education; maybe we are too utilitarian (I was very much inclined that
+way myself before I took this course).
+
+"That when we wish to try something new, let's go back and see if it
+has not been tried before, study the circumstances, the mistakes made,
+the results attained, and see whether we can't profit by the
+experience given us by the past.
+
+"I was also very much surprised to learn the close connection that
+there is between civilization and education.
+
+"I feel that we are laying too much stress on the thinking side of
+training rather than on the volitional side: not doing in the sense
+of utility alone, but as a means of expression."
+
+It is easy to see the parts of the course that particularly gripped
+him. Another wrote as follows:
+
+=Another reaction=
+
+"The history of education makes me feel as follows about teaching:
+
+(1) It shows the knowledge of method to be obtained from the
+experiences of others.
+
+(2) It makes me feel the importance of the teacher.
+
+(3) It shows a great field and encourages us to try to improve our own
+methods.
+
+(4) It shows us the great responsibility of the profession in
+connection with the nation, for the school teacher to a marked degree
+determines the destiny of a nation.
+
+(5) It shows the importance of free-thinking. (Illustration omitted.)
+
+(6) It shows us the great importance of individuality along the line
+of teaching, for, as soon as we begin to adopt the methods of others
+exactly without examining them carefully, progress stops, and we are
+like the teachers of the Middle Ages.
+
+(7) It shows that every teacher should have a heartfelt interest in
+his pupil.
+
+(8) It makes us feel that discipline is unnecessary, if we utilize the
+right methods.
+
+(9) It tells us and makes us feel above everything else that a good
+education is worth as much as riches and that, since we are all
+brothers, we ought to try to teach everybody."
+
+An analysis of these two answers would show a combination of the
+cultural and practical values and, by implication at least, since they
+were able to say these things, a disciplinary value.
+
+=History of education should be an elective course=
+
+Should the history of education be a required or an elective course in
+the college curriculum? In a school of education offering a bachelor's
+degree, it might well be required, for both cultural and professional
+reasons, but in the usual department of education in a college it
+will be offered as an elective course. Its cultural and disciplinary
+values are not such as to make its pursuit a requisite for a liberal
+education, and its practical value for prospective teachers, as it has
+been commonly taught, is not such as to warrant its prescription.
+Besides, the prospective teacher is animated by the vocational motive
+and will elect the history of education anyway, unless there are more
+practical courses to be had. Students in all the college courses
+should have the privilege of electing the history of education in view
+of their future citizenship.
+
+=A forty-five-hour course=
+
+A three-hour-per-week elective course for a half year, about
+forty-five classroom hours, will meet the needs of the average
+undergraduate in this subject. This amount of time is adequate for a
+bird's eye view of the general field, affording a unit of
+accomplishment in itself preparing the way for more specialized study
+later, though it is only about half the time requisite for presenting
+the details of the subject.
+
+=First term senior year=
+
+In my judgment the study of the history of education would best fall
+between principles and methods. The study of the principles of
+education should come first, as it is closely related to preceding
+work in the natural and mental sciences, especially biology,
+physiology, sociology, and psychology; it also gives a point of view
+from which to continue the study of education, some standard of
+judgment. The study of educational methods, such as general method in
+teaching, special method for different subjects, the technique of
+instruction, class management, organization and administration of
+schools, should come last in the course, because it will be soonest
+used. These practical matters should be fresh in the mind of any young
+college graduate beginning to teach. The history of education is a
+good transition in study from the theory of the first principles to
+the practice of school matters, affording a panorama of facts to be
+judged by principles and racial experiments in educational practice.
+This means that the choice time for the course in the history of
+education is the first semester of the senior year in college. There
+is something to be said for making this course the introductory one
+in the study of education, connecting with preceding courses in
+history and being objective in character. There is also something to
+be said for giving only a practical course dealing with the history of
+educational problems to college undergraduates and reserving the
+general history of education as a complex social study for the
+graduate school. There is no unanimity of opinion or practice
+concerning the history of education.[58]
+
+=Texts and contents=
+
+What should be the content of the one-semester general course? Three
+modern available texts are Monroe, _A Brief Course in the History of
+Education_ (The Macmillan Company); Graves, _A Student's History of
+Education_ (The Macmillan Company); and Duggan, _A Student's Textbook
+in the History of Education_ (D. Appleton & Co.). Of these Monroe's
+book is the first (1907), and it has greatly influenced every later
+text in the field. There is a general agreement in these three texts
+as to the content of such a course; viz., a general survey of
+education in the successive periods of history, including primitive,
+oriental, Greek, Roman, Early Christian and medieval, renaissance,
+reformation, realism, Locke and the disciplinary tendency, Rousseau,
+the psychologists, and the scientific, sociological, and eclectic
+tendencies. All are written from the standpoint of the conflict
+between the interests of society and the individual. The pages of the
+three books number respectively 409, 453, and 397. Graves pays most
+attention to the development of American education. Duggan omits the
+treatment of primitive and oriental education (except Jewish), "which
+did not contribute _directly_ to Western culture and education." All
+are illustrated. All have good summaries, which Graves and Duggan,
+following S. C. Parker, who derived the suggestion from Herbart, place
+at the beginning of the chapter. All have bibliographical references,
+and Duggan adds lists of questions also. Perhaps in order of ease for
+students the books would be Duggan, Graves, and Monroe, though
+teachers would not all agree in this. Users of Monroe have a valuable
+aid in his epoch-making _Textbook in the History of Education_ (The
+Macmillan Company), 772 pages, 1905, and users of Graves likewise have
+his three volumes as supplementary material (The Macmillan Company).
+
+The same general ground is covered by P. J. McCormick, _History of
+Education_ (The Catholic Educational Press), 1915, 401 pages, with
+especial attention given to the Middle Ages and the religious
+organizations of the seventeenth century. This work contains
+references and summaries also.
+
+Duggan is right in omitting the treatment of primitive and oriental
+education on the principle of strict historical continuity, but for
+purposes of comparison the chapters on primitive and oriental
+education in the other texts serve a useful purpose.
+
+=Educational classics=
+
+A more intensive elective course in the history of education intended
+especially for those expecting to teach might well be offered in a
+college with sufficient instructors. These courses might be in
+educational classics, the history of modern elementary education, or
+the history of the high school. Texts are now available in these
+fields. Monroe's _Source Book for the History of Education_ (The
+Macmillan Company), 1901, is a most useful book in studying the
+ancient educational classics, in which, however, the Anacharsis of
+Lucian does not appear, though it can be found in the Report of the
+United States Commissioner of Education, 1897-1898, Vol. I, pages
+571-589. The renaissance classics may be studied in the works of
+Woodward and Laurie. The realists may be studied in the various
+editions of Comenius, Locke, Spencer, and Huxley. Likewise the modern
+naturalistic movement may be followed in the writings of Rousseau,
+Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. These four courses are available in
+educational classics: the ancient, the renaissance or humanistic, the
+realistic and the naturalistic.
+
+=History of elementary and high schools=
+
+_The History of Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn and Co.) by S. C.
+Parker and _The High School_ (The Macmillan Company) by F. W. Smith
+may be profitably used as texts in the courses on these topics.
+Parker's has but little on the organization of the elementary school,
+is weak on the philosophical side of the theorists treated, has
+nothing on Montessori, draws no lessons from history, is very brief on
+the present tendencies, and is somewhat heavy, prosaic, and
+unimaginative in style; but it is painstaking, covers all the main
+points well and has uncovered some valuable new material, and on the
+whole is the best history in English on its problem. Dr. Smith's book
+is really a history of education written around the origin and
+tendencies of the high school as central. It is a scholarly work,
+based on access to original Latin and other sources, though diffuse.
+
+=American education=
+
+An elective course in the history of American education is highly
+desirable. Chancellor E. E. Brown's scholarly book on _The Making of
+Our Middle Schools_, or E. G. Dexter's encyclopedic book on _History
+of Education in the United States_, may profitably serve as texts.
+This course should show the European influences on American schools,
+the development of the American system, and the role of education in a
+democratic society. There is great opportunity for research in this
+field.
+
+=History of educational problems=
+
+There is room for yet another course for college undergraduates
+expecting to teach,--a history of educational problems. The idea is to
+trace the intimate history of a dozen or more of the present most
+urgent educational questions, with a view to understanding them better
+and solving them more wisely, thus enabling the study of the history
+of education to function more in the practice of teachers. Such a text
+has not yet been written. The point of view is expressed by Professor
+Joseph K. Hart as follows: "The large problem of education is the
+making of new educational history. The real reason for studying the
+history of education is that one may learn how to become a maker of
+history. For this purpose, history must awaken the mind of the student
+to the problems, forces, and conditions of the present; and its
+outlook must be toward the future."[59]
+
+=Methods Of teaching=
+
+What should be the method of teaching the history of education in
+college? One of the texts will be used as a basis for assignments and
+study. Not less than two hours of preparation on each assignment will
+be expected. The general account in the text will be supplemented by
+the reading of source and parallel material, concerning which very
+definite directions will have to be given by the teacher. Each student
+will keep a notebook as one of the requirements of the course, which
+is examined by the instructor at the end. A profitable way to make a
+notebook is for each student to select a different modern problem and
+trace its origin and growth as he goes through the general history of
+education and its source material. In this way each student becomes a
+crude historian of a problem. The examination will test judgment and
+reason as well as memory. In the classroom the instructor will at
+times question the class, will at times be questioned by the class,
+will lecture on supplementary material, will use some half-dozen
+stereopticon lectures in close conjunction with the text, will have
+debates between chosen students, seeking variety in method without
+loss of unity in result. Some questions for debate might be, the
+superiority of the Athenian to the modern school product, the
+necessity of Latin and Greek for a liberal education, religious
+instruction in the public schools, formal discipline, whether the aim
+of education is cultural or vocational, whether private philanthropy
+is a benefit to public education, etc. It is very important in
+teaching so remote a subject as the history of education that the
+teacher have imagination, be constantly pointing modern parallels,
+communicate the sense that the past has made a difference in the
+present, and be himself kindled and quickened by man's aspirations for
+self-improvement. Unless our subject first inspires us, it cannot
+inspire our pupils. Whoever teaches the history of education because
+he has to instead of because he wants to must expect thin results.
+
+=Testing results=
+
+In addition to the formal indication of the results of the course in
+the examination paper, teachers can test their results by asking for
+frank unsigned statements as to what the course has meant to each
+student, by securing suggestions from the class for the future conduct
+of the course, by noting whether education as a means of social
+evolution has been appreciated, by observing whether the attitude of
+individual students toward education as a life-work or as a human
+enterprise deserving adequate support from all intelligent citizens
+has developed. As future citizens, has the motive to improve schools
+been awakened? Particularly do more men want to teach, despite small
+pay and slight male companionship? The history of education does not
+really grip the class until its members want to rise up and do
+something by educational means to help set the world right.
+
+The limits of this paper exclude the treatment of the subject in the
+professional training of teachers in normal schools, high schools, and
+graduate schools, as well as in extension courses for teachers or in
+their private reading.
+
+                                                HERMAN H. HORNE
+  _New York University_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+BUISSON, F. _Dictionnaire de la Pedagogie_, Histoire de l'Education.
+
+BURNHAM, W. H. Education as a University Subject. _Educational
+Review_, Vol. 26, pages 236-245.
+
+BURNHAM and SUZZALO, _The History of Education as a Professional
+Subject_, Teachers College, New York, 1908.
+
+COOK, H. M. _History of the History of Education as a Professional
+Study in the United States._ Unpublished thesis.
+
+HINSDALE, B. A. The Study of Education in American Colleges and
+Universities, _Educational Review_, Vol. 19, pages 105-120.
+
+HORNE, H. H. A New Method in the History of Education. _The School
+Review Monographs_, No. 3, Chicago, 1913; pages 31-35. Discussion of
+same in _School Review_, May, 1913.
+
+KIEHLE, D. L. The History of Education: What It Stands For. _School
+Review_, Vol. 9, pages 310-315.
+
+MONROE, P., and Others. History of Education; in Monroe's _Cyclopedia
+of Education_, Vol. 3, New York, 1912.
+
+MONROE, P. Opportunity and Need for Research Work in the History of
+Education. _Pedagogical Seminary_, Vol. 17, pages 54-62.
+
+MOORE, E. C. The History of Education. _School Review_, Vol. XI, pages
+350-360.
+
+NORTON, A. O. Scope and Aims of the History of Education. _Educational
+Review_, Vol. 27.
+
+PAYNE, W. H. Practical Value of the History of Education. _Proceedings
+National Education Association_, 1889, pages 218-223.
+
+REIN, W. Encyclopaedisches Handbuch der Paedagogik. _Historische
+Paedagogik._
+
+ROBBINS, C. L. History of Education in State Normal Schools.
+_Pedagogical Seminary_, Vol. 22, No. 3, pages 377-390.
+
+ROSS, D. _Education as a University Subject: Its History, Present
+Position, and Prospects._ Glasgow, 1883.
+
+SUTTON, W. L., and BOLTON, F. E. The Relation of the Department of
+Education to other Departments in Colleges and Universities. _Journal
+of Pedagogy_, Vol. 19, Nos. 2-3.
+
+WILLIAMS, S. G. Value of the History of Education to Teachers.
+_Proceedings National Education Association_, 1889, pages 223-231.
+
+WILSON, G. M. Titles of College Courses in Education. _Educational
+Monographs_, No. 8, 1919, pages 12-30.
+
+
+B. TEACHING EDUCATIONAL THEORY IN COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF
+   EDUCATION
+
+=Introductory=
+
+Courses in education in a college or university department may be
+roughly classified into (_a_) the theoretical phases of education,
+(_b_) the historical phases, and (_c_) the applied phases. Under the
+historical phases may properly be included courses in the general
+history of education as well as those in the history of education in
+special countries. The applied courses may include general and special
+method, organization, administration, observation, and practice.
+Educational theory is discussed below.
+
+A couple of decades ago the terms "philosophy of education," "science
+of education," and "general pedagogy," or just "pedagogy," were most
+generally employed. At that time most of the work in education was
+given in the departments of philosophy or psychology. Gradually
+departments of education came to have an independent status. Among the
+earliest were those at Michigan, under Dr. Joseph Payne, and the one
+at Iowa, under Dr. Stephen Fellows. Previous to the vigorous
+development of departments of education, the departments of psychology
+and philosophy gave no special attention to the educational bearings
+of psychology. But as soon as departments of education began to
+introduce courses in educational psychology and child study, the
+occupants of the departments of psychology rubbed their eyes, became
+aware of unutilized opportunities, and then began to assert claims.
+
+=Place of educational theory in the curriculum=
+
+Ordinarily the courses in educational theory are given in the junior
+year of college. In a few places, elementary or introductory courses
+are open to freshmen. There is a distinct advantage in giving courses
+to freshmen, if they can be made sufficiently concrete and grow out of
+their previous experiences. The college of education in the University
+of Washington, for example, is so organized that the student shall
+begin to think of the profession of teaching immediately upon
+entering the University. While the main work in education courses does
+not come until the junior and senior years, the student receives
+guidance and counsel from the outset in selecting his courses and is
+helped to get in touch with the professional atmosphere that should
+surround a teacher's college. The foundation work in zoology and
+psychology is given as far as possible with the teaching profession in
+mind. It is planned to give some work of a general nature in education
+during the first two years, that will serve as vocational guidance and
+will assist the student to arrange his work most advantageously and to
+accomplish it most economically. By the more prolonged individual
+acquaintance between students and faculty of the college of education,
+it is hoped that the students will receive greater professional help
+and the faculty will be better able to judge of the teaching abilities
+of the students. The work in education and allied courses has been so
+extended that adequate professional preparation may be secured. The
+courses in zoology, psychology, and sociology are all directly
+contributory to a knowledge of, and to an interpretation of, the
+courses in education.
+
+The great majority of undergraduate students taking education are
+preparing to teach, and more and more they plan to teach in the high
+schools. However, not a few students of medicine, law, engineering,
+and other technical subjects take courses in education as a means of
+general information. It would be exceedingly desirable if all citizens
+would take general courses in education, and would come to understand
+the meaning of educational processes and past and present practices in
+educational procedure. If all parents and members of school boards
+could have a few modern courses in educational theory and
+organization, the work of school teachers would be very much
+simplified.
+
+So far as is known, no college or university makes education an
+absolute requirement such as is made with respect to foreign
+languages, science, mathematics, or philosophy. In a large majority of
+states, some work in education is required for teacher's
+certification. The number of states making such requirements is
+rapidly increasing. Before long it will be impossible for persons to
+engage in teaching without either attending a normal school or taking
+professional courses in education in college.
+
+=The scope of college courses in educational theory=
+
+The theory of education as considered in this chapter will include all
+those courses which have for their purpose the consideration of the
+fundamental meaning of education and the underlying laws or principles
+governing the education process. Educational theory is given in
+different institutions under a great variety of titles. The following
+are the most frequently offered: Principles of education, philosophy
+of education, theory of education, educational psychology, genetic
+psychology, experimental education, child study, adolescence, moral
+education, educational sociology, social aspects of education.
+Educational theory may be divided into courses which are elementary in
+character, and those which are advanced. The purpose of the former is
+to present to beginning students the fundamentals of reasonably
+well-tested principles and laws, and to indicate to them something of
+the various phases of education.
+
+The purpose of advanced courses, especially in experimental education,
+is to reach out into new fields and by study and experiment to test
+and develop new theories. The experimental phases of education seek to
+blaze new trails and to discover new methods of reaching more
+economically and efficiently the goals which education seeks. Both of
+these phases should be given in a college course in the theory of
+education. Enough of the experimental work should be given in the
+elementary course to enable students to distinguish between mere
+opinion and well-established theory, to understand how the theories
+have been derived, to know how to subject them to crucial tests, and
+to give them some knowledge of methods of experimentation.
+
+Education as a science is constantly confronted by the questions,
+"What are the ends and aims of education?" and "What are the means of
+accomplishing these ends?" These mean that there must be a study of
+the ends of education as necessitated by the demands of society and
+the needs of the individual himself. In determining the ends of
+education, adult society, of which the individual is to be a part,
+must be surveyed, as must also the social group of which the child is
+now an integral part. In addition to these the laws of growth and
+development must be studied, to understand what will contribute
+effectively to the child's normal unfoldment.
+
+The interpretation of the ends and means of education will determine
+the field of the theory of education. This interpretation has been so
+splendidly stated by Dewey that I venture to quote him at length. He
+says (_My Pedagogic Creed_): "I believe that this educational process
+has two sides--one psychological and one sociological: and that
+neither can be subordinated to the other or neglected without evil
+results following. Of these two sides, the psychological is the basis.
+The child's own instincts and powers furnish the material and give the
+starting point for all education. Save as the efforts of the educator
+connect with some activity which the child is carrying on of his own
+initiative independent of the educator, education becomes reduced to a
+pressure from without. It may, indeed, give certain external results,
+but cannot truly be called educative. Without insight into the
+psychological structure and activities of the individual, the
+educative processes will, therefore, be haphazard and arbitrary. If it
+chances to coincide with the child's activity, it will get a leverage;
+if it does not, it will result in friction, or disintegration, or
+arrest of the child nature.
+
+"I believe that knowledge of social conditions, of the present state
+of civilization, is necessary in order properly to interpret the
+child's powers. The child has his own instincts and tendencies, but we
+do not know what these mean until we can translate them into their
+social equivalents. We must be able to carry them back into a social
+past and see them as the inheritance of previous race activities. We
+must be able to project them into the future to see what their
+outcome and end will be. In the illustration just used, it is the
+ability to see in the child's babblings the promise and potency of the
+future social intercourse and conversation which enables one to deal
+in the proper way with that instinct.
+
+"I believe that the psychological and social sides are organically
+related, and that education cannot be regarded as a compromise between
+the two, or a superimposition of one upon the other. We are told that
+the psychological definition of education is barren and formal--that
+it gives us only the idea of a development of all the mental powers
+without giving us an idea of the use to which these powers are put. On
+the other hand, it is urged that the social definition of education,
+as getting adjusted to civilization, makes a forced and external
+process, and results in subordinating the freedom of the individual to
+a preconceived social and political status.
+
+"I believe each of these objections is true when urged against one
+side isolated from the other. In order to know what a power really is
+we must know what its end, use, or function is; and this we cannot
+know, save as we conceive of the individual as active in social
+relationships. But, on the other hand, the only possible adjustment
+which we can give to the child under existing conditions is that which
+arises through putting him in complete possession of all of his
+powers. With the advent of democracy and modern industrial conditions,
+it is impossible to foretell definitely just what civilization will be
+twenty years from now. Hence it is impossible to prepare the child for
+any precise set of conditions. To prepare him for the future life
+means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he
+will have the full and ready use of all his capacities, that his eye
+and ear and hand may be tools ready to command, that his judgment may
+be capable of grasping the conditions under which it has to work, and
+the executive forces be trained to act economically and efficiently.
+It is impossible to reach this sort of adjustment save as constant
+regard is had to the individual's own powers, tastes, and interests;
+say, that is, as education is continually converted into psychological
+terms.
+
+"In sum, I believe that the individual who is to be educated is a
+social individual, and that society is an organic union of
+individuals. If we eliminate the social factor from the child, we are
+left only with an abstraction; if we eliminate the individual factor
+from society, we are left only with an inert and lifeless mass.
+Education, therefore, must begin with a psychological insight into the
+child's capacities, interests, and habits. It must be controlled at
+every point by reference to these same considerations. These powers,
+interests, and habits must be continually interpreted--we must know
+what they mean. They must be translated into terms of their social
+equivalents--into terms of what they are capable of in the way of
+social service."
+
+Therefore, the fundamental course in educational theory must include
+(1) the biological principles of education, (2) the psychological
+principles of education, and (3) the social principles of education.
+This does not mean that the sequence must be as enumerated here. In
+some places that is the sequence followed, in some other places the
+social principles are studied first. As a matter of fact, all three
+phases must be studied together to a considerable extent. Probably a
+purely logical arrangement would place the social phases first, but it
+is almost futile to attempt to present them effectively until
+something of the biological and psychological laws are first
+established. Again, the student in beginning the formal study of
+education is already in possession of a vast body of facts concerning
+society and the relation of education to it, so that reference can be
+advantageously made in connection with the study of biological and
+psychological laws of education. Then the social principles and
+applications can be more thoroughly and scientifically considered in
+the light of the other phases.
+
+In administering a college course in the theory of education the great
+desideratum is to try to formulate a body of knowledge which will
+give the undergraduate students an idea of the meaning of education
+and its problems and processes. In so far as possible it is desirable
+to present material which in a certain sense will be practical.
+Inasmuch as the majority of undergraduates who study education in a
+college department intend to go into the practical work of teaching,
+it is important to fortify them, as well as possible in the brief time
+which they devote to the subject, concerning the best means of
+securing definite results in education. The majority are not so much
+interested in the abstract science or the philosophy of education as
+they are in its practical problems. All courses in education should
+seek to deal with fundamental principles and not dole out dogmatic
+statements of practical means and devices, but at the same time no
+principles should be considered with which the student cannot see some
+relation to the educative processes. They are not primarily concerned
+with the place of education among the sciences or with ontological and
+teleological meanings of education or of its laws.
+
+=Academic recognition of the introductory course=
+
+The course in elementary educational theory should be on a par with a
+course in principles of physics, one in principles of biology,
+principles of psychology, principles of political science, etc. A
+course in the principles of any of these subjects attempts to set
+forth the main problems with which the science deals. Elementary
+courses attempt to select those principles which have frequent
+application in everyday life. The course in the principles of physics
+deals with the elementary notions of matter, motion, and force, and
+everyday illustrations and problems are sought. It would seem that in
+a similar manner the college course in the foundations of education
+should seek elementary principles which will enable the student to
+accomplish the purpose of education; namely, to produce modifications
+in individuals and in society in harmony with the ideals and ends of
+education. Education is a process of adjusting individuals to their
+environment, natural and accidental, and the environment which is
+created through ideals held by society and by individuals themselves.
+All education has to do with the development of the individual in
+accordance with his potentialities and the ideals of education which
+are set up. It is a practical science, an applied science, in the same
+way that engineering is an applied science. Engineering does not deal
+with ultimate theories of matter, force, and motion, except as they
+are important in considering practical ends to be secured through the
+application of forces. An elementary course in educational theory
+should seek to include the foundations rather than to encompass all
+knowledge about education. It is rather an introduction than an
+encyclopedia.
+
+Although a complete and logical treatise on the theory of education
+might include a consideration of the course of study and the methods
+of instruction, the making of a course of study, the problem of the
+arrangement of the course of study, the various studies as instruments
+of experience, the organization and administration of education, etc.,
+it is questionable from a practical point of view whether they should
+be given consideration in the undergraduate course. Mere passing
+notice would at any rate seem sufficient. Each topic of the scope of
+the foregoing is sufficient to form a course in itself, and the
+introductory course should do no more than define their relation to
+the general problem. In the principles of psychology the fields of
+abnormal psychology, comparative psychology, child psychology,
+adolescent psychology, etc., are defined and drawn upon for
+illustration, yet no separate chapters are devoted to them. In
+departments of political economy there are usually elemental courses
+designed as an introduction to the leading principles of economic
+science, but there are special courses in currency and banking, public
+finance, taxation, transportation, distribution of wealth, etc.
+
+Similarly in the college course in the theory of education, the work
+should be concentrated upon fundamentals designed to introduce the
+student to the many special problems. For example, the course of study
+and the organization and administration of education should be
+regarded as accessory rather than as fundamental. The laws underlying
+processes of development and modification are what should occupy the
+attention of the student in this elemental survey. A study of the
+special means and agencies of education and forms of social
+organization should be given in other courses by special names.
+Secondary education, the kindergarten, administration and supervision,
+methods in special subjects, etc., each deserve attention as a
+distinct and separate course.
+
+As shown by two surveys made by the writer, one in 1909 and the last
+in 1916, the theory of education is most frequently given under the
+terms "Principles of Education," "Educational Psychology," "Social
+Phases of Education," "Educational Sociology," and "Child Study."
+Therefore, a brief special discussion of each of these fields may be
+desirable.
+
+=Principles of education=
+
+Under various names courses in principles of education are given in
+most departments of education. The term "Principles of Education" does
+not appear in all, being replaced by "Principles of Teaching,"
+"Philosophy of Education," "Fundamentals of Teaching," "Introduction
+to Education," "Science of Education," "Principles of Method," "Theory
+of Education," etc. In some institutions the terms "Educational
+Psychology" and "Child Study" stand for essentially the same thing as
+the foregoing. In most institutions it is recognized that the teacher
+must understand (_a_) the meaning and aim of education, (_b_) the
+nature of the child considered biologically, psychologically,
+socially, and morally, (_c_) the foundations of society and the
+industries, (_d_) how to adapt and utilize educational means so as to
+develop the potentialities of the child's nature and cause him to
+achieve the aims of education.
+
+=Biological principles=
+
+In this section there should be an attempt first to enlarge the notion
+of education, aiming to have it regarded as practically coincident
+with life and experience. Of course there is the ideal side to which
+individuals will strive, but the student should be impressed with the
+fact that every experience leaves its ineffaceable effect upon all
+organisms. In order to convey this idea we may begin with a
+discussion of the effects of experience upon simple animal and plant
+life and the general modifications produced in the adjustment of such
+life to surroundings. Some familiar, non-technical facts in the
+evolution of plant and animal life may be considered in their relation
+to the question of adaptation and adjustment. Due notice should be
+taken of the facts of adjustment as manifested in such illustrations
+as the change of the eyes of cave animals, gradual modifications of
+plant and animal life, the change of animals from sea life to land
+life, some of the retrogressions, etc. A general study of the gradual
+evolution of sense organs and the nervous system should be made,
+because these illustrate in an excellent way the gradual modifications
+produced by experience in the race. After this general survey, the
+subject of innate tendencies may be considered through the discussion
+of such chapters as Drummond's "The ascent of the body," "The
+scaffolding left in the body," "The arrest of the body," "The dawn of
+mind," "The evolution of language," etc. These discussions naturally
+lead to a consideration of the lengthening period of human infancy,
+and the importance of infancy in education. This in turn leads to a
+brief consideration of the periods of childhood, adolescence, and
+maturity, largely from a biological point of view. These should be
+followed by a discussion of such topics as instinct, heredity, from
+fundamental to accessory, the brain as an organ of mind, some of the
+facts of psycho-physical correlation, and the reciprocal influence of
+mind and body upon each other. Before leaving this general field,
+thorough and designedly practical discussions of the importance of
+physical development and culture for education in general and for
+mental development, fatigue, habit, physical and mental hygiene, and
+play should be considered.
+
+=Educational psychology=
+
+The next section should include what some authors term educational
+psychology, and others call the psychological aspects of education. In
+this section the first topic naturally considered is that of memory.
+It grows out of the biological discussion of instinct, heredity, etc.
+Included in the subject of memory is that of association. Following
+this come imagination, imitation, training of the senses,
+apperception, formal discipline, feeling, volition, motor training,
+induction, etc. Periods of mental development and the specific topics
+of childhood and adolescence should receive definite consideration,
+though more exhaustive treatment should be reserved for a distinct
+course in child study. The genetic point of view should be emphasized
+throughout.
+
+While the number of students registered for educational psychology is
+not large, the numbers that are in reality pursuing this branch are
+increasing. Fortunately, the "psychology for teachers" and "applied
+psychology" of a score of years ago are giving way to a kind of
+educational psychology that is much more vital. Men like Judd and
+Thorndike are formulating a psychology of the different branches of
+study and of the teaching processes involved that will enable the
+teacher to see the connection between the psychological laws and the
+processes to be learned. This sort of work has been made possible by
+the work of Hall and his followers in studying the child and the
+adolescent from the standpoint of growth periods and the types of
+activity suited to each period. Educational psychology is therefore
+represented richly in principles of education, genetic psychology,
+mental development, child study, and adolescence, as well as in the
+courses labeled "Educational Psychology."
+
+=Social aspects of education=
+
+Twelve years ago courses on social phases of education were probably
+not offered anywhere, as they are not listed in my tabulation at that
+time. Today they appear in some form or other in almost every
+department of education. In Columbia the work is given as "Educational
+Sociology." The departments of sociology also emphasize various phases
+of educational problems. Courses on vocational education, industrial
+education, and vocational guidance all emphasize the same idea. The
+introduction of these courses means that the merely disciplinary aim
+of education is fast giving way to that of adjustment and utility.
+Educational means are (1) to enable the child to live happily and to
+develop normally, and (2) to furnish a kind of training which will
+enable him to serve society to the utmost advantage. In the courses on
+educational sociology, there should be an attempt to help the student
+feel that the highest aim of education is not individualistic, but
+social. The purpose is to fit the individual for cooperation,
+developing agencies of life that shall be mutually advantageous, for
+democratic society seeks the highest welfare of all its members
+through the cooperation and contribution of each of its members. It
+teaches us not only the rights and privileges of society but also its
+duties and obligations.
+
+The best individual development also comes only through the social
+interaction of minds, and consequently various phases of social
+psychology must receive consideration. Various forms of cooperative
+effort which enlist the interest of children at various stages of
+development should be studied. Inasmuch as educators should link
+school and home, typical illustrations of the manifold means of
+relating the school and society should be studied, so that the teacher
+will not be without knowledge of their possibilities.
+
+=The child the center=
+
+Throughout the country there is evidence that the curricula in
+education departments have for their central object a scientific
+knowledge of the child, and the better adaptation of educational means
+to the development of the potentialities possessed by the child. This
+idea is evidenced by the fact that the foundation courses are
+psychology, principles of education, child study, educational
+psychology. The fact that the history of education is still so largely
+given as a relatively beginning course shows that the new idea has not
+gained complete acceptance. Many specialized courses in child study
+are offered, among them being such courses as the "Psychology of
+Childhood," "Childhood and Adolescence," "Psychopathic, Retarded, and
+Mentally Deficient Children," "Genetic Psychology," "The
+Anthropological Study of Children," "The Physical Nature of the
+Child." At the University of Pittsburgh a school of childhood has been
+established which will combine in theory and practice the best ideals
+in the kindergarten, the modern primary school, and the Montessori
+system. Clark University has had for some years its Children's
+Institute, which attempts to assemble the best literature on childhood
+and the best materials of instruction in childhood. Many of the
+courses in educational tests and measurements center around the study
+of the child.
+
+=Methods of teaching the subject=
+
+Naturally, methods of teaching the subject vary exceedingly in the
+different institutions. Each instructor to a large extent follows his
+own individual inclinations. Probably the great majority pursue the
+lecture method to a considerable extent. The lectures are generally
+accompanied by readings either from some textbook or from collateral
+readings.
+
+The writer has personally pursued the combination method. For years
+before his own book on _Principles of Education_ was completed the
+subject was presented in lecture form, and accompanied by library
+readings. Even now, with a textbook at hand, each new topic is
+outlined in an informal development lecture. Definite assignments are
+made from the text, and from collateral readings, which include
+additional texts, periodical literature, and selected chapters from
+various educational books. After students have had an opportunity to
+read copiously and to think out special problems, an attempt is made
+to discuss the entire topic orally. That is possible and very fruitful
+in classes of the right size,--not over thirty. In large classes
+numbering from sixty to one hundred or more, the oral discussion is
+not profitable unless the instructor is very skilled in conducting the
+discussion. The questions should never be for the purpose of merely
+securing answers perfectly obvious to all in the class. The questions
+should seek to unfold new phases of the subject. Difficult points
+should be considered, new contributions should be made by the students
+and the instructor, and all should feel that it is really an
+enlargement, a broadening, and a deepening of ideas gained through the
+lectures and the assigned readings. Very frequently individual
+students should be assigned special topics for report. A good deal of
+care must be exercised in this connection, for unless the material is
+a real contribution and is presented effectively, the rest of the
+students become wearied. If possible, the instructor should know
+exactly what points are to be brought out, and the approximate amount
+of time to be occupied.
+
+Throughout, an attempt is made to make the work as concrete as
+possible, and to show its relation to matters pertaining to the
+schoolroom, the home, and the everyday conduct of the students
+themselves. Each topic is treated with considerable thoroughness and
+detail. No endeavor is made to secure an absolutely systematic and
+ultra-logical system. The charge of being logically unsystematic and
+incomplete would not be resented. There is no desire for a system. As
+in the elementary stages of any subject, the first requisite is a body
+of fundamental facts. There is time enough later to evolve an
+all-inclusive and all-exclusive system. I am not aware that even the
+"doctors" have yet fully settled this question. The psychological
+order is the one sought. What is intelligible, full of living
+interest, and of largest probable importance in the life and work of
+the student teacher are the criteria applied in the selection of
+materials. The student verdict is given much weight in deciding.
+
+A rather successful plan of providing an adequate number of duplicates
+of books much used has been developed by the writer at the State
+University of Iowa and at the University of Washington. In all courses
+in which no single suitable text is found the students are asked to
+contribute a small sum, from twenty-five to fifty cents, for the
+purpose of purchasing duplicates. These books are placed on the
+reserve shelf, and this makes it possible for large classes to be
+accommodated with a relatively small number of books. Ordinarily there
+should be one book for every four or five students, if all are
+expected to read the same assignment. If options are allowed, the
+proportion of books may be reduced. The books become the property of
+the institution, and a fine library of duplicate sets rapidly
+accumulates. In about five years about fifteen hundred volumes have
+been secured in this way at the University of Washington. Valuable
+pamphlet material and reprints of important articles also are
+collected and kept in filing boxes.
+
+                                            FREDERICK E. BOLTON
+  _University of Washington_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+1. ARTICLES ON TEACHING OF EDUCATIONAL THEORY
+
+BOLTON, FREDERICK E. The Relation of the Department of Education to
+Other Departments in Colleges and Universities. _Journal of Pedagogy_,
+Vol. XIX, Nos. 2, 3, December, 1906, March, 1907.
+
+---- Curricula in University Departments of Education. _School and
+Society_, December 11, 1915, pages 829-841.
+
+JUDD, CHARLES H. The Department of Education in American Universities.
+_School Review_, Vol. 17, November, 1909.
+
+HOLLISTER, HORACE A. Courses in Education Best Adapted to the Needs of
+High School Teachers and High School Principals. _School and Home
+Education_, April, 1917.
+
+2. BOOKS ON THE GENERAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PHASES OF
+EDUCATION
+
+BAGLEY, WILLIAM C. _The Educative Process._ The Macmillan Company,
+1907. 358 pages.
+
+---- _Educational Values._ The Macmillan Company, 1911. 267 pages.
+
+BOLTON, FREDERICK E. _Principles of Education._ Charles Scribner's
+Sons, 1910. 790 pages.
+
+BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY. _The Meaning of Education, and Other Essays._
+The Macmillan Company, 1915. 386 pages. Revised Edition.
+
+CUBBERLEY, ELLWOOD P. _Changing Conceptions of Education._ Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1909. 70 pages.
+
+DAVENPORT, EUGENE. _Education for Efficiency._ D. C. Heath & Company,
+1909. 184 pages.
+
+DEWEY, JOHN. _Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the
+Philosophy of Education._ Macmillan, 1916. 434 pages.
+
+FREEMAN, FRANK N. _Experimental Education._ Houghton Mifflin Company,
+1916. 220 pages.
+
+---- _Psychology of the Common Branches._ Houghton Mifflin Company,
+1916. 275 pages.
+
+---- _How Children Learn._ Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. 322 pages.
+
+GORDON, KATE. _Educational Psychology._ Henry Holt & Co., 1917. 294
+pages.
+
+GROSZMANN, M. P. E. _Some Fundamental Verities in Education._ Richard
+Badger, 1916. 118 pages.
+
+GUYER, MICHAEL. _Being Well-Born._ Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1916. 374
+pages.
+
+HALL, G. S. _Educational Problems._ D. Appleton & Co., 1911. 2
+volumes, 710 pages and 714 pages.
+
+HECK, W. H. _Mental Discipline and Educational Values._ John Lane &
+Co., 1911. 208 pages.
+
+HENDERSON, CHARLES H. _Education and the Larger Life._ Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1912. 386 pages.
+
+---- _What Is It to be Educated?_ Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914. 462
+pages.
+
+HENDERSON, ERNEST N. _A Textbook on the Principles of Education._ The
+Macmillan Company, 1910. 593 pages.
+
+HORNE, HERMAN H. _The Philosophy of Education._ The Macmillan Company,
+1904. 295 pages.
+
+---- _The Psychological Principles of Education._ The Macmillan
+Company, 1906. 435 pages.
+
+KLAPPER, PAUL. _Principles of Educational Practice._ D. Appleton &
+Co., 1912. 485 pages.
+
+MOORE, ERNEST C. _What is Education?_ Ginn and Co., 1915. 357 pages.
+
+O'SHEA, M. VINCENT. _Dynamic Factors in Education._ The Macmillan
+Company, 1906. 321 pages.
+
+---- _Education as Adjustment._ Longmans, Green & Co., 1903. 348
+pages.
+
+---- _Linguistic Development and Education._ The Macmillan Company,
+1907. 247 pages.
+
+PYLE, WILLIAM H. _The Science of Human Nature._ Silver, Burdett & Co.,
+1917. 229 pages.
+
+---- _The Outlines of Educational Psychology._ Warwick & York, 1911.
+276 pages.
+
+RUEDIGER, WILLIAM C. _Principles of Education._ Houghton Mifflin
+Company, 1910. 305 pages.
+
+SPENCER, HERBERT. _Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical._ D.
+Appleton & Co., 1900. 301 pages.
+
+THORNDIKE, EDWARD L. _Principles of Teaching._ A. G. Seiler, 1906. 293
+pages.
+
+---- _Education: A First Book._ The Macmillan Company, 1912. 292
+pages.
+
+---- _Individuality._ Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911. 56 pages.
+
+---- _Educational Psychology._ Teachers College, 1913. Vol. 1. The
+Original Nature of Man. 327 pages.
+
+3. BOOKS ON THE SOCIAL PHASES OF EDUCATION
+
+BETTS, GEORGE H. _Social Principles of Education._ Charles Scribner's
+Sons, 1912. 313 pages.
+
+CABOT, ELLA L. _Volunteer Help to the Schools._ Houghton Mifflin
+Company, 1914. 141 pages.
+
+DEWEY, JOHN. _The School and Society._ University of Chicago Press,
+1907. 129 pages.
+
+---- _The Schools of Tomorrow._ E. P. Dutton & Co., 1915. 316 pages.
+
+---- _Democracy and Education._ The Macmillan Company, 1916. 434
+pages.
+
+DEWEY, JOHN, and SMALL, ALBION W. _My Educational Creed._ E. L.
+Kellogg & Co., 1897. 36 pages.
+
+DUTTON, SAMUEL T. _Social Phases of Education in the School and the
+Home._ The Macmillan Company, 1900. 259 pages.
+
+GILLETTE, JOHN M. _Constructive Rural Sociology._ Sturgis & Walton,
+1913. 301 pages.
+
+KING, IRVING. _Education for Social Efficiency._ D. Appleton & Co.,
+1913. 371 pages.
+
+---- _Social Aspects of Education. A Book of Sources and Original
+Discussions, with Annotated Bibliographies._ The Macmillan Company,
+1912.
+
+MCDOUGALL, WILLIAM. _An Introduction to Social Psychology._ John W.
+Luce, 1914. 355 pages.
+
+O'SHEA, M. VINCENT. _Social Development and Education._ Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1909. 561 pages.
+
+SCOTT, COLIN A. _Social Education._ Ginn and Co., 1908. 300 pages.
+
+SMITH, WALTER R. _An Introduction to Educational Sociology._ Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1917. 412 pages.
+
+4. BOOKS ON CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
+
+DRUMMOND, WILLIAM B. _An Introduction to Child Study._ Longmans, Green
+& Co., 1907. 347 pages.
+
+GESELL, BEATRICE C. and ARNOLD. _The Normal Child and Primary
+Education._ Ginn and Co., 1912. 342 pages.
+
+GROSZMANN, M. P. E. _The Career of the Child._ Richard Badger, 1911.
+335 pages.
+
+HALL, G. STANLEY. _Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene._ D.
+Appleton & Co., 1907. 379 pages.
+
+---- _Aspects of Child Life and Education._ Ginn and Co., 1907. 326
+pages.
+
+---- _Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology,
+Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education._ D.
+Appleton & Co., 1904. 2 vols., 589 and 784 pages.
+
+KING, IRVING. _The High School Age._ Robbs-Merrill Company, 1914. 288
+pages.
+
+KIRKPATRICK, EDWIN A. _Fundamentals of Child Study._ The Macmillan
+Company, 1903. 384 pages.
+
+---- _Genetic Psychology: An Introduction to an objective and genetic
+view of intelligence._ The Macmillan Company, 1909. 373 pages.
+
+OPPENHEIM, NATHAN. _The Development of the Child._ The Macmillan
+Company, 1898. 296 pages.
+
+SULLY, JAMES. _Studies of Childhood._ D. Appleton & Co., 1910. 527
+pages.
+
+SWIFT, EDGAR J. _Youth and the Race._ Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912.
+342 pages.
+
+TANNER, AMY E. _The Child: His Thinking, Feeling, and Doing._ 1904.
+430 pages.
+
+TERMAN, LEWIS M. _The Hygiene of the School Child._ Houghton Mifflin
+Company, 1914. 417 pages.
+
+TRACY, FREDERICK, and STIMPEL, JAMES. _The Psychology of Childhood._
+D. C. Heath & Co., 1909. 231 pages.
+
+TYLER, JOHN MASON. _Growth and Education._ Houghton Mifflin Company,
+1907. 294 pages.
+
+WADDLE, CHARLES W. _Introduction to Child Psychology._ Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1918. 307 pages.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[56] "A New Method in the History of Education," _School Review
+Monographs_, No. 3. H. H. Horne.
+
+[57] Quoted in _School and Society_, Vol. 5, page 23, from President
+Faunce's annual report. Recent articles on the cultural value of
+courses in education are:
+
+J. M. Mecklin, "The Problem of the Training of the Secondary Teacher,"
+_School and Society_, Vol. 4, pages 64-67.
+
+H. E. Townsend, "The Cultural Value of Courses in Education," _School
+and Society_, Vol. 4, pages 175-176.
+
+[58] Cf. Thomas M. Balliet, "Normal School Curricula," _School and
+Society_, Vol. IV, page 340.
+
+[59] "Can a College Department of Education Become Scientific?" _The
+Scientific Monthly_, Vol. 3, No. 4, page 381.
+
+
+
+
+  PART FOUR
+
+  THE LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+ XVIII THE TEACHING OF English LITERATURE
+           _Caleb T. Winchester_
+
+  XIX  THE TEACHING OF English COMPOSITION
+           _Henry Seidel Canby_
+
+   XX  THE TEACHING OF THE CLASSICS
+           _William K. Prentice_
+
+  XXI  THE TEACHING OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES
+           _William A. Nitze_
+
+ XXII  THE TEACHING OF GERMAN
+           _E. Prokosch_
+
+
+
+
+XVIII
+
+THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+
+=Scope of study of English literature in college=
+
+It should be understood at the outset that this paper is concerned
+with the study of literature, not in the university or graduate
+school, but in the college, by the undergraduate candidate for the
+bachelor's degree; and, furthermore, that the object of study is not
+the history, biography, bibliography, or criticism of literature, but
+the literature itself. Perhaps also the term "literature" may need
+definition. As commonly--and correctly--used, the word "literature"
+denotes all writing which has sufficient emotional interest, whether
+primary or incidental, to give it permanence. As thus defined,
+literature would include, for example, history and much philosophical
+writing, and would exclude only writing of purely scientific or
+technical character. But in the following pages the word will be used
+in a narrower sense, as indicating those books that are read for their
+own sake, not solely or primarily for their intellectual content. This
+definition is elastic enough to comprise not only poetry, drama, and
+fiction, but the essay, oratory, and much political and satirical
+prose. It should be further understood that for the purpose of this
+paper, English literature may be considered to begin about the middle
+of the fourteenth century. Earlier and Anglo-Saxon writings are by no
+means without great literary value, and it may at once be granted that
+no college teacher of English literature is thoroughly equipped for
+his work who is ignorant of them; but they can be read appreciatively
+only after considerable study of the language, the method and motives
+of which are linguistic rather than literary.
+
+=Aims governing the teaching of English literature=
+
+Perhaps it may be asked just here whether English literature, as thus
+defined, need be studied in college at all. Until quite recently that
+question seems generally to have been answered in the negative. Fifty
+years ago, few if any of our American colleges gave any study to texts
+of English classics. There were, indeed, in most colleges professors
+of rhetoric and _belles-lettres_, whose lectures upon the history and
+criticism of our literature were often of great value as an
+inspiration to literary study; but it was only in the decade from 1865
+to 1875 that in most of our colleges the literature itself, with
+hesitating caution, began to be read and studied in the classroom.
+
+=Can literary appreciation be developed?=
+
+Nor was this hesitation without some reasons, at least plausible. The
+chief object of college training, it was said, is to discipline and
+strengthen the intellect, to give the student that grasp and power of
+thought which he may apply to all the work of later life. The college
+should not be expected to pay much attention to the cultivation of the
+imagination and the emotions. These faculties, to which literature
+makes appeal, are not, it was said, under the control of the will, and
+you cannot cultivate or strengthen them by sheer resolve or strenuous
+exertion. The first condition of any real appreciation of literature,
+so ran the argument, is spontaneous enjoyment of it; and you cannot
+command a right feeling for literature or for anything else. But a
+normal development of the imagination and the emotions does usually
+accompany the vigorous development of the intellect, so that the
+advancing student will be found to turn spontaneously to art and
+literature. And his appreciation of all the highest and deepest
+meanings in literature will be quickened because he brings to his
+reading a mind trained to accurate and vigorous thinking. Moreover,
+all substantial advantages from the study of modern vernacular
+literature can be better obtained from the Greek and Latin classics.
+They afford the same richness of thought and charm of form as our
+modern writing; but they demand for their appreciation that careful
+attention and study which modern literature too often discourages. The
+survivors of a former generation sometimes ask us today, with a touch
+of sarcasm, "Do you think the average New England college student of
+fifty to seventy-five years ago, when the Emersons and Longfellows and
+Lowells were young men, the days of the old _North American Review_
+and the new _Atlantic Monthly_, had any less appreciation and
+enjoyment of whatever is good in literature, or any less power to
+produce it, than the young fellows who are coming out of college today
+after more than a quarter century of literary instruction?" And they
+occasionally suggest that, at all events, it is difficult to find any
+evidences of the result of such instruction in the quality of the
+literature produced or demanded today.
+
+=Conflict of utilitarian and cultural standards=
+
+On the other hand, the study of English literature often fares little
+better with the advocates of the modern practical tendency in
+education. They have but scanty allowance for a study assumed to be of
+so little use in the actual work of life. An acquaintance with
+well-known English books, especially if they be modern books, is, they
+admit, a desirable accomplishment if it can be gained without too much
+cost, but not to be allowed the place of more valuable knowledge. A
+typical modern father, writing not long ago to a modern educator,
+after giving with equal positiveness the subjects that his boy must
+have and must not have included in his course of study, added by way
+of concession, "The boy might, if he has time, take English
+literature."
+
+=Cultural and utilitarian standards harmonized=
+
+Now in answer to this second class of objectors, it may be frankly
+admitted that the study of English literature is primarily, if not
+entirely, cultural. A boy may not make a better engineer or practical
+chemist for having studied in college the plays of Shakespeare or the
+prose of Ruskin. And to the older objectors, who urge that literary
+study can ever give that severe intellectual discipline afforded by
+the older, narrower college course, we reply that it is not merely the
+intellectual powers that need culture and discipline. The ideal
+college training will surely not neglect the imagination and emotions,
+the faculties which so largely determine the conduct of life. And at
+no period in the educational process is the need of wide moral
+training so urgent as in those years when the young man is forming
+independent judgments and his tastes are taking their final set. The
+study of English literature finds its warrant for a place in the
+college curriculum principally because, better than any other subject,
+it is fitted to cultivate both the emotional and the intellectual
+sides of our nature. For in all genuine literature those two elements,
+the intellectual and the emotional, are united; you cannot get either
+one fully without getting the other. In some forms of literature, as
+in poetry, the emotional appeal is the main purpose of the writing;
+but even here no really profound or sublime emotion is possible
+without a solid basis of thought.
+
+=Appreciation the ultimate aim in the teaching of literature=
+
+This, then, let us understand, is the primary object of all college
+teaching in this department. It affords the student opportunity and
+incitement to read, during his four years, a considerable number of
+our best classics, representative of different periods and different
+forms of literature, and to read them with such intelligence and
+appreciation as to receive from them that discipline of thought and
+feeling which literature better than anything else is fitted to
+impart. If the student would or could do this reading by himself,
+without formal requirement or assistance, there might be little need
+of undergraduate teaching of literature; but every one who knows much
+of American college conditions knows that the average undergraduate
+has neither time, inclination, nor ability for such voluntary reading.
+
+=Appreciative study of literary masterpieces involves vigorous mental
+exercise=
+
+Just here lies a difficulty peculiar to the college teacher in this
+department. All studies that appeal primarily to the intellect and
+call only for careful attention and vigorous thinking can be
+prescribed, and mastery of them rigidly enforced. Indeed, the
+ambitious student is often stimulated to more vigorous effort by the
+very difficulty of his subject. But the appreciative reading of any
+work of literature cannot thus be prescribed. Of course the instructor
+may do much to help the student to such appreciation--that, indeed, is
+his chief duty; but he will not try to expound or enjoin emotional
+effects. Recognizing these limitations upon his work, he often finds
+it difficult to avoid one or the other of two dangers that beset all
+efforts to teach a vernacular literature; the student must not think
+his reading an idle pastime, nor, on the other hand, must he think it
+a repellent task. In the first case, he is likely never to read
+anything well; in the second case, the things best worth reading he
+will probably never read at all. Of the two dangers, the first is the
+more serious. The student ought early to learn that no really good
+reading is "light reading." And it may be remarked that this lesson
+was never more needed than today. There was never a time when people
+of all classes read more and thought less. We have what might almost
+be called a plague of reading, and an astonishing amount of what is
+called "reading matter" rolling out of our presses every year; while,
+significantly, we are producing very few books of permanent literary
+value. If the college study of literature is to encourage this
+indolent receptive temper, and relax the intellectual fiber of the
+student, then we might better drop it from the curriculum. The student
+must somehow learn that the book that is worth while will tax his
+thought, his imagination, his sympathies. He cannot be content merely
+to leave the door of his mind lazily open to it. Every teacher knows
+the difficulty in any attempt to inspire or direct such a pupil. And
+the simpler the subject assigned him, the greater the difficulty. Give
+him, for example, a group of the best lyrics in the language, in which
+the thought is simple and the sentiment homely or familiar. He will
+glance over them in half an hour, and then wonder what more you want
+of him. And you may not find it so easy to tell him. For he does not
+perceive nice shades of feeling, he has little sense of poetic form,
+he has not read the poems aloud to get the charm of their melody, and
+he will not let them linger in his mind long enough to feel that the
+simplest sentiments are often the most profound and moving. He simply
+tries to conjecture what sort of questions he is likely to meet on
+examination. Doubtless from this type of pupil better results can be
+obtained by the reading of prose not too familiar, that suggests more
+questions for reflection and discussion.
+
+=Suggestions for teaching of English literature--Emotional appreciation
+to have an intellectual basis=
+
+It is perhaps impossible to lay down a detailed method for the
+teaching of English literature. Much depends upon the nature of the
+literature read, the temperament of the teacher, the aptitude of the
+pupil. Every teacher will, in great measure, discover his own methods.
+At all events, no attempts will be made here to give more than a few
+suggestions. In the first place, the teacher will remember that every
+work of literature--except purely "imagist" poetry, which it is hardly
+worth while to teach--is based upon some thought or truth; in most
+varieties of prose literature this forms the main purpose of the
+writing. The first object of the student's reading, therefore, must be
+to understand thoroughly the intellectual element in what he reads;
+and here the instructor can often be of direct assistance. And after
+such careful reading, the higher emotional values of what he has read
+will often disclose themselves spontaneously, so that the reader will
+need little further help.
+
+=Abundant oral reading by teacher an aid to appreciation=
+
+Just here it is worth while to note the great value of reading aloud,
+both by the teacher as a means of instruction, and by the pupil as a
+test of appreciation. All good writing gains vastly when read thus.
+Mentally, at all events, we must image its sound if we are to get its
+full value. As to poetry, that goes without saying; for the essential,
+defining element in poetry is music. You may have truth, beauty,
+imagination, emotion, but without music you have not yet got poetry.
+But it is hardly less true that prose should be read aloud. "The best
+test of good writing," said Hazlitt--and no man in his generation
+wrote better prose than he--"is, does it read well aloud." The
+sympathetic oral reading of a passage from any prose master, a reading
+that naturally indicates points of emphasis, shades of thought,
+nuances of feeling, is often better than any formal explanation, for
+it reproduces the living voice of the writer. The wise teacher will
+avoid the mannerisms of the professed elocutionist or dramatic reader,
+but he will not neglect the value of truthful oral interpretation for
+many passages of beautiful, or subtle, or powerful writing. And the
+student will often give a better proof of intelligent appreciation by
+reading aloud, "with good accent and discretion," than by any more
+elaborate form of examination.
+
+=Knowledge of author's life and art and of ideals of the times necessary
+for comprehension and appreciation=
+
+Some varieties of literature can best be approached indirectly,
+through a study of the life of the author, or of the age in which he
+lived. As any great work of pure literature must come out of the
+author's deepest life, it is evident that any knowledge of that life
+gained from other sources may be an important aid in the appreciation
+of his work. It is true that in the case of a writer of supreme and
+almost impartial dramatic genius, such knowledge may be of
+comparatively little value; though few of us will admit that it is
+merely an idle curiosity that would be gratified by a fuller knowledge
+even of the man William Shakespeare. But all the more subjective forms
+of literature, such as the lyric and the essay, can hardly be studied
+intelligently without some biographical introduction. Still more
+obvious is the need in many instances of some accurate knowledge of
+the period in which a given work is produced. For all such writing as
+grows directly out of political or social conditions, as oratory, or
+political satire, or various forms of the essay, this is clearly
+necessary. It would be folly to attempt to read the speeches of Edmund
+Burke or the political writings of Swift without historical
+introduction and comment. But the historical setting is hardly less
+important in many other forms of literature. For the whole cast of an
+author's mind, the habitual tone of his feeling on most important
+matters, is often largely decided by his environment. It is only a
+very inadequate appreciation, for example, of the work not only of
+Carlyle and Ruskin but of Tennyson, Browning, and Matthew Arnold, that
+is possible without some correct knowledge of the varying attitude of
+these men toward important movements in English thought, social,
+economic, religious, between 1830 and 1880. It must always be an
+important part of the duty of the college teacher of literature to
+provide such biographical and historical information.
+
+=Knowledge of an author's style to be result of appreciative study of
+his works and not gathered from texts on literary criticism=
+
+All careful study of literature must involve some attention to manner
+or style--not so much, however, for its own sake, as a means for the
+fuller appreciation of what is read. In strictness, style has only one
+virtue, clearness; only one vice, obscurity. A perfect style is a
+transparent medium through which we plainly see the thought and
+feeling of the writer. Such a style may, indeed, often have striking
+peculiarities, but these are really the marks of the writer's
+personality, which his style reveals without exaggerating. All
+rhetorical study ought, therefore, to accompany or follow, not to
+precede, the careful reading for appreciation. No good book ought ever
+to be considered a mere _corpus vile_ for rhetorical praxis.
+
+=Careful attention to critical analysis=
+
+Of much greater value is that distinctively critical analysis which
+endeavors to discover the different elements, intellectual,
+imaginative, emotional, that enter into any work of literature, and to
+determine their relative amount and importance. Such analysis may well
+form the subject of classroom discussion, and advanced students should
+often be required to put the conclusions they have drawn from such
+discussion into the form of a finished critical essay. All exercises
+of this kind presuppose, of course, that the work criticized has been
+read with interest and intelligence; but no form of literary study is
+more stimulating or tends more directly to the formation of original
+and accurate critical judgments. It affords the best test of real
+literary appreciation.
+
+=Content of college course in literature=
+
+Obviously it is impossible with this method of study to cover the
+entire field of English literature in the four college years. It is
+wiser to read a few great books well than to read many smaller ones
+hurriedly. It becomes, therefore, an important question on what
+principle these books should be selected and grouped in courses. In
+the opinion of the present writer, it is well to begin with a brief
+outline sketch of the history of the literature given either in a
+textbook or by lectures, and illustrated by a few representative
+works, read carefully but without much detailed or intensive study.
+Such an introductory course may have little cultural value; but it
+furnishes that knowledge of the chronological succession of English
+writers, and the varieties of literature dominant in each period, that
+is necessary for further intelligent study. This knowledge should,
+indeed, be given in the preparatory schools, but unfortunately it
+usually is not. When given in college, the course should, if possible,
+be assigned to the freshman year. In the later years, the works
+selected for study will best be grouped either by period or by
+subject. Both plans have their advantages, but in most instances the
+first will be found the better. The study of a group of contemporary
+writers always gains in interest as we see how they all, with striking
+individual differences in temper and subject, yet reflect the social
+and moral life of their age. Sometimes the two plans may be united; a
+particular form of literature may be studied as the best
+representative of a period, as the political pamphlet for the age of
+Queen Anne or the extended essay for the first quarter of the
+nineteenth century. And in some rare instances a single writer is at
+once the highest representative of the age in which he lived and the
+supreme master of the form in which he wrote--as Shakespeare for the
+drama and Milton for the epic.
+
+=Gradation of courses and adaptation of methods to growing capacities
+of students=
+
+These courses should all--in the judgment of the present writer--be
+elective, but should be arranged in some natural sequence, those
+assigned to a lower year being preparatory to those of a higher. This
+sequence need not always be historical; the simpler course may well
+precede those which for any reason are more difficult. Methods of
+instruction will also naturally change, becoming less narrowly
+didactic with the advancement of the student. In the senior year the
+teacher will usually prefer to meet his classes in small sections, on
+the seminar plan, for informal discussion and the criticism of papers
+written by his pupils on questions suggested by their reading. Of such
+questions, students who for four years have been reading the
+masterpieces of English literature will surely find no lack.
+
+The number of courses that can be offered in the department will
+depend in some cases upon the relative size of the faculty and the
+student body. For in no other subject is it more important, especially
+in the later years, that the classes or sections should be small
+enough to allow some intimate personal touch between professor and
+student. It may be safely said that no college department of English
+literature is well officered or equipped that does not furnish at
+least four or five year-long courses of instruction. And certainly no
+student can maintain for four years such an acquaintance with the best
+specimens of a great literature without gaining something of that
+broad intelligence, heightened imagination, and just appreciation of
+whatever is best in nature and in human life, which combine in what we
+call culture.
+
+=Undergraduate vs. graduate teaching of English literature=
+
+Throughout this paper it has been assumed that what has been termed
+appreciation--that is, the ability to understand and enjoy the best
+things in literature--is the one central purpose to which all efforts
+must be subservient, in the teaching of English literature. But it
+should be remembered, as stated at the outset, that this paper has to
+do with the college undergraduate only, the candidate for the
+bachelor's degree. In the university, and to some extent in the
+graduate courses of the college leading to the master's degree, the
+subjects and methods of teaching may well be very different. Studies
+in comparative literature, studies of literary origins, the
+investigation of perplexed or controverted questions in the life or
+work of an author, the study and elucidation of the work of an unknown
+or little-known writer--all these and many other similar matters may
+very properly be the subjects of specialized graduate study. But they
+will rarely be found of most profit to undergraduate classes.
+
+                                            CALEB T. WINCHESTER
+  _Wesleyan University_
+
+
+
+
+XIX
+
+THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION[60]
+
+
+=Language an index of mental development=
+
+"Deeds, not words," is a platitude--a flat statement which reduces the
+facts of the case to an average, and calls that truth. It is absurd to
+imply, as does this old truism, that we may never judge a man by his
+words. Words are often the most convenient indices of education, of
+cultivation, and of intellectual power. And what is more, a man's
+speech, a man's writing, when properly interpreted, may sometimes
+measure the potentialities of the mind more thoroughly, more
+accurately, than the deeds which environment, opportunity, or luck
+permit. It is hard enough to take the intellectual measure even of the
+makers of history by their acts, so rapidly does the apparent value of
+their accomplishments vary with changing conceptions of what is and
+what is not worth doing. It is infinitely more difficult to judge in
+advance of youths just going out into the world by what they do. Their
+words, which reveal what they are thinking and how they are thinking,
+give almost the only vision of their minds; and "by their words ye
+shall know them" becomes not a perversion, but an adaptation of the
+old text. Would you judge of a boy just graduated entirely by the acts
+he had performed in college? If you did, you would make some profound
+and illuminating mistakes.
+
+This explains, I think, why parents, and teachers, and college
+presidents, and even undergraduates, are exercised over the study of
+writing English--which is, after all, just the study of the proper
+putting together of words. They may believe, all of them, that their
+concern is merely for the results of the power to write well--the
+ability to compose a good letter, to speak forcibly on occasion, to
+offer the amount of literacy required for most "jobs." But I wonder if
+the quite surprising keenness of their interest is not due to another
+cause. I wonder if they do not feel--perhaps unconsciously--that words
+indicate the man, that the power to write well shows intellect, and
+measures, if not its profundity, at least the stage of its development.
+We fasten on the defects of the letters written by undergraduates, on
+their faltering speeches, on their confused examination papers, as
+something significant, ominous, worthy even of comment in the press. And
+we are, I believe, perfectly right. Speech and writing, if you get them
+in fair samples, indicate the extent and the value of a college
+education far better than a degree.
+
+=Disappointing results from teaching of composition=
+
+It is this conviction which, pressing upon the schools and colleges,
+has caused such a flood of courses and textbooks, such an expenditure
+of time, energy, and money in the teaching of composition, so many
+ardent hopes of accomplishment, so much bitter disappointment at
+relative failure. I do not know how many are directly or indirectly
+teaching the writing of English in America--perhaps some tens of
+thousands; the imagination falters at the thought of how many are
+trying to learn it. Thus the parent, conscious of this enormous
+endeavor and the convictions which inspire it, is somewhat appalled to
+hear the critics without the colleges maintaining that we are not
+teaching good writing, and the critics within protesting that good
+writing cannot be taught.
+
+=Fixing responsibility for alleged failure of composition teaching=
+
+It is with the teachers, the administrators, the theorists on
+education, but most of all the teachers, that the responsibility for
+the alleged failure of this great project--to endow the college
+graduate with adequate powers of expression--must be sought. But these
+guardians of expression are divided into many groups, of which four
+are chief.
+
+There is first the great party of the Know-Nothings, who plan and
+teach with no opinion whatsoever as to the ends of their teaching.
+Under the conditions of human nature and current financial rewards for
+the work, this party is inevitably large; but it counts for nothing
+except inertia. There is next the respectable and efficient cohort of
+the Do-Nothings, who believe that good writing and speaking are
+natural emanations from culture, as health from exercise or clouds
+from the sea. They would cultivate the mind of the undergraduate, and
+let expression take care of itself. They do not believe in teaching
+English composition. Next are the Formalists, who hold up a dictionary
+in one hand, the rules of rhetoric in the other, and say, "Learn
+these, and good writing and good speaking shall be added unto you."
+The Formalists have weakened in late years. There have been desertions
+to the Do-Nothings, for the work of grinding rules into unwilling
+minds is hard, and it is far easier to adopt a policy of
+_laissez-faire_. But there have been far more desertions into a party
+which I shall call, for want of a better name, the Optimists. The
+Optimists believe that in teaching to write and speak the American
+college is accepting its most significant if not its greatest duty.
+They believe that we must understand what causes good writing, in
+order to teach it; and that for the average undergraduate writing must
+be taught.
+
+=Divergent views on teaching of composition=
+
+The best way to approach this grand battleground of educational
+policies is by the very practical fashion of pretending (if pretense
+is necessary) that you have a son (or a daughter) ready for college.
+What does he need, what must he have in a writing way, in a speaking
+way, when he has passed through all the education you see fit to give
+him? What should he possess of such ability in order to satisfy the
+world and himself? Facts, ideas and imagination, to put it roughly,
+make up the substance of expression. Facts he must be able to present
+clearly and faithfully; ideas he must be able to present clearly and
+comprehensively; his imagination he will need to express when his
+nature demands it. And for all these needs he must be able to use
+knowingly the words which study and experience will feed to him. He
+must be able to combine these words effectively in order to express
+the thoughts of which he is capable. And these thoughts he must work
+out along lines of logical, reasonable developments, so that what he
+says or writes will have an end and attain it. In addition, if he is
+imaginative--and who is not?--he should know the color and fire of
+words, the power of rhythm and harmony over the emotions, the
+qualities of speech whose secret will enable him to mold language to
+his personality and perhaps achieve a style. This he should know; the
+other powers he must have, or stop short of his full efficiency.
+
+Alas, we all know that the undergraduate, in the mass, fails often to
+attain even to the power of logical, accurate statement, whether of
+facts or ideas. It is true that most of the charges against him are to
+a greater or less degree irrelevant. Weighty indictments of his powers
+of expression are based upon bad spelling: a sign, it is true, of
+slovenliness, an indication of a lack of thoroughness which goes
+deeper than the misplacing of letters, but not in itself a proof of
+inability to express. Great writers have often misspelled; and the
+letters which some of our capable business men write when the
+stenographer fails to come back after lunch are by no means
+impeccable. Other accusations refer to a childish vagueness of
+expression--due to the fact that the American undergraduate is often a
+child intellectually rather than to any defects in composition _per
+se_. But it is a waste of time to deny that he writes, if not badly,
+at least not so clearly, so correctly, so intelligently, as we expect.
+The question is, why?
+
+It would be a comfort to place the blame upon the schools; and indeed
+they must take some blame, not only because they deserve it, but also
+to enlighten those critics of the college who never consider the kind
+of grain which comes into our hoppers. The readers of college entrance
+papers could tell a mournful story of how the candidates for our
+freshman classes write. Here, for an instance, is a paragraph intended
+to prove that the writer had a command of simple English, correct in
+sentence structure, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. The
+subject is "The Value of Organized Athletics in Schools"--not an
+abstruse one, or too academic:
+
+     If fellows are out in the open and take athletics say at a
+     certain time every-day; These fellows are in good health and
+     allert in their lessons, while those who take no exercise are
+     logy and soft. Organized athletics in a school bring the former,
+     while if a school has no athletics every-thing goes more or less
+     slipshod, and the fellows are more liable to get into trouble,
+     because they are nervious from having nothing to do.
+
+
+This is a little below the average of the papers rejected for entrance
+to college. It is not a fair sample of what the schools can do, but it
+is a very fair sample of what they often do not do. It was not written
+by a foreigner, nor, I judge, by a son of illiterate parents, since it
+came from an expensive Eastern preparatory school. The reader, marking
+with some heat a failure for the essay from which this paragraph is
+extracted, would not complain of the writer's paucity of ideas. His
+ideas are not below the average of his age. He would keep his wrath
+for the broken, distorted sentences, the silly spelling, the lack
+(which would appear in the whole composition) of even a rudimentary
+construction to carry the thought. Spelling, the fundamentals of
+punctuation, and the compacting of a sentence must be taught in the
+schools, for it is too late to cure diseases of these members in
+college. They can be abated; but again and again they will break out.
+It is the school's business to teach them; and the weary reader sees
+in this unhappy specimen but a dark and definite manifestation of a
+widespread slovenliness in secondary education, a lack of thoroughness
+which appears not only in the failures, but also, though in less
+measure, among the better writers, whose work is too good in other
+respects not to be reluctantly passed.
+
+Again, it would be easy to place much of the blame for the slipshod
+writings of the undergraduate upon the standards set by his elders
+outside the colleges. Editors can tell of the endless editing which
+contributions, even from writers supposed to be professional, will
+sometimes require. And when such a sentence as the following slips
+through, and begins an article in a well-known, highly respectable
+magazine, we can only say, "If gold rust, what will iron do?"
+
+     Yes the Rot--and with a very big R--in sport: for that, thanks to
+     an overdone and too belauded a Professionalism by a large section
+     of the pandering press, is what it has got to.
+
+
+Again, any business man could produce from his files a collection of
+letters full of phrasing so vague and inconsequential that only his
+business instincts and knowledge of the situation enable him to
+interpret it. Any lawyer could give numberless instances where an
+inability to write clear and simple English has caused litigation
+without end. Indeed, the bar is largely supported by errors in English
+composition! And as for conversation conducted--I will not say with
+pedantical correctness, for that is not an ideal, but with accuracy
+and transparency of thought--listen to the talk about you!
+
+However, it is the business of the colleges to improve all that; and
+though it is not easy to develop in youth virtues which are more
+admired than practiced by maturity, let us assume that they should
+succeed in turning out writers of satisfactory ability, even with
+these handicaps, and look deeper for the cause of their relative
+failure.
+
+=Democratizing education and immigration the cause of poor quality
+of expression=
+
+The chief cause of the prevalent inadequacy of expression among our
+undergraduates is patent, and its effects are by no means limited to
+America, as complaints from France and from England prove. The
+mob--the many-headed, the many-mouthed, figured in the past by poets
+as dumb, or, at best, an incoherent thing of brutish noises signifying
+speech--is acquiring education and learning how to express it.
+Hundreds of thousands whose ancestors never read, and seldom talked
+except of the simpler needs of life, are doing the talking and the
+writing which their large share in the transaction of the world's
+business demands. Indeed, democracy requires not only that the
+illiterate shall learn to read and write in the narrower sense of the
+words, but also that the relatively literate must seek with their
+growing intellectuality a more perfect power of expression. And it is
+precisely from the classes only relatively literate--those for whom in
+the past there has been no opportunity, and no need, to become highly
+educated--that the bulk of our college students today are coming, the
+bulk of the students in the endowed institutions of the East as well
+as in the newer State universities of the West. The typical
+undergraduate is no longer the son of a lawyer or a clergyman, with an
+intellectual background behind him.
+
+There is plenty of grumbling among college faculties, and in certain
+newspapers, over this state of affairs. In reality, of course, it is
+the opportunity of the American colleges. Let the motives be what they
+may, the simple fact that so many American parents wish to give their
+children more education than they themselves were blessed with is a
+condition so favorable for those who believe that in the long run only
+intelligence can keep our civilization on the path of real progress,
+that one expects to hear congratulations instead of wails from the
+college campuses.
+
+Nevertheless, we pay for our opportunity, and we must expect to pay.
+The thousands of intellectual immigrants, ill-supplied with means of
+progress, indefinite of aim, unaware of their opportunities, who land
+every September at the college gates, constitute a weighty burden, a
+terrible responsibility. And the burden rests upon no one with more
+crushing weight than upon the unfortunate teacher of composition. That
+these entering immigrants cannot write well is a symptom of their
+mental rawness. It is to be expected. But thanks to the methods of
+slipshod, ambitious America, the schools have passed them on still
+shaky in the first steps of accurate writing--spelling, punctuation,
+sentence structure, and the use of words. Thanks to the failure of
+America to demand thoroughness in anything but athletics and business,
+they are blind to the need of thoroughness in expression. And thanks
+to the inescapable difficulty of accurate writing, they resist the
+attempt to make them thorough, with the youthful mind's instinctive
+rebellion against work. Nevertheless, whatever the cost, they must
+learn if they are to become educated in any practical and efficient
+sense; the immigrants especially must learn, since they come from
+environments where accurate expression has not been practiced--often
+has not been needed--and go to a future where it will be required of
+them. Not even the Do-Nothing school denies the necessity that the
+undergraduate should learn to write well. But how?
+
+=Solutions proposed by four types of instructors=
+
+The Know-Nothing school proposes no ultimate solution and knows none,
+unless faithfully teaching what they are told to teach, and accepting
+the sweat and burden of the day, with few of its rewards, be not in
+its blind way a better solution than to dodge the responsibility
+altogether.
+
+The Formalists labor over precept and principle--disciplining,
+commanding, threatening--feeling more grief over one letter lost, or
+one comma mishandled, than joy over the most spirited of incorrect
+effusions. They turn out sulky youths who nevertheless have learned
+something.
+
+The Do-Nothings propose a solution which is engaging, logical--and
+insufficient. They are the philosophers and the aesthetes among
+teachers, who see, what the Formalists miss, that he who thinks well
+will in the long run write as he should. Their special horror is of
+the compulsory theme, extracted from unwilling and idealess minds.
+Their remedy for all ills of speech and pen is: teach, not writing and
+speaking, but thinking; give, not rules and principles, but materials
+for thought. And above all, do not force college students to study
+composition. The Do-Nothing school has almost enough truth on its side
+to be right. It has more truth, in fact, than its principles permit it
+to make use of.
+
+The umpire in this contest--who is the parent with a son ready for
+college--should note, however, two pervading fallacies in this
+_laissez-faire_ theory of writing English. The first belongs to the
+party of the right among the Do-Nothings--the older teachers who come
+from the generation which sent only picked men to college; the second,
+to the party of the left--the younger men who are distressed by the
+toil, the waste, the stupidity which accompany so much work in
+composition.
+
+The older men attack the attempt to teach the making of literature.
+Their hatred of the cheap, the banal, and the false in literature that
+has been machine-made by men who have learned to express finely what
+is not worth expressing at all, leads them to distrust the teaching of
+English composition. They condemn, however, a method of teaching that
+long since withered under their scorn. The aim of the college course
+in composition today is not the making of literature, but writing; not
+the production of imaginative masterpieces, but the orderly
+arrangement of thought in words. Through no foresight of our own, but
+thanks to the pressure of our immigrants upon us, we have ceased
+teaching "eloquence" and "rhetoric," and have taken upon ourselves the
+humbler task of helping the thinking mind to find words and a form of
+expression as quickly and as easily as possible. The old teacher of
+rhetoric aspired to make Burkes, Popes, or De Quinceys. We are content
+if our students become the masters rather than the servants of their
+prose.
+
+The party of the left presents a more frontal attack upon the teaching
+of the writing of English. Show the undergraduate how to think, they
+say; fill his mind with knowledge, and his pen will find the way. Ah,
+but there is the fallacy! Why not help him to find the way--as in
+Latin, or surveying, or English literature? The way in composition can
+be taught, as in these other subjects. Writing, like skating, or
+sailing a boat, has its special methods, its special technique, even
+as it has its special medium, words, and the larger unities of
+expression. The laws which govern it are simple. They are always in
+intimate connection with the thought behind, and worthless without it;
+but they can be taught. Ask any effective teacher of composition to
+show you what he has done time and again for the freshman whose
+sprawling thought he has helped to form into coherent and unified
+expression. And do not be deceived by analogies drawn from our
+colleges of the mid-nineteenth century, where composition was not
+taught, and men wrote well; or from the English universities, where
+the same conditions are said (with dissenting voices) to exist. In the
+first place, they had no immigrant problem in the mid-century, nor
+have they in Oxford and Cambridge. In the second, the rigorous
+translation back and forward between the classics and the mother
+tongue, now obsolete in America, but still a requisite for an English
+university training, provides a drill in accuracy of language whose
+efficiency is not to be despised.
+
+The student must express his intellectual gains even as he absorbs
+them, or the crystallization of knowledge into personal thought will
+be checked at the beginning. The boy must be able to say what he
+knows, or write what he knows, or he does not know it. And it is as
+important to help him express as to help him absorb. The teachers in
+other departments must aid in this task or we fail; but where the
+whole duty of making expression keep pace with thought and with life
+is given to them, they will be forced either to overload, or to
+neglect all but the little arcs that bound their subjects. And since
+they are specialists in other fields, and so may neglect that
+technique of writing which in itself is a special study, their task,
+when they accept it, is hard, and their labor, when it is forced upon
+them, too often ineffective. Composition must be taught where college
+education proceeds--that is the truth of the matter; and if not taught
+directly, then indirectly, with pain and with waste.
+
+The school of the Optimists approaches this question of writing
+English with self-criticism and with a full realization of the
+difficulties, and of the tentative nature of the methods now in use,
+but with confidence as to the possibility of ultimate success. In
+order to be an Optimist in composition you must have some stirrings of
+democracy in your veins. You must be interested in the need of the
+average man to shape his writing into a useful tool that will serve
+his purposes, whether in the ministry or the soap business. This is
+the utilitarian end of writing English. And you must be interested in
+developing his powers of self-expression, even when convinced that no
+great soul is longing for utterance, but only a commonplace human
+mind--like your own--that will be eased by powers of writing and of
+speech. It is here that composition is of service to the imagination,
+and incidentally to culture; and I should speak more largely of this
+service if there were space in this chapter to bring forward all the
+aspects of college composition. It is the personal end of writing
+English. If the average man turns out to be a superman with mighty
+purposes ahead, or if he has a great soul seeking utterance, he will
+have far less need of your assistance; but you can aid him,
+nevertheless, and your aid will count as never before, and will be
+your greatest personal reward, though no greater service to the
+community than the countless hours spent upon the minds of the
+multitude.
+
+In order to be an Optimist it is still more important to understand
+that writing English well depends first upon intellectual grasp, and
+second upon technical skill, and always upon both. As for the first,
+your boy, if you are the parent of an undergraduate, is undergoing a
+curious experience in college. Against his head a dozen teachers are
+discharging round after round of information. Sometimes they miss;
+sometimes the shots glance off; sometimes the charge sinks in. And his
+brain is undergoing less obvious assaults. He is like the core of soft
+iron in an electro-magnet upon which invisible influences are
+constantly beating. His teachers are harassing his mind with methods
+of thinking: the historical method; the experimental method of
+science; the interpretative method of literature. Unfortunately, the
+charges of information too often lodge higgledy-piggledy, like
+bird-shot in a signboard; and the waves of influence make an
+impression which is too often incoherent and confused. If the
+historians really taught the youth to think historically from the
+beginning, and the scientists really taught him to think
+scientifically from the beginning, and he could apply his new methods
+of thought to the expression of his own emotions, experiences, life,
+then the teacher of composition might confine himself to the second
+of his duties, and teach only that technique which makes writing to
+uncoil itself as easily and as vividly as a necklace of matched and
+harmonious stones. In the University of Utopia we shall leave the
+organization of thought to the other departments, and have plenty left
+to do; but we are not yet in Utopia.
+
+At present, the teacher of composition stands like a sentry at the
+gates of knowledge, challenging all who come out speaking random words
+and thoughts; asking, "Have you thought it out?" "Have you thought it
+out clearly?" "Can you put your conclusions into adequate words?" And
+if the answers are unsatisfactory, he must proceed to teach that
+orderly, logical development of thought from cause to effect which
+underlies all provinces of knowledge, and reaches well into the
+unmapped territories of the imagination. But even in Utopia
+composition must remain the testing ground of education, though we
+shall hope for more satisfactory answers to our challenges. And even
+in Utopia, where the undergraduate perfects his thinking while
+acquiring his facts, it will be the duty of the teacher of writing to
+help him to apply his intellectual powers to his experiences, his
+emotions, his imagination, in short, to self-expression. And there
+will still remain the technique of writing.
+
+=How to teach college students the art of self-expression?=
+
+Theoretically, when the undergraduate has assembled his thoughts he is
+ready and competent to write them, but practically he is neither
+entirely ready nor usually entirely competent. It is one thing to
+assemble an automobile; it is another thing to run it. The technique
+of writing is not nearly as interesting as the subject and the thought
+of writing; just as the method of riding a horse is not nearly as
+interesting as the ride itself. And yet when you consider it as a
+means to an end, as a subtle, elastic, and infinitely useful craft,
+the method of writing is not uninteresting even to those who have to
+learn and not to teach it. The technique of composition has to do with
+words. We are most of us inapt with words; even when ideas begin to
+come plentifully they too often remain vague, shapeless, ineffective,
+for want of words to name them. And words can be taught--not merely
+the words themselves, but their power, their suggestiveness, their
+rightness or wrongness for the meaning sought. The technique of
+writing has to do with sentences. Good thinking makes good sentences,
+but the sentence must be flexible if it is to ease the thought. We can
+learn its elasticity, we can practice the flow of clauses, until the
+wooden declaration which leaves half unexpressed gives place to a
+fluent and accurate transcript of the mind, form fitting substance as
+the vase the water within it. This technique has to do with
+paragraphs. The critic knows how few even among our professional
+writers master their paragraphs. It is not a dead, fixed form that is
+to be sought. It is rather a flexible development, which grows beneath
+the reader's eye until the thought is opened with vigor and with
+truth. It is interesting to search in the paragraph of an ineffective
+editorial, an article, or theme, for the sentence that embodies the
+thought; to find it dropped like a turkey's egg where the first
+opportunity offers, or hidden by the rank growth of comment and
+reflection about it. Such research is illuminating for those who do
+not believe in the teaching of composition; and if it begins at home,
+so much the better. And finally, the technique of writing has to do
+with the whole, whether sonnet, or business letter, or report to a
+board of directors. How to lead one thought into another; how to
+exclude the irrelevant; how to weigh upon that which is important; how
+to hold together the whole structure so that the subject, all the
+subject, and nothing but the subject shall be laid before the reader;
+this requires good thinking, but good thinking without technical skill
+is like a strong arm in tennis without facility in the strokes.
+
+The program I have outlined is simpler in theory than in practice. In
+practice, it is easier to discover the disorder than the thought which
+it confuses; in practice, technical skill must be forced upon
+undergraduates unaccustomed to thoroughness, in a country that in no
+department of life, except perhaps business, has hitherto been
+compelled to value technique. Even the optimist grows pessimistic
+sometimes in teaching composition.
+
+And yet in the teaching of English the results are perhaps more
+evident than elsewhere in the whole range of college work. It is
+wonderful to see what can be accomplished by an enthusiast in the
+sport of transmuting brains into words. When the teacher seeks for his
+material in the active interests of the student--whether athletics or
+engineering or literature or catching trout--when he stirs up the
+finer interests, drawing off, as it were, the cream into words, the
+results are convincing. Writing is one of the most fascinating, most
+engaging of pursuits for the man with a craving to grasp the reality
+about him and name it in words. And even for the undergraduate, whose
+imagination is just developing, and whose brain protests against
+logical thought, it can be made as interesting as it is useful.
+
+The teaching of English composition in this country is a vast industry
+in which thousands of workmen are employed and in which a million or
+so of young minds are invested. I do not wish to take it too
+seriously. There are many accomplishments more important for the
+welfare of the race. And yet, if it be true that maturity of intellect
+is never attained without that clearness and accuracy of thinking
+which can be made to show itself in good writing, then the failure of
+the undergraduate to write well is serious, and the struggle to make
+him write better worthy of the attention of those who have children to
+be educated. I do not think that success in this struggle will come
+through the policy of _laissez-faire_. All undergraduates profit by
+organized help in their writing; many require it. I do not think that
+success will come by a pedantical insistence upon correctness in form
+without regard to the sense. Squeezing unwilling words from
+indifferent minds may be discipline; it certainly is not teaching. I
+think that success will come only to the teacher who is a middleman
+between thought and expression, valuing both. When we succeed in
+making the bulk of the undergraduates really think; when we can
+inspire them with a modicum of that passion for truth in words which
+is the moving force of the good writer; when the schools help us and
+the outside world demands and supports efficiency in diction; then we
+shall carry through the program of the Optimists.
+
+                                             HENRY SEIDEL CANBY
+  _Yale University_
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[60] Reprinted in revised form from _College Sons and College
+Fathers_, Harper and Brothers.
+
+
+
+
+XX
+
+THE TEACHING OF THE CLASSICS
+
+
+=Significance of recent criticisms of the teaching of the classics=
+
+Methods of teaching are determined to a large extent by appreciation
+of the objects to be attained. If teachers make clear to themselves
+just what they wish to accomplish, they will more easily develop the
+means. The storm of objection now rising against the study of the
+Classics indicates clearly that there is a general dissatisfaction
+with the result of this study. There is a striking unanimity on this
+subject among persons of widely different talent and experience, of
+whom some are still students, while others are looking back upon their
+training in school and college after years of mature life. Their
+adverse criticism is all the more significant because often expressed
+with obvious regret. Some, who have had unusual opportunities for
+observation, state their opinion in no uncertain language. For
+example, Mr. Abraham Flexner, in his pamphlet "A Modern School," on
+page 18 says: "Neither Latin nor Greek would be contained in the
+curriculum of the Modern School--not, of course, because their
+literatures are less wonderful than they are reputed to be, but
+because their present position in the curriculum rests upon tradition
+and assumption. A positive case can be made out for neither." The
+president of Columbia University, in his Annual Report for 1915-1916,
+page 15, speaking of the "teachers of the ancient classics," says:
+"They have heretofore been all too successful in concealing from their
+pupils the real significance and importance of Greek and Latin
+studies." Such criticisms, however, do not prove that the study of the
+Classics cannot accomplish all that its advocates claim for it, but
+only that it is not now accomplishing satisfactory results.
+
+Undoubtedly there are various causes for a depreciation of classical
+studies at the present time. Other subjects, such as mathematics, are
+suffering from a similar disparagement. In recent years interest has
+centered more and more in studies designed to develop powers of
+observation, give knowledge of certain facts, or provide equipment for
+some particular vocation, to the neglect of those which discipline the
+mind or impart a general culture. It is certainly important,
+therefore, to consider the relative values of these various studies.
+To do so it is desirable to examine the aims of classical teaching and
+the methods by which these aims may be realized; for it is at least
+possible that the widespread dissatisfaction with this teaching is due
+not so much to the subject itself as to defects and insufficiency in
+the methods employed.
+
+=The present aims of classical teaching=
+
+Not all teachers of the Classics agree in all respects as to the aims
+of their teaching. Certain aims, however, are common to all the
+classical departments in American colleges. These are:
+
+1. To train students, through the acquisition and use of the ancient
+languages, in memory, accuracy, analysis and logic, clearness and
+fluency of expression, and style.
+
+2. To enable certain students to read with profit and enjoyment the
+masterpieces of Greek and Latin literature.
+
+3. To impart to certain students a knowledge, as complete as possible,
+of the classical civilization as a whole. To a complete knowledge of
+this civilization belongs all that the ancients possessed or did, all
+that they thought or wrote, whether or not any particular part of it
+had an influence upon later times or is, in itself, interesting or
+valuable now. All parts alike are phenomena of the life of these
+ancient peoples and so of the life of the human race.
+
+4. To impart a knowledge and understanding of the thoughts and ideas,
+the forms of expression, the institutions, and the experiences of the
+ancients, in so far as these are either actually valuable in
+themselves to the modern world or have influenced the development of
+modern civilization.
+
+Besides these aims which are common to all, there are certain others
+less generally pursued by classical teachers in this country. Among
+these are:
+
+5. To make students familiar with "the Greek (and Latin) in English,"
+i.e. with the etymology and history of words in our own language which
+had their origin in or through Greek or Latin.[61]
+
+6. To trace the influences of the classic literature upon modern
+literature and thought.[62]
+
+7. To train those who expect to teach the Classics in pedagogical
+methods, and to familiarize them with modern pedagogical
+appliances.[63]
+
+8. To teach the language of the New Testament and of the Church
+Fathers.[64]
+
+The classical departments of some colleges also give courses in Modern
+Greek[65]: such courses, however, belong properly to the field of
+Modern Languages.
+
+Now it is by no means certain that all of these aims properly concern
+all classes of students. On the contrary, every one would doubtless
+agree that those described under Nos. 7 and 8 do not concern the
+average student of the Classics. It is also a debatable question
+whether it should be the aim of classical teaching to give all
+classical students some knowledge of the classic civilization as a
+whole; whether, for example, Aristophanes and Plautus, however
+important these authors may be for a complete understanding of the
+ancient life and literature, are worth while for all classical
+students alike. It is far more important, however, to determine
+whether, in that which seems to many persons the chief business of a
+classical department, all who study the masterpieces of the ancient
+literatures should be taught to study them in the original language.
+
+=Teaching from the originals only=
+
+No one doubts that classical departments should provide courses on the
+ancient literature in the original, or that the aesthetic qualities of
+a literature can be _fully_ appreciated only in the original language.
+Some people, however, maintain that every literary production is
+primarily a work of art, and consequently that its aesthetic qualities
+are its most essential qualities: that to teach the classical
+literature through the medium of translations would be aiming at an
+imperfect appreciation of its most essential qualities, and would also
+divert students from the study of its original form. Yet in most
+colleges courses on painting and sculpture are given through the
+medium of photographs, casts and copies, and no one questions the
+value and effectiveness of such courses, or doubts that they tend to
+increase the desire of the students to know the originals themselves.
+Similarly courses on Greek literature in translations are given at
+many American colleges, for example at Bucknell, California, Colorado,
+Harvard,[66] Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Lafayette, Leland Stanford,
+Michigan, Missouri, New York University, North Dakota, Pennsylvania,
+Syracuse, Tennessee, Vermont, Washington University, Wesleyan, and
+Wisconsin: courses in Latin literature in translations at California,
+Colorado, Kansas, Leland Stanford, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and
+Washington University. Besides these there are courses at some
+colleges on Greek or Roman Life and Thought,[67] or Life and
+Letters,[68] or Civilization,[69] most of which do not involve the use
+of the ancient languages on the part of the students. For example, at
+Brown courses which require no knowledge of the ancient languages are
+given in both Greek and Roman "Civilization as Illustrated by the
+Literature, History and Monuments of Art."[70] Harvard also offers
+courses entitled "A Survey of Greek Civilization" and "A Survey of
+Roman Civilization, Illustrated from the Monuments and Literature," in
+which a knowledge of the ancient languages is not required.
+
+In deciding the question here at issue it is essential to distinguish
+between the different kinds of literature. The value of certain
+literary productions undoubtedly consists chiefly in the aesthetic
+qualities of their form; that is, the excellence and influence of
+these productions depends upon the particular language actually used
+by the author. Such works of literature lose very much in translation,
+and it may be asserted with some reason that they lose their most
+essential qualities. It may well be doubted, therefore, whether any
+one can derive great pleasure or benefit from the study of the poems
+of Sappho or the odes of Horace, for example, unless these are studied
+in the original. The value of other literary productions, on the other
+hand, lies partly in their form and partly in their content, or in
+their content alone. It is quite a different question, therefore,
+whether one may derive a satisfactory pleasure and benefit from a
+translation of the _Agamemnon_ of AEschylus or Thucydides' _History of
+the Peloponnesian War_, of Lucretius or Tacitus, to say nothing of
+such books as Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_.
+
+=Teaching only from classical texts=
+
+There is another and still more important question connected with the
+theory of classical teaching, namely whether all classical courses
+should be based upon or begin with the study of some classical text.
+Some are of the opinion that it is the business of classical teachers
+to teach the Greek and Latin languages, and the literatures in these
+languages, and that anything which cannot be taught best through the
+study of some portion of the classical literature in the original
+should be taught by some other department of the college. Consequently
+in some institutions courses on ancient literature in English
+translations are given by the English Department,[71] courses on Greek
+and Roman History, Archaeology, and Philosophy by the Departments of
+History, Archaeology, and Philosophy, respectively, courses on the
+Methods and Equipment of Teaching the Classics by the Department of
+Pedagogy.
+
+Others, less extreme in their views, hold (_a_) that any study of the
+Greek or Roman civilization apart from the original ancient literature
+would be vague, discoursive, and unprofitable, and in particular that
+a discussion of a literature or of literary forms without an
+immediate, personal acquaintance with this literature or these
+literary forms in the original would not be useful, and (_b_) that
+such courses would have little permanent value for the students
+because it would not be possible to compel the students to make much
+effort for themselves.
+
+Quite the opposite opinion on this most important question is held by
+those who believe (_a_) that the study of the Classics should not be
+confined to those who are now able, or may in the future be expected,
+to read the ancient literature in the original, (_b_) that there are
+some things even about the ancient literature and civilization which
+can be taught more effectively without the loss of time and the
+division of attention involved in reading the ancient authors in the
+original, and (_c_) that in courses such as those dealing with ancient
+history ancient books on these subjects, either in the original or in
+translations, cannot properly be used as textbooks for the reason
+that, quite apart from their errors and misconceptions, these books do
+not contain, except incidentally, those phases of the ancient life
+which are the most interesting and valuable to the modern world. Such
+persons consider that the attempt to convey an appreciation of the
+ancient literature through those limited portions of it which can be
+read by the students in the original is necessarily ineffective. They
+hold that to appreciate any literature one must study it as
+literature,--i.e., as English literature should be studied by English
+students, French literature by French students,--and that literary
+study of this sort properly begins where translation and exegesis
+leave off. And finally, they maintain that the effort to give students
+a lively knowledge of ancient life or ancient history through the
+ancient texts is precisely like the effort to illustrate ancient life
+by ancient works of art; e.g., to give a student an idea of an ancient
+soldier by showing him an ancient picture of a soldier. Such
+illustrations convey instead the impression that ancient life was both
+unattractive and unreal, that the study of it is childish and
+unpractical.[72]
+
+=Courses in the ancient languages=
+
+Many classical courses are designed primarily to teach the classical
+languages themselves, or to give mental training through the study and
+use of these languages. Until recently most American colleges required
+for admission an elementary knowledge of these languages involving
+commonly at least three years of preparatory training in Greek and
+from three to five years of preparatory Latin. Now, however, many
+colleges provide courses for beginners in Greek, some also for
+beginners in Latin. For example, courses for beginners in Greek are
+given at Bryn Mawr, University of California, Chicago, Colorado,
+Columbia, University of North Dakota, Dartmouth, Harvard, Idaho,
+Illinois, Johns Hopkins, Kansas, Lafayette, Leland Stanford, Michigan,
+New York University, Northwestern, University of Pennsylvania,
+University of Tennessee, Vanderbilt, Vermont, Washington University,
+Wesleyan, Williams, Wisconsin, Yale, and elsewhere. Courses for
+beginners in Latin are given, for example, at the Universities of
+Idaho, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Ordinarily these courses resemble
+in general plan and method the corresponding courses in secondary
+schools; but inasmuch as the students are more mature, the progress is
+much more rapid.
+
+=The "Natural Method"=
+
+In some institutions the attempt is made in teaching ancient Greek and
+Latin to employ methods used by the teachers of modern languages. Some
+classical teachers have even adopted to some extent the so-called
+"natural" or "direct" method of language teaching[73]: commonly such
+attempts have not been very successful, and where some degree of
+success has been attained the success seems due to the personality and
+enthusiasm of the individual teacher. Others have contented themselves
+with devoting a part of certain courses to exercises designed to show
+the students that the classical languages were at one time in daily
+use among living people and were the media of ordinary conversation[74].
+Students in such courses commonly memorize certain colloquial phrases
+and take part in simple conversations in which these phrases can be
+used. Such methods, skillfully employed, undoubtedly relieve the
+tedium of the familiar drill in grammar and "prose composition," and
+may help materially in imparting both a knowledge of the ancient
+languages and a facility in reading the ancient authors.
+
+An interesting experiment is now being tried at the University of
+California in a course in Greek for beginners, given by Professor James
+T. Allen. The description of the course in the university catalogue is
+as follows: "An Introduction to the Greek Language based upon graded
+selections from the works of Menander, Euclid, Aristophanes, Plato,
+Herodotus, and the New Testament. The method of presentation emphasizes
+the living phrase, and has as its chief object the acquiring of reading
+power. Mastery of essential forms; memorizing of quotations; practice in
+reading at sight." This course has had considerable success. More than
+three hundred students have been enrolled thus far in a period of six or
+seven years, and some of these have testified that it was one of the
+most valuable courses they have had in any subject. One of the chief
+advantages has been that the students, while learning forms and
+vocabulary, are reading some real Greek, and that of first-rate
+quality.[75]
+
+=Use of modern literature in ancient Greek or Latin=
+
+Various attempts have been made, especially in recent years, to
+provide for classical students modern stories in ancient Latin, in the
+belief that modern students will acquire a practical knowledge of the
+language more readily from such textbooks than from any parts of the
+ancient literature.[76] The story of Robinson Crusoe was translated
+into Latin by G. F. Goffeaux, and this version has been edited and
+republished by Dr. Arcadius Avellanus, Philadelphia, 1900 (173 pages).
+An abridgement of the original edition was edited by P. A. Barnett,
+under the title _The Story of Robinson Crusoe in Latin, adapted from
+Defoe by Goffeaux_, Longmans, Green and Co., 1907. Among original
+compositions in ancient Latin for students may be mentioned (1)
+Ritchie's _Fabulae Faciles_, A First Latin Reader, edited by John
+Copeland Kirtland, Jr., of Phillips Exeter Academy, Longmans, Green &
+Co., 1903 (134 pages). (2) _The Fables of Orbilius_ by A. D. Godley,
+London, Edward Arnold, two small pamphlets, illustrated, containing
+short and witty stories for beginners. (3) _Ora Maritima_, A Latin
+Story for Beginners, by E. A. Sonnenschein, seventh edition, 1908,
+London, Kegan, Paul and Co.; New York, The Macmillan Company (157
+pages). This is the account of the experiences of some boys during a
+summer in Kent. (4) _Pro Patria_, A Latin Story for Beginners by
+Professor E. A. Sonnenschein, London, Swan, Sonnenschein and Co.; New
+York, The Macmillan Company, 1910 (188 pages). (5) _Rex Aurei Rivi,
+auctore Johanne Ruskin, Latine interpretatus est Arcadius Avellanus,
+Neo-eboraci_, 1914 (Published by E. P. Prentice). (6) F. G. Moore:
+_Porta Latina_, Fables of La Fontaine in a Latin Version, Ginn and
+Co., 1915.
+
+A series of translations of modern fiction is now being produced under
+the title of The Mount Hope Classics, published by Mr. E. P. Prentice,
+37 Wall Street, New York City. The translator is Dr. Arcadius
+Avellanus. The first of these appeared in 1914 under the title
+_Pericla Navarci Magonis_, this being a translation of _The Adventures
+of Captain Mago_, or _With a Phoenician Expedition, B. C. 1000_, by
+Leon Cahun, Scribner's, 1889. The second volume, _Mons Spes et Fabulae
+Aliae_, a collection of short stories, was published in 1918. The
+third, _Mysterium Arcae Boule_, published in 1916, is the well-known
+Mystery of the Boule Cabinet by Mr. Burton Egbert Stevenson. The
+fourth, _Fabulae Divales_, published in 1918, is a collection of fairy
+stories for young readers to which is added a version of Ovid's _Amor
+et Psyche_.
+
+Over these books a lively controversy has arisen between Dr. Avellanus
+and Mr. Charles H. Forbes, of Phillips Academy, Andover.[77]
+Undoubtedly the translator's style and vocabulary are far from being
+strictly in accord with the present canons of classical Latin. He
+employs a multitude of words and idioms unfamiliar to those whose
+reading has been confined to the masterpieces of the ancient
+literature which are most commonly studied. On the other hand, the
+ancient language is made in these books a medium of modern thought.
+The stories presented hold the attention, the vividness of the
+narrative captivates the reader and carries him through the
+obscurities of diction and of style to a wholly unexpected realization
+that Latin is a real language after all.
+
+It is a serious question whether students can ever acquire a mastery
+of a language, or even a sufficient knowledge of it really to
+appreciate its literature, unless they learn to use this language to
+express their own thoughts. But it is evident that it is impossible
+adequately to express modern ideas in the language of Caesar and
+Cicero. Those who would exclude the Latin of comparatively recent
+authors such as Erasmus from the canon of the Latin which may be
+taught, as well as those who confine their teaching to the translation
+and parsing of certain texts, are raising the question whether the
+Latin language should be taught at all in modern times.
+
+Naturally less effort has been made to provide for students modern
+literature in ancient Greek. At least one such book, however, is
+available, _The Greek War of Independence, 1821-27, told in classical
+Greek for the use of beginners_ (with notes and exercises) by C. D.
+Chambers: published by Swan, Sonnenschein and Co.
+
+=Courses in "Prose Composition"=
+
+In nearly all American colleges courses in Greek and Latin composition
+are given, either as a means of mental training or in order to give a
+more complete mastery of these languages and a greater facility in
+reading the literature. In some places, for example at the University
+of California, a series of courses is given in both Greek and Latin
+composition culminating in original compositions, translations of
+selections from modern literature, and conversation in the ancient
+languages. Courses in Latin conversation[78] are given in other places
+also, and courses in the pronunciation of ancient Greek and Latin.[79]
+
+All such courses belong to the general field of the study of the
+classical languages as distinguished from the study of the literature,
+history, or any other phase of the classical civilization. This branch
+of language study, of course, includes such purely linguistic courses
+as those in Comparative Philology, Comparative Grammar, the Morphology
+of the Ancient Languages, Syntax, Dialects, etc.
+
+=Courses in literature=
+
+The bulk of classical teaching in American colleges is devoted to the
+literature. The great majority of all college courses in Latin and
+Greek have the same general characteristics.[80] A certain limited
+portion of text is assigned for preparation. This text is then
+translated by the students in class, and the translation corrected.
+Grammatical and exegetical questions and the content of the passage
+are discussed. Most of the time at each meeting of the class is
+consumed in such exercises. Generally lectures or informal talks are
+given by the instructor upon the life and personality of each author
+whose work is read, upon the life and thought of his times, upon the
+literary activity as a whole, and upon the value of those selections
+from his works which are the subject of the course. Sometimes the
+students are required to read more of the original literature than can
+be translated in class. Generally some collateral reading in English
+is assigned. Often the instructor reads to the class, usually from the
+original, other portions of the ancient literature.
+
+The number and extent of such courses in the different institutions
+vary according to the strength of the faculty, the plan of the
+curriculum, and the number and demands of the students in each. In the
+main, however, the list of selections from the ancient literature
+presented in such courses in all the colleges is much the same. Many
+of these courses deal with one particular author and his works, such
+as Sophocles, Plato, Plautus, or Horace. Others deal with some
+particular kind of literature, such as Greek tragedy or oratory, Latin
+comedy, etc., or with a group of authors of different types combined
+for the sake of variety.[81]
+
+=Methods commonly pursued=
+
+The methods as well as the aims of such courses are well exemplified
+in the following passages contained in the _Circular of Information_
+for 1915-1916 of the University of Chicago, page 211: "Ability to read
+Greek with accuracy and ease, and intelligent enjoyment of the
+masterpieces of Greek literature are the indispensable prerequisites
+of all higher Greek scholarship. All other interests that may attach
+to the study are subordinate to these, and their pursuit is positively
+harmful if it prematurely distracts the student's attention from his
+main purpose."
+
+It is not immediately apparent what distinction is made here, if there
+is any, between the "prerequisites" and the "main purpose" of
+classical scholarship. What the chief aim of classical teaching is
+according to this view, however, is made clear by the two paragraphs
+which follow, as well as by the descriptions of the individual courses
+offered by the Chicago faculty.
+
+"In the work of the Junior Colleges the Department will keep this
+principle steadily in view, and will endeavor to teach a practical
+knowledge of Greek vocabulary and idiom, and to impart literary and
+historic culture by means of rapid viva voce translation and
+interpretation of the simpler masterpieces of the literature.... In the
+Senior Colleges the chief stress will be laid on reading and exegesis,
+but the range of authors presented to the student's choice will be
+enlarged."
+
+=Value of such courses=
+
+The advantage of such courses is that they make the students who take
+them familiar with at least some limited portions of the best of the
+ancient literature in its original form, and most people are agreed
+that this is the only way in which students can be taught to
+appreciate that part of this literature, the value of which lies
+chiefly or wholly in its form. But people are not agreed upon two most
+serious questions which arise in this connection. The first is whether
+all students are capable of appreciating at all literature of this
+sort, especially when it is conveyed in an ancient and difficult
+language. The other question is how much of the classical literature
+really depends for its values chiefly upon its form. To say that the
+Psalms and the Gospels have no value or little value for the world
+apart from the original form and language in which they were written
+would, of course, be absurd. Is it any less absurd to say that the
+study of the Homeric poems, the Attic tragedies, the works of
+Thucydides and Plato would have little value for students unless this
+literature were studied in the original language? These questions
+cannot properly be ignored any longer by teachers of the Classics.
+
+=Defects of these courses=
+
+The defects of such courses are manifest to most persons. Students who
+pursue these courses through most of the years of secondary school and
+college fail to acquire either such a knowledge of the Greek and Latin
+languages as would enable them to read with pleasure and profit a
+Greek or Latin book, or such a knowledge of the Greek and Roman
+literature and civilization as would enable them to appreciate the
+value of classical studies. Many of them graduate from college without
+even knowing that there is anything really worthy of their attention
+in the classical literatures. The fact stares the teachers of the
+Classics grimly in the face that they are not accomplishing the aims
+which they profess.
+
+One explanation of this fact suggests itself. In the classical courses
+commonly given in American colleges the attention paid to the content
+of the literature, to the author and his times--the lectures and
+readings by the instructor, the discussion of archaeological,
+historical, literary, and philosophical matters introduced into the
+course,--distract attention from the study of the language itself, and
+check this study before a real mastery of the language has been
+secured. On the other hand, the time and still more the attention
+devoted in these courses to the mere process of translation detracts
+from the appreciation of the literature and obstructs the study of
+the life and thought. In attempting to accomplish both purposes in
+these courses the teachers fail to accomplish either, and the result
+is chiefly a certain mental training, the practical value of which
+depends largely upon the mental capacity and skill of each individual
+teacher, and is not readily appreciated.
+
+=Courses not requiring knowledge of the ancient languages=
+
+To obviate some of these defects, and also to provide courses on Greek
+and Roman culture for those unfamiliar with the ancient languages,
+courses which require no use of these languages are now given at
+various colleges on Classical Literature or Civilization.[82] A course
+on the "Greek Epic" at the University of California is described as
+follows: "A study chiefly of the Iliad and the Odyssey; their form,
+origin, and content; Homeric and pre-Homeric Aegean civilizations;
+relative merits of modern translations; influence of the Homeric poems
+on the later Greek, Roman, and modern literature. Lectures (partly
+illustrated), assigned readings, discussions, and reports." The course
+at Harvard entitled "Survey of Greek Civilization" is "A lecture
+course, with written tests on a large body of private reading (mostly
+in English). No knowledge of Greek is required beyond the terms which
+must necessarily be learned to understand the subject." "The
+prescribed reading includes translations of Greek authors as well as
+modern books on Greek life and thought." The lecturer frequently reads
+and comments upon selections from the ancient literature. At Brown
+University a course is given on Greek Civilization, including the
+following topics: I Topography of Greece, II Prehistoric Greece, III
+The Language, IV Early Greece (The Makers of Homer, Expansion of
+Greece, Tyrannies, The New Poetry, etc.), V The Transition Century,
+600-500 B. C. ((_a_) Government and Political Life, (_b_) Literature,
+(_c_) art), VI The Classical Epoch, 500-338 B. C. ((_a_) Political and
+Military History, (_b_) Literature, (_c_) The Fine Arts), VII The
+Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman Periods, ((_a_) History, (_b_) Literature,
+(_c_) Philosophy, (_d_) Learning and Science, (_e_) Art), VIII The
+Sequel of Greek History (The Byzantine Empire, the Italian
+Renaissance, Mediaeval and Modern Greece). This is described as "Wholly
+a lecture course, with frequent written tests, examination of the
+notebooks, and a final examination on the whole. Definite selections
+of the most conspicuous authors are required in English translations."
+The Lecturer also reads selections from Homer, the Greek drama,
+Pindar, etc. Similar courses on Roman civilization are given at both
+Brown and Harvard. There is also a course of fifteen lectures on
+"Greek Civilization" at Vermont; "The Culture History of Rome,
+lectures with supplementary reading in English," at Washington
+University; "Greek Civilization, lectures and collateral reading on
+the political institutions, the art, religion, and scientific thought
+of ancient Greece in relation to modern civilization," at Wesleyan;
+"The Role of the Greeks in Civilization" at Wisconsin.[83]
+
+=Defects of the lecture system=
+
+Whatever success such courses may have, they are open to one
+criticism. Most, if not all of them, appear to be primarily lecture
+courses, with more or less collateral reading controlled by tests and
+examinations. The experience of many, however, justifies to some
+extent the belief that college students derive little benefit from
+collateral reading controlled only in this way, because such reading
+is commonly most superficial. Little mental training, therefore, is
+involved in courses such as those just described, and the ideas which
+the students acquire in them are chiefly those given to them by
+others. And it may reasonably be doubted whether the value to the
+students of ideas received in this way is comparable to the value of
+those which they are led to discover for themselves. So far, then, as
+such courses fail to accomplish the purposes for which they were
+designed, their failure may be due wholly to this cause.
+
+=The study of literature apart from its original language=
+
+It is entirely possible to conceive of courses in which no use of the
+ancient languages would be required, but in which the students would
+acquire by their own efforts a knowledge of the classical literature
+and civilization far more extensive and more satisfying than in
+courses largely devoted to translating from Greek and Latin. Such
+courses would not merely substitute English translations for the
+originals, and treat these translations as the originals are treated
+in courses of the traditional type; the ancient literature would be
+studied in the same way as English literature is studied. For example,
+in a course of this kind on Greek literature, in dealing with the
+Odyssey the students would discuss in class, or present written
+reports upon, the composition of the poem as a whole, and the relation
+to the main plot of different episodes such as the quest of
+Telemachus, his visit to Pylos and Lacedaemon, the scene in Calypso's
+cave, the building of the raft, the arrival of Odysseus among the
+Phaeacians, his account of his own adventures, his return to Ithaca,
+the slaying of the wooers, etc.; also the characters of the poem,
+their individual experiences and behavior in various circumstances,
+and the ideas which they express, comparing these characters and ideas
+with those of modern times. In dealing with the drama, the students
+would study the composition of each play, present its plot in
+narrative form, and criticize it from the dramatic as well as from the
+literary standpoint; they would discuss the characters and situations,
+and the ideas embodied in each.[84] In dealing with Thucydides they
+would discuss the plan of his book and the artistic elements in its
+composition; also the critical standards of the author, his methods,
+his objectivity, and his personal bias. They would study the debates
+in which the arguments on both sides of great issues are presented,
+expressing their own opinions on the questions involved. They would
+study the great descriptions, such as the account of the siege of
+Plataea, the plague at Athens, the last fight in the harbor of
+Syracuse, making a summary in their own language of the most essential
+or effective details. Lastly they would discuss such figures as
+Pericles, Nicias and Alcibiades, Archidamus, Brasidas and Hermocrates,
+their characters, principles, and motives. In dealing with Plato they
+would study the character of Socrates and those ideas contained in the
+Platonic dialogues which can be most readily comprehended by college
+students.
+
+=Classical studies not confined to the ancient authors=
+
+The study of "The Classics" is not properly confined to the Greek and
+Latin literatures: it includes the military, political, social, and
+economic history of the ancient Greeks and Romans, their institutions,
+their religion, morals, philosophy, science, art, and private life.
+The geography and topography of ancient lands, anthropology and
+ethnology, archaeology and epigraphy contribute to its material. It is
+not necessary that all these subjects be taught by members of a
+classical department. In particular it is the common practice in this
+country to relegate the study of ancient philosophy to the Department
+of Philosophy, whereas in England and on the Continent such
+distinctions between departments are not recognized. But certainly
+these branches of the study of the classical civilization should be
+taught best by those most familiar with the classical civilization in
+all its phases, and most thoroughly trained in the interpretation and
+criticism of its literature. It is also obvious that the teaching of
+the classical literature would be emasculated if it were separated
+from these other subjects mentioned. Only, such subjects as history
+should not be taught from the literary point of view. History should
+be an account of what actually took place, derived from every
+available source and not from a synthesis of a literary tradition. In
+this respect the teachers of the Classics have from the earliest times
+made the most serious mistakes. To some extent the same charges may be
+brought against the methods and traditions of the teachers of modern
+history. The teaching of Greek and Roman history, however, is affected
+in a peculiar degree by the traditions of classical scholarship. The
+historical courses given by most classical teachers are based upon the
+translation and discussion of the works of certain ancient authors,
+whose accounts are not only false and misleading in many respects, but
+characteristically omit those factors in the ancient life which are
+the most significant and interesting to the modern world. Such courses
+begin by implanting false impressions which no amount of explanation
+can eradicate. The ancient world, therefore, is made to appear to
+modern students unreal and unworthy of serious attention: it is not
+strange that they are dissatisfied with such teaching, and that it
+seems to many practically worthless. A true picture of the life and
+experience of the ancient Greeks and Romans would appear both
+interesting and profitable to a normal college student.
+
+=Summary of objects to be sought in the teaching of the classics=
+
+The aims of the teaching of the Classics in American colleges should
+be to give, in addition to a training of the mind:
+
+1. An appreciation of the best of the classical literature. For this
+is, in many respects, the best literature which we have at all, even
+when without any allowances it is compared with the best of modern
+literatures. Much of it is universal in character. It is also the
+foundation of the modern literatures. By learning to appreciate it,
+students would learn to judge and appreciate all literature.
+
+2. A familiarity with the characters and narratives of the ancient
+literature. The knowledge of these characters, their behavior under
+various vicissitudes of fortune, and their experiences, would of
+itself be a valuable possession and equipment for life.
+
+3. A knowledge of the ideas of the ancient Greeks and Romans, revealed
+and developed in their literature, and tested in the realities of
+their life. Many of these ideas are of the utmost value today, and are
+in danger of being overlooked and forgotten in this materialistic age
+of ours, unless they are constantly recalled to our minds by such
+studies.
+
+4. A knowledge of the actual experiences of the ancients, as
+individuals and as nations, their experiments in democracy and other
+forms of government, in imperialism, arbitration, and the like, their
+solutions of the moral, social, and economic problems which were as
+prominent in their world as in ours.
+
+To realize these aims old methods should be revised and improved, new
+methods developed. For there can hardly be a study more valuable and
+practical than this.
+
+                                            WILLIAM K. PRENTICE
+  _Princeton University_
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[61] For example, at the University of Kansas.
+
+[62] Leland Stanford, Michigan, Princeton.
+
+[63] California, North Dakota, Harvard, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas,
+Leland Stanford, Michigan, Oberlin, Otterbein, Pennsylvania, Vermont,
+Wisconsin, Yale, etc. Some of these courses are offered only to
+graduate students, and some are given by the Departments of
+Pedagogics.
+
+[64] In New Testament or Patristic Greek at Austin, Bucknell,
+California, Cornell, Harvard, Illinois, Lafayette, Michigan, Millsaps,
+Trinity, Wesleyan. In Patristic Latin, Bucknell and elsewhere.
+
+[65] Brown, Cornell, Leland Stanford.
+
+     [_N. B._ These lists are by no means complete.]
+
+[66] History of Greek Tragedy. Lectures with reading and study of the
+plays of AEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Requires no knowledge of
+the Greek language.
+
+[67] E.g., Columbia, Lafayette.
+
+[68] California, Washington University.
+
+[69] Colorado, Idaho, Syracuse, Vermont, Washington University,
+Wesleyan, Wisconsin.
+
+[70] It should be noted that at Brown the titles of the classical
+departments are "The Department of Greek Literature and History" and
+"The Department of Roman Literature and History."
+
+[71] At Cornell and Oberlin, for example.
+
+[72] See especially Clarence P. Bill. "The Business of a College Greek
+Department," _Classical Journal_, IX (1913-14), pp. 111-121.
+
+[73] See the article by Mr. Theodosius S. Tyng in _Classical Weekly_,
+VIII (1915), Nos. 24 and 25. Also M. J. Russell: "The Direct Method of
+Teaching Latin," in the _Classical Journal_, XII (1916), pages
+209-211, and other articles on this subject in the _Classical Journal_
+and the _Classical Weekly_ in recent years.
+
+[74] For example, "Latin Conversation," at Columbia; "Oral Latin," at
+Leland Stanford; "Sight Reading and Latin Speaking," at New York
+University.
+
+[75] See Professor Allen's article, "The First Year of Greek," in the
+_Classical Journal_, X (1915), pages 262-266.
+
+[76] As early as the seventeenth century books were produced which may
+be regarded as the forerunners of this sort of modern composition in
+the ancient language. One of these was published in 1604 under the
+title: "Iocorum atque seriorum tum novorum tum selectorum atque
+memorabilium libri duo, recensente Othone Melandro." Another is the
+"Terentius Christianus seu Comoediae Sacrae--Terentiano stylo a Corn.
+Schonaeo Goudono conscriptae, editio nova Amstelodami 1646": this
+includes dramas such as Naaman (princeps Syrus), Tobaeus (senex),
+Saulus, Iuditha, Susanna, Ananias, etc. Still another is the "Poesis
+Dramatica Nicolai Amancini S. J.," in two parts, published in 1674 and
+1675. A century later there appeared a story which, judging from its
+title, was designed primarily for students: "Joachimi Henrici Campe
+Robinson Secundus Tironum causa latine vertit Philippus Julius
+Lieberkuehn," Zullich, 1785.
+
+[77] See the _Classical Journal_, XI (1914), pages 25-32; _Classical
+Weekly_, IX (1915-16), pages 149-151; X (1916), pages 38 f.;
+_Classical Weekly_, X (1916), pages 37 f.
+
+[78] See note 2, page 411.
+
+[79] Columbia.
+
+[80] This is true of the courses in secondary schools and graduate
+courses in universities also; but in the secondary and graduate
+schools the proportion of translation courses to the others is
+smaller.
+
+[81] For example, at Harvard one course includes Plato, Lysias, Lyric
+Poetry, and Euripides, with lectures on the history of Greek
+literature; another Livy, Terence, Horace and other Latin Poets.
+
+[82] See above, page 407 f.
+
+[83] For a fuller list of institutions where classical courses not
+requiring a knowledge of the ancient languages are given see above,
+page 407.
+
+[84] "Die hoechste Aufgabe bei der Lektuere des griechischen Dramas sei
+das Stueck Leben, das uns der Dichter vor Augen fuehrt, in seinem vollen
+Inhalt miterleben zu lassen." C. Wunderer, in _Blaetter fuer das
+Gymnasial-Schulwesen_, Vol. LII (1916), 1.
+
+
+
+
+XXI
+
+THE TEACHING OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES
+
+
+=The college course must emphasize power, not facts=
+
+IT is well at times to emphasize old truths, mainly because they are
+old and are consecrated by experience. One of these, frequently
+combated nowadays, is that any college course--worthy of the name--has
+other than utilitarian ends. I therefore declare my belief that the
+student does not go to college primarily to acquire facts. These he
+can learn from books or from private instruction. _Me judice_--he goes
+to college primarily to learn _how to interpret_ facts, and to arrive
+through this experience at their practical as well as their theoretic
+value: as respects himself, as respects others, and in an ever
+widening circle as regards humanity in general. The first object,
+thus, of a college course is to humanize the individual, to emancipate
+him intellectually and emotionally from his prejudices and conventions
+by giving him a wider horizon, a sounder judgment, a firmer and yet a
+more tolerant point of view. "Our proclivity to details," said
+Emerson, "cannot quite degrade our life and divest it of poetry." The
+college seizes upon the liberating instinct of youth and utilizes it
+for all it is worth. We summarize by saying that the college prepares
+not merely for "life" but for "living"; so that the society whom the
+individual serves will be served by him loyally, intelligently, and
+broad-mindedly, with an increasing understanding of its aims and
+purposes.
+
+=The college can attain its aim only when the student brings necessary
+facts from secondary schools=
+
+This, let us assume, is the somewhat lofty ideal. What about its
+concrete realization? Especially when the subject is a language,
+which, considering that it consists of parts of speech, inflections,
+phonetics, etc., is a very practical matter and apparently far removed
+from the ideal in question. Every language teacher is familiar with
+this stock objection. How often has he not been told that his
+business is not to teach French culture or Spanish life, but French
+and Spanish? And as everybody knows, French and Spanish are not
+learned in a day, nor, indeed, if we judge by the average graduate of
+our colleges, in four years of classroom work. It is not my purpose to
+combat the contention that college French or Spanish or Italian could
+be taught better, and that from a utilitarian point of view the
+subject is capable of a great deal of improvement. As Professor
+Grandgent has trenchantly said "I do not believe there is or ever was
+a language more difficult to acquire than French; most of us can name
+worthy persons who have been assiduously struggling with it from
+childhood to mature age, and who do not know it now: yet it is treated
+as something any one can pick up offhand.... French staggers under the
+fearful burden of apparent easiness." I do not think these words
+overstate the case. All the more reason, then, to bear in mind that
+the burden of this accomplishment should not fall on the college
+course alone, or, I should even say, on the college course at all. For
+the fact is that a thorough knowledge of the Romance tongues cannot be
+acquired in any college course, and to attack the problem from that
+angle alone is to attempt the impossible. It is on the school, and not
+on the college, that the obligation of the practical language problem
+rests. If our students are to become proficient in French--in the
+sense that they can not only read it but write and speak it with
+passable success--the language must be begun early, in the grade
+school (when memory and apperception are still fresh), and then
+carried forward systematically over a period of from six to seven
+years. But this will require on the part of our schools: (1) a longer
+time allotment to the subject than it now generally has, (2) a closer
+articulation between the grade-school, high-school, and college
+courses, and (3) the appointment of better and higher-paid teachers of
+the subject. An encouraging move is being made in many parts of the
+country to carry out this plan, though of course we are still a long
+way from its realization; and when it is realized we shall not yet
+have reached the millennium. But at least we shall have given the
+practical teaching of the subject a chance, comparable to the
+opportunity it has in Europe; and the complaint against the French and
+Spanish teacher--if there still be a chronic complaint--will have
+other grounds than the one we so commonly hear at present.
+
+=Limitations of elementary and intermediate courses as college courses=
+
+In the meantime, let us remember that the college has other, and more
+pressing, things to do than to attempt to supply the shortcomings of
+the school. It is certainly essential that the college should continue
+and develop the practical work of the school in various ways, such as
+advanced exercises and lectures in the foreign idiom, special
+conversation classes, and the like--if only for the simple reason that
+a language that is not used soon falls into desuetude and is
+forgotten. But assuredly the so-called elementary, intermediate, and
+advanced courses in French and Spanish (as given in college) do not
+fall under that head. They exist in the college by _tolerance_ rather
+than by sound pedagogical theory, and the effort now being made to
+force all such courses back into the school by reducing the college
+"credits" they give is worthy of undivided support. Not only are they
+out of place in the college program, but the burden of numerous and
+often large "sections" in these courses has seriously impeded the
+college in its proper language work. The college in its true function
+is the clarifier of ideas, the correlator of facts, the molder of
+personalities; and the student of modern languages should enter
+college prepared to study his subject from the college point of view.
+Much of the apparent "silliness" of the French class which our more
+virile undergraduates object to would be obviated if a larger
+percentage of them could at once enter upon the more advanced phases
+of the subject. It is, then, to their interest, to the interest of the
+subject, and to the advantage of the college concerned, that this
+reform be brought about.
+
+=Aim of the teaching of Romance languages in the college=
+
+In any case, the function of a college subject can be stated, as
+President Meiklejohn has stated it, in terms of two principles. He
+says: "The first is shared by both liberal and technical teaching.
+The second applies to liberal education alone. The principles are
+these: (1) that activity guided by ideas is on the whole more
+successful than the same activity without the control of ideas, and
+(2) that in the activities common to all men the guidance of ideas is
+quite as essential as in the case of those which different groups of
+men carry on in differentiation from one another." As applied to the
+Romance languages, this means that while the college must of course
+give "technical" instruction in language, the emphasis of that
+instruction should be upon the "ideas" which the language expresses,
+in itself and in its literature. It is not enough that the college
+student should gain fluency in French or Spanish, he must also and
+primarily be made conscious of the processes of language, its logical
+and aesthetic values, the civilization it expresses, and the thoughts
+it has to convey. While it may be said that all thorough language
+instruction accomplishes this incidentally, the college makes this
+_the_ aim of its teaching. The college should furnish an objective
+appraisal of the fundamental elements of the foreign idiom, not merely
+a subjective (and often superficial) mastery of details. For the old
+statement remains true that--when properly studied--"proverbs, words,
+and grammar inflections convey the public sense with more purity and
+precision than the wisest individual";[85] and what shall we say when
+"literature" is added to this list?
+
+=Status of Romance languages in representative colleges--Early status=
+
+From these preliminary observations let us now turn to the present
+status of Romance languages in some of our representative
+colleges.[86] One gratifying fact may be noted at once. Whereas a
+quarter of a century ago Greek and Latin were still considered the
+_sine qua non_ of a liberal education, today French and German, and to
+a lesser extent Spanish and Italian, have their legitimate share in
+this distinction. Indeed, to judge merely by the number of students,
+they would seem to have replaced Latin and Greek. To be sure, several
+colleges, as for instance Amherst and Chicago, alarmed by this swing
+of the pendulum, have reserved the B.A. degree for the traditional
+classical discipline. But in the first case the entire curriculum
+includes "two years of Greek or Latin," and in the second the B.A.
+students comprise but a very small percentage of the college body; and
+while in both cases Latin and Greek are required subjects, Romance is
+admitted as an elective, in which--to mention only Amherst--six
+consecutive semester courses, covering the main phases of modern
+French literature, can be chosen. As noted, the recognition of modern
+languages as cultural subjects is relatively recent. As late as 1884 a
+commission, appointed by the Modern Language Association, found that
+"few colleges have a modern language requirement for admission to the
+course in arts; ... of the fifty reported, three require French, two
+offer an election between French and German, and two require both
+French and German." And of these same colleges, "eighteen require no
+foreign language, twenty-nine require either French or German, and
+eighteen require both French and German, for graduation in the arts."
+
+Obviously, few (at most seven) of the colleges examined admitted
+students prepared to take advanced courses in French; and only
+eighteen, or 36 per cent, allowed students to begin French in the
+freshman year, over one half of the entire number postponing the
+beginners' French until the sophomore, junior, or even senior year. It
+is clear, therefore, that as late as 1864, and in spite of such
+illustrious examples as that set by Harvard in the appointment of
+Ticknor to the Smith professorship in 1816, the Romance languages
+could hardly be classed as a recognized college subject. At best, they
+were taught on the principles that "it is never too late to learn,"
+and although this teaching failed from the "practical" point of view,
+it yet had little or no opportunity to concern itself with the
+cultural aspects of the subject. No wonder the commission
+reported[87] that in the circumstances "a mastery of language, as well
+as a comprehensive study of the literature, is impossible." With the
+part played by our Greek and Latin colleagues in keeping the modern
+languages out of the curriculum we need not deal in detail here. It is
+enough, in order to explain their attitude, to observe that previous
+to 1884 the teaching of modern languages was generally poor: it was
+intrusted for the most part to foreigners, who, being usually ignorant
+of the finer shades of English and woefully ignorant of American
+students, could not have been expected to succeed, or to native
+Americans, who for various and often excellent reasons lacked the
+proper training, and therefore succeeded--when in rare cases they did
+succeed--in spite of their qualifications rather than because of them.
+Add to all this the conviction natural to every classicist, that Latin
+and Greek are the keys to all Western civilization and that without
+them Romance literatures (not to say "languages") are incomprehensible,
+and the situation up to the 90's is amply clear.
+
+=Contemporary status of Romance Languages in college curricula=
+
+Today, then, conditions are changed, and for better or worse the
+Romance tongues are on a par with other collegiate subjects. A glance
+at the latest statistics is instructive. In 1910, out of 340 colleges
+and universities in the United States, 328 taught French; 112 (the
+universities) offered more than four years' instruction, 50 offered
+four years, 90 three years, 68 two years, and only 8 one year. The
+present status can easily be divined: the interest in Spanish has
+certainly not waned, while the interest in French has grown by leaps
+and bounds. Some curtailment there has been, owing to the adoption of
+the "group system" of studies on the part of most of the colleges, and
+as the colleges are relieved of more and more of the elementary work
+there doubtless will be more. But, in any case, it is safe to say that
+French, Spanish, and Italian are now firmly installed as liberal
+studies in the curricula of most of our colleges. Now, how do they
+fulfill this function? What changes will be necessary in order that
+they may fulfill it better? What particular advantages have they to
+offer as a college subject? A brief consideration of each of these
+points follows.
+
+In general, our colleges require fifteen units of entrance credit and
+about twenty collegiate units for the college degree.[88] Of the
+entrance units, a maximum of four in French and two in Spanish is
+allowed; and of the college units, an average of five, or about one
+fourth of the entire college work,[89] must be taken consecutively in
+_one_ department of study or in not more than _two_ departments. This
+last group of approximately five units thus constitutes, so to speak,
+the backbone of the student's work. It is his so-called "principal
+sequence" (Chicago) or his "two majors" (Amherst) or his "major
+subject" (Wisconsin and Colorado); and while in the case of Amherst it
+cannot be begun "until after the freshman year," in general it must be
+begun by the junior year. Considerable variety prevails, of course, in
+carrying out this idea; for example, Johns Hopkins requires "at least
+two courses in the major and at least two in some cognate subject."
+Harvard states that "every student shall take at least six of his
+courses in some one department, or in one of the recognized fields of
+distinction." Princeton demands of "every junior and senior ... at
+least two 3-hour courses in some one department." But almost all
+representative colleges now recognize four general groups of study:
+Philosophy (including history), language, science, and mathematics;
+and the student's work must be so arranged that while it is fairly
+evenly distributed over three of the groups it is at the same time
+definitely concentrated in one of them.
+
+=Normal prescription in a Romance Language=
+
+In answer to our first question, it follows that the student entering
+with the maximum of French should be able, before graduation, to get
+enough advanced courses to give him an intelligent grasp of the
+literature as well as the language. In our better-equipped colleges
+this is undoubtedly the case. Harvard, for instance, would admit him
+to a course (French 2) in French Prose and Poetry, which includes some
+"composition," to be followed by (6) a General View of French
+Literature, (8) French Literature in the Eighteenth Century, (9)
+French Literature in the Seventeenth Century, (16) Comedy of Manners
+in France, (17) Literary Criticism in France; and in some of these
+courses the linguistic aspects would be considered in the form of
+"themes," "reports," etc., while the student could choose (5) Advanced
+French Composition for that special purpose. Other colleges (e.g.,
+Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Stanford) offer the same or similar
+opportunities. So that, although titles of courses are often
+deceptive, the general plan of offering (1) an introductory course in
+which both the language and the literature are treated, (2) a
+survey-course in literature, leading to (3) various courses in
+literature after 1600, and supported by (4) at least one specific
+course in language, now constitutes the normal collegiate "major" in
+French; and, on the whole, it would be difficult in the present
+circumstances to devise a better plan.
+
+=Changes in current practice that will enhance effectiveness of teaching
+of Romance Languages--Danger of minimizing the language phase=
+
+It is obvious that the success of any plan depends on the thoroughness
+with which it is carried out, and this in turn depends on the
+qualifications and energy of those who have the matter in hand. That
+contingency does not concern us here. But what is worth noting is that
+the fourth point mentioned above,--the specific language part of the
+"major"--might be strengthened, especially since some excellent
+institutions omit this consideration entirely. The danger of falling
+between two stools is never greater, it seems, than in treating both
+language and literature. An instructor who is bent on elucidating the
+range of Anatole France's thought naturally has little time to deal
+adequately with his rich vocabulary, his deft use of tense, the subtle
+structure of his phrase--and yet who can be said really to "know" such
+an author if he be ignorant of either side of his work? "Thought
+expands but lames," said Goethe--unless it is constantly controlled by
+fact. In order to give the undergraduate that control, it is essential
+that he should be placed in the position everywhere to verify his
+author's thought. How difficult it is to bring even the best of our
+undergraduates to this point I need not discuss. But at least once in
+the process of his work he might be held to a stricter account than
+elsewhere. And if we ask ourselves by what method this can best be
+accomplished, I believe the answer is by some _special_ course in
+which the language of several representative writers is treated as
+such.[90] The point could be elaborated, particularly in view of the
+present-day tendency to dwell unduly on so-called _realia_, French
+daily life, and the like--all legitimate enough in their proper time
+and place. But enough has been said to show that excellent as the
+present plan is, it could without detriment enlarge the place given to
+linguistics. In this bewildered age of ours we are forever hearing the
+cry of "literature," more "literature": not only our students but our
+teachers--and the connection is obvious--find language study dull and
+uninspiring, oblivious to the fact that the fault is theirs and not
+the subject's. Yet, as we observed above, French is "hard," and its
+grammatical structure, apparently so simple, is in truth very
+complicated. Manifestly, to understand a foreign literature we must
+understand the language in which it is written. How few of our
+students really do! Moreover, language and literature are ultimately
+only parts of one indivisible entity: Philology--though the fact often
+escapes us. "The most effective work," said Gildersleeve,[91] "is done
+by those who see all in the one as well as one in the all." And
+strange as it appears to the laity, a linguistic fact may convey a
+universal lesson. I hesitate to generalize, but I believe most of our
+colleges need to emphasize the language side of the French "major"
+more.
+
+=Relative positions of French, Spanish, and Italian in a college course=
+
+As for Italian and Spanish, few of the colleges as yet grant these
+subjects the importance given to French. For one reason, entrance
+credit in Italian is extremely rare, and neither there nor in Spanish,
+in which it is now rather common, owing to the teaching of Spanish in
+the high schools, does it exceed two units. Some work of an elementary
+nature must therefore be done in the college; indeed, at Amherst
+neither language can be begun until the sophomore year--though
+fortunately this is an isolated case. Further, even when the college
+is prepared to teach these subjects adequately, it is still a
+debatable question whether they are entitled to precisely the same
+consideration as their more venerable sister. It is unnecessary to
+point out that such great names as Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio,
+Alfieri, Leopardi, Carducci, Cervantes, Calderon, Lope de Vega,
+Benavente, _e tutti quanti_, are abundant evidence of the value of
+Italian and Spanish culture. They unquestionably are. Where the
+emphasis is cultural, it would certainly be unwise to neglect Italian,
+since the Renaissance is Italian and underlies modern European culture
+in general. On the other hand, Spanish is, so to speak, at our very
+doors because of our island possessions: it is the _one_ foreign
+language which calls for no argument to make the undergraduate willing
+to learn to speak, and Spanish literature, especially in the drama,
+has the same romantic freedom as English literature and is thus
+readily accessible to the American type of mind. Pedagogically, thus,
+the question is far from simple. But while it is impossible to lay
+down any fixed precept, it seems worth while to remember: that the
+French genius is preeminently the vehicle of definite and clear ideas,
+that in a very real sense France has been and is the intellectual
+clearinghouse of the world, and that potentially, at least, her
+civilization is of the greatest value to our intellectually dull and
+undiscriminating youth. From French, better than from Italian and
+Spanish, he can learn the discipline of accurate expression, of clear
+articulation, and the enlightenment that springs from contact with
+"general ideas." Moreover, we must not forget that the undergraduate's
+time is limited and that under the "group system" some discrimination
+must necessarily be made. Granted, then, that, all things considered,
+the first place will doubtless be left to French, the question remains
+whether the attention given to Spanish and Italian is at least
+adequate. And do the colleges extract from them the values they
+should?
+
+As a general proposition, we may take it for granted that the college
+should offer at least _four_ units in each of these subjects. For
+Spanish, certainly, the tendency will be to make the proportion
+larger. But two units devoted to learning the language and two devoted
+to the literature may be regarded as essential, and are as a matter of
+fact the common practice. Several illustrations will make this clear.
+_Johns Hopkins_ offers: in Italian, 1. Grammar, Short Stories, etc.,
+2. Grammar, Written Exercises, Selections from classic authors,
+Lectures on Italian Literature; in Spanish, 1. Grammar, Oral and
+written exercises, Reading from Alarcon, Valdes, etc., 2. Contemporary
+Novel and Drama, Oral practice, Grammar and Composition, 3. The
+Classic Drama and Cervantes, oral practice, etc., History of Spanish
+Literature. _Illinois_: in Italian, 1a-1b Elementary Course, 2a-2b
+Italian Literature, nineteenth century; in Spanish, 1a-1b Elementary
+Course, 2a-2b Modern Spanish, 3a-3b Introduction to Spanish
+Literature, 4a-4b Business Correspondence and Conversation, 5a-5b
+Business Practice in Spanish, 11a-11b The Spanish Drama of the
+Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, 17a-17b The Spanish Drama of the
+Nineteenth Century. _Harvard_: in Italian, 1. Italian Grammar, reading
+and composition, 4. General View of Italian Literature, 5. Modern
+Italian Literature, 2. Italian Literature of the Fifteenth and
+Sixteenth Centuries, 10. The Works of Dante; in Spanish, 1. Spanish
+Grammar, reading and composition, 7. Spanish Composition, 8. Spanish
+Composition and Conversation (advanced course), 4. General View of
+Spanish Literature, 5. Spanish Prose and Poetry of the Eighteenth and
+Nineteenth Centuries, 2. Spanish Literature of the Sixteenth and
+Seventeenth Centuries.[92]
+
+Since Spanish and Italian fall into the department of Romance
+languages, in order to make up his "major" the student is at present
+compelled to combine them with French. On the whole, this arrangement
+appears to me wise. To be sure, the deans of our colleges of commerce
+and administration will say that, granting the greater cultural value
+of French, the business interests of the country will force us
+nevertheless to give Spanish the same place in the curriculum as
+French. And the more radical educators will affirm with Mr.
+Flexner:[93] "Languages have no value in themselves; they exist solely
+for the purpose of communicating ideas and abbreviating our thought
+and action processes. If studied, they are valuable only in so far as
+they are practically mastered--not otherwise." I have taken a stand
+against this matter-of-fact conception of education throughout this
+chapter. I may now return to the charge by adding that the banality of
+our college students' thinking stares us in the face; if we wish to
+quicken it, to refine it, we should have them study other media of
+expression _qua_ expression besides their own (that is what Europe did
+in the Renaissance, and the example of the Renaissance is still
+pertinent); that if Mr. Flexner's reasoning were valid the French
+might without detriment convey their "ideas" in Volapuek or Ido (I
+suggest that Mr. Flexner subject Anatole France to this test); and
+that instead of being valueless in themselves, on the contrary,
+languages are the repositories of the ages: "We infer," said Emerson,
+"the spirit of the nation in great measure from the language, which is
+a sort of monument in which each forcible individual in the course of
+many hundred years has contributed a stone." In other words, however
+great the claim of Spanish as "a practical subject" may be and
+whatever concessions our schools and colleges may make to this fact, I
+still believe that Spanish should be subordinated as a college subject
+to the study of French. In principle we may admit the Spanish "major,"
+as in fact we do at present with the Italian "major"; but some
+knowledge of French on the part of the student should be presupposed,
+or if not, it should be a required part of the Spanish sequence. This
+may seem extreme, but in reality few students would wish to proceed
+far in Spanish without some French, and, practically, the knowledge of
+one Romance tongue is always a great aid in the study of another.
+
+=Training teachers of Romance Languages=
+
+Thus we see that, with the addition here and there of an extra course
+(where the college is not up to the standard as we have outlined it),
+and an added stress on the advanced linguistics, the present
+curriculum in Romance apparently provides an excellent working basis.
+If properly carried out--and the success of all teaching depends of
+course ultimately on the teacher--it ought to fulfill all legitimate
+needs, so far as the strictly collegiate aims are concerned.
+
+A word is now in order as to its fitness for those students who are
+planning to take Romance as a profession. Normally these students
+would coincide with those who are taking up "special honors" in
+Romance languages; and for the latter group most of our colleges now
+make special provision--in the form of "independent work done outside
+the regular courses in the major subject and at least one other
+department during the junior and senior year (Wisconsin)," or as
+Amherst states it, "special work involving collateral reading or
+investigation under special conditions." In general, this gives the
+candidate certain professional options among the courses listed (in
+cases where the college is part of the university) as "primarily for
+graduates." In this way the student is able to add to his "major" such
+subjects as Old French (Chicago), Introduction to Romance Philology
+(Columbia), Practical Phonetics (Chicago), a Teachers' Course
+(Wisconsin), etc. Personally I am of the opinion that the day has
+passed when any of our graduates who has not at least a Master's
+degree in Romance should be recommended to a teaching position. But
+evidently any such hard and fast rule is bound to be unfair,
+especially since a large percentage of our students is compelled to
+earn a living immediately upon graduation. Thus here again--as in the
+elementary courses as now given in the colleges--we are confronted
+with a makeshift which only time and continued effort can correct. In
+the meantime the value of such professional courses depends to a very
+marked degree upon the success with which they can be carried out
+where they are counted toward a higher degree (M.A. or Ph.D.) the
+difficulty is not so great, since their introductory nature is
+self-evident; but where they conclude, so to speak, the student's
+formal training the difficulty of making them "fit in" is often sadly
+apparent. At any rate, in this borderland between cultural and
+professional studies, where the college is merging with the university
+or professional school, the necessity for the able teacher is a
+paramount issue. If the transition is to be successful, the obligation
+rests upon the teacher so to develop his subject that the
+specializing will not drown out the general interest but will inform
+it with those values which only the specialist can impart.
+
+=Final contributions of Romance Languages to the American college student=
+
+And now as to our final consideration: What particular advantages have
+the Romance tongues to offer as a college subject? An obvious
+advantage is: an understanding of foreign peoples. The Romance
+languages are modern. They are spoken today over a large part of the
+habitable globe. We stand in direct relations with those who speak
+them and write them. Above all, a large share of the world's best
+thought is being expressed in them. The point requires no arguing,
+that translations cannot take the place of originals: _traduttore
+traditore_, says an excellent Italian proverb. If we are really to
+know what other nations think,--whether we accept or reject their
+thought makes little or no difference here,--we can do so only by
+knowing their language. And the better we know it, the greater our
+insight will be. To speak at least _one_ foreign language is not only
+a parlor accomplishment: it is for whoever is to be a citizen-of-the-world
+a necessity. There is a Turkish proverb that he who knows two
+languages, his own and another, has two souls. Certainly there is no
+better way to approach a nation's soul than through its language. But,
+in the second place, the Romance tongues have certain artistic
+qualities which English in a great measure lacks. The student who has
+intelligently mastered one of them has a better sense of form, of
+delicate shades of expression, and--if the language be French--of
+clarity of phrase: what Pater termed _nettete d'expression_. He learns
+to respect language (as few Americans now do), to study its
+possibilities in a way which a mere knowledge of English might never
+have suggested, and to appreciate its moral as well as its social
+power: for French forces him to curb his thought, to weigh his
+contention, to be simple and clear in the most abstruse matters. In a
+famous essay on the Universality of French, Rivarol said: "Une
+traduction francaise est toujours une _explication_."
+
+And lastly, in themselves and in the civilizations they stand for,
+the Romance tongues are the bridge between ourselves and antiquity.
+Since the decline in the study of Greek and Latin, this is a factor to
+be seriously considered. It is the fashion today to berate the past,
+to speak of the dead hand of tradition, and to flatter ourselves with
+the delusion of self-sufficiency. To be sure, the aim of education is
+never to pile up information but to "fit your mind for any sort of
+exertion, to make it keen and flexible." But the best way to encompass
+this is to feed the mind on ideas, and ideas are not produced every
+day, nor for that matter every year, and luckily all ideas have not
+the same value. There are the ideas of Taine, of Rousseau, of
+Voltaire, of Descartes, of Montaigne, of Ficino, of Petrarch, of
+Dante, of Cicero, of Aristotle, of Plato; and in a moment I have run
+the gamut of all the centuries of our Western civilization. Who will
+tell me which ideas we shall need most tomorrow? Evidently, we cannot
+know them all. But we can at least make the attempt to know the best.
+And incidentally let it be said that he who professes the Romance
+tongues can no more dispense with the Classics than the Classics can
+today afford to dispense with Romance: French, Italian, and Spanish
+are the Latin--and one might add the Greek--of today. But to return to
+our theme: to deny our interest in the past is to throw away our
+heritage, to sell our mess of pottage to the lowest bidder. If the
+Romance languages have one function in our American colleges, it is
+this: To keep alive the old humanistic lesson: _nihil humani a me
+alienum puto_; to the end that the modern college graduate may
+continue to say with Montaigne: "All moral philosophy is applied as
+well to a private life as to one of the greatest employment. Every man
+carries the entire form of the human condition. Authors have thitherto
+communicated themselves to the people by some particular and foreign
+mark; I ... by my _universal_ being, not as a grammarian, a poet, or a
+lawyer." The college course in the Romance languages should prepare
+for a profession, but it must first help to prepare thinking men and
+women.
+
+                                               WILLIAM A. NITZE
+  _University of Chicago_
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[85] The quotation is from Emerson, _Nominalist and Realist_.
+
+[86] I make no attempt in this article, written before 1917, to treat
+actual teaching conditions: the premises are too uncertain.
+
+[87] The above statistics are from C. H. Handschin, _The Teaching of
+Modern Languages in the United States_, Washington, 1913, pages 40ff.
+
+[88] I cite the following figures: (_a_) Entrance: Harvard 16-1/2,
+Amherst 14, Wisconsin 14, Columbia 14-1/2, Colorado 15, Illinois 15,
+Chicago 15; (_b_) Collegiate Degree: Harvard 17-1/2 "courses," Amherst
+20 "courses," Wisconsin 120 "credits," Columbia 124 "points," Colorado
+120 "hours of scholastic work," Chicago 36 "trimester majors." It is
+certainly desirable that our colleges adopt some uniform system for
+the notation of their courses. Johns Hopkins, at least, is specific in
+explaining the relationship of its "125 points" to its "courses"; see
+page 262 of the _University Register_, 1916.
+
+[89] At Chicago exactly 1/4 or "at least 9 coherent and progressive
+majors" must be taken in "one department or in a group of
+departments." But Chicago also requires a secondary sequence of at
+least 6 majors; Columbia requires three years of "sequential study--in
+each of two departments." Illinois, "a major subject (20 hours)" and
+"an allied minor subject (20 hours)."
+
+[90] An excellent manner of procedure is that outlined by Professor
+Terracher in his interesting article in the _Compte rendu du Congres
+de Langue et de Litterature Francaise_, New York (Federation de
+l'Alliance Francaise), 1913.
+
+[91] From _Johns Hopkins University Circular_, No. 151.
+
+[92] It will be noted that throughout the amount offered in Spanish
+exceeds that in Italian. This is to be expected in view of the boom in
+Spanish studies. Moreover, most colleges now allow two units of
+entrance credit in Spanish, and 7 and 8 above, under Harvard, are half
+courses. Columbia is, I believe, the only college accepting 2 units of
+entrance credit in Italian; but I have not examined the catalogues of
+all our colleges.
+
+[93] Publications of the General Education Board, 3, 1916, page 13.
+
+
+
+
+XXII
+
+THE TEACHING OF GERMAN
+
+
+=Our aim=
+
+The mechanical achievements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
+have obliterated geographical distances. The contact between nations,
+intermittent in former ages, has become a continuous one. It is no
+longer possible to ignore great cultural forces in foreign nations
+even temporarily--we may repudiate or appreciate them, as we see fit,
+but we should do so in a spirit of fairness and understanding, and not
+in ignorance.
+
+This, however, is not possible unless those who are to become leaders
+of the people are intimately familiar with those treasure chests of
+the nations that contain the true gems of racial spirit more
+abundantly than even art or literature, history, law or religion,
+stored up in the course of hundreds and thousands of years--the
+nations' languages. It is the clear duty of the college to instill,
+through the right way of teaching foreign languages, a cosmopolitan
+spirit of this character into the growing minds of our young men and
+women, after the secondary school has given them the first rudiments
+of knowledge and cultural training.
+
+According to one's point of view, there is as much to be said in favor
+of the classical as the modern languages. Without doubt, their growing
+neglect in our institutions of learning is deeply to be regretted;
+however, its causes do not concern us here directly. The study of
+modern languages is, relatively speaking, so manifestly in the
+ascendency, that a return to the emphasis that was formerly laid upon
+Latin and Greek is hardly imaginable. The choice between several
+modern languages must very largely be determined by personal
+preferences and purposes. So much, however, can safely be said, that
+an intelligent reading knowledge of German and French is the least
+that should be expected of a college graduate. For, while in theory
+the humanistic importance of modern language study is the same for all
+languages, it rises, in practice, proportionately with the cultural
+level of the foreign nation--German and French obviously taking the
+lead in this regard.
+
+=Place of German in the college curriculum=
+
+I am optimistic enough to assume it to be generally granted that the
+study of a foreign language ought to be started early in life--say, at
+the age of twelve. While hardly challenged in theory, this desirable
+condition is far from being carried out in practice. Probably the time
+will never come when colleges will be able to dispense with elementary
+courses in modern foreign languages--not only for those who enter
+without any linguistic preparation, but also, and perhaps
+preeminently, for students who are taking up a second foreign language
+in addition to the one (or two) started in the preparatory school.
+Thus, the starting point of the modern language course in college is
+easily fixed: it must begin at the very rudiments of the language. Nor
+is it difficult to state, in general terms, the purpose of the most
+advanced work of the undergraduate curriculum: it must consist in
+adequate linguistic skill, literary knowledge and feeling, and
+cultural understanding to such an extent that the college graduate who
+has specialized in German may safely be intrusted with the teaching of
+German in secondary schools. At least, this holds good for the
+majority of institutions; a small number of colleges devote their
+whole effort to cultural training, and some of the larger
+institutions, particularly in the East, find it possible to postpone
+most of the professional preparation to a period of graduate work. But
+on the whole the average well-equipped college includes the training
+of teachers as one end of its foreign-language work. Ordinarily, such
+mastery of the subject as would prepare for teaching cannot be gained
+within the four years' college course. Rather, it might be said to
+require the average equivalent of something like six college years,
+with the understanding that not much more than one fourth of the
+student's time be devoted to German. This implies that only under
+uncommonly favorable conditions should students be encouraged to
+specialize in a foreign language that they begin on entering college.
+
+=Organization of the German course=
+
+Thus, the peculiar conditions of modern language instruction bring it
+about that a discussion of its organization in college must deal with
+a six years' course: elementary instruction must be offered to those
+entering without any knowledge of German; courses of a sufficiently
+advanced character must be provided for those who enter with three or
+four years of high-school German; and there must be advanced work for
+students who intend to make the study and teaching of German their
+life's work.
+
+In this six years' college course three divisions are clearly
+distinguishable: an elementary division devoted to such linguistic
+training as will enable a student to read with fair ease texts of
+moderate difficulty; an intermediate group during which literary and
+cultural appreciation should be developed, and an advanced group
+intended for the professional preparation of prospective teachers of
+German. These three divisions may be approximately equal, so that each
+of them covers about two years, with four or five hours a week. For
+graduation, all students should be required to present the equivalent
+of the first period for two languages (either classical or modern),
+one or both of which might with advantage be absolved in high school.
+The second division should be required of all students for at least
+one foreign language. Colleges of high standing may find it possible
+to exceed these requirements; no college should remain below them.
+
+The first or elementary division should, at least for one foreign
+language, be finished before the student is admitted to the college.
+All that can reasonably be expected from this part of the work is a
+study of the elements of grammar, the development of a good
+pronunciation, a fair working vocabulary, and some ability to read,
+speak, understand, and write German.
+
+The second group should include, in the main, reading courses to
+introduce the student to what is best in German literature, but no
+general theoretical study of the history of literature need be
+contemplated. Besides, it must offer such work in speaking and writing
+as will develop and establish more firmly the results gained in the
+first two years, and an appropriate study of German history and
+institutions. Each of the three aims might be given about one third of
+the time available, but they may overlap to some extent. Thus, writing
+and speaking can be connected with each of them, and historical
+readings and reports may furnish a part of language practice.
+
+The third group, intended for the training of teachers, must contain a
+course in the method of modern language teaching (connected with
+observation and practice), an advanced grammar course, and courses in
+the phonetics and historical development of the German language. These
+courses are indispensable for teachers, but will also be of advantage
+to students not intending to teach.
+
+=The elementary group=
+
+The first group is frankly of high school character. It is best to
+admit this fully and freely, and to teach these courses accordingly.
+Through greater intensity of study (more home work and longer class
+periods), the work of three or even four high school years may be
+concentrated into two college years, but the method cannot differ
+essentially. The way of learning a new language is the same, in
+principle, for a child of twelve years and a man of fifty years; in
+the latter case, there is merely the difficulty to be overcome that
+older persons are less easily inclined to submit to that drill which
+is necessary for the establishment of those new habits that constitute
+_Sprachgefuehl_. It is a fallacy that the maturer mind of the college
+student requires a more synthetic-deductive study of the language than
+that of the high school student.
+
+It is sad but true that many college teachers are more reactionary in
+questions of method than the better class of high school teachers. The
+claim that elementary work in college requires a method different from
+that used in the high school is one symptom of this, and another
+symptom of the same tendency is the motto of so many college teachers
+that there is no "best method," and that a good teacher will secure
+good results with any method. At the bottom of such phrases there is
+usually not much more than indifference and unwillingness to look for
+information on the real character of the method at which they are
+generally aimed: the _direct method_. The regrettable superficiality
+appearing in the frequent confusion of the "direct" with the "natural"
+method is characteristic of this. I am, of course, willing to admit
+that what nowadays is termed the "direct method" is not the best way
+possible, but that it may and will be improved upon. However, it is
+not one of many methods that, according to circumstances, might be
+equally good, but it represents the application of the present results
+of psychological and linguistic research to the teaching of languages
+and distinctly deserves the preference over older ways.
+
+The first demand of the direct method is the development not only of a
+fair but of a perfect pronunciation--not so much as the independent
+aim, but as an indispensable condition for the development of
+_Sprachgefuehl_. It is immeasurably easier to obtain good pronunciation
+from the start than to improve bad pronunciation by later efforts. In
+the teaching of pronunciation a slight difference in the treatment of
+children of twelve years and of college students might be granted:
+young children are generally able to learn the sounds of a foreign
+language by imitation; students of college age can hardly ever do this
+well, and careful phonetic instruction is absolutely necessary with
+them. Whoever wishes to keep aloof from phonetic _terms_ may do so;
+but not to know or not to apply phonetic _principles_ is bad teaching
+pure and simple. The use of phonetic _transcription_, however, is a
+moot question. Its advantages are obvious enough: it insures a clear
+consciousness of correct pronunciation; it takes up the difficulties
+one by one: first pronunciation, then spelling; it safeguards greater
+care in matters of pronunciation in general. The objections are
+chiefly two: economy of time, and the fear of confusion between the
+two ways of spelling. The writer admits that until a few years ago he
+was skeptical as to the value of phonetic transcription in the
+teaching of German. But the nearly general recognition of its value by
+the foremost educators of European countries and the good results
+achieved with it by teachers of French in this country caused him to
+give it a trial, under conditions that afforded not more than an
+average chance of success. The result was greatly beyond his
+expectations. Neither he nor, as far as he knows, any of his
+colleagues would contemplate abandoning phonetic script again. Without
+wishing to be dogmatic, I believe that this at least can be asserted
+with safety: on purely theoretical grounds, no teacher has a right to
+condemn phonetic transcription; those who doubt its value should try
+it before they judge.
+
+In the writer's opinion it is best not to use any historical spelling
+at all during the first six or eight weeks of college German. If the
+confusing features of traditional orthography are eliminated during
+this period, it will be found that there results not a loss, but an
+actual _gain in time_ from the use of phonetic script. Nor does the
+transition to common spelling cause any confusion. The less ado made
+about it, the better. It is a fact of experience, that students who
+have been trained in the use of phonetic script turn out to be better
+spellers than those who have not--simply because this training has
+made them more careful and has given them a clearer conception of the
+discrepancy between sound and letter.
+
+That elementary grammar should be taught inductively is true to an
+extent, but often overstated. It is true for the more abstract
+principles, such as the formation of the compound tenses, the
+formation and the use of the passive voice, and so on. But attempts at
+inductive teaching of concrete elements of mechanical memory, such as
+the gender and plural of nouns, or the principal parts of strong
+verbs, are a misunderstanding of the principles of induction. It goes
+without saying that thorough drill is much more valuable than the most
+explicit explanation. It holds good for college as well as for high
+schools that there is but very little to "explain" about the grammar
+of any language. Unnecessary explanations rather increase than remove
+difficulties.
+
+=The use of English=
+
+The use of English is another debated question. As far as the teaching
+of grammar is concerned, it is unessential. If inductive drill takes
+the place of explanations and abstract rules, the question is very
+largely eliminated from practical consideration. In those very rare
+cases when theoretical discussions might seem desirable, it does not
+make much difference whether a few minutes a week are devoted to
+English or not. The question assumes greater importance when the
+development of the vocabulary is considered. In this, there are three
+fairly well-defined elements to be distinguished. The first
+vocabulary, say, of the first two or three months should be developed
+by concrete associations with objects and actions in the classroom;
+the use of the vernacular has no justification whatever during that
+time--not on account of any objection to an occasional English word or
+phrase, but simply because there is no need of it, and every minute
+devoted to German is a clear gain. After this, the vocabulary should
+be further developed through the thorough practice of connected texts.
+If they are well constructed, the context will explain a considerable
+portion of the words occurring; those that are not made clear through
+the context form the third division of the vocabulary and can without
+hesitation be explained by English equivalents. In general, the
+principle will go rather far that the use of an occasional English
+_word_ is entirely harmless, but that English _sentences_ should as
+much as possible be avoided in elementary work. Connected translation,
+both from and into English, must absolutely be excluded from the first
+year's work, for the chief purpose of this year is not only the study
+of grammar and the development of an elementary vocabulary, but, even
+more than that, the cultivation of the right _attitude_ toward
+language study. Reading should be our chief aim, and speaking a means
+to that end, but the student must be trained, from the very beginning,
+to understand what he is reading rather through an intelligent grasp
+of the contents than by fingering the dictionary. In this way he will
+become accustomed to associating the German sentences _directly_ with
+the thought expressed in them, instead of _indirectly_ through the
+medium of his native tongue.
+
+A great deal of misunderstanding is frequently involved in the
+emphasis laid upon speaking. There can hardly be a more absurd
+misinterpretation of the principles of the direct method than for
+college teachers to try to "converse" with the students in German--to
+have with them German chats about the weather, the games, the
+political situation. This procedure is splendidly fit to develop in
+the students a habit of guessing at random at what they hear and
+read--a slovenly contentedness with an approximate understanding. Both
+teacher and students should speak and hear German practically all the
+time. But this should be distinctly in the service of reading and
+grammar work, containing almost exclusively words and forms that the
+student must _know_, not guess at.
+
+At the end of the first year a college student ought to have mastered
+the elements of grammar and possess good pronunciation and an active
+vocabulary of about six hundred or eight hundred words. If the second
+year is devoted to further drill on grammatical elements and to
+careful reading, its result ought to be the ability to read authors of
+average difficulty at a fair speed. During the first year all reading
+material should be practiced so intensively that an average of a
+little more than a page a week is not exceeded materially; but toward
+the end of the second year a limit of six or eight pages an hour may
+well be reached. By this time, translation into good English begins to
+be a valuable factor in the achievement of conscious accuracy; but it
+must under no circumstances be resorted to until the students have
+clearly obtained the habitual attitude of direct association between
+thought and sentence.
+
+It is little short of a misfortune that there exists no adequate
+German-German dictionary (such as La Rousse's French dictionary). It
+would not be very difficult to write such a book, but until we
+possess it the irritating use of German-English dictionaries and
+vocabularies will be a necessary evil.
+
+The hardest problem of the second year--and this is progressively true
+of more advanced work--is the uneven preparation of the students. In
+large colleges it will often be feasible to have as many sections as
+possible at the same hour, distributing the students in accordance
+with their preparation. Where this is not possible, special help for
+poorly prepared students is generally indispensable.
+
+=The literature group=
+
+The literature group is as distinctly of college character as the
+elementary group is admittedly high school work. It is here, in fact,
+that the best ideals of the American college find the fullest
+opportunity. This is true both for the teacher and for the student. In
+the elementary group, pedagogical skill and a fair mastery of the
+language are the chief prerequisites of a successful teacher. In the
+second group, other qualities are of greater importance. While a
+certain degree of pedagogical skill is just as necessary here as
+there, it is now no longer a question of the systematic development of
+habits, but of the ability to create sympathetic understanding,
+idealism, depth of knowledge, and literary taste--in short, to strive
+for humanistic education in the fullest sense of the word. This is
+true not only for colleges with a professedly humanistic tendency; the
+broadening and deepening influence of foreign language study is
+nowhere needed more urgently than in technical and other professional
+colleges.
+
+Speaking and writing must no longer stand in the center of instruction
+in the courses of the second group, but their importance should not be
+underrated, as is done so frequently (it is a fact that students often
+know less German at the end of the third year in college than at the
+end of the second year). At least during the first year of this group,
+a practice course in advanced grammar, connected with composition, is
+absolutely necessary. The grammatical work should consist in review
+and observation, supported by the study of a larger reference grammar
+(e.g., chapters from Curme's grammar, to introduce the students to
+the consistent use of this marvelous work). In composition, free
+reproduction should still be the main thing, but independent themes
+and translation from English into German--which would be distinctly
+harmful in elementary work--are now valuable exercises in the study of
+German style. It would be wholly wrong, however, to make linguistic
+drill the Alpha and Omega of this part of the college course. The
+preparatory years should have laid a sound basis, which during the
+college work proper should not be allowed to disintegrate, but the
+fact should not be lost sight of that the cultural aim must be
+stressed most in the second group.
+
+To reach this aim, a familiarity with the best works of German
+literature is the foremost means. German literature affords a scant
+choice of good and easy reading for the elementary stage: Storm,
+Ebner-Eschenbach, Seidel, and Wildenbruch are justly favorites, but
+absurdities like Baumbach's _Schwiegersohn_ are, unfortunately, still
+found in the curriculum of many colleges. In contrast with the small
+number of good elementary texts, there exists an abundance of
+excellent material for the second group. Aside from the classical
+poets, the novelists Keller, Meyer, Fontane, Raabe; the dramatists
+Hebbel, Grillparzer, Kleist, Hauptmann; poems collected in the
+_Balladenbuch_ or the _Ernte_ present an inexhaustible wealth, without
+our having to resort to the literary rubbish of Benedix or Moser or
+the sneering pretentiousness of Heine's _Harzreise_.
+
+The details of organization will vary greatly for this group,
+according to special conditions. But in general it may be said that
+during the first year of this period about two hours a week should be
+devoted to the continuation of systematic language practice as
+outlined above, and three hours to the reading of German authors for
+literary purposes. Nor should this consist in "reading" alone. Reading
+as such should no longer present any difficulty, if the work of the
+elementary group has been done well. Special courses should be devoted
+to the study of the modern German novel, the drama, and the lyrics,
+and to individual authors like those mentioned. In these detached
+literature courses the principal endeavor must be to help the students
+to understand and feel, not so much the linguistic side of the texts
+read, as the soul of the author, and through him the soul of the
+German nation. Reading must become more and more independent, the
+major part of the time in class being devoted to the cultural and
+aesthetic interpretation of what has been read at home. It is evident
+that in this, the most important part of the German college work, all
+depends upon the personality of the instructor: literary and human
+understanding cannot be instilled into the student's mind by one who
+does not possess them himself, together with a love for teaching and
+the power to create enthusiasm.
+
+All other requirements must be subordinate to this--even the
+instructor's mastery of the language. No doubt, in theory it would be
+most desirable that German be the exclusive language of instruction
+throughout; but in literary courses practical considerations will so
+often speak against this, that no sweeping answer to this question
+seems possible. For the chief aim must not be overshadowed by any
+other. If poor preparation on the part of the students or a deficient
+command of the language on the part of the instructor makes it
+doubtful whether the cultural aim can be attained, if German is the
+language of instruction, English should be used unhesitatingly. This
+implies that for this part of the work an instructor with a strong
+personality and an artistic understanding, although lacking in
+speaking knowledge, is far preferable to one who speaks German
+fluently but cannot introduce his students to the greatness of German
+literature and the spirit of the German people.
+
+On the other hand, written reports in literary courses should always
+be required to be in German; it is also a good plan to devote a few
+minutes of each period to prepared oral reports, in German, on the
+part of the individual students. Where systematic practice in the
+colloquial use of the language is desirable for special reasons, a
+conversation course may be established in addition to the main work,
+but literary courses are not the place for starting conversational
+practice with classes that have been neglected in this respect during
+their preparatory work.
+
+The second year of the literary group should offer a choice between
+two directions of further literary development: about three hours of
+each week should be devoted either to a course on the general history
+of German literature, or to the intensive study of one of the greatest
+factors in German literature--such as Goethe's _Faust_. In large
+institutions both courses can probably be given side by side, the
+students taking their choice according to their preference, but in
+most colleges an alternation of two courses of this kind will be
+preferable.
+
+The method of instruction is determined by the students' preparation
+and the teacher's personality, in literature courses more than
+anything else. Obviously, lectures (in German, where circumstances
+permit), extensive, systematic reading, written reports, and class
+discussion are the dominating features of such courses.
+
+Some knowledge of German history and institutions is an indispensable
+adjunct of any serious work in German literature. Probably in all
+colleges such instruction will be incumbent upon the German
+departments, and it is rarely possible to combine it with the course
+on the general history of German literature. Therefore, a special
+course in German history and institutions should be offered during the
+second year of the literature group.
+
+=The professional group=
+
+The work of this group may overlap that of the second group to a
+considerable extent, in the sense that courses in both groups may be
+taken at the same time. The professional preparation of a teacher of
+German should include: a thorough knowledge of the structure of the
+German language, an appreciative familiarity with German literature,
+and a fair amount of specialized pedagogical training. The study of
+literature cannot be different for prospective teachers from that for
+all other types of college students, and, therefore, belongs to the
+second group. But their knowledge of language structure, though not
+necessarily of a specialistic philological character, must include a
+more detailed knowledge of German grammar, a familiarity with
+technical German phonetics, and at least an elementary insight into
+the historical development of the language. In addition to suitable
+courses in these three subjects, a pedagogical course, dealing with
+the methods of modern language teaching, and connected with
+observation and practice teaching, must be provided for. Where the
+previous training has been neglected, a course in German conversation
+may be added; but, generally speaking, this should no longer be
+necessary with students in their fifth or sixth year of German
+instruction. Wherever this need exists, the system of instruction is
+at fault.
+
+=Conclusion=
+
+Incomplete though this brief outline must necessarily be, the writer
+has attempted to touch upon the most important phases of the students'
+development of linguistic, cultural, and, where demanded, professional
+command of German. Little has so far been said concerning the college
+teacher. The strong emphasis placed upon the direct method in this
+article should not be misinterpreted as meaning that a fluent command
+of the spoken language is a _conditio sine qua non_. Nothing could be
+farther from the truth. First of all, the necessity of the exclusive
+use of the direct method exists obviously only in the elementary
+group. In this group, however, "conversation" in the generally
+accepted sense of the word should not be attempted--it will do more
+harm than good. The constant practice in speaking and hearing should
+be so rigidly subservient to the interpretation and practice of the
+texts being read and to grammatical drill, that only a minimum of
+"speaking knowledge" on the part of the teacher is unavoidably
+necessary; his pronunciation, of course, must be perfect. However
+desirable it may be that a teacher should know intimately well the
+language he is teaching in college, there are other requirements even
+higher than this; they are, in the first group, energy, thoroughness,
+and pedagogical skill, coupled with an intelligent understanding of
+the basic principles of the direct method; in the second group,
+literary appreciation and a sympathetic understanding of German
+thought, history, and civilization; and, for the third group,
+elementary philological training, theoretical as well as practical
+acquaintance with the needs of the classroom, and a long and varied
+experience in teaching. Rarely will all three qualifications be
+combined in one person, nor are such fortunate combinations necessary
+in most colleges. A wise distribution of courses among the members of
+the department can in most cases be effected in such a way that each
+teacher's talents are utilized in their proper places.
+
+                                                    E. PROKOSCH
+
+
+
+
+  PART FIVE
+
+  THE ARTS
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+ XXIII THE TEACHING OF MUSIC
+           _Edward Dickinson_
+
+ XXIV  THE TEACHING OF ART
+           _Holmes Smith_
+
+
+
+
+XXIII
+
+THE TEACHING OF MUSIC
+
+
+=Music a comparatively recent addition to the college curriculum=
+
+There is perhaps no more direct way of throwing a sort of flashlight
+upon the musical activity in the colleges of America than the
+statement that a volume of this kind, if prepared a dozen years ago,
+would either have contained no chapter upon music, or, if music were
+given a place at all, the argument would have been occupied with hopes
+rather than achievements. Not that it would be literally true to say
+that music was wholly a negligible quantity in the homes of higher
+education until the twentieth century, but the seat assigned to it in
+the few institutions where it was found was an obscure and lowly one,
+and the influence radiating therefrom reached so small a fragment of
+the academic community that no one who was not engaged in a careful,
+sympathizing search could have been aware of its existence. It was
+less than twenty years ago that a prominent musical journal printed
+the very moderate statement that "the youth who is graduated at Yale,
+Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Brown, Dartmouth, Bowdoin, Amherst, Cornell,
+or Columbia has not even a smattering of music beyond the music of the
+college glee and mandolin club; and of course to cultivate that is the
+easiest road to musical perdition." One who looks at those
+institutions now, and attempts to measure the power and reach of their
+departments of music, will not deny the right to the satisfaction
+which their directors--men of national influence--must feel, and would
+almost expect them to echo the words of ancient Simeon. The contrast
+is indeed extraordinary, and, I believe, unparalleled. The work of
+these men, and of others who could be named with them, has not been
+merely development, but might even be called creation. Any one who
+attempts to keep track of the growth of musical education in our
+colleges, universities, and also in the secondary schools of the
+present day, will find that the bare statistics of this increase, to
+say nothing of a study of the problems involved, will engage much more
+than his hours of leisure. Music, which not long ago held tolerance
+only as an outside interest, confined to the sphere of influence of
+the glee club and the chapel choir, is now, in hundreds of educational
+institutions, accorded the privileges due to those arts and sciences
+whose function in historic civilization, and potency in scholarly
+discipline and liberal culture, give them domicile by obvious and
+inalienable right.
+
+=History of the subject of music in the American college curriculum=
+
+The first university professorships in music were founded at Harvard
+in 1876, and at the University of Pennsylvania at about the same time.
+Vassar College established musical courses in 1867, Oberlin in 1869.
+Harvard took the lead in granting credit for certain courses in music
+toward the degree of A.B. in 1870.[94] Progress thereafter for many
+years was slow; but in 1907 investigation showed that "approximately
+one half the colleges in the country recognize the value of instruction
+in music sufficiently to grant credit in this subject."[95] Since this
+date college after college and university after university have fallen
+into line, only a few resisting the current that sets toward the
+universal acceptance of music as a legitimate and necessary element in
+higher education. The problem with the musical educators of the
+country is no longer how to crowd their subject into the college
+preserve, but how to organize its forces there, how to develop its
+methods on a basis of scholarly efficiency, how to harmonize its
+courses with the ideals of the old established departments, and now,
+last of all, how to bring the universities and colleges into
+cooperation with the rapid extension of musical practice, education,
+and taste which has, in recent days, become a conspicuous factor in
+our national progress.
+
+=Changing social ideals responsible for the new attitude toward the
+study of music in colleges=
+
+An investigation into the causes of this great change would be fully
+as interesting as a critical examination of its results. The limits of
+this chapter require that consideration be given to the present and
+future of this movement rather than to its past; but it is especially
+instructive, I think, to those who are called upon to deal practically
+with it, to observe that the welcome now accorded to music in our
+higher institutions of learning is due to changes in both the college
+and its environment. In view of the constitution and relationships of
+our higher schools (unlike those of the universities of Europe), any
+alteration in the ideals, the practical activities, and the living
+conditions of the people of the democracy will sooner or later affect
+those institutions whose aim is fundamentally to equip young men and
+women for social leadership. It is unnecessary to remind the readers
+of such a book as this of the marked enlargement of the interests of
+the intelligent people of America in recent years, or of the prominent
+place which aesthetic considerations hold among these interests. The
+ancient thinker, to whom nothing of human concern was alien, would
+find the type he represented enormously increased in these latter
+days. The passion for the release of all the latent energies and the
+acquisition of every material good, which characterizes the American
+people to a degree hitherto unknown in the world since the outburst of
+the Renaissance, issues, as in the Renaissance, in an enormous
+multiplication of the machinery by which the enjoyment of life and its
+outward embellishment are promoted. But more than this and far
+better--the eager pursuit of the means for enhancing physical and
+mental gratification has coincided with a growing desire for the
+general welfare;--hence the aesthetic movement of recent years, and the
+zeal for social betterment which excludes no section or class or
+occupation, tend to unite, and at the same time to work inward and
+develop a type of character which seeks joy not only in beauty but
+also in the desire to give beauty a home in the low as well as in the
+high places. Whatever may be one's view of the final value of the
+recent American productions in literature and the fine arts, the
+social, democratic tendency in them is unmistakable. The company of
+enthusiastic men and women who are preaching the gospel of beauty as a
+common human birthright is neither small nor feeble. The fine arts are
+emerging from the studios, professional schools, and coteries; they
+are no longer conceived as the special prerogative of privileged
+classes; not even is the creation of masterpieces as objects of
+national pride the pervading motive;--but they are seen to be
+potential factors in national education, ministering to the happiness
+and mental and moral health of the community at large. It was
+impossible that the most enlightened directors of our colleges,
+universities, and public schools should not perceive the nature and
+possibilities of this movement, hasten to ally themselves with it, and
+in many cases assume a leadership in it to which their position and
+advantages entitled them.
+
+=The educative function of music=
+
+The commanding claims which the arts of design, music, and the drama
+are asserting for an organized share in the higher education is also,
+I think, a consequence of the change that has come about in recent
+years in the constitution of the curriculum, the methods of
+instruction, the personnel of the student body, the multiplication of
+their sanctioned activities, and especially in the attitude of the
+undergraduates toward the traditional idea of scholarship. The old
+college was a place where strict, inherited conceptions of scholarship
+and mental discipline were piously maintained. The curriculum rested
+for its main support upon a basis of the classics and mathematics,
+which imparted a classic and mathematical rigidity to the whole
+structure. The professor was an oracle, backed by oracular textbooks;
+the student's activity was restricted by a traditional association of
+learning with self-restraint and outward severity of life. The
+revolutionary change came with the marvelous development of the
+natural sciences, compelling radical readjustments of thought both
+within and without the college, the quickening of the social life
+about the campus, and the sharp division of interest, together with a
+multiplication of courses which made the elective system inevitable.
+The consequence was, as President Wilson states it, that a
+"disintegration was brought about which destroyed the old college with
+its fixed disciplines and ordered life, and gave us our present
+problem of reorganization and recovery. It centered in the break-up of
+the old curriculum and the introduction of the principle that the
+student was to select his own studies from a great variety of courses.
+But the change could not, in the nature of things, stop with the plan
+of study. It held in its heart a tremendous implication;--the
+implication of full manhood on the part of the pupil, and all the
+untrammeled choice of manhood. The pupil who was mature and
+well-informed enough to study what he chose, was also by necessary
+implication mature enough to be left free to _do_ what he pleased, to
+choose his own associations and ways of life outside the curriculum
+without restraint or suggestion; and the varied, absorbing life of our
+day sprang up as the natural offspring of the free election of
+studies."[96]
+
+=The development of emotions as well as the intellect a vital concern
+of the college curriculum=
+
+Into an academic life so constituted, art, music, and the drama must
+perforce make their way by virtue of their appeal to those instincts,
+always latent, which were now set in action. Those agencies by which
+the emotional life has always been expressed and stimulated found a
+welcome prepared for them in the hearts of college youths, stirred
+with new zests and a more lively self-consciousness. But for a time
+they met resistance in the supremacy of the exact sciences,
+erroneously set in opposition to the forces which move the emotions
+and the imagination, and the stern grip, still jealously maintained,
+of the old conception of "mental discipline" and the communication of
+information as the prime purpose of college teaching. The relaxation
+came with the recognition of aesthetic pursuits as "outside interests,"
+and organization and endowment soon followed. But a college art museum
+logically involves lectures upon art, a theater an authoritative
+regulation of the things offered therein, a concert hall and concert
+courses instruction in the history and appreciation of music. And so,
+with surprising celerity, the colleges began to readjust their schemes
+to admit those agencies that act upon the emotion as well as the
+understanding, and the problem how to bring aesthetic culture into a
+working union with the traditional aims and the larger social
+opportunities of the college faced the college educator, and disturbed
+his repose with its peremptory insistence upon a practical solution.
+
+=Problems in teaching of music in the college=
+
+Although the question of purpose, method, and adaptation presents
+general difficulties of similar character in respect to the college
+administration of all the fine arts, music is undoubtedly the most
+embarrassing item in the list. In this department of our colleges
+there is no common conviction as to methods, no standardized system;
+but rather a bewildering disagreement in regard to the subjects to be
+taught, the extent and nature of their recognition, the character of
+the response to be expected of the student mind, and the kind of gauge
+by which that response shall be measured by teachers, deans, and
+registrars. In the matter of literature and the arts of design, where
+there is likewise an implicit intention of enriching aesthetic
+appreciation, an agreement is more easily reached, by reason of their
+closer relationship to outer life, to action, and the more familiar
+processes of thought. Few would maintain that the purpose of college
+courses in English literature is to train professional novelists and
+poets; the college leaves to the special art schools and to private
+studios the development of painters, sculptors, and architects. What
+remains to the college is reasonably clear. But in music, on the
+contrary, the function of the college is by no means so evident as to
+induce anything like general agreement. Should the musical courses be
+exclusively cultural, or should they be so shaped as to provide
+training for professional work in composition or performance? Should
+they be "practical" (that is, playing and singing), or simply
+theoretical (harmony, counterpoint, etc.), or entirely confined to
+musical history and appreciation? Should credits leading to the A.B.
+degree be given for musical work, and if so, ought they to include
+performance, or only theory and composition? Should musical degrees be
+granted, and if so, for what measure of knowledge or proficiency? One
+or two Western colleges give credit for work done under the direction
+of private teachers in no way connected with the institution:--is this
+procedure to be commended, and if so, under what safeguards? Should a
+college maintain a musical "conservatory" working under a separate
+administrative and financial system, many or all of whose teachers are
+not college graduates; or should its musical department be necessarily
+an organic part of the college of arts and sciences, exactly like the
+department of Latin or chemistry? If the former, as is the case with
+many Western institutions, to what extent should the work in the music
+school be supervised by the college president and general faculty;
+under what limitations may candidates for the A.B. degree be allowed
+to take accredited work in the music school? What should be the
+relation of the college to the university in respect to the musical
+courses? Is it possible to establish a systematic progress from step
+to step similar to that which exists in many of the old established
+lines? What should be the relation between the college and the
+secondary schools? Should the effort be to establish a continuity of
+study and promotion, such as that which exists in such subjects as
+Latin and mathematics? Should the college give entrance credits for
+musical work? If so, should it be on examination or certificate, for
+practical or theoretical work, or both? Should the courses in the
+history and appreciation of music be thrown open to all students, or
+only to those who have some preliminary technical knowledge?
+
+These are some of the questions that face a college governing board
+when music is under discussion--questions that are dealt with on
+widely divergent principles by colleges of equal rank. Some
+institutions in the West permit to music a freedom and variety in
+respect to grades, subjects, and methods which they allow to no other
+subject. The University of Kansas undertakes musical extension work
+throughout the state. Brown University restricts its musical
+instruction to lecture courses on the history and appreciation of
+music. Between these extremes there is every diversity of opinion and
+procedure that can be conceived. The problem, as I have said, is
+twofold, and so long as disagreement exists as to the object of
+collegiate musical work, there can be no uniformity in administration.
+
+In a university the problem is or should be somewhat more simple, just
+as there is a more general accord concerning the precise object of
+university training. In place of the confusion of views in regard to
+ideals and systems and methods which exist in the present-day college,
+we find in the university a calmness of conviction touching essentials
+that results from the comparative simplicity of its functions and
+aims. A conspicuous tendency in our universities is toward
+specialization; their spirit and methods are largely derived from the
+professional and graduate schools which give them their tone and
+prestige. They look toward research and the advancement of learning as
+their particular _raison d'etre_, and also toward the practical
+application of knowledge to actual life and the disciplining of
+special faculties for definite vocational ends.[97] Since our
+universities, unlike those of Europe, consist of a union of graduate
+and undergraduate departments, any single problem, like that of music,
+is simplified by the opportunity afforded by the direct passage from
+undergraduate to graduate work, and the greater encouragement to
+specialization in the earlier courses. A graduate school which admits
+music will naturally do so on a vocational basis, and the question is
+not of the aim to be sought, but the much easier one of the means of
+its attainment, since there is no more of a puzzle in teaching an
+embryo composer or music teacher than there is in teaching an
+incipient physician or engineer.
+
+It seems to me that the opportunity before the university has been
+stated in a very clear and suggestive manner by Professor Albert A.
+Stanley of the University of Michigan: "If in the future the line of
+demarcation between the college and the university shall cease to be
+as sinuous and shadowy as at present, the university will offer
+well-defined courses in research, in creative work, possibly in
+interpretation--by which I do not mean criticism, but rather that
+which is criticized. [Professor Stanley evidently refers to musical
+performance.] The college courses will then be so broadened that the
+preparatory work will of necessity be relegated to the secondary
+schools. This will impose on the colleges and universities still
+another duty--the fitting of competent teachers. Logically music will
+then be placed on the list of entrance studies, and the circle will be
+complete. The fitting of teachers who can satisfy the conditions of
+such work as will then be demanded will be by no means the least
+function of the higher institutions. There will be more and more
+demand for the broadly trained teacher, and there will be an even
+greater demand for the specialist. By this I mean the specialist who
+has been developed in a normal manner, and who appreciates the greater
+relations of knowledge and life."[98]
+
+=Problems in teaching of music in secondary schools are intelligently
+attacked=
+
+There is no question that the future of music in the colleges will
+greatly depend upon the developments in the secondary schools. If the
+time ever comes when the administrators of our public school system
+accept and act upon the assertion of Dr. Claxton, United States
+Commissioner of Education, that "after the beginnings of reading,
+writing, and mathematics music has greater practical value than any
+other subject taught in the schools," the college will find its
+determination of musical courses an easier matter than it is now.
+Students will in that event come prepared to take advantage of the
+more advanced instruction offered by the college, as they do at
+present in the standard subjects, and the musical pathway through the
+college, and then through the university, will be direct and
+unimpeded. Although such a prospect may seem to many only a roseate
+dream, it is a safer prophecy than it would have appeared a half-dozen
+years ago. The number of grammar and high schools is rapidly
+increasing in which the pupils are given solid instruction in chorus
+singing, ensemble playing, musical theory, and the history and
+appreciation of music; and in many places pupils are also permitted to
+carry on private study in vocal and instrumental music at the hands of
+approved teachers, and school credit given therefor. So apparent is
+the need of this latter privilege, and so full of fine possibilities,
+that the question of licensing private teachers with a view to an
+official recognition of the fittest has begun to receive the attention
+of state associations and legislatures. It is impossible that the
+colleges should remain indifferent to these tendencies in the
+preparatory schools, for their duty and their advantage are found in
+cooperating with them. The opportunity has been most clearly seen by
+those colleges which have established departments for the training of
+supervisors of public school music. Such service comes eminently
+within the role of the college, for a disciplined understanding, a
+liberal culture, an acquaintance with subjects once unrecognized as
+related to music teaching, are coming to be demanded in the music
+supervisor. The day of the old country-school singing master
+transferred to the public school is past; the day of the trained
+supervisor, who measures up to the intellectual stature of his
+colleagues, is at hand. So clearly is this perceived that college
+courses in public school music, which at first occupied one year at
+the most, are being extended to two years and three years, and in at
+least one or two instances occupying four years. And the benefit is
+not confined to the schoolroom, for an educated man, conscious of his
+peculiar powers, will see and use opportunities afforded him not
+merely as a salaried preceptor but also as a citizen.
+
+=Vital function of music in college curriculum is emotional and aesthetic=
+
+To revert to the difficulties which the college faces in adjusting
+musical courses to the general scheme of academic instruction: it is
+clear that these difficulties lie partly in the very nature of musical
+art. For music is not only an art but a science. It is the product of
+constructive ingenuity as well as of "inspiration"; its technique is
+of exquisite refinement and appalling difficulty; it appeals to the
+intellect as well as to the emotion. And yet the intellectual element
+is but tributary, and if the consciousness willfully shuts its gates
+against the tide of rapture rushing to flood the sense and the
+emotion, then in reality music is not, for its spirit is dead. What
+shall be done with an agency so fierce and absorbing as this? Can it
+be tamed and fettered by the old conceptions of mental discipline and
+scholastic routine? Only by falsifying its nature and denying its
+essential appeal. Some colleges attempt so to evade the difficulty,
+and lend favor, so far at least as credit is concerned, only to the
+theoretical studies in which the training is as severe, and almost as
+unimaginative, as it is in mathematics. But to many this appears too
+much like a reversion to the viewpoint of the mediaeval convent schools
+which classed music in the _quadrivium_ along with arithmetic,
+geometry, and astronomy. Neither the creative power nor the aesthetic
+receptivity is considered in such courses as these, and the spirit of
+music revolts against this confinement and gives its pedantic jailers
+no peace.
+
+=The practical course as disciplinary as the theoretical=
+
+Shall practical courses in playing and singing be accepted? Now the
+objection arises that any proficiency with which a student--at least a
+talented one--would be satisfied, entails hours each day of purely
+technical practice, involving little of the kind of mental activity
+that is presupposed in the tradition of college training. Those
+institutions that have no practical courses are logical, at all
+events, and seem to follow the line of least resistance. But the
+opposition against the purely theoretical side of musical culture will
+not down, and the "practical" element makes steady headway as the
+truth shines more dearly upon the administrative mind that musical
+performance is not a matter of mechanical technique alone, but of
+scholarship, imaginative insight, keen emotional reaction, and
+interpretation which involves a sympathetic understanding of the
+creative mind. The objection to practical exercise dwindles as the
+conception of its nature and goal enlarges.
+
+=Lack of college-trained teachers adds to difficulty of recognizing
+music as a college subject=
+
+Another hindrance presents itself--not so inherent in the nature of
+the case as those just mentioned--and that is the lack of teachers of
+music whose educational equipment corresponds in all particulars to
+the standard which the colleges have always maintained as a condition
+of election to their corps of instructors. That one who is not a
+college graduate should be appointed to a professorship or
+instructorship in a college or university might seem to a college man
+of the old school very near an absurdity. Yet as matters now stand it
+would be impossible to fill the collegiate musical departments with
+holders of the A.B. degree. The large and increasing number of college
+graduates who are entering the musical profession, especially with a
+view to finding a home in higher educational institutions, is an
+encouraging phase of present tendencies, and seems to hold out an
+assurance that this aspect of the college dilemma will eventually
+disappear.[99] It is possible, however, that the colleges may be
+willing to agree to a compromise, making a distinction between the
+teachers of the history and criticism of music and those engaged in
+the departments of musical theory and performance. Certainly no man
+should be given a college position who is not in sympathy with the
+largest purposes of the institution and able to contribute to their
+realization; but it must be remembered that broad intelligence and
+elevated character are to be found outside the ranks of college
+alumni, and are not guaranteed by a college diploma.
+
+=Teaching of the history and appreciation of music=
+
+Amid the jangle of conflicting opinions in regard to courses and
+methods and credits and degrees, etc., etc., one subject enjoys the
+distinction of unanimous consent, and that is the history and
+appreciation of music. This department may stand alone, as it does at
+Brown University, or it may supplement theoretical and practical
+courses; but there seems to be a universal conviction that if the
+colleges accept music in any guise, they must use it as a means of
+enlarging comprehension and taste on the part of their young people,
+and of bringing them to sympathetic acceptance of its finest
+manifestations. It seems incredible that a college should employ
+literature and the fine arts except with the fixed intention of
+bringing them to bear upon the mind of youth according to the purpose
+of those who made them what they are in the spiritual development of
+humanity. Even from the most rigid theoretical and technical drill the
+cultural aim must not be excluded if the college would be true to
+itself; how much more urgent is the duty of providing courses in which
+the larger vision of art, with the resultant spiritual quickening, is
+the prime intention! President Nicholas Murray Butler, in his address
+of welcome to the Music Teachers' National Association at their
+meeting in New York in 1907, struck a note that must find response in
+the minds of all who are called upon to deal officially with this
+question, when he recognized as a department of music worthy of the
+college dignity "one which is not to deal merely with the technique of
+musical expression or musical processes, but one which is to interpret
+the underlying principles of musical art and the various sciences on
+which it rests, and to set out and to illustrate to men and women who
+are seeking education what those principles signify, how they may be
+brought helpfully and inspiringly into intellectual life, and what
+part they should play in the public consciousness of a cultivated and
+civilized nation."
+
+=Emphasis on appreciation rather than technique=
+
+The first step in understanding the part which the principles of
+music should play in the consciousness of a civilized nation is to
+learn the part they have played in history. A survey of this history
+shows that all the phenomena of musical development, even those
+apparently transient and superficial, testify to a necessity of human
+nature, an unappeasable thirst for self-expression. In view of the
+relationship of musical art to the individual and the collective need,
+it is plain that musical history and musical appreciation must be
+taught together as a supplementary phase of one great theme. And,
+furthermore, this phase is one that is not only necessary in a
+complete scheme of musical culture, but is also one that is conveyed
+in a language which all can understand. It is significant of the broad
+democratic outlook of our American institutions of learning, in
+contrast to the universities of Europe, that the needs of the
+unprepared students are considered as well as the benefit of those who
+have had musical preparation, and the mysteries of musical art are
+submitted to all who desire initiation. Too much emphasis cannot be
+laid upon this wise and generous attitude toward the fine arts which
+is maturing in our American colleges; by which they demonstrate their
+belief in the power of adaptation of all manifestations of beauty to
+the condition of every one of intelligence, however slight the
+experience or limited the talent. There are, unquestionably, certain
+puzzling difficulties in imparting an understanding of musical
+structure and principles to those who have not even a preliminary
+smattering of the musical speech, but the experiment has gone far
+enough to prove that music, with all its abstruseness, complexity, and
+remoteness from the world of ordinary experience, has still a message
+so direct, so penetrating, so human and humanizing, that no one can be
+wholly indifferent to its eloquence when it comes through the ministry
+of a qualified interpreter.
+
+=The properly trained college teacher of music=
+
+A qualified interpreter!--yes, there's the rub. Only a few years ago
+men competent to teach the history and philosophy of music in a manner
+which a college or university could consistently tolerate, were almost
+non-existent, and even today many colleges are out of sheer necessity
+giving over this department to men of very scanty qualifications. Few
+men have faith enough to prepare for work that is not yet in sight.
+Then with the sudden breaking out of musical history and appreciation
+courses all over the country, the demand appeared instantly far in
+excess of the supply. The few men who had prepared themselves for
+scholarly critical work were, as a rule, in the employ of daily
+newspapers, and the colleges were compelled to delegate the historical
+and interpretative lectures to those whose training had been almost
+wholly in other lines of musical interest. No reputable college would
+think for a moment of offering chairs of political science, or general
+history, or English literature to men with so meager an equipment.
+There is no doubt that the disfavor with which the musical courses are
+still regarded by professors of the old school is largely due to the
+feeling that their musical colleagues as a rule have undergone an
+education so narrow and special that it keeps them apart from the full
+life of the institution. That this is the tendency of an education
+that is exclusively special, no one can deny. It is equally undeniable
+that such an education is quite inadequate in the case of one who
+assumes to teach the history and appreciation of music. This subject,
+by reason of the multifarious relations between music and individual
+and social life, demands not only a complete technical knowledge, but
+also a familiarity with languages, general history, literature, and
+art not less than that required by any other subject that could be
+mentioned. The suggestion by a French critic that a lecturer on art
+must be an artist, a historian, a philosopher, and a poet, applies
+with equal relevance to a lecturer on music.
+
+It is only fair to the musical profession to say that its members are
+as eager to meet these requirements as the colleges are to make them.
+If music still holds an inferior place in many colleges, both in fact
+and in esteem, the fault lies in no small measure in the ignorance on
+the part of trustees, presidents, and faculties of the nature of
+music, its demands, its social values, and its mission in the
+development of civilization. With the enlightenment of the powers
+that control the college machinery, encouragement will be given to men
+of liberal culture and scholarly habit to prepare themselves directly
+for college work. The hundreds of college graduates now in the musical
+profession will be followed by other hundreds still more amply
+equipped as critics and expounders. The natural place for the majority
+of them, I maintain, is not in the private studio or newspaper office,
+but in the college and university classroom.
+
+There is no reason in the nature of things why our colleges and
+universities should not also be the centers of a concentrated and
+intensive activity, directed upon research and philosophic
+generalization in the things of music as in other fields of inquiry.
+For this they must provide libraries, endowments, and fellowships.
+Such works as Mr. Elson's _History of American Music_, Mr. Krehbiel's
+_Afro-American Folksongs_, and Mr. Kelly's _Chopin as a Composer_
+should properly emanate from the organized institutions of learning
+which are able to give leisure and facility to men of scholarly
+ambition. The French musical historian, Jules Combarieu, enumerates as
+the domains constantly open to musical scholarship: acoustics,
+physiology, mathematics, psychology, aesthetics, history, philology,
+palaeography, and sociology.[100] Every one of these topics has already
+an indispensable place in the college and university system--it is for
+trained scholarship to draw from them the contributions that will
+relate music explicitly to the active life of the intellect.
+
+But not for the intellect only. Here the colleges are still in danger
+of error, due to their long-confirmed emphasis upon concepts,
+demonstrations, scientific methods, and "positive" results, to the
+neglect of the imagination, the emotions, the intuitions, and the
+things spiritually discerned. "The sovereign of the arts," says Edmund
+Clarence Stedman, "is the imagination, by whose aid man makes every
+leap forward; and emotion is its twin, through which come all fine
+experiences, and all great deeds are achieved. Youth demands its share
+in every study that can engender a power or a delight. Universities
+must enhance the use, the joy, the worth of existence. They are
+institutions both human and humane."[101]
+
+=The test of effective teaching of music in the college: Does it enrich
+the life of the student through the inculcation of an aesthetic interest?=
+
+Institutions which exclude the agencies which act directly to enhance
+"the joy and the worth of existence" are universities only in name.
+Equally imperfect are they if, while nominally accepting these
+agencies, they recognize only those elements in them which are
+susceptible to scientific analysis, whose effects upon the student can
+be tested by examinations and be marked and graded--elements which are
+only means, and not final ends. The college forever needs the
+humanizing, socializing power of music, the drama, the arts of design,
+and it must use them not as confined to the classroom or to any single
+section of the institution, but as the effluence of spiritual life,
+permeating and invigorating the whole. In the mental life of the
+college there have always ruled investigation, comparison, analysis,
+and the temper fostered is that of reflection and didacticism. Into
+this world of deliberation, routine, mechanical calculation, there has
+come the warm breath of music, art, and poetry, stirring a new fire of
+rapture amid the embers of speculation. The instincts of youth spring
+to inhale it; youth feels affiliation with it, for art and poesy, like
+nature, are ever self-renewing and never grow old. It works to unify
+the life of the college whose tendency is to divide into sealed
+compartments of special intellectual interests. It introduces a life
+that all may share, because men divide when led by their intellects,
+they unite when led by their emotions. Among the fine arts music is
+perhaps supreme in its power to refine the sense of beauty, to soften
+the heart at the touch of high thought and tender sentiment, to bring
+the individual soul into sympathy with the over-soul of humanity. It
+is this that gives music its supreme claim to an honored place in the
+halls of learning, as it is its crowning glory.
+
+The whole argument, then, is reduced to this: that with all the
+scientific aspects of the art with respect to material, structure,
+psychological action, historical origins and developments and
+relations, of which the college, as an institution of exact learning,
+may take cognizance, music must be accepted and taught just because it
+is beautiful and promotes the joy of life, and the development of the
+higher sense of beauty and the spiritual quickening that issues
+therefrom must be the final reason for its use. At the same time it
+must be so cultivated and taught that it will unite its forces for a
+common end with all those factors which, within the college and
+without the college, are now working with an energy never known before
+in American history for a social life animated by a zeal for ideal
+rather than material ends, and inspired by nobler visions of the true
+meaning of national progress.
+
+Among the worthy functions of our colleges there is none more needful
+than that of inspiring ardent young crusaders who shall go forth to
+contend against the hosts of mediocrity, ugliness, and vulgarity. One
+encouragement to this warfare is in the fact that these hosts,
+although legion, are dull as well as gross, and may easily be
+bewildered and put to rout by the organized assaults of the children
+of light. So may it be said of our institutions of culture, as Matthew
+Arnold said of Oxford, that they "keep ever calling us nearer to the
+true goal of all of us, to the ideal, to perfection--to beauty, in a
+word, which is only truth seen from another side."
+
+                                               EDWARD DICKINSON
+  _Oberlin College_
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[94] Arthur L. Manchester: "Music Education in the United States;
+Schools and Departments of Music." United States Bureau of Education
+Bulletin, 1908, No. 4.
+
+[95] Papers and Proceedings of the Music Teachers' National
+Association, 1907; report by Leonard B. McWhood.
+
+[96] _The Spirit of Learning_, Woodrow Wilson: in _Representative Phi
+Beta Kappa Orations_, edited by Northup, Lane and Schwab. Boston,
+Houghton Mifflin Company, 1915.
+
+[97] I wish to safeguard this statement by saying that I have in mind
+not the more conservative universities of the East, but the state
+institutions of the Middle and Western commonwealths. In speaking of
+universities as compared with colleges I am also considering the
+graduate and professional departments. It is difficult to make general
+assertions, on such a subject that do not meet with exceptions.
+
+[98] Papers and Proceedings of the Music Teachers' National
+Association, 1906.
+
+[99] There is an interesting statistical article on the college
+graduate in the musical profession by W. J. Baltzell in the _Musical
+Quarterly_, October, 1915.
+
+[100] _Music; its Laws and Evolution_: Introduction. Translation in
+Appleton's International Scientific Series.
+
+[101] _The Nature and Elements of Poetry_, page 5.
+
+
+
+
+XXIV
+
+THE TEACHING OF ART
+
+
+=Art instruction defined=
+
+In this chapter an attempt is made to set forth the aims, content, and
+methods of art instruction in the college. In this discussion the word
+"college" will be regarded in the usual sense of the College of
+Liberal Arts, and art instruction as one of the courses which lead to
+the degree of bachelor of arts.
+
+There is no term that is used more freely and with less precision than
+the word "art." In some usages it is given a very broad and
+comprehensive meaning, in others a very narrow and exclusive one. The
+term is sometimes applied to a human activity, at other times to the
+products of but a small part of that activity--for example, paintings
+and statuary.
+
+In this chapter the term will be used in accordance with the
+definition evolved by Tolstoi, who says: "Art is a human activity,
+consisting in this, that one man consciously, by means of external
+signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived through, and that
+other people are affected by these feelings, and also experience
+them."[102] The external signs by which the feelings are handed on are
+movements, as in dancing and pantomime; lines, masses, colors, as in
+architecture, painting and sculpture; sounds, as in music; or forms
+expressed in words, as in poetry and other forms of literature. The
+external signs with which art instruction in the college deals are
+lines, masses, and colors. This discussion, therefore, treats of
+instruction in the formative or visual arts, which include
+architecture, painting, sculpture, decoration, and the various crafts,
+in so far as they come within the meaning of the definition given
+above.
+
+=Instruction in art should be an integral part of a liberal education=
+
+Concerning the nature of art and the purpose of art instruction in the
+college, there is so much misunderstanding that it will be well to
+make an attempt at clarification. Art is too commonly regarded as a
+luxury--a superfluity that may serve to occupy the leisure of the
+well-to-do--a kind of embroidery upon the edge of life that may be
+affixed or discarded at will. Whereas, art is a factor that is
+fundamental in human life and development, a factor that has entered
+into the being of the race from the dawn of reason. Its products,
+which antedate written history by thousands of years, form the most
+reliable source of information we possess of the habits and thoughts
+of prehistoric man. It has been the medium of expression of many of
+the choicest products of human thought throughout the ages. These
+products have been embodied in forms other than that of writing. Its
+functions are limited neither to the citizen, the community, nor the
+country; they extend beyond national bounds to the world at large. Art
+belongs to the brotherhood of man. It is no respecter of
+nationalities. It is obvious that in a general college course, a study
+of the religious, social, and political factors in civilization that
+does not include art among these factors is incomplete.
+
+The question under discussion concerns the teaching of art to the
+candidate for the bachelor of arts degree, and this question will be
+solely kept in view. Since, however, graduates in science,
+engineering, law, medicine, etc., are not exempt from the needs of
+artistic culture, they too should have at least an effective minimum
+of art instruction.
+
+=Art a social activity=
+
+Art is recognized as a social activity. It enters largely into such
+practical and utilitarian problems of the community as town planning
+and other forms of civic improvement. As workers in such activities,
+college graduates are frequently called to serve on boards of
+directors and committees which have such work in charge. To most of
+such persons, education in art comes as a post-collegiate activity.
+Surely the interests of the community would be promoted if the men and
+women into whose hands these interests are committed had had some
+formal instruction in art during their college years.
+
+If by practical education we mean training which prepares the
+individual for living, then the study of an activity that so pervades
+human life should be included in the curriculum of even a so-called
+practical college course. Art education has a more important function
+than to promote the love of the beautiful, to purify and elevate
+public taste, to awaken intellectual and spiritual desires, to create
+a permanent means of investing leisure. Important as all these
+purposes are, they are merely a part of a larger one--that of
+revealing to the student the relationship of art to living.
+
+=Flexibility of art expression determines flexibility of art instruction=
+
+Art expression has the quality of utmost flexibility. This flexibility
+appears also in art instruction, and it is for this reason that in no
+two institutions of higher learning is the problem of art instruction
+attacked in the same way. There is, consequently, a great diversity in
+the types of art courses, even in the college.
+
+The flexibility of art instruction is both advantageous and
+embarrassing. It is an advantage in that it can be adapted to almost
+any requirement. It can be applied to the occupations of the
+kindergarten, or it can be made an intensive study suitable for the
+graduate school. But this very breadth is also a source of weakness in
+that it tends to divert the attention from that precision of purpose
+which all formal instruction should have, however elementary or
+advanced. It is apt to be too scattering in its aims. It is not easy
+to determine exact values either in the subject studied or in the
+accomplishment of the student. Estimates in art are, and should be,
+largely a matter of personal taste and opinion. They are not
+infrequently colored by prejudice, especially where the judgment of
+producing artists is invoked. This, again, is as it should be. An
+artist who assumes toward all works of art a catholic attitude,
+weakens that intensity of view and of purpose which animates his
+enthusiasm. It can easily be understood that to a larger extent than
+in other subjects the nature and scope of art instruction depends upon
+the personality of the instructor.
+
+=Values of art instruction=
+
+The flexibility to which we have adverted adapts art instruction to
+diverse educational aims.
+
+In that it can be made to conduce to accurate observation of artistic
+manifestations, and to logical deduction therefrom, it may be given a
+disciplinary purpose. In its highest development, to which only the
+specially gifted can attain, the ability to observe accurately and to
+deduce logically demands the most exacting training of the eye, of the
+visual memory, and of the judgment. As an example of the exercise of
+this sort of discipline we may cite Professor Waldstein's recognition
+of a marble fragment in the form of a head in the Louvre as belonging
+to a metope of the Parthenon. When, after Professor Waldstein's
+suggestion of the probable connection, a plaster cast of the head was
+taken to the British Museum and placed upon the headless figure of one
+of the metopes, the surfaces of fracture were found to correspond.[103]
+The most useful application of this ability lies in the correct
+attribution of works of art to their proper schools and authorship.
+Signor Morelli in his method of identification used a system that is
+almost mechanical, yet the evidence supplied by concurrence or
+discrepancy of form in the delineation of anatomical details was
+supplemented by a highly cultivated sense for style, for
+craftsmanship, and for color as well as by an extensive historical
+knowledge.
+
+In that art instruction cultivates taste and the appreciation of works
+of art, it has a cultural purpose. By many persons it is assumed that
+this is its sole value.
+
+In that it serves to illuminate the study of the progress of
+civilization, it has an informative purpose.
+
+In that it enables the technical student to correlate his work with
+that of past and present workers, it aids in the preparation for
+professional studies.
+
+=Difference between technical and lay courses in art one of emphasis=
+
+Art has been defined as "the harmonic expression of the emotions."[104]
+Accepting this definition as a modified condensation of Tolstoi's
+definition, it is clear that in a work of art two separate personalities
+are involved--that which makes the expression, and the other to whom
+the expression is addressed; thus, there are artists on the one hand,
+and the public on the other. Since we shall have to speak of two
+distinct classes of students,--namely, those who are in training as
+future artists (as architects, painters, sculptors, designers, etc.),
+and those who are taking courses in the understanding or appreciation
+of art,--it will be convenient in this discussion to refer to the
+former as art students and to the latter as lay students.
+
+Formal art instruction has been offered by colleges to both these
+groups. It is evident that for the training of the art student
+emphasis must be placed upon the technique of creative work, whereas
+for the lay student emphasis must be placed upon the study of the
+theory and the history of art. It would seem, however, that these two
+methods are not mutually exclusive; nor should they be, for the art
+student would surely gain by a study of the principles of art and its
+history, while the lay student would profit by a certain amount of
+practice directed by an observance of the principles.
+
+Mr. Duncan Phillips, in an article entitled "What Instruction in Art
+Should the College A.B. Course Offer to the Future Writer on Art?"
+proposes a hypothetical course in which "the ultimate intention would
+be to awaken the aesthetic sensibilities of the youthful mind, to
+encourage the emergence of the artists and art critics, and the
+establishment of a residue of well-instructed appreciators."[105]
+
+This proposal assumes the desirability of the completion of a general
+course designed for college students, before beginning the special
+courses designed for those individuals whose aptitudes seem to fit
+them for successful careers as artists on the one hand, or as
+successful writers on art, or art instructors on the other.
+
+In this place the question of professional training will not be
+discussed. The courses under consideration are designed to serve the
+group of lay students from which specialists may, from time to time,
+emerge. It is of the utmost importance that provision for the further
+training of such specialists should be made in the college, in the
+postgraduate school, or in an allied professional school of art.
+
+In view of the great diversity in the treatment of the subject in
+different colleges, it will be impossible to present a series of
+courses that might, under other conditions, be representative of a
+general practice throughout the country. On the other hand, the
+attempt to make an epitome of the various methods in use at the more
+important colleges would result in the presentation of a succession of
+unrelated statements drawn from catalogues which would be hardly less
+exasperating to the reader than it would be for him to follow,
+successively, the outlines as presented in the catalogues themselves.
+Various summaries of these outlines have been made, and to these the
+reader is referred.[106]
+
+=A general course of study--Must be adjusted to local conditions=
+
+An attempt is here made to set forth a programme which is offered as a
+suggestion, upon which actual courses may be based, with such
+modifications as are demanded by local conditions, the number and
+personal training of the teaching staff, and the physical equipment
+available.
+
+The task before the college art instructor is to cultivate the lay
+student's understanding and appreciation of the works of art and to
+develop an ardent enthusiasm for his subject, tempered by good taste.
+This understanding will be based upon a workable body of principles
+which the student can use in making his artistic estimates and
+choices. Such a body of principles will constitute his theory of art.
+
+=Two methods of presenting art instruction to lay students=
+
+Art instruction for lay students may be presented in two ways:
+
+1. By the study of theory supplemented by the experimental application
+of theory to practice, as by drawing, design, etc.
+
+2. By the study of theory supplemented by an application of theory to
+the analysis and estimation of works of art as they are presented in a
+systematic study of the history of art.
+
+Consider now the relation of practice and history to theory:
+
+First as to practice: Art instructors are divided into three camps on
+the question of giving to the lay student instruction in practice: (1)
+Those who believe that not only is practice unnecessary in the study
+of theory, but actually harmful; (2) those who believe that practice
+will aid in a study of the theory of art; (3) Those who believe that
+practice is indispensable and who would, therefore, require that all
+students supplement their study of the theory of art by practice. As
+may be surmised, by far the largest number of advocates is found in
+the middle division.
+
+One form of practice is Representation. In this form the student
+begins by drawing in freehand very simple objects either in outline or
+mass, and proceeds through more advanced exercises in drawing from
+still life, to drawing and painting of landscape and the human figure.
+With the addition of supplementary studies, such as anatomy,
+perspective, modeling, composition, craft work, theory, history, etc.,
+this would be, broadly speaking, the method followed in schools of
+art, where courses, occupying from two to four or five years, are
+given, intended primarily for those who expect to make some sort of
+creative art their vocation.
+
+It is this kind of work which opponents to practice for the lay
+student have in mind. They claim that only by long and severe
+training can he produce such works as will give satisfaction to him or
+to others who examine his handiwork. They contend that the
+understanding of works of art is not dependent upon ability to produce
+a poor example. They offer many amusing analogies as arguments against
+practice courses for lay students. They maintain that the proof of the
+pudding is in the eating, rather than in the making; that to enjoy
+music one need not practice five-finger exercises; that other
+creatures than domestic fowls are capable of judging of the quality of
+eggs; that to appreciate the beauty of a tapestry it is not necessary
+to examine the reverse side. It will perhaps be sufficient, for the
+present, to point out that in so far as such alleged analogies can be
+submitted for arguments, they are equally applicable to laboratory
+courses in any subject which is studied with a non-professional or
+non-vocational purpose.
+
+It is true, however, that such a course as that outlined above demands
+a large amount of time, compared with the results attained; and while
+successful courses in Representation are offered in certain colleges,
+the great mass of college students, who cannot hope to acquire a high
+degree of skill, would hesitate to devote a large part of their
+training to technical work, even if college faculties were willing to
+grant considerable proportions of credit for it toward the bachelor of
+arts degree.
+
+=Relative value of freehand drawing and design=
+
+It will be understood by the reader that the value of elementary
+freehand drawing as a means of discipline or as an aid to the
+technical student is not under discussion. The value of drawing as a
+fundamental language for such purposes is universally admitted. The
+questions are these: Can some form of practice in art be used to aid
+in the understanding of the principles of art? Is representative
+drawing the only form of practice available for the lay student who
+undertakes the study of art? Fortunately, the advocates of practice
+can offer an alternative; namely Design. Mr. Arthur Dow distinguishes
+between the Drawing method (Representation) and the Design method by
+calling the former _Analytical_ and the latter _Synthetical_. In an
+article on "Archaism in Art Teaching"[107] he says: "I wish to show
+that the traditional 'drawing method' of teaching art is too weak to
+meet the new art criticism and new demands, or to connect with
+vocational and industrial education in an effective way; but that the
+'Design method' is broad and strong enough to do all of these things."
+
+"The drawing method," he continues, "is analytic, dealing with the
+small, the details, the _application_ of art; the design method is
+synthetic, dealing with wholes, unities, principles of art."
+
+Mr. Dow carries his exposition into the application of the Design
+method to vocational work, but it can be used with equal effect in
+supplementing the lay student's study of art.
+
+But the questions immediately arise: Is not a preparation as long and
+arduous required to make a designer as to make a painter or a
+sculptor? And is not the half-baked designer in as sorry a plight as
+the half-baked artist of any kind? The answer to both is simple: The
+lay student is not in any degree a painter or a sculptor or a
+designer, neither is he in training for any of these professions. The
+advantage of the Design method is, that with no skill whatsoever in
+drawing, the beginner in the study of art can apply to his own efforts
+the same principles of design which have from time immemorial entered
+into the creation of great works of art. The college freshman planning
+a surface design with the aid of "squared" paper is applying the same
+principles that guided the hand of Michelangelo as it swept across the
+ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
+
+Such principles as symmetry, balance, rhythm, emphasis, harmony in
+form, mass, value, and color can be inculcated by solving the simplest
+as well as the most complicated problems. A graded series of exercises
+can be undertaken by the student that will, with a comparatively small
+amount of manual skill carry him a considerable distance in the
+understanding of the principles of design upon which all creative art
+rests. Another advantage is that, in the process, considerable skill
+in freehand drawing also can be acquired. But this advantage is merely
+incidental.
+
+The greatest value lies in the fact that the Design method offers to
+the student an excellent means of self-expression. The student,
+through no fault of his, is too prone to absorb and too little
+inclined to yield of the fruits of his knowledge. Herein lies a
+partial remedy for the tendency of college students to make
+receptacles of their minds into which knowledge is poured through the
+ear by listening to lectures, or through the eye by reading. Herein is
+a means of overcoming mental inertia, for, certainly, the solution of
+a problem in design calls for thought--the amount of mental exertion
+being commensurate with the difficulty of the problem. In this, the
+Design method is superior to the Representation method, though it
+would be an error to assume that freehand drawing is chiefly a manual
+operation. Such an error is entertained by those only who never have
+learned to draw. Another considerable value lies in the fact that even
+if the lay student of design should in later life never set hand to
+paper,--as he probably will not, any more than he who has taken
+courses in drawing and painting will ever attempt to paint a
+picture,--yet he has come into practical contact with the leading
+principles of art, and has gained a knowledge that can be applied not
+merely to the discriminating understanding of the artistic qualities
+of the exhibits in art museums or in private galleries, but to the art
+of every day. It can be applied to the estimating of the artistic
+value of a poster, a book cover, or a title page; to the choosing of
+wall paper; to the arranging of the furniture in a room; to the laying
+out of a garden; to intelligent cooperation in the designing of a
+house or in replanning, on paper at least, the street system of a
+city; or to the selecting of a design for a public memorial. It is not
+to be assumed that in thus exercising a cultivated taste he would
+always make conscious application of the principles of design in
+making his estimates. These would have so entered into his habit of
+thought that he would unconsciously make what Mr. Dow calls "fine
+choices."
+
+The educational value of the Design method is almost universally
+recognized in the art departments of our public schools and in our art
+schools, and it is probable that when its aims and methods are better
+understood by our college faculties, its disciplinary, cultural, and
+informative value will be more widely recognized in the college of
+liberal arts, and that it will take equal rank with theme and report
+writing as a means of cultivating a taste for literature, with the
+practice of harmony and counterpoint as a means of appreciating music,
+and with laboratory work in acquiring knowledge of a science.
+
+=Art history as a means of inculcating principles of art=
+
+Next, consider art history as a means of inculcating the principles of
+art. It is evident that the emotions or feelings of the artist and the
+methods he employs to express them may be studied in such masterpieces
+as the _Hermes_ of Praxiteles and the _Lincoln_ of St. Gaudens. In
+either he may observe the application of the principles of balance,
+mass, repose, harmony, and the analysis of character. In either he may
+study the technique which involves the material of the statues, the
+tools employed, and the manner of working.
+
+There is, however, great advantage in considering such examples in
+their place in the evolution of art, and their significance in their
+relation to the social and political development of the human race--in
+other words, in studying systematically the history and development of
+art.
+
+Instruction in history of art is not without its pitfalls. It is too
+apt to lapse into a mere listing of names and dates of artists and
+their work, with the introduction of interesting biographical details
+and some discussion limited to the subjects treated in selected
+examples. It is often too much concerned with _who_, _when_, and
+_where_ and not sufficiently with _why_ and _how_. A person may
+possess a large fund of the facts of art history and yet have but
+little understanding or appreciation of the aims and underlying
+principles of art production. It should never be forgotten that for
+the college student the history of art is merely a convenient scheme
+or system upon which to base discussions of the principles of art as
+involved in the works themselves, an outline for the study of the
+artistic affiliations of any artist with the great company of his
+antecedents, his contemporaries, and his successors. The instructor
+should never regard practice or history as ends in themselves, but as
+means to the development of the understanding.
+
+=Years in which art courses should be offered=
+
+In some colleges only the more advanced students are permitted to take
+art courses. It does not seem wise thus to limit the years in which
+courses may be taken. An elementary course should be offered in the
+freshman year, while other courses of increasing difficulty should be
+offered in each of the succeeding years. The greatest variety is seen
+in the colleges throughout the country in the amount of art taught,
+and the amount of credit given toward the A.B. degree. When the
+subject is elected as a "minor," it should be one-tenth to one-eighth
+of all the work undertaken by a candidate for the bachelor's degree;
+while a "major" elective usually should cover from one-fifth to
+one-fourth of all the work of a candidate for the same degree. Some
+zealous advocates maintain that a certain amount of art training
+should be required for graduation. Valuable as art training would be
+to every graduate, it does not seem wise to make art a required
+subject in the curriculum. To compel men and women to study art
+against their will would destroy much of the charm of the subject both
+for the teacher and the student. Unless the subject is pursued with
+enthusiasm by both, it loses its value.
+
+=Organization and content of courses in art=
+
+The courses suggested are as follows:
+
+_Course I_ (_Freshman year_). Introduction to the study of art. A
+study of the various forms of artistic expression, together with the
+principles which govern those forms. The study would be carried on (1)
+by means of lectures, (2) by discussions led by the instructor and
+carried on by members of the class, (3) by laboratory or studio
+practice in the application of the principles of art expression to
+graded problems in design, (4) by collateral reading, (5) by the
+occasional writing of themes and reports, (6) by excursions to art
+collections (public and private), artists' studios, and craft shops.
+
+Some of the topics for lectures and discussion would be: Primitive art
+and the factors which control its rise and development; principles of
+harmony; design in the various arts; an outline study of historic
+ornament; composition in architecture, painting, and sculpture;
+concept in art, with a study of examples drawn from the master works
+of all ages; processes in the artistic crafts; application of the
+principles of design to room decoration.
+
+The studio or laboratory work would include: Application of the
+principles of design; spacing of lines and spots; borders and all-over
+designs achieved by repetition of various units; studies in symmetry
+and balance; color study, including hue, value, intensity; exercises
+in color harmony; problems in form and proportions, decoration of
+given geometrical areas; applications to practical uses; studies in
+form and color from still life; use of charcoal, brush, pastel, water
+color; simple exercises in pictorial composition; problems in
+simplification necessitated by technique; application of principles of
+design to room decoration. (This course would be prerequisite for all
+subsequent courses in practice.)
+
+_Course II_ (_Sophomore year_). A general course in the history of
+art. A consideration of the development of the arts of architecture,
+sculpture, and painting from prehistoric periods to recent times. In
+this course emphasis would be laid upon the periods of higher
+attainments in artistic expression, and the discussions would be
+directed toward the qualities of great masterpieces rather than toward
+those of the multitude of lesser works.
+
+The work would be carried on (1) by means of lectures; (2) by
+discussions led by the instructor and carried on by members of the
+class; (3) by collateral reading; (4) by study of original works of
+art, photographs, and other forms of reproduction; (5) by the writing
+of themes and reports; (6) by visits to art galleries and artists'
+studios. (This course would be prerequisite for subsequent courses in
+history, etc.)
+
+Following these two general courses there should be two groups of
+courses: _Group A, Practice courses_; _Group B, History courses_.
+Candidates for the A.B. degree who expect to take postgraduate work in
+creative art or in the teaching of creative art would elect chiefly
+from Group A. Lay students who are candidates for the A.B. degree and
+who expect to make writing or criticism in art, or teaching of art to
+lay students, or art museum work their vocation, would elect chiefly
+from Group B; as would, also, those composing the greater number, who
+study art as one means of acquiring general culture.
+
+In the following lists of courses the grade of each course is
+indicated by a roman numeral placed after the title of the course, the
+indications being as follows:
+
+  I. Elementary (primarily for freshmen and sophomores).
+  II. Intermediate (primarily for sophomores and juniors).
+  III. Advanced (primarily for juniors and seniors).
+  IV. Graduate (primarily for seniors and graduates).
+
+
+Beyond these indications no attempt is here made to prescribe the
+subdivisions of the courses, nor the number of hours per week, nor the
+number of weeks per year in each course.
+
+
+GROUP A: PRACTICE COURSES
+
+A1 _Freehand Drawing._ (I) Drawing in charcoal and pencil from simple
+objects, plaster casts, still life, etc. Elements of perspective with
+elementary problems.
+
+A2 _Freehand Drawing_ (_continued_). (II) Drawing in charcoal, pencil,
+pen and ink, brush (monochrome in water color) from plaster casts,
+still life and the costumed figure. Out-of-door sketching.
+
+A3 _Color_ (Water Color or Oil Color). (II) Drawing in color from
+still life and the costumed figure. Out-of-door sketching.
+
+A4 _Modeling._ (III) Modeling in clay from casts of antique sculpture
+and of architectural ornament as an aid to the study of form and
+proportion.
+
+A5 _Advanced Design._ (III) Theory and practice. (Continuation of
+Course I. Introduction to the study of art.)
+
+A6, A7, ... etc. _Advanced Courses in Drawing, Painting, Modeling, and
+Applied Design_ (IV) selected from the following: Studies in various
+media from life. Composition. Illustration. Portrait work. Practical
+work in pottery, bookbinding, enameling, metal work, interior
+decoration, wood carving, engraving, etching. These courses would be
+supplemented by lectures on the theory and principles of art. Topics
+of such lectures would be: Theory of Design, Composition, Technique of
+the Various Arts, Artistic Anatomy, Perspective, Shades and Shadows,
+etc.
+
+
+GROUP B: HISTORY COURSES
+
+B1_ History of Ancient Art._ (II)
+
+B2 _History of Roman and Medieval Art._ (II)
+
+B3 _History of Renaissance Art in Italy._ (III)
+
+B4 _History of Modern Art._ (III) History of art in Western Europe
+during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
+
+B5, B6, ... etc. _History of Special Periods; Consideration of Special
+Forms of Art, and of Great Masters in Art_ (IV) selected from the
+following: Art of Primitive Greece, Greek Sculpture, Greek Vases,
+Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture, History of Mosaic;
+Medieval Illumination; Sienese Painters of the Thirteenth and
+Fourteenth Centuries; Florentine Painting; Domestic Architecture of
+Various Countries; Leonardo da Vinci and His Works; Art of the
+Netherlands; History of Mural Painting; History and Principles of
+Engraving; Prints and Their Makers; Chinese and Japanese Art; Colonial
+Architecture in America; Painting and Sculpture in America, etc., etc.
+
+=Teaching equipment for college courses in art=
+
+No attempt will here be made to comment upon the general furnishing
+and equipment of lecture rooms, laboratories, and studios.
+Nevertheless, some reference to the special teaching equipment is
+necessary for the further consideration of the methods of teaching.
+
+Illustrations are of the greatest importance in the study of art. The
+best illustrations are original works of art. For manifest reasons
+these are not usually available in the classroom, and the teacher is
+dependent upon facsimiles and other reproductions. These take the form
+of copies, replicas, casts, models, photographs, stereopticon slides,
+prints in black and white and in color, including the ubiquitous
+picture postal card.
+
+The collections of public art museums and of private galleries are of
+great value for illustrative purposes; but of still greater value to
+the student is the departmental museum, with which, unfortunately, but
+few colleges are equipped. Some colleges have been saddled by
+well-meaning donors with collections of various kinds of works of art
+which are but ill related to the instruction given in the department
+of art. The collections of the college museum need not be large but
+they should be selected especially with their instructional purpose in
+view. The problems of expense debars most colleges from establishing
+museums of art; but with a modest annual appropriation a working
+collection can be gradually gathered together. A collection which is
+the result of gradual growth and of careful consideration will usually
+be of greater instructional value than one which is acquired at one
+time.
+
+An institution which owns a few original works of painting, sculpture,
+and the crafts of representative masters is indeed fortunate, but even
+institutions whose expenditures for this purpose are slight may
+possess at least a few original lithographs, engravings, etchings,
+etc., in its collection of prints.
+
+Fortunately, there are means whereby some of the unobtainable
+originals of the great public museums and private collections of the
+world may be represented in the college museums by adequate
+reproductions. The methods of casting in plaster of Paris, in bronze
+and other materials; of producing squeezes in papier mache; and of
+reproducing by the galvano-plastic process, are used for making
+facsimiles of statues, vases, terra cottas, carved ivories,
+inscriptions and other forms of incised work, gems, coins, etc., at a
+cost which, when compared with that of originals, is trivial.[108]
+Paintings, drawings, engravings, etc., are often admirably reproduced
+by various photographic and printing processes in color or black and
+white.
+
+Generally speaking, the most valuable adjunct of the college art
+museum or of the college art library is the collection of photographs
+properly classified and filed for ready reference by the instructor or
+student.
+
+A specially designed museum building would present opportunities for
+service that would extend beyond the walls of the art department, but
+if such a building is not available, a single well-lighted room
+furnished with suitable cabinets and wall cases, and with ample wall
+space for the display of paintings, prints, charts, etc., would be of
+great service.
+
+A departmental library of carefully chosen books on the theory,
+history, and the practice of the various arts, together with current
+and bound numbers of the best art periodicals of America and of
+foreign countries, is indispensable.
+
+=Methods of teaching=
+
+Methods will naturally depend somewhat upon the size of the class. In
+large classes--of, say, more than forty--the lecture method,
+supplemented by section meetings and conferences, would usually be
+followed. In the following discussion it is assumed that the classes
+will not exceed forty.
+
+Under the head of Methods of Teaching are here included: Work in Class
+and Work outside of Class.
+
+The work in class consists of lectures; discussions by the members of
+the class; laboratory or studio work; excursions. There is no worse
+method than that of exclusive lecturing by the instructor. If the
+methods employed do not induce the student to do his own thinking,
+they have but little value. Much of the instructor's time will be
+occupied in devising methods by which the students themselves will
+contribute to their own and their fellows' advancement.
+
+Discussions led by the instructor and carried on by the members of the
+class should be frequent. From time to time a separate division of a
+general topic should be assigned to each member of the class, who will
+prepare himself to present his part of the topic before the class
+either by reading a paper or otherwise. Discussions by the members of
+the class, concluded by the instructor, should generally follow this
+presentation. Topics for investigation, study, and discussion should
+be so selected as to require the students to make application of their
+study to their daily life and environment. In this way their critical
+interest in the design of public and private buildings, of monuments,
+and of the innumerable art productions which they see about them would
+be stimulated.
+
+For the purpose of illustrating lectures and aiding in discussions,
+prints and photographs may be shown either directly or through the
+medium of the reflectoscope. Or, they may be transferred to lantern
+slides and shown by means of the stereopticon. To a limited extent the
+Lumiere color process has been used in preparing slides.
+
+The methods of laboratory and studio work have already been briefly
+treated under the head of Courses of Instruction, and hardly need to
+be further amplified here.
+
+It has already been stated that original works of art are the best
+illustrations, and that these are but rarely available within the
+walls of the college. Instructors in institutions which are situated
+within or near to large centers of population can usually supply this
+deficiency by arranging visits to museums and other places where works
+of art are preserved and exhibited; and to artists' studios and to
+workshops where works of art are produced. Instructors in institutions
+which are not so situated may supply the deficiency, in some measure,
+by arranging for temporary exhibitions in the museum or other rooms of
+the department. Rotary exhibitions of paintings, prints, craftwork,
+sculpture, designs, examples of students' work, etc., may be arranged
+whereby groups of institutions within convenient distances from each
+other may share the benefits offered by such exhibitions, as well as
+the expense of assemblage, transportation, and insurance. In arranging
+for such temporary exhibitions it is essential that only works of the
+highest quality, of their kind, should be selected.
+
+Selections can best be made personally by the instructor or by capable
+and trustworthy agents who are thoroughly informed as to the purpose
+of the exhibition and as to the needs of the institutions forming the
+circuits. Such rotary exhibitions possess a wider usefulness than that
+of serving as illustrative material for the college department of art:
+they serve also as an artistic stimulus to the members of the college
+at large, and to the community in which the college is situated.[109]
+
+The work of students outside of class has already been mentioned. It
+consists of collateral reading, the study of prints and photographs,
+and the preparation of written themes and reports. Notwithstanding the
+lavish production of books relating to art, there are but very few
+that are suitable for use as college textbooks. The instructor will
+usually assign collateral reading from various authors.
+
+=Testing results of art instruction=
+
+In attempting to measure the success or failure of the work, the
+teacher must ask himself, What do our college graduates who have taken
+art courses possess that is lacking in those who have not taken such
+courses?
+
+The immediate test of the results of the work is in the attitude of
+mind of the students. Do they think differently about works of art
+from what they did before entering the courses? Is there a change in
+their habit of thought? Have they done no more than accept the lessons
+they have been taught, or have they so absorbed them and made them
+their own that they are capable of self-expression in making their
+estimates of works of art? These questions may be answered by the
+result of the written examination and by the oral quiz.
+
+It must be confessed that the chief purpose of art instruction in the
+college is to supply a lack in our national and private life. Citizens
+of the older communities of Europe pass their lives among the
+accumulated art treasures of past ages. The mere daily contact with
+such forms of beauty engenders a taste for them. Partly through our
+Puritan origin, partly through our preoccupation with the development
+of the material resources of our country, we, as a people, have failed
+to cultivate some of the imponderable things of the spirit. So far as
+we have had to do with its creation, our environment in town and
+village is generally lacking in artistic charm.
+
+The study by lay students of the art of the past has one chief object;
+namely, to train them to understand the works of the masters in order
+that they may discriminate between what is beautiful and what is
+meretricious in the art of the present day; to learn the lessons of
+art from the monoliths of Egypt, the tawny marbles of ancient Greece,
+the balanced thrusts of the Gothic cathedral, the gracious and
+reverent harmonies of the primitives, the delicate handicrafts of the
+Orient, the splendors of the Renaissance, the vibrant colors of the
+latest phase of impressionism, and to apply these lessons in the
+search for hidden elements of beauty in nature and art in their own
+country and in their own lives and surroundings.
+
+Believing, as he does, in the value of artistic culture, it becomes
+the duty of the college art instructor to teach with enthusiasm
+unmarred by prejudice; to cultivate in the minds of his students a
+catholic receptivity to all that is sincere in artistic expression; to
+open up avenues of thought in the minds of those whose lives would
+otherwise be barren of artistic sympathy; to cull the best from the
+experience of the past, and, by its help, to impart to his hearers
+some of his own enthusiasm; for their lives cannot fail to touch at
+some point the borderlands of the magic realm of art.
+
+                                                   HOLMES SMITH
+  _Washington University_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+ANKENEY, J. S., LAKE, E. J., and WOODWARD, W. Final Report of the
+Committee on the Condition of Art Work in Colleges and Universities.
+_Western Drawing and Manual Training Association._ Oak Park, Illinois.
+1910.
+
+ANKENEY, J. S. The Place and Scope of Art Education in the University.
+_Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Report._
+St. Louis, 1909.
+
+BEAUX, CELIA. What Instruction in Art Should the College A. B. Course
+Offer to the Future Artists? _The American Magazine of Art._
+Washington. D. C., October, 1916.
+
+BLAYNEY, T. L. The History of Art in the College Curriculum.
+_Proceedings of the American Federation of Arts._ Washington, D. C.,
+1910.
+
+BROOKS, ALFRED The Study of Art in Universities. _Education._ Boston,
+February, 1901.
+
+CHURCHILL, A. V. Art in the College Course. _The Smith Alumnae
+Quarterly._ New York, February, 1915.
+
+CLOPATH, H. The Scope and Organization of Art Instruction in the A. B.
+Course. _Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 17th Annual
+Report._ Oak Park, Illinois, 1910.
+
+CROSS, H. R. The College Degree in Fine Arts. _Western Drawing and
+Manual Training Association, 17th Annual Report._ Oak Park, Illinois,
+1910.
+
+DOW, A. W. Anarchism in Art Teaching. _Western Drawing and Manual
+Training Association, 19th Annual Report._ Cincinnati, 1912.
+
+DOW, A. W. _Theory and Practice of Teaching Art._ Teachers College,
+Columbia University. 2d edition. New York, 1912.
+
+DOW, A. W. Modernism in Art. _The American Magazine of Art._ New York,
+January, 1917.
+
+FREDERICK, F. F. The Study of Fine Art in American Colleges and
+Universities: Its Relation to the Study in Public Schools. _Addresses
+and Proceedings of the National Education Association._ Detroit, 1901.
+
+HELLER, O. Art as a Liberal Study. _Western Drawing and Manual
+Training Association, 17th Annual Report._ Oak Park. Illinois, 1910.
+
+JASTROW, J. The place of the Study of Art in a College Course.
+_Western Drawing and Manual Training Association._ Oak Park, Illinois,
+1910.
+
+KELLEY, C. F. Art in American Universities. _Nation_, 91: 74. New
+York, July 28, 1910.
+
+KELLEY, C. F. Art Education. _Report of the Commissioner of
+Education._ (Department of Interior, Bureau of Education). Washington,
+D. C., 1915.
+
+LEONARD, WILLIAM J. The Place of Art in the American College.
+_Education_, 32; 597-607. Boston, June, 1912.
+
+LOW, W. H. The Proposed Department of Art in Columbia University.
+_Scribner's Magazine._ New York, December, 1902.
+
+MANN, F. M. Cooperation among Art Workers in Universities. _Western
+Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Report._ St.
+Louis, 1909.
+
+MARSHALL, H. R. The Relation of the University to the Teaching of Art.
+_Architectural Record._ New York, April, 1903.
+
+MONROE, PAUL (editor). Art in Education, etc. _Cyclopedia of
+Education._ The Macmillan Company, New York, 1911.
+
+NORTON, C. E. The Educational Value of the History of Art.
+_Educational Review_, New York, April, 1895.
+
+PHILLIPS, DUNCAN. What Instruction in Art Should the College A.B.
+Course Offer to the Future Writer on Art? _The American Magazine of
+Art._ New York, March, 1917.
+
+PICKARD, J. Message of Art for the Collegian. _The American Magazine
+of Art._ Washington, D. C., February, 1916.
+
+ROBINSON, D. M. Reproductions of Classical Art. _Art and Archaelogy._
+Washington, D. C., April, 1917.
+
+SARGENT, W. Instruction in Art in the United States. _Biennial Survey
+of Education in the United States 1916-18_ (Department of the
+Interior, Bureau of Education). Washington, D. C.
+
+SEELYE, L. C. The Place of Art in the Smith College Curriculum.
+_Educational Review._ New York, January, 1904.
+
+SMITH, E. B. _The History of Art in the Colleges and Universities of
+the United States._ Princeton University Press. Princeton, 1912.
+
+SMITH, HOLMES. Art as an Integral Part of University Work. _Western
+Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Report._ St.
+Louis, 1909.
+
+SMITH, HOLMES. The Future of the University Round Table. _Western
+Drawing and Manual Training Association._ Oak Park, Illinois, 1910.
+
+SMITH, HOLMES, LAKE, E. J., and MARQUAND, A. The College Art
+Association of America. Report of Committee Appointed to Investigate
+the Condition of Art Instruction in the Colleges and Universities of
+the United States. _School and Society._ Garrison, New York, August
+26, 1916.
+
+STANLEY, H. M. Our Education and the Progress of Art. _Education._
+Boston, October, 1890.
+
+SWIFT, F. H. What Art Does for Life. _Western Drawing and Manual
+Training Association, 18th Annual Report._ Springfield, Illinois,
+1911.
+
+SYLVESTER, F. O. Esthetic and Practical Values in Art Courses.
+_Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Report._
+St. Louis, 1909.
+
+WALDSTEIN, C. _The Study of Art in Universities._ Harper & Brothers.
+New York, 1896.
+
+WALKER, C. H. Art in Education. _Western Drawing and Manual Training
+Association, 16th Annual Report._ St. Louis, 1909.
+
+WOODWARD, W. Art Education in the Colleges. Art Education in the
+Public Schools of the United States. _American Art Annual._ New York,
+1908.
+
+WUERPEL, E. H. The Relation of the Art School to the University.
+_Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Report._
+St. Louis, 1909.
+
+ZANTZINGER, C. C. Report of Committee on Education. _Proceedings of
+the 47th Annual Convention of the American Institute of Architects._
+Washington, D. C., December, 1913.
+
+
+NOTE. For numerous discussions of problems of college art teaching,
+the Bulletins of the College Art Association of America may be
+consulted.
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[102] Tolstoi, L. N., _What Is Art?_ Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1899.
+Chapter V, page 43.
+
+[103] Waldstein: _Essays on the Art of Pheidias_, Cambridge University
+Press. 1885, pages 95 et seq.
+
+[104] _New Princeton Review_, II, 29.
+
+[105] _The American Magazine of Art_, Vol. 8, No. 5, page 177.
+
+[106] Woodward, W. "Art Education in the Colleges," _Art Education in
+the Public Schools of the United States_, edited by J. P. Haney;
+American Art Annual, New York, 1908.
+
+Ankeney, J. S., Woodward, W., Lake, E. J., "Final Report of the
+Committee on the Condition of Art Instruction in Colleges and
+Universities." _Seventeenth Annual Report of the Western Drawing and
+Manual Training Association._ Minneapolis, 1910.
+
+Kelley, C. F., "Art Education." _Report of the Commissioner of
+Education_, Vol. I, Chap. XV. Washington, D. C., 1915.
+
+Smith, E. B., _The Study of the History of Art in the Colleges and
+Universities of the United States._ University Press, Princeton, 1912.
+
+[107] _Nineteenth Annual Report, Western Drawing and Manual Training
+Association_, Cincinnati, 1912, page 19.
+
+[108] Robinson, D. M., "Reproductions of Classical Art," _Art and
+Archaeology_, Vol. V, No. 4, pages 221-234.
+
+[109] Rotary art exhibitions for educational purposes are
+arranged by the American Federation of Arts, 1741, New York Avenue,
+Washington, D. C.
+
+
+
+
+  PART SIX
+
+  VOCATIONAL SUBJECTS
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+  XXV  THE TEACHING OF ENGINEERING SUBJECTS
+           _Ira O. Baker_
+
+ XXVI  THE TEACHING OF MECHANICAL DRAWING
+           _J. D. Phillips and H. D. Orth_
+
+ XXVII THE TEACHING OF JOURNALISM
+           _Talcott Williams_
+
+ XXVIII BUSINESS EDUCATION
+           _Frederick B. Robinson_
+
+
+
+
+XXV
+
+THE TEACHING OF ENGINEERING SUBJECTS
+
+
+Each of the preceding chapters of this volume treats of a subject
+which is substantially a unit in method and content; but the subjects
+assigned to this chapter include a variety of topics which are quite
+diverse in scope and character. For example, such subjects as German
+and physics represent the work of single collegiate departments; while
+engineering subjects represent substantially the entire work of an
+engineering college, of which there are many in this country, each
+having a thousand or more students. It is necessary, then, to inquire
+as to the scope of this chapter.
+
+
+I. SCOPE OF THIS CHAPTER
+
+=Contents of engineering curricula=
+
+The contents of the representative four-year engineering curriculum of
+the leading institutions may be classified about as in the table on
+page 502. In addition to the subjects listed, most institutions
+require freshmen to take gymnasium practice and lectures on hygiene,
+and many colleges require freshmen, and some also sophomores, to take
+military drill and tactics. Formerly many institutions required all
+engineering freshmen to take elementary shop work; but at present in
+most institutions this practice has been discontinued, owing to the
+establishment of manual-training high schools and to the development
+of other engineering subjects.
+
+The order of the subjects varies somewhat in the different
+institutions. For example, instead of as in the table on page 502,
+rhetoric may be given in the sophomore year and language in the first.
+Again, in some institutions a little technical work is given in the
+freshman year. Further, the total number of semester-hours varies
+somewhat among the different institutions. However, the table is
+believed to be fairly representative.
+
+
+CONTENTS OF ENGINEERING CURRICULA
+
+The unit is a semester-hour; i.e., five class-periods a week for half
+a year.
+
+  --------------------------------------+-----------------------+--------
+                                        |  COLLEGIATE YEAR      |
+      GENERAL SUBJECT                   +-----+-----+-----+-----+ TOTAL
+                                        | I   |  II | III |  IV |
+  --------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------
+  Mechanical  drawing and descriptive   |     |     |     |     |
+  geometry                              |  10 | ... | ... | ... |   10
+                                        |     |     |     |     |
+  Rhetoric                              |   6 | ... | ... | ... |    6
+                                        |     |     |     |     |
+  Modern language                       | ... |   8 | ... | ... |    8
+                                        |     |     |     |     |
+  Pure mathematics                      |  10 |   8 | ... | ... |   18
+                                        |     |     |     |     |
+  Science--physical and social          |  10 |   9 |   6 |   4 |   29
+                                        |     |     |     |     |
+  Theoretical and applied mechanics     | ... |   3 |  10 | ... |   13
+                                        |     |     |     |     |
+  Technical engineering                 | ... |   8 |  20 |  32 |   60
+                                        | ----| ----| ----| ----| ----
+  Total                                 |  36 |  36 |  36 |  36 |  144
+  --------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------
+
+
+=The different engineering curricula=
+
+Below is a list of the principal four-year curricula offered by the
+engineering colleges of this country. The list contains forty
+different engineering curricula. No one institution offers all of
+these, but some of the larger and better equipped offer fifteen or
+sixteen different curricula for which a degree is given.
+
+1. _Architecture_ (which is usually classified as an engineering
+subject): general architecture; architectural design; architectural
+construction.
+
+2. _Ceramics engineering:_ general ceramics and ceramics engineering;
+ceramics; ceramics engineering.
+
+3. _Chemical engineering_: general chemical engineering; metallurgical
+engineering; gas engineering; pulp and paper engineering;
+electro-chemical engineering.
+
+4. _Civil engineering_: general civil engineering; railway civil
+engineering; municipal engineering; structural engineering;
+topographic or geodetic engineering; hydraulic engineering; irrigation
+engineering; highway engineering.
+
+5. _Electrical engineering_: general electrical engineering; telephone
+engineering; electrical design; power-plant design; electrical railway
+engineering.
+
+6. _Marine engineering:_ general marine engineering; naval
+architecture; marine engineering.
+
+7. _Mechanical engineering:_ general mechanical engineering; steam
+engineering; railway mechanical engineering; hydro-mechanical
+engineering; machine design and construction; heating, ventilating,
+and refrigerating; industrial engineering; automobile engineering;
+aeronautical engineering.
+
+8. _Mining engineering:_ general mining engineering; metallurgical
+engineering; coal mining; ore mining.
+
+The first engineering curriculum established was civil engineering,
+which was so called to distinguish it from military engineering. At
+first the course contained only a little technical work, but in course
+of time specialized work was increased; and later courses were
+established in mining and mechanical engineering, and more recently
+followed specialized courses in architecture, electrical engineering,
+marine engineering, chemical engineering, and ceramic engineering--about
+in the order named. The order of the various special courses in the
+several groups above is roughly that of their establishment.
+
+=Number of engineering subjects=
+
+In the preceding list are eight groups of curricula, each of which
+contains about 60 semester-hours peculiar to itself; and, considering
+only a single curriculum in each of the eight groups, there are 480
+semester-hours of specialized work. In addition there are in the list
+thirty-two subdivisions, each of which differs from the parent by at
+least 10 semester-hours. Hence the total number of engineering
+subjects offered is at least 800 semester-hours. It is safe to assume
+that for administrative reasons, each 3 semester-hours on the average
+represents a distinct title or topic, and that therefore the
+engineering colleges of the country offer instruction in 267 different
+engineering subjects.
+
+However, the diversity is not so great as the preceding statement
+seems to imply, since for convenience in program making and in
+bookkeeping many subjects are listed under two or more heads. For
+example, a subject which runs through two semesters will for
+administrative reasons appear under two different heads in the above
+computations. Again, the lecture or textbook work in a subject will
+usually appear under one head and the laboratory work under a separate
+title. Finally, some subjects which differ but little in character may
+for convenience be listed under two different titles. If the subjects
+that are subdivided for the above reasons were listed under a single
+head, the number of topics would be reduced something like 20 to 25
+per cent.
+
+Therefore, the topics of engineering instruction which differ
+materially in character number about 200. This, then, is the field
+assigned to this chapter. Obviously it is impossible to consider the
+several subjects separately.
+
+
+II. DIFFERENTIATION IN ENGINEERING CURRICULA
+
+For a considerable number of years there has been much discussion by
+both college teachers and practicing engineers concerning
+differentiation in engineering curricula; and the usual conclusion is
+that undue differentiation is detrimental. But nevertheless
+specialization has gone on comparatively rapidly and extensively--as
+shown in the previous article. Since the degree of differentiation
+determines in a large measure (1) the spirit with which a student does
+his work, (2) the method of teaching that should be employed, and (3)
+the results obtained, it will be wise briefly to consider the merits
+of specialization. The arguments against specialization have been more
+widely and more earnestly presented than those in favor of
+specialization. The usual arguments pro and con may be summarized as
+follows:
+
+1. It is frequently claimed that the undergraduate is incapable of
+wisely choosing a specialty, and that hence specialization should come
+after a four-year course,--i.e., in the graduate school or by
+self-instruction after graduation. But the parents and friends of a
+student usually help him in deciding upon a profession or on a
+special line of study, and therefore it is not likely that a very
+serious mistake will be made. Of necessity a decision must be made
+whether or not to seek a college education; and a decision must also
+be made between the great fields of knowledge,--liberal arts,
+agriculture, engineering, etc. If the student decides to take any
+branch of engineering, he usually has his whole freshman year in which
+to make a further specialization. At the end of the sophomore year the
+specialization has not gone very far; and therefore if the student
+finds he has made a mistake, it is not difficult to change.
+
+2. "The undergraduate seldom knows the field of his future employment,
+and hence does not have the data necessary for an intelligent
+decision." The young man will never have all of the data for such a
+decision until he has actually worked in that field for a time, and
+there is no reason why he should not make a decision and try some
+particular line of preparation.
+
+3. Some opponents of specialization claim that the more general the
+engineering training, the easier to obtain employment after
+graduation; but this is not in harmony with the facts. The opposite is
+more nearly true. For example, who ever heard of a practicing engineer
+preferring a liberal arts student to a civil engineering student as a
+rodman?
+
+4. Specialized courses require that the college should have larger
+equipment and a more versatile staff. The larger institutions can
+prepare for specialized sections nearly as easily and cheaply as for
+duplicate sections; and institutions having only a few students or
+meager financial support should not offer highly specialized courses.
+
+5. The opponents of specialization claim that to be a successful
+specialist one should have a broad training, and that therefore the
+broader the curriculum the better. It is true that to be a successful
+specialist requires a considerable breadth of knowledge, but that does
+not prove that the student should be required to get all of his
+general knowledge before he gives attention to matters peculiar to
+his specialty. No engineer can be reasonably successful in any field
+with only the knowledge obtained in college, whether that be general
+or special.
+
+6. It is claimed that specialization should be postponed to a fifth
+year. It seems to have been settled by experience that four years is
+about the right length of the college course for the average
+engineering student, and that in that time he should test his fitness
+and liking for his future work by studying some of the subjects
+relating to his proposed specialized field.
+
+7. The chief reason in favor of specialization is that the field of
+knowledge is so vast that it is absolutely necessary for every college
+student--engineering or otherwise--to specialize; and in engineering
+this specialization is vitally important, since fundamental principles
+can be taught most effectively in connection with their application to
+specialized problems. In no other way is it possible to invest
+theoretical principles with definite meaning to the student, and by
+this process it is possible to transform abstract theory into glowing
+realities which under a competent teacher arouse the student's
+interest and even his enthusiasm.
+
+8. Specialization in engineering curricula is a natural outgrowth of
+the evolution of engineering knowledge, and is in harmony with sound
+principles of teaching. For example, all engineering students should
+have a certain amount of mechanical drawing; but the best results will
+be obtained if the civil engineer, after a study of the elementary
+principles, continues his practice in drawing by making maps, while
+the mechanical engineer continues his by making details of machinery.
+Both will do their work with more zest and much more efficiency than
+if both were compelled to make drawings which meant nothing to them
+except practice in the art of drawing. Similar illustration can be
+found throughout any well-arranged engineering curriculum. A vitally
+essential element in any educational diet is that the subject shall
+not pall upon the appetite of the student. He should go to every
+intellectual meal with a hearty gusto. The specialized course appeals
+more strongly to the ambition of the student than a general course.
+The engineering student selects a specialized course because he has an
+ambition to become an architect, a chemical engineer, a civil
+engineer, or perhaps a bridge engineer, a highway engineer, a
+mechanical engineer, or perhaps a heating engineer or an automobile
+engineer; and having an opportunity to study subjects in which he is
+specially interested, he works with zest and usually accomplishes much
+more than a student who is pursuing a course of study only remotely,
+if at all, related to the field of his proposed activities after
+leaving college. Further, the more specialized the course, the greater
+the energy with which the student will work.
+
+Many of those who have discussed specialization seem to assume that
+the only, or at least the chief, purpose of an engineering education
+is to give technical information, and that specialization is
+synonymous with superficiality. From this point of view the aim of a
+college education is to give a student information useful in his
+future work, and the inevitable result is that the student has neither
+the intellectual power nor the technical knowledge to enable him to
+render efficient service in any position in which he will work
+whole-heartedly. The weakness and superficiality of such a student, it
+is usually said, is due to excessive specialization, while in reality
+it is primarily due to wrong methods of teaching. Within reasonable
+limits specialization has little or nothing to do with the result; and
+under certain conditions, as previously stated, specialization helps
+rather than hinders intellectual development. If a subject has real
+educational value and is so taught as to train a student to see, to
+analyze, to discriminate, to describe, the more the specialization the
+better; but if a subject is taught chiefly to give unrelated
+information about details of practice, the more the specialization the
+less the educational value.
+
+10. Experience has conclusively shown that an engineering student is
+very likely to slight a general subject in favor of a simultaneous
+technical or specialized subject. This fact, together with the
+necessity of a fixed sequence in technical engineering subjects, makes
+it practically impossible to secure any reasonable work in most
+general subjects when a student is at the same time carrying one or
+more technical studies. For these reasons it is necessary to make the
+later years of the curriculum nearly wholly technical, which makes
+specialization possible, if it does not invite it.
+
+
+III. AIM OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION
+
+=Disciplinary values of engineering subjects=
+
+The three elements of engineering education, as indeed of all
+education, should be development, training, and information. The first
+is the attainment of intellectual power, the capacity for abstract
+conception and reasoning. The second includes the formation of correct
+habits of thought and methods of work; the cultivation of the ability
+to observe closely, to reason correctly, to write and speak clearly;
+and the training of the hand to execute. The third includes the
+acquisition of the thoughts and experiences of others, and of the
+truths of nature. The development of the mental faculties is by far
+the most important, since it alone confers that "power which masters
+all it touches, which can adapt old forms to new uses, or create new
+and better means of reaching old ends." Without this power the
+engineer cannot hope to practice his profession with any chance of
+success. The formation of correct habits of thinking and working,
+habits of observing, of classifying, of investigating, of
+discriminating, of proving instead of guessing, of weighing evidence,
+of patient perseverance, and of doing thoroughly honest work, is a
+method of using that power efficiently. The accumulation of facts is
+the least important. The power to acquire information and the
+knowledge of how to use it is of far greater value than any number of
+the most useful facts. The value of an education does not consist in
+the number of facts acquired, but in the ability to discover facts by
+personal observation and investigation and in the power to use these
+facts in deducing new conclusions and establishing fundamental
+principles. There is no comparison between the value of a ton of
+horseshoe nails and the ability to make a single nail.
+
+=Utilitarian aim of the engineering subjects: information and training=
+
+The engineering student usually desires to reverse the above order and
+assumes that the acquisition of information, especially that directly
+useful in his proposed profession, is the most valuable element of an
+education; and unfortunately some instructors seem to make the same
+mistake. The truth is that methods of construction, details of
+practice, mechanical appliances, prices of materials and labor, change
+so rapidly that it is useless to teach many such matters. However
+important such items are to the practicing engineer, they are of
+little or no use to the student; for later, when he does have need of
+them, methods, machines, and prices have changed so much that the
+information he acquired in college will probably be worse than
+useless. Technical details are learned of necessity in practice, and
+more easily then than in college; whereas in practice fundamental
+principles are learned with difficulty, if at all. A man ignorant of
+principles does not usually realize his own ignorance and limitations,
+or rather he is unaware of the existence of unknown principles. The
+engineering college should teach the principles upon which sound
+engineering practice is based, but should not attempt to teach the
+details of practice any further than is necessary to give zest and
+reality to the instruction and to give an intelligent understanding of
+the uses to be made of fundamental principles.
+
+As evidence that technical information is not essential for success in
+an engineering profession, attention is called to the fact that a
+considerable number of men who took a course in one of the major
+divisions of engineering have practiced in another branch with
+reasonable success. The only collegiate training one of the most
+distinguished American engineers of the last generation had was a
+general literary course followed by a law course. Further, a
+considerable number have successfully practiced engineering, after
+only a general college education, and this in recent years when
+engineering curricula have become widely differentiated. Examples in
+other lines of business could be cited to show that a knowledge of
+technical details is not the most important element in a preparation
+for a profession or for business. The all-important thing is that the
+engineering student shall acquire the power to observe closely, to
+reason correctly, to state clearly, that he shall be able to extract
+information from books certainly and rapidly, and that he shall
+cultivate his judgment, initiative, and self-reliance. A student may
+have any amount of technical information, but if he seriously lacks
+any of the qualities just enumerated, he cannot attain to any
+considerable professional success. However, if he has these qualities
+to a fair degree, he can speedily acquire sufficient technical details
+to enable him to succeed fairly well.
+
+The chief aim of the engineering college should be to develop the
+intellectual power that will enable the student not only to acquire
+quickly the details of practice, but will also enable him ultimately
+to establish precedents and determine the practice of his times.
+Incidentally the engineering college should seek to expand the horizon
+and widen the sympathy of its students. In college classes there will
+be those who are either unable or unwilling to attain the highest
+educational ideals, and who will become only the hewers of wood and
+drawers of water of the engineering profession; but a setting before
+them of the highest ideals and even an ineffective training in methods
+of work will prepare them the better to fill mediocre positions.
+
+The nearly universal engineering college course requires four years.
+The field properly belonging to even a specialized curriculum is so
+wide and the importance of a proper preparation of the engineers of
+the future is so great as appropriately to require more than four
+years of time; but the consensus of opinion is that for various
+reasons only four years are available for undergraduate work--the
+only kind here under consideration. Hence it is of vital importance
+that the highest ideals shall be set before the engineering students
+and that the methods of instruction employed shall be the best
+attainable.
+
+
+IV. METHODS OF TEACHING
+
+Instruction in technical engineering subjects is given by lectures,
+recitations from textbooks, assigned reading, laboratory work,
+surveying, field-practice, problems in design, memoirs, and
+examinations. Each of these will be briefly considered.
+
+=Lecture system=
+
+The term "lecture system" will be used to designate that method of
+instruction in which knowledge is presented by the instructor without
+immediate questioning of, or discussion by, the student. In the early
+history of engineering education, when instruction in technical
+engineering subjects was beginning to be differentiated from other
+branches of education, the lecture was the only means of acquainting
+the student with either the principles or details of engineering
+practice, since textbooks were then few and unsatisfactory. But at
+present, when there are so many fields of technical knowledge in which
+there are excellent books, the lecture system is indefensible as a
+means either of communicating knowledge or of developing intellectual
+strength.
+
+It is a waste of the student's time to present orally that which can
+be found in print. At best the lecturer can present only about one
+third as much as a student could read in the same time; and, besides,
+the student can understand what he reads better than what he hears,
+since he can go more slowly over that which he does not understand.
+The lecturer moves along approximately uniformly, while some students
+fail to understand one part, and others would like to pause over some
+other portion. A poor textbook is usually better than a good lecturer.
+
+It is a fundamental principle of pedagogy that there can be no
+development without the activity of the learner's mind; and hence
+with the lecture system it is customary to require the student to take
+notes, and subsequently submit himself to a quiz or present his
+lecture notes carefully written up. If the student is required to take
+notes, either for future study or to be submitted, his whole time and
+attention are engrossed in writing; and at the close of the lecture,
+if it has covered any considerable ground, the student has only a
+vague idea of what has been said. Further, the notes are probably so
+incomplete as to afford inadequate material for future study.
+
+If the subject matter is really new and not found in print, the
+lecture should be reproduced for the student's use. It is more
+economical and more effective for the student to pay his share of the
+cost of printing, than to spend his time in making imperfect notes and
+perhaps ultimately writing them out more fully.
+
+The lecture system is less suitable for giving instruction in
+engineering subjects than in general subjects, such for example as
+history, sociology, and economics, since technical engineering
+subjects usually include principles and more or less numerical data
+that must be stated briefly and clearly.
+
+If a student has had an opportunity to study a subject from either a
+textbook or a printed copy of the lecture notes, then comments by the
+teacher explaining some difficult point, or describing some later
+development, or showing some other application or consequence of the
+principle, may be both instructive and inspiring; but the main work of
+teaching engineering subjects should be from carefully prepared
+textbooks. However, an occasional formal lecture by an instructor or a
+practicing engineer upon some subject already studied from a textbook
+can be a means of valuable instruction and real inspiration, provided
+the lecture is well prepared and properly presented.
+
+In the preceding discussion the term "lecture" has been employed as
+meaning a formal presentation of information; but there is another
+form of lecture, a demonstration lecture, which consists of an
+explanation and discussion by the instructor of an experiment
+conducted before the class. The prime purpose of the experiment and
+the demonstration lecture is to explain and fix in mind general
+principles. This form of lecture is an excellent method of giving
+information; and if the student is questioned as to the facts
+disclosed and is required to discuss the principles established, it is
+an effective means of training the student to observe, to analyze, and
+to describe.
+
+=Recitation system=
+
+This system of instruction consists in assigning a lesson upon which
+the student subsequently recites. In subjects involving mathematical
+work, the recitation may consist of the presentation of the solution
+of examples or problems; but in engineering subjects the recitation
+usually consists either of answers to questions or of the discussion
+of a topic.
+
+The question may be either a "fact" question or a "thought" question.
+If the main purpose is to give information, the "fact" question is
+used, the object being to determine whether the student has acquired a
+particular item of information. Not infrequently, even in college
+teaching, the question can be answered by a single word or a short
+sentence; and usually such a question, even if it does not itself
+suggest the answer, requires a minimum of mental effort on the part of
+the student. This method determines only whether the student has
+acquired a number of unrelated facts, and does not insure that he has
+any knowledge of their relation to each other or to other facts he may
+know, nor does it test his ability to use these facts in deducing
+conclusions or establishing principles. Apparently this method of
+conducting a recitation, or quiz as it is often called, is far too
+common in teaching engineering subjects. It is the result chiefly of
+the mistaken belief that the purpose of technical teaching is to give
+information.
+
+The "thought" question is one which requires the student to reflect
+upon the facts stated in the book and to draw his own conclusions.
+This method is intermediate between the "fact" question and the
+topical discussion; it is not so suitable to college students as to
+younger ones, and is not so easily applied in engineering subjects as
+in more general subjects such as history, economics, or social
+science. It will not be considered further.
+
+The topical recitation consists in calling upon the student to state
+what he knows upon a given topic. This method not only tests the
+student's knowledge of facts, but also trains him in arranging his
+facts in logical order and in presenting them in clear, correct, and
+forceful language. (1) One advantage of this method of conducting the
+recitation is that it stimulates the student to acquire a proper
+method of attacking the assigned lesson. Many college students know
+little or nothing concerning the art of studying. Apparently, they
+simply read the lesson over without attempting to weigh the relative
+importance of the several statements and without attempting to
+skeletonize or summarize the text. The ability to acquire quickly and
+easily the essential statements of a printed page is an accomplishment
+which will be valuable in any walk of life. In other words, this
+method of conducting a recitation forces the student to adopt the
+better method of study. (2) A second advantage of the topical
+recitation is that it trains the student in expressing his ideas. It
+is generally conceded that the engineering-college graduate is
+deficient in his ability to use good English, which is evidence that
+either the topical recitation is not usually employed, or good English
+is not insisted upon, or perhaps both. (3) A third advantage of the
+topical recitation is that it trains the student in judgment and
+discrimination--two elements essential in the practical work of all
+engineers.
+
+Apparently many college teachers think it more creditable to deliver
+lectures than to conduct recitations. The formal lecture is an
+inefficient means of either conveying information or developing
+intellectual power, and hence no one should take pride in it. The
+textbook and quiz method of conducting a recitation is more effective
+than the lecture system, but is by no means an ideal method of either
+imparting information or giving intellectual training. Neither of
+these methods is worthy of a conscientious teacher. The textbook and
+topical recitation affords an excellent opportunity to teach the
+student to analyze, to observe, to discriminate, to train him in the
+use of clear and correct language, and in the presentation of his
+thoughts in logical order--an object worthy of any teacher and an
+opportunity to employ the highest ability of any person. In the
+conduct of such a recitation in engineering subjects, there is
+abundant opportunity to supplement the textbook by calling attention
+to new discoveries and other applications, and to introduce
+interesting historic references. It is often instructive to discuss
+differences in construction which depend upon differences in physical
+conditions or in preferences of the constructor, and such discussions
+afford excellent opportunities to train the student in discovering the
+causes of the differences and in weighing evidence, all of which helps
+to develop his powers of observation and analysis and above all to
+cultivate his judgment. If a teacher is truly interested in his work,
+such a recitation gives opportunity for an interchange of thoughts
+between the student and teacher that may be made of great value to the
+former and of real interest to the latter. The conduct of such a
+recitation should be much more inspiring to the teacher than the
+repetition of a formal lecture which at best can have only little
+instructional value.
+
+=Suggestions for increasing effectiveness of the recitation=
+
+The recitation is such an important method of instruction that it is
+believed a few suggestions as to its conduct may be permissible,
+although a discussion of methods of teaching does not properly belong
+in this chapter. (1) The students should not be called upon in any
+regular order. (2) If at all possible, each student should be called
+upon during each recitation. (3) The question or topic should be
+stated, and then after a brief pause a particular student should be
+called upon to recite. (4) The question or topic should not be
+repeated. (5) The student should not be helped. (6) The question
+should be so definite as to admit of only one answer. (7) "Fact"
+questions and topical discussions should be interspersed. (8)
+Irrelevant discussion should be eliminated. (9) The thoughtful
+attention of the entire class and an opportunity for all to
+participate may be secured by interrupting a topical discussion and
+asking another to continue it. (10) Clear, correct and concise answers
+should be insisted upon. (11) In topical discussions the facts should
+be stated in a logical order. (12) Commend any exceptionally good
+answer.
+
+=Assigned reading=
+
+A student is sometimes required to read an assigned chapter in a book
+or some particular article in a technical journal as a supplement to a
+lecture or a textbook. Sometimes the whole class has the same
+assignment, and sometimes different students have different
+assignments. Each student should be quizzed on his reading, or should
+be required to give a summary of it. The method of instruction by
+assigned reading is most appropriate when the lecture presentation or
+textbook is comparatively brief. This method is only sparingly
+permissible with an adequate textbook.
+
+=Laboratory work=
+
+The chief purpose of laboratory work is to illustrate the principles
+of the textbook and thereby fix them in the student's mind. The
+manipulation of the apparatus and the making of the observations is
+valuable training for the hand and the eye, and the computation of the
+results familiarizes the student with the limitations of mathematical
+processes. The interpretation of the meaning of the results cultivates
+the student's judgment and power of discrimination, and the writing up
+of the report should give valuable experience in orderly and concise
+statement. Sometimes the student is not required to interpret the
+meaning or to discuss the accuracy of his results, and sometimes he is
+provided with a tabular form in which he inserts his observed data
+without consideration of any other reason for securing the particular
+information. He should not be provided with a sample report nor with a
+tabular form, but should be required to plan his own method of
+presentation, determine for himself what matter shall be in tabular
+form and what in narrative form, and plan his own illustrations. Of
+course, he should be required to keep neat, accurate, and reasonably
+full notes of the laboratory work, and should be held to a high
+standard of clearness, conciseness, and correctness in his final
+report. Providing the student with tabular forms and sample reports
+may lessen the teacher's labors and improve the appearance of the
+report, but such practice greatly decreases the educational value to
+the student.
+
+=Surveying field-practice.=
+
+In its aims surveying field-practice is substantially the same as
+engineering laboratory work, and all the preceding remarks concerning
+laboratory work apply equally well also to surveying practice.
+Ordinarily the latter has a higher educational value than the former
+in that the method of attack, at least in minor details, is left to
+the student's initiative, and also in that the difficulties or
+obstacles encountered require the student to exercise his own
+resourcefulness. The cultivation of initiative and self-reliance is of
+the highest engineering as well as educational value. Further, in the
+better institutions the instructor in surveying usually knows the
+result the student should obtain, and consequently the latter has a
+greater stimulus to secure accuracy than occurs in most laboratory
+work. Finally, the students, at least the civil engineering ones,
+always feel that surveying is highly practical, and hence are
+unusually enthusiastic in their work.
+
+=Design.=
+
+When properly taught an exercise in design has the highest educational
+value; and, besides, the student is usually easily interested, since
+he is likely to regard such work as highly practical and therefore to
+give it his best efforts. Instruction in design should accomplish two
+purposes; viz., (1) familiarize the student with the application of
+principles, and (2) train him in initiative. Different subjects
+necessarily have these elements in different degrees, and any
+particular subject may be so taught as specially to emphasize one or
+the other of these objects.
+
+Sometimes a problem in design is little more than the following of an
+outline or example in the textbook and substituting values in
+formulas. The design of an ordinary short-span steel truss bridge, as
+ordinarily taught, is an example of this method of instruction.
+Another example is the design of a residence for which no
+predetermined limiting conditions are laid down and which does not
+differ materially from those found in the surrounding community or
+illustrated in the textbook or the architectural magazine. Such work
+illustrates and enforces theory, gives the student some knowledge of
+the materials and processes of construction, and also trains him in
+drafting; but it does not give him much intellectual exercise nor
+develop his mental fiber, although it may prepare him to take a place
+as a routine worker in his profession. Such instruction emphasizes
+utilitarian training but neglects intellectual development, mental
+vigor, and breadth of view.
+
+The exercise in design which has the highest educational value is one
+in which the student must discover for himself the conditions to be
+fulfilled, the method of treatment to be employed, the materials to be
+used, and the details to be adopted. An example of this form of
+problem is the design of a bridge for a particular river crossing,
+without any limitations as to materials of construction, type of
+structure, time of construction, etc., except such as are inherent in
+the problem and which the student must determine for himself. A better
+example is the architectural design of a building to be erected in a
+given locality to serve some particular purpose, with no limitations
+except perhaps cost or architectural style.
+
+Experience of several teachers with a considerable number of students
+during each of several years conclusively shows that students who have
+had only comparatively little of the design work mentioned in the
+preceding paragraph greatly exceed other students having the same
+preparation except this form of design work, in mental vigor, breadth
+of view, intellectual power, and initiative. This difference in
+capacity is certainly observable in subsequent college work, and is
+apparently quite effective after graduation.
+
+=Examinations=
+
+The term "examination" will be used as including the comparatively
+brief and informal quizzes held at intervals during the progress of
+the work and also the longer and more formal examinations held at the
+end of the work. Usually the examination is regarded as a test to
+determine the accuracy and extent of the student's information, which
+form may be called a question-and-answer examination or quiz. A more
+desirable form of examination is one which requires the student to
+survey his information on a particular topic, and to summarize the
+same or to state his own conclusions concerning either the relative
+importance of the different items or his interpretation of the meaning
+or application of the facts. Such an examination could be called a
+"topical examination." The remarks in the earlier part of this chapter
+concerning the relative merits of the question-and-answer and the
+topical recitation apply also with equal force to these two forms of
+examinations. However, the topical examination can be made of greater
+educational value than the topical recitation, since the student is
+likely to be required to survey a wider field and organize a larger
+mass of information, and also since the examination is usually written
+and hence affords a better opportunity to secure accuracy and finish.
+
+It is much easier for the instructor to prepare and grade the papers
+for the question-and-answer examination than for the topical
+examination, and perhaps this is one reason why the former is nearly
+universally employed. Of course, the topical examination should not be
+used except in connection with the topical recitation. Some executives
+of public school systems require that at least a third, and others at
+least a half, of all formal examinations shall be topical; and as the
+examination papers and the grades thereon are subject to the
+inspection of the executive, this requirement indirectly insures that
+the teacher shall not neglect the topical recitation. Apparently a
+somewhat similar requirement would be beneficial in college work.
+
+=Memoir=
+
+The term "memoir" is here employed to designate either a comparatively
+brief report upon some topic assigned in connection with the daily
+recitation or the graduating thesis.
+
+The former is substantially a form of laboratory work in which the
+library is the workroom and books the apparatus. This method of
+instruction has several merits. It makes the student familiar with
+books and periodicals and with the method of extracting information
+from them. It stimulates his interest in a wider knowledge than that
+obtained only from the textbook or the instructor's lectures. It is
+valuable as an exercise in English composition, particularly if the
+student is held to an orderly form of presentation and to good
+English, and is not permitted simply to make extracts. The value to be
+obtained from such literary report depends, of course, upon the time
+devoted to it, and also upon whether the instructor tells the student
+of the articles to be read or requires him to find the sources of
+information for himself.
+
+=Thesis=
+
+The thesis may be a description of some original design, or a critical
+review of some engineering construction, or an account of an
+experimental investigation. The thesis differs from other subjects in
+the college curriculum in that in the latter the student is expected
+simply to follow the directions of the instructor, to study specified
+lessons and recite thereon, to solve the problems assigned, and to
+read the articles recommended; while the preparation of the thesis is
+intended to develop the student's ability to do independent work.
+There is comparatively little in the ordinary college curriculum to
+stimulate the student's power of initiative, but in his thesis work he
+is required to take the lead in devising ways and means. The power of
+self-direction, the ability to invent methods of attack, the capacity
+to foresee the probable results of experiments, and the ability to
+interpret correctly the results of experiments is of vital importance
+in the future of any engineering student. Within certain limits the
+thesis is a test of the present attainments of the student and also a
+prophecy of his future success. Therefore, the preparation of a thesis
+is of the very highest educational possibility. Unfortunately many
+students are too poorly prepared, or too lacking in ambition, or too
+deficient in self-reliance and initiative to make it feasible for
+them to undertake the independent work required in a thesis. Such
+students should take instead work under direction. Further, it is
+unfortunate that, for administrative reasons, the requirement of a
+thesis for graduation is made less frequently now than formerly. The
+increase in number of students has made it practically impossible to
+require a thesis of all graduates, because of the difficulty of
+providing adequate facilities and of supervising the work. Again, it
+is difficult to administer a requirement that only part of the seniors
+shall prepare a thesis. Consequently the result is that at present
+only a very few undergraduate engineering students prepare theses.
+
+=Graduate work=
+
+All of the preceding discussion applies only to undergraduate work.
+Only comparatively few engineering students take graduate work. A few
+institutions have enough such students to justify, for administrative
+reasons, the organization of classes in graduate work, but usually
+such classes are conducted upon principles quite different from those
+employed for undergraduates. No textbooks in the ordinary sense are
+used. Often the student is assigned an experimental or other
+investigation, and is expected to work almost independently of the
+teacher, the chief function of the latter being to criticize the
+methods proposed and to review the results obtained. Such work under
+the guidance of a competent teacher is a most valuable means for
+mental development, training, and inspiration.
+
+                                                   IRA O. BAKER
+  _University of Illinois_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Below is a list of the principal articles relating to engineering
+education, arranged approximately in chronological order.
+
+1. The annual _Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of
+Engineering Education_, from 1913 to date, contain many valuable
+articles on various phases of engineering education. Each volume
+consists of 200 to 300 8vo pages. The society has no permanent
+address. All business is conducted by the secretary, whose address at
+present is University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
+
+The more important papers of the above _Proceedings_ which are closely
+related to the subject of this chapter are included in the list below.
+Many of the articles relate to the teaching of a particular branch of
+engineering, and hence are not mentioned in the following list.
+
+2. "Methods of Teaching Engineering: By Textbook, by Lecturing, by
+Design, by Laboratory, by Memoir." Professor C. F. Allen,
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. An excellent presentation, and
+discussion by others. _Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of
+Engineering Education_, Vol. VII, pages 29-54.
+
+3. "Two Kinds of Education for Engineers." Dean J. B. Johnson,
+University of Wisconsin. An address to the students of the College of
+Engineering of the University of Wisconsin, 1901. Pamphlet published
+by the author; 15 8vo pages. Reprinted in _Addresses of Engineering
+Students_, edited by Waddell and Harrington, pages 25-35.
+
+4. "Potency of Engineering Schools and Their Imperfections." Professor
+D. C. Jackson, University of Wisconsin. An address presented at the
+Quarto-Centennial Celebration of the University of Colorado, 1902.
+_Proceedings_ of that celebration, pages 53-65.
+
+5. "Technical and Pedagogic Value of Examinations." Professor Henry H.
+Norris, Cornell University. A discussion of the general subject,
+containing examples of questions in a topical examination in an
+electrical engineering subject. Discussed at length by several others.
+_Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering
+Education._ Vol. XV, pages 605-618.
+
+6. "Limitations of Efficiency in Engineering Education." Professor
+George F. Swain, Harvard University. An address at the opening of the
+General Engineering Building of Union University, 1910. A discussion
+of various limitations and defects in engineering education. Pamphlet
+published by Union University; 28 small 8vo pages. Reprinted in
+_Addresses of Engineering Students_, edited by Waddell and Harrington,
+pages 231-252.
+
+7. "The Good Engineering Teacher: His Personality and Training."
+Professor William T. Magruder, Ohio State University. An inspiring
+and instructive presidential address. _Proceedings of the Society for
+the Promotion of Engineering Education_, Vol. XXI, pages 27-38.
+
+8. "Hydraulic Engineering Education." D. W. Mead, University of
+Wisconsin. An interesting discussion of the elements an engineer
+should acquire in his education. The article is instructive, and is
+broader than its title; but it contains nothing directly on methods of
+teaching engineering subjects. _Bulletin of the Society for the
+Promotion of Engineering Education_, Vol. IV, No. 5, 1914, pages
+185-198.
+
+9. "Some Considerations Regarding Engineering Education in America."
+Professor G. F. Swain, Harvard University. A paper presented at the
+International Engineering Congress in 1915 in San Francisco,
+California. A brief presentation of the early history of engineering
+education in America, and an inquiry as to the effectiveness of
+present methods. _Transactions of International Engineering Congress_,
+Miscellany, San Francisco, 1915, pages 324-330; discussion, pages
+340-348.
+
+10. "Technical Education for the Professions of Applied Science,"
+President Ira N. Hollis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. A discussion
+of the methods and scope of engineering education, and of the contents
+of a few representative engineering curricula. _Transactions
+International Engineering Congress_, San Francisco, 1915, Miscellany,
+pages 306-325.
+
+11. "What is Best in Engineering Education." Professor H. H. Higbie,
+president Tau Beta Pi Association. An elaborate inquiry among graduate
+members of that association as to the value and relative importance of
+the different subjects pursued in college, of the time given to each,
+and of the methods employed in presenting them. Pamphlet published by
+the Association, 107 8vo pages.
+
+12. "Some Details in Engineering Education." Professor Henry S.
+Jacoby, Cornell University. A president's address, containing many
+interesting and instructive suggestions concerning various details of
+teaching engineering subjects and the relations between students and
+instructor. _Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of
+Engineering Education_, Vol. XXIII, 15 pages.
+
+13. "Report of Progress in the Study of Engineering Education."
+Professor C. R. Mann. Several of the National Engineering Societies
+requested the Carnegie Foundation to conduct a thorough investigation
+of engineering education, and the Foundation committed the
+investigation to Professor C. R. Mann. First Report of Progress,
+_Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering
+Education_, Vol. XXIII, pages 70-85; Second Report, Bulletin, same,
+November, 1916, pages 125-144; Final Report: A Study of Engineering
+Education by Charles Riborg Mann, _Bulletin Number 11, Carnegie
+Foundation for Advancement of Teaching_, 1918.
+
+14. "Relation of Mathematical Training to the Engineering Profession."
+H. D. Gaylord, Secretary of the Association of Teachers of
+Mathematics in New England, and Professor Paul H. Hanus, Harvard
+University. An elaborate inquiry as to the opinion of practicing
+engineers concerning the importance of mathematics in the work of the
+engineer. _Bulletin of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering
+Education_, October, 1916, pages 54-72.
+
+15. "Does Present-Day Engineering College Education Produce Accuracy
+and Thoroughness?" Professor D. W. Mead, University of Wisconsin, and
+Professor G. F. Swain, Harvard University. An animated discussion as
+to the effectiveness of a collegiate engineering education.
+_Engineering Record_, Vol. 73 (May 6, 1916), pages 607-609.
+
+16. "Teach Engineering Students Fundamental Principles." Professor D.
+S. Jacobus, Stevens Institute. Address of the retiring president of
+the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. A clear and forceful
+discussion of general methods of studying and teaching, and of the
+choice of subjects to be taught. _Engineering Record_, December 16,
+1916, pages 739-740.
+
+17. A considerable number of thoughtful articles on the general
+subject of technical education appeared in the columns of _Mining and
+Scientific Press_ (San Francisco, California) during the year 1916. In
+the main these articles discuss general engineering education, and
+give a little attention to mining engineering education.
+
+18. Since the preceding was written there has appeared a little book,
+the reading of which would be of great value to all engineering
+students, entitled _How to Study_, by George Fillmore Swain, LL.D.,
+Professor of Civil Engineering in Harvard University and in the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
+York City, 1917. 5 x 7-1/2 inches, paper, 63 pages, 25 cents.
+
+
+
+
+XXVI
+
+THE TEACHING OF MECHANICAL DRAWING
+
+
+=Mechanical drawing a mode of expression=
+
+Drawing is a mode of expression and is therefore a form of language.
+As applied in the engineering field drawing is mechanical in character
+and is used principally for the purpose of conveying information
+relative to the construction of machines and structures. It seems
+logical that the methods employed and the standards adopted in the
+teaching of engineering drawing should be based on an analysis of
+conditions found in the engineering world. In the best engineering
+practice the technical standards of drawing are high, so high in fact
+that they may be used as an ideal toward which to work in the
+classroom. Examples of good draftsmanship selected from practice may
+well serve to furnish standards for classroom work, both in technique
+and methods of representation.
+
+=Mechanical drawing disciplinary as well as practical in value=
+
+Engineering drawing demands intellectual power quite as much as it
+does skill of hand. The draftsman in conceiving and planning his
+design visualizes his problem, makes calculations for it, and
+graphically represents the results upon the drafting board. The
+development of the details of his design makes it necessary that he be
+a trained observer of forms. Since new designs frequently involve
+modifications of old forms, in his efforts to recall old forms and
+create new ones, he develops visual memory. If the requirements of a
+successful draftsman or designer be taken as typical, it is evident
+that the young engineer must develop, in addition to a technical
+knowledge of the subject, and a certain degree of skill of hand, a
+habit of quick and accurate observation and the ability to perceive
+and retain mental images of forms.
+
+Modern methods of instruction recognize both the motor and mental
+factors involved in the production of engineering drawings. It is the
+aim of the drawing courses in engineering colleges to familiarize the
+student with the standards of technique and methods of representation
+found in the best commercial practice; likewise to develop in him the
+powers to visualize and reason, which are possessed by the commercial
+draftsman and designers.
+
+=Organization and content of courses in mechanical drawing=
+
+The drawing courses of engineering curricula may be divided into two
+groups: (1) _General courses_, in which the principles and methods of
+representation are taught, together with such practice in drawing as
+will develop a satisfactory technique. (2) _Technical courses_, the
+aim of which is to assist the student to acquire technical knowledge
+or training, drawing being used primarily for the purpose of
+developing or testing a student's knowledge of the subject matter.
+
+The general courses usually include an elementary course and a course
+in descriptive geometry. These courses deal with the fundamental
+principles and methods which have universal application in the
+advanced and technical courses. While the courses of the two groups
+may overlap, the general courses precede the courses of the technical
+group. There is no general agreement as to the order in which the
+subjects belonging to the general group should be given. Each of the
+following orders is in use:
+
+1. A course in descriptive geometry followed by an elementary
+technical course.
+
+2. An elementary course and a course in descriptive geometry given
+simultaneously.
+
+3. An elementary course followed by a course in descriptive geometry.
+
+The _first plan_ is followed by a number of institutions which
+conclude, because of the general practice of offering courses in
+drawing in the secondary schools, that pupils entering college have a
+knowledge of the fundamentals ordinarily included in an elementary
+course. In other institutions it is held that the principles of
+projection can be taught to students of college age in a course of
+descriptive geometry without preliminary drill.
+
+Where the _second plan_ is used, the courses are so correlated that
+the instruction in the use of instruments given in an elementary
+course is applied in solving problems in descriptive geometry, while
+the principles of projection taught in descriptive geometry are
+applied in the making of working drawings. This plan is followed by
+several of the larger engineering colleges.
+
+Under the _third plan_ the principles of projection are taught through
+their applications in the form of working drawings. In this way the
+principles may be taught in more elementary form than is possible in
+any adequate treatment of descriptive geometry. The illustration of
+the principles in a concrete way makes it possible for those who find
+visualizing difficult, to develop that power before abstract
+principles of projection are taken up in the descriptive geometry. The
+skill of hand developed in the elementary course makes it possible to
+give entire attention to a study of the principles in the course in
+descriptive geometry. While excellent results are being obtained under
+each of the three plans, this plan is the one most generally adopted.
+
+The order of courses in the technical drawing groups is determined by
+other considerations than those relating to drawing, such as
+prerequisites in mathematics, strength of materials, etc.
+
+=The elementary courses=
+
+The elementary courses have undergone a number of important changes
+during recent years. In those of the present day more attention than
+formerly is given to the making of complete working drawings. In the
+earlier courses the elements were taught in the form of exercises. In
+the latter part of the courses the elements were combined in working
+drawings. In the modern courses, however, there is a very marked
+tendency to eliminate the exercise and make the applications of
+elements in the form of working drawings throughout the course.
+
+In the early type of course the theory of projection was taught by
+using the synthetic method; i.e., by placing the emphasis first upon
+the projection of points, then lines, surfaces, and finally
+geometrical solids. In the modern type of course, however, this order
+is reversed and the analytic method is used; i.e., solids in the
+form of simple machine or structural parts are first represented, then
+the principles of projection involved in the representation of their
+surfaces, edges, and finally their corners are studied. In this type
+of course the student works from the concrete to the abstract rather
+than from the abstract to the concrete.
+
+=Fundamentals of the elementary course=
+
+_Geometrical constructions_, which were formerly given as exercises
+and which served as a means of giving excellent practice in the use of
+instruments, are now incorporated in working drawings and emphasized
+in making views of objects. It is believed that in the applied form
+these constructions offer the same opportunity for the training in
+accuracy in the use of instruments that was had in the abstract
+exercises, to which is added interest naturally secured by making
+applications of elements in working drawings.
+
+_Conventions_ are also taught in an applied form and are introduced as
+the skill for executing them and the theory involved in their
+construction are developed in the progress of the course.
+
+The type of _freehand lettering_ most generally taught is that used in
+practice; i.e., the single-stroke Gothic. The best commercial
+drafting-room practice suggests the use of the vertical capitals for
+titles and subtitles, and the inclined, lower case letters and
+numerals for notes and dimensions.
+
+The plan generally found to produce satisfactory results is to divide
+the letters and numerals of the alphabet into groups containing four
+or five letters and numerals on the basis of form and to concentrate
+the attention of the student on these, one group at a time. The simple
+forms are considered first, and enough practice is given to enable the
+student to proportion the letters and numerals and make the strokes in
+the proper order.
+
+It is more natural to make inclined letters than vertical ones, and
+they are therefore easier to execute. If both vertical and inclined
+letters are taught, the instruction on the vertical should be given
+first, as it is more difficult to make vertical strokes after becoming
+accustomed to the inclined strokes.
+
+_Freehand perspective sketching_ affords the most natural method of
+representing objects in outline. It is of particular value in
+interpreting orthographic drawing. The student who first draws a
+perspective sketch of an object becomes so familiar with every detail
+of it that he cannot fail to have a clearer mental image of its form
+when he attempts to draw its orthographic views. It gives a valuable
+training in coordinating the hand and eye in drawing freehand lines
+and estimating proportions. It also serves as an intermediate step
+between observing an object and drawing it orthographically.
+
+_Freehand orthographic sketching_ is now quite commonly incorporated
+in modern courses in mechanical drawing. Such sketches serve as a
+preliminary step in the preparation of the mechanical drawing. They
+correspond to the sketches made by the engineer or draftsman for
+drafting-room or shop use. The experience of many instructors seems to
+indicate that the early introduction of freehand perspective and
+orthographic sketching in a course of mechanical drawing serves as a
+means of developing that skill in freehand execution which is so
+necessary in rendering the freehand features of a mechanical drawing.
+When this type of skill is acquired before the mechanical work is
+started, the mechanical and freehand technique may be simultaneously
+developed.
+
+The organization of an elementary course composed largely of a
+progressive series of working drawings necessitates the giving of
+considerable attention to the selection of problems involving the use
+of the above-named fundamentals to make the course increasingly
+difficult for the student. The drawing of views involves geometrical
+constructions and conventions, while the dimensions, notes, and title
+invoke the making of arrowheads, letters, and numerals. In such an
+elementary course the student receives not only the training in the
+fundamentals, but also in their application in working drawings which
+furnish complete and accurate information in the desired form.
+
+=Descriptive geometry=
+
+The modern methods of teaching descriptive geometry apply the theory
+of the subject to applications in problems taken from engineering
+practice. The introduction of practical applications adds interest to
+the subject and makes the theory more easily understood. The number of
+applications should be as great as possible without interfering with
+the development of the theory. Such a treatment of descriptive
+geometry, following a thorough course in elementary drawing, should
+make it possible to deal with abstract principles of projection with a
+few well-chosen applications.
+
+Descriptive geometry aids materially in developing the power of
+visualization which is so essential to the training of the engineer.
+The graphical applications of the subject in the solution of
+engineering problems may be used as a means of testing the student's
+ability to visualize.
+
+There is now very little discussion relative to the advantages and
+disadvantages of the first and third angle projection. Since the third
+angle is generally used in the elementary course as well as in
+engineering practice, it seems logical that it should be emphasized in
+descriptive geometry. Recent textbooks on this subject confirm the
+tendency toward the use of the third angle.
+
+The use of the third angle presents new difficulties, such as that of
+locating the positions of magnitudes in space in relation to their
+projections. Magnitudes must be located behind or below the drawing
+surface. To obviate such difficulties, some instructors demonstrate
+principles by first angle constructions. Others invert surfaces which
+in the first angle have their bases in the horizontal plane. This
+undesirable device may be overcome by using a second horizontal plane
+in the third angle. Such means of demonstration may be avoided
+altogether by considering the space relations of magnitude to one
+another instead of relating them to the planes of projection. This
+method centers the attention of the student on the relation of
+magnitudes represented and develops visualization. It has been found
+to give excellent results in both elementary drawing and descriptive
+geometry.
+
+To bring the teaching of descriptive geometry into closer harmony with
+its application in practice, auxiliary views are frequently used
+instead of the method of rotations.
+
+Briefly, then, it appears that the modern course in descriptive
+geometry should contain enough applications to hold the interest of
+the student and to test his power of visualization; that the third
+angle should be emphasized, and some use should be made of auxiliary
+views. Above all, the development of visualizing ability should be
+considered one of the chief aims of the course.
+
+=Methods of instruction in general courses=
+
+In teaching drawing and descriptive geometry, lectures,
+demonstrations, and individual instruction each have a place.
+Principles can best be presented in the form of lectures. The manual
+part of the work can be presented most effectively by means of
+demonstrations. The instructor should illustrate the proper use of
+instruments and materials by actually going through the process
+himself, calling attention to important points and explaining each
+step as he proceeds. Individual instruction given at the student's
+desk is a vital factor in teaching drawing, as it offers the best
+means of clearing up erroneous impressions and ministering to the
+needs of the individual student.
+
+Frequent recitations and quizzes serve the purpose of keeping the
+instructor informed as to the effectiveness of his instruction and as
+a means by which the student can measure his own progress and grasp
+upon the subject.
+
+=Methods of instruction in technical drawing courses=
+
+Those drawing courses which have for their primary object the teaching
+of technical subject matter make use of the drawings as an instrument
+to record facts and to test the student's knowledge of principles and
+methods.
+
+In the technical courses it should be possible to assume a knowledge
+of the material given in the general courses. Some effort is usually
+necessary, however, to maintain the standards already established. The
+effort thus expended should result in improving technique and
+increased speed.
+
+=The four-year drawing course=
+
+In an institution where drawing courses are given throughout the four
+years, much can be done by organization and cooperation to make the
+time spent by the student productive of the best results. More time
+than can usually be secured for the general courses is necessary to
+develop skill that will be comparable with that found in practice. The
+conditions in technical drawing courses approximate those in practice.
+They apply methods taught in the general courses. The limited time,
+frequently less than 300 clock hours, devoted to the general courses
+makes it desirable that advantage be taken in the technical courses
+for further development of technique and skill. In a number of
+institutions all work in drawing is so organized as to form a single
+drawing unit. This plan calls for cooperation on the part of all
+drawing teachers in the institution. The results obtained by this
+method seem amply to justify the effort put forth.
+
+=Conclusion=
+
+The final test in any course or group of drawing courses may be
+measured by the student's ability to solve problems met with in
+engineering practice. Measured upon this basis, the newer types of
+courses discussed herein, those founded upon the analytic method and
+developed largely as a progressive series of working drawings, seem to
+be meeting with better results than did those of the older type in
+which the synthetic method predominated and in which abstract problems
+were principally used.
+
+While the college man is not fitting himself to become a draftsman, it
+is quite true that many start their engineering careers in the
+drafting office. Those who think well and are proficient in expressing
+their thoughts through the medium of drawing are most apt to attract
+attention which places them in line for higher positions.
+
+Those who do not enter the engineering field through the drafting
+office will find the cultural and disciplinary training and the habits
+of precision and neatness instilled by a good course in drawing of
+great value.
+
+                                  J. D. PHILLIPS and H. D. ORTH
+  _University of Wisconsin_
+
+
+
+
+XXVII
+
+THE TEACHING OF JOURNALISM
+
+
+The education of the journalist or newspaper man has been brought into
+being by the evolution of the newspaper during the last half century.
+Addison's _Spectator_ two centuries ago counted almost wholly on the
+original and individual expression of opinion. It had nothing beyond a
+few advertisements. The news sheet of the day was as wholly personal,
+a billboard of news and advertisements with contributed opinion in
+signed articles. A century ago, nearly half the space in a daily went
+to such communications. In the four-page and the eight-page newspaper
+of sixty to eighty years ago, taking all forms of opinions,--leaders
+contributed, political correspondence from capitals, state and
+federal, and criticism,--about one fourth of the space went to
+utterance editorial in character. The news filled as much more,
+running to a larger or smaller share as advertisements varied. The
+news was little edited. The telegraph down to 1880 was taken, not as
+it came, but more nearly so than today. In an eight-page New York
+paper between 1865 and 1875, a news editor with one assistant and a
+city editor with one assistant easily handled city, telegraph, and
+other copy. None of it had the intensive treatment of today. It was
+not until 1875 that telegraph and news began to be sharply edited, the
+New York Sun and the Springfield _Republican_ leading. Between 1875
+and 1895, the daily paper doubled in size, and the Sunday paper
+quadrupled and quintupled. The relative share taken by editorial and
+critical matter remained about the same in amount, grew more varied in
+character, but dropped from 25 per cent of the total space in a
+four-page newspaper to 3 to 5 per cent in the dailies with sixteen to
+twenty pages, and the news required from three to five times as many
+persons to handle it. The circulation of individual papers in our
+large cities doubled and quadrupled, and the weekly expenditure of a
+New York paper rose from $10,000 a week to thrice that. These rough,
+general statements, varying with different newspapers as well as issue
+by issue in the same newspaper, represent a still greater change in
+the character of the subjects covered.
+
+When the newspaper was issued in communities, of a simple
+organization, in production, transportation, and distribution, the
+newspaper had some advertising, some news, and personal expression of
+opinion--political-partisan for the most part, critical in small part.
+This opinion was chiefly, though even then not wholly, expressed by a
+single personality, sometimes dominant, able, unselfish, and in nature
+a social prophet, but in most instances weak, time-serving, and
+self-seeking, and partisan, with one eye on advertising, official
+preferred, and the other on profits, public office, and other
+contingent personal results.
+
+In the complex society today, classified, stratified, organized, and
+differentiated, the newspaper is a complex representation of this
+life. The railroad is a far more important social agency than the
+stagecoach. It carries more people; it offers the community more; but
+the individual passenger counted for more in the eye of the traveling
+public in the stagecoach than today in the railroad train; but nobody
+would pretend to say that the railroad president was less important
+than the head of a stage line, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, President of the
+Pennsylvania Railroad and builder of its terminal, than John E.
+Reeside, the head of the express stage line from New York to
+Philadelphia, who beat all previous records in speed and stages.
+
+The newspaper-complex, representing all society, still expressing the
+opinion of society, not merely on politics but on all the range of
+life, creating, developing, and modifying this opinion, publishes news
+which has been standardized by cooperative news-gathering
+associations, local, national, and international. In the daily of
+today "politics" is but a part and a decreasing part, and a world of
+new topics has come into pages which require technical skill, the
+well-equipped mind, a wide information, and knowledge of the
+condition of the newspaper. The early reporter who once gathered the
+city news and turned it in to be put into type and made up by the
+foreman,--often also, owner and publisher,--in a sheet as big as a
+pocket-handkerchief, is as far removed from the men who share in the
+big modern daily, as far as is the modern railroad man from the rough,
+tough individual proprietor and driver of the stagecoach, though the
+driver of the latter was often a most original character, and a
+well-known figure on the highway as railroad men are not.
+
+=Evolution of the profession of journalism=
+
+As this change in the American newspaper came between 1860 and 1880,
+the public demand came for the vocational training of the journalist
+and experiments in obtaining it began. When Charles A. Dana bought the
+New York _Sun_ in 1868, he made up his staff, managing editor, news
+editor, city editor, Albany correspondent and political man, from
+among the printers he had known on the New York _Tribune_. In ten
+years these were succeeded by college graduates, and the _Sun_ became
+a paper whose writing staff, as a whole, had college training, nearly
+all men from the colleges.
+
+College men were in American journalism from its early beginnings;
+but, speaking in a broad sense, the American newspaper drew most of
+its staff in the eighteenth century and in the first half of the
+nineteenth century from among men who had the rough but effective
+training of the composing room, with the common school as a beginning.
+When the high school developed from 1860 on, it began to furnish a
+large number of journalists, particularly in Philadelphia, where the
+Central High School manned many papers. By 1880, college men began to
+appear in a steadily growing proportion, so far as the general writing
+staff was concerned. If one counted the men at the top, they were in a
+small proportion. In journalism, as in all arts of expression, a
+special and supreme gift will probably always make up for lack of
+special training.
+
+Between 1890 and 1900, the American newspaper as it is today was
+fairly launched, and Joseph Pulitzer, the ablest man in dealing with
+the journalism of and for the many, was the first conspicuous figure
+in the newspaper world to see that the time had come for the
+professional training of the journalist, the term he preferred to
+"newspaper men." Neither the calling nor the public were ready when he
+made his first proposal, and with singular nobility of soul and sad
+disappointment of heart he determined to pledge his great gift of
+$2,000,000, paying $1,000,000 of it to Columbia University before his
+death and providing that the School of Journalism, to which he
+furnished building and endowment, should be operated within a year
+after his death. This came October 29, 1911, and the school opened the
+following year.
+
+=Journalism today requires general and technical training=
+
+The discussion of the education of the journalist has been in progress
+for twoscore years. In 1870 Whitelaw Reid published his address on the
+"School of Journalism" and urged systematic training, for which in the
+bitter personal newspaper of the day he was ridiculed as "the young
+professor of journalism." In 1885, Mr. Charles E. Fitch, but just gone
+after long newspaper service, delivered a course of lectures on the
+training of the journalist, at Cornell University. Two years later Mr.
+Brainerd Smith, before and after of the New York _Sun_, then professor
+of elocution in the same university, began training in the work of the
+newspaper in his class in composition, sending out his class on
+assignments and outlining possible occurrences which the class wrote
+out. This experiment was abruptly closed by Mr. Henry W. Sage,
+Chairman of the Cornell Board of Trustees, because the newspapers of
+Minneapolis inclined to treat the university as important, chiefly
+because it taught "journalism." Mr. Fred Newton Scott, professor of
+rhetoric in the University of Michigan in 1893, began, with less
+newspaper notice, training in newspaper English, continuing to the
+present time his happy success in teaching style to his students.
+
+In 1908, Mr. Walter Williams, for twenty-four years editor, first of
+the Boonville _Advertiser_, and then of the Columbia, Missouri,
+_Herald_, became dean of the first school of journalism opened in the
+same year by the University of Missouri. This example was followed
+under the direction of Willard G. Bleyer in the University of
+Wisconsin. By 1911, nearly a score of colleges, universities, and
+technical schools were giving courses in journalism.
+
+By 1916, the directory of teachers of journalism compiled by Mr. Carl
+F. Getz, of the University of Ohio, showed 107 universities and
+colleges which gave courses in journalism, 28 state universities, 17
+state colleges and schools of journalism, and 62 colleges, endowed,
+denominational, or municipal.
+
+The teachers who offered courses in journalism numbered 127. Of these,
+25 were in trade, industrial, and agricultural schools, their courses
+dealing with aspects of writing demanded in the fields to which the
+institution devoted its work. The number of students in all these
+institutions numbered about 5000. This gave about 1200 students a
+year, who had completed their studies and gone out with a degree
+recording college or technical work in which training in journalism
+played its part. With about 40,000 men and women who were
+"journalists" in the country at this time, there are probably--the
+estimate is little better than a guess--about 3000 posts becoming
+vacant each year, in all branches of periodical work, monthly, weekly,
+and daily.
+
+The various training in journalism now offered stands ready to furnish
+a little less than half this demand. I judge it actually supplies
+yearly somewhat less than a fourth of the new men and women entering
+the calling, say about 750 in all. As in all professional schools, a
+number never enter the practice of the calling for which they are
+presumably prepared and still larger numbers leave it after a short
+trial. In addition, training for the work of the journalist opens the
+door to much publicity work, to some teaching, and to a wide range of
+business posts where writing is needed. No account also has been made
+here of the wide range of miscellaneous courses in advertising
+provided by universities, colleges and schools of journalism by
+advertising clubs, by private schools, and by teachers, local,
+lecturing and peripatetic. It will take at least ten years more before
+those who have systematic teaching in journalism will be numerous
+enough to color the life of the office of the magazine or newspaper,
+and a generation before they are in the majority.
+
+=Development of courses and schools of journalism=
+
+But numbers are not the only gauge of the influence of professional
+study on the calling itself. The mere presence, the work, the
+activities, and the influence of professional schools raise the
+standards of a calling. Those in its work begin to see their daily
+task from the standpoint which training implies. Since the
+overwhelming majority of newspaper men believe in their calling, love
+it, rejoice in it, regret its defects, and honor its achievements,
+they begin consciously to try to show how good a newspaper can be made
+with nothing but the tuition of the office. Inaccuracy, carelessness,
+bad taste, and dubious ethics present themselves at a different angle
+when judged in the light of a calling for which colleges and
+universities furnish training. A corporate spirit and a corporate
+standard are felt more strongly, and men who have learned all they
+know in a newspaper office have a just, noble, and often successful
+determination to advance these standards and endeavor to equal in
+advance anything the school can accomplish. This affects both those
+who have had college training and those who come to their work as
+newspaper men with only the education of the public schools, high or
+elementary. More than 1000 letters have been received by the School of
+Journalism in Columbia University, since it was opened, asking advice
+as to the reading and study which could aid a man or woman unable to
+leave the newspaper office to study to improve their work. College
+graduates, in particular on newspapers, begin systematic study on
+their own account, aware of an approaching competition. Definite
+standards in newspaper writing and in diction begin to be recognized
+and practiced in the office, and slips in either meet a more severe
+criticism.
+
+Newspaper associations of all orders play their part in this
+spontaneous training. Advertising clubs and their great annual
+gatherings have censored the periodic publicity of the advertising
+column as no other agency whatever could possibly have done. How far
+this educating influence has transformed this share of the American
+periodical in all its fields only those can realize who have studied
+past advertisements. Every state has its editorial association. These
+draw together more men from the weeklies and the dailies in cities
+under 50,000 of population than from cities of more than 500,000.
+These associations thirty years ago were little more than social. They
+have come to be educational agencies of the first importance. They
+create and assert new norms of conduct and composition. The papers
+read are normally didactic. All men try to be what they assert they
+are. From the American Newspaper Publishers' Association, bringing
+together nearly 1000 of our leading newspapers to meetings of the
+weeklies of a county, a region in a state, a whole state, sections
+like New England or the Southern States of particular classes of
+periodicals, these various organizations are rapidly instituting a
+machinery, and breathing a spirit whose work is a valid factor in the
+education of the newspaper man. Not the least influence which the
+schools of journalism exert on the active work of the calling is
+through these associations, particularly in the states west of the
+Mississippi where, at the present stage of journalism in this region,
+state universities can through schools of journalism bring newspapers
+together at a "newspaper week."
+
+=Journalism raised to dignity of a profession by schools of journalism=
+
+The rapid growth in students registered in "journalism" courses did
+not gauge the demand for professional teaching in the craft of the
+newspaper or the magazine. A large share of the "journalism" taught
+consisted simply in teaching newspaper English. The college course has
+been nowhere so vehemently and vigorously attacked as in the training
+it gave in writing English. Few were satisfied with it, least of all
+those who taught it. At least one college professor, whose method and
+textbooks were launched thirty years ago, has recanted all his early
+work in teaching composition and pronounced it valueless or worse. The
+college graduate, after courses in English composition (at least one
+in the freshman year and often two or three more), in many instances
+found himself unable to write a business letter, describe a plan
+projected in business affairs, compose advertisements, or narrate a
+current event. This was not invariably the case, but it occurred often
+enough to be noted. Books, pamphlets, and papers multiplied on this
+lack of training for practical writing in college composition courses.
+The world of education discovered, what the newspapers had found by
+experience, that the style of expression successful in literature did
+not bring results in man's daily task of reaching his fellow man on
+the homely and direct issues of daily life. In literature, genius is
+seeking to express itself. In the newspaper and in business, the
+writer is trying--and only trying--to express and interpret his
+subject so as to reach the other and contemporary man. If he does
+this, he wins. If not, he fails. Genius can, should be, careless of
+the immediate audience, and wait for the final and ultimate response.
+No newspaper article and no advertisement can. For them, style is only
+a means. In letters, form is final. The verdict of posterity and not
+of the yearly subscriber or daily purchaser is decisive.
+
+=Journalistic writing demands a distinctive style and calls for immediate
+response=
+
+In the high school and college, from 1910 on, there came courses in
+English which turned to the newspaper for methods and means of
+expression, and were called "courses in journalism." They were really
+courses in the English of the newspaper, besprinkled with lectures on
+the diction of the newspaper and the use of words--futile efforts,
+through lists of words that must not be used, to give a sound rule of
+the selection of language by the writer, and, above all, attempts to
+secure simple, direct, incisive narrative and discussion. These are
+all useful in their place and work. They prepare a man for some of the
+first steps of the newspaper office, particularly in the swift,
+mechanical routine and technique of "copy," indispensable where what
+is copy now is on the street for sale within an hour.
+
+Where an instructor has himself the gift of style and the capacity to
+impart it, where he is himself a man who sells his stuff and knows
+what stuff will sell, where he has taste and inspiring, effective
+teaching power, a course in newspaper English may carry a man far in
+acquiring command of his powers of expression to their profitable use.
+These "courses in journalism" sometimes run for only a single
+semester. Many run for the normal span of three hours a week through a
+year. Sometimes there are two in succession, the second assuming the
+task of teaching work which a newspaper beginner usually reaches in
+from three to five years: the special article, the supplement, study
+of a subject, the "feature" story, criticism, and the editorial. When
+these courses are based on assignments which lead a man to go out and
+get the facts on which he writes, they furnish a certain share of
+training in the art of reporting. Where this is done in a college town
+and a college community, however, the work is a far remove from that
+where the reporter must dive and wrestle in the seething tide of a
+great city, to return with news wrested from its native bed.
+
+=Courses in "newspaper English"=
+
+Newspaper English has its great and widest value to the man who wishes
+to learn how he can affect the other man. A course in it is certain,
+if the instruction is effective, to leave a student better able to
+express himself in the normal needs of life. This work is taken by
+many students as part of the effective training of college life, with
+no expectation of entering active newspaper work. The demand for
+publicity work in all business fields, and its value to the social
+worker, the teacher, and the clergyman, lead others to this
+specialized training. In at least one of our state universities, half
+those who take the courses in journalism do not look to the newspaper
+in the future. The curriculum is often so arranged that in a four-year
+college course it will be practicable to combine these courses in
+newspaper English with the parts of work offered, required for, or
+preparatory to the three learned professions, social service,
+business, and the applied sciences. Such an arrangement of studies
+frankly recognizes the value in general education and after life of
+training in the direct expression the newspaper uses. In no long time
+every college will have at least one such course in its English
+department.
+
+But this course in direct writing stands alone, without any systematic
+training in journalism; it should not be called a course in journalism
+any more than a course in political science dealing with law, or a
+course in physiology or hygiene, can be called courses in law or
+medicine, because they cover material used in schools of law or
+schools of medicine. It is an advantage for any educated man to learn
+to write clearly, simply, to the point; to put the purpose, object,
+and force of an article at the beginning, and to be as much like
+Daniel Defoe and Franklin, and as little like Walter Pater or Samuel
+Johnson, as possible; it is well for him to have a general view of the
+newspaper and its needs; it is a mistake to leave him with the
+impression that he has the training journalism demands. He is no
+better off at this point than any college graduate who has picked up
+for himself, by nature or through practice and imitation, the direct
+newspaper method.
+
+=Functions of a school of journalism: To select as well as to train=
+
+President Eliot, when the organization of a school of journalism came
+before him, cast his august and misleading influence for the view that
+a college education was enough training for newspaper work. Many still
+believe this. In more than one city-room today college men are
+challenging the right of the graduates of a school of journalism to
+look on themselves as better fitted for the newspaper office than
+those who are graduates of a good college. If the training of the
+school has done no more than graft some copy-writing and some
+copy-editing on the usual curriculum, they are right. If the coming
+journalist has got his training in classes, half of whose number had
+no professional interest in the course offered, the claim for the
+college course may be found to be well based. Men teach each other in
+the classroom. A common professional purpose creates common
+professional ideals and common professional aims as no training can,
+given without this, though it deal with identically the same
+subjects.
+
+The training of the journalist will at this point go through the same
+course as the training of other callings. The palpable thing about
+law, the objective fact it presents first to the layman, is procedure
+and form. This began legal education. A man entered a law office. He
+ran errands and served papers which taught him how suits were opened.
+A bright New York office boy in a law firm will know how many days can
+pass before some steps must be taken or be too late, better than the
+graduate of a law school. The law students in an office once endlessly
+copied forms and learned that phase of law. For generations men "eat
+their dinners" at the Inns of Court and learned no more. The law
+itself they learned through practice, at the expense of their clients.
+Anatomy was the obvious thing about medicine when Vesalius, of the
+strong head and weak heart, cleaned away the superstitions of part of
+the medical art and discovered a new world at twenty-eight. The
+medical training of even seventy years ago, twenty years after
+cellular pathology had dawned, held wearisome hours of dissection now
+known to be a waste. It is the functions of the body and its organs
+which we now know to be the more important, and not the bones,
+muscles, nerves, and organs considered as mere mechanism.
+
+The classroom is the patent thing about instruction. The normal
+schools lavished time on the tricks of teaching until flocks of
+instructors in the high schools and colleges could not inaccurately be
+divided into those who could teach and knew nothing and those who knew
+something and could not teach. Our colleges early thought they could
+weave in Hebrew and theology, and send out clergymen, and later tried
+to give the doctor a foundation on which eighteen subsequent months
+could graft all he needed of medicine.
+
+Reporting is the obvious aspect of journalism which the ignorant
+layman sees. Many hold the erroneous view that the end of a school of
+journalism is to train reporters. Reporting is not journalism. It is
+the open door to the newspaper office, partly because there are very
+few reporters of many years' service. Some of them are, but able men
+before long usually work out of a city-room, or gain charge of some
+field of city news, doing thus what is in fact reporting, but combined
+with editorial, critical, and correspondent work. Such is the Wall
+Street man, the local politics man, the City Hall man, or the Police
+Headquarters man, who gathers facts and counts acquaintance as one of
+his professional assets. But these men are doing, in their work, far
+more than reporting as it presents itself to those who see in the task
+only an assignment. Such men know the actual working of the financial
+mechanism, not as economists see it, but as Bagehot knew it. They
+understand the actual working of municipal machinery besides having a
+minute knowledge of character, decision, practice, and precedent in
+administration. In our real politics, big and little, they and the
+Washington and Albany correspondents are the only men who know both
+sides, are trusted with the secrets of both parties, and read closed
+pages of the book of the chronicles of the Republic. As for the Police
+Headquarters man, he too alone knows both police and crime, and no
+investigation surprises him by its revelations. If a man, for a
+season, has had the work of one of these posts, he comes to feel that
+he writes for an ignorant world, and if he have the precious gift of
+youth, looks on himself as favored of mortals early, seeing the events
+of which others hear, daily close to the center of affairs, knowing
+men as they are and storing confidence against the day of revelation.
+
+Men like these are the very heart's core of a newspaper. Their posts
+train them. So do the key posts of a newspaper, its guiding and
+directing editors and those who do the thinking for thinking men by
+the hundred thousand in editorial, criticism, and article. It is for
+this order of work on a newspaper that a school of journalism trains.
+It is to these posts that, if its men are properly trained, its
+graduates rapidly ascend, after a brief apprenticeship in the
+city-room and a round in the routine work of a paper. Dull men,
+however educated, will never pass these grades, and not passing they
+will drop out. A school should sift such out; but so far, in all our
+professional training, it is only the best medical schools which are
+inflexible in dealing with mediocrity. Most teachers know better, but
+let the shifty and dull pass by. The newspaper itself has to be
+inexorable, and no well-organized office helps twice the man who is
+dull once; but he and his kind come often enough to mar the record.
+
+Journalism, like other professions, has its body of special tasks and
+training, but, as in other callings, clear comprehension of this body
+of needs will develop in instruction slowly. The case system in law
+and the laboratory method in medicine came after some generations or
+centuries of professional work and are only a generation old. Any one
+who has sought to know the development of these two methods sees that
+much in our schools of journalism is where law and medical schools
+were sixty years ago. We are still floundering and have not yet solved
+the problem of giving background, concision, accuracy, and interest to
+the report, of really editing copy and not merely condensing and
+heading it, of recognizing and developing the editorial and critical
+mind, and most of all, of shutting out early the shallow, the
+wrong-headed, the self-seeking, and the unballasted student.
+
+=The average college student lacks expressional power: Reasons=
+
+The very best law and medical schools get the better of this, and only
+the best. They are greatly aided by a state examination which tests
+and tries all their work, braces their teaching, stimulates their men,
+and directs their studies. This will inevitably come in journalism,
+though most practicing newspaper men do not believe this. Neither did
+doctors before 1870 expect this. As the newspaper comes closer and
+closer into daily life, inflicts wounds without healing and does
+damage for which no remedy exists, the public will require of the
+writer on a daily at least as much proof of competency as it does of a
+plumber. This competency sharply divides between training in the
+technical work of the newspaper and in those studies that knowledge
+which newspaper work requires. Capacity to write with accuracy, with
+effect, with interest, and with style is the first and most difficult
+task among the technical requirements of the public journal. As has
+already been said, a gift for expression is needed, but even this
+cannot be exercised or developed unless a man has acquired diction and
+come in contact with style, for all the arts rest on the imitation of
+accepted models. Many students in all schools of journalism come from
+immigrant families and are both inconceivably ignorant of English and
+inconceivably satisfied with their acquirement of English, as we all
+are with a strange tongue we have learned to speak. Even in families
+with two or more generations of American life, the vocabulary is
+limited, construction careless, and the daily contact with any
+literature, now that family prayers and Bible reading are gone; almost
+nil. Of the spoken English of teachers in our public schools,
+considered as the basis of training for the writer, it is not seemly
+to speak. Everybody knows college teachers who have never shaken off
+the slovenly phrases and careless syntax of their homes. The thesis on
+which advanced degrees are conferred is a fair and just measure of the
+capacity to write conferred by eleven years of education above the
+"grammar grades." The old drill in accurate and exact rendering of
+Greek and Latin was once the best training for the writer; but
+slovenly sight reading has reduced its value, and a large part of its
+true effect was because the youth who studied the classics fifty years
+ago came in a far larger share than today from families whose elders
+had themselves had their expression and vocabulary trained and
+developed by liberal studies. The capacity for good writing apparent
+at Oxford and Cambridge rests in no small measure on the classical
+family horizon in teacher and taught.
+
+=Kind of training in composition to be given students of journalism=
+
+Those who turn to journalism naturally care for writing, but in an art
+to "care" is little and most have never had the personal environment,
+the training, or the personal command of English to enable them to do
+more than write a stiff prose with a narrow vocabulary and no sense
+of style. Even those who have some such capacity are hampered by the
+family heritage already outlined. College writing is in the same
+condition; but the average college man is not expecting to earn his
+living by his typewriter. In order to receive a minimum capacity in
+writing enough to pass, every year of study for journalism must have a
+writing course and the technical work must run to constant writing.
+From start to finish there must be patient, individual correction. The
+use of the typewriter must be made obligatory. Rigid discipline must
+deal with errors in spelling, grammar, the choice of words and
+phrases. Previous college training in composition must in general be
+revised and made over to secure directness and simplicity. At the end,
+the utmost that can be gained for nineteen out of twenty is some
+facility, a little sense of style and diction, and copy that will be
+above the average of the newspaper and not much above that. Examine
+the writing in the newspapers issued by some schools and the work in
+schools that do not, and a distressingly large portion is either dull
+or "smart," the last, worst fault of the two.
+
+=Effective training in reporting must be given in large urban centers=
+
+Reporting is the first use to which writing is put and through which
+the writer is trained. For this, abundant material is indispensable,
+as much as clinical material for a medical school. As the medical
+schools gravitate to cities, and the rural institutions flicker out
+one by one, so in the end the effectively trained reporter will
+gravitate to a large city. Towns of under 20,000 population furnish a
+very tame sort of reporting, and those who get this training in them
+find reporting is under new conditions in a great metropolis. In such
+a place the peril is that routine news will take too much of the
+precious time for training the reporter and the demands of academic
+hours will interfere with sharing in the best of big stories.
+
+=Aims in teaching the art of reporting=
+
+Routine is the curse of the newspaper, and it is at its worst in
+reporting. In its face the four hard things to get are the combination
+of the vivid, the accurate, and the informed and the condensed story.
+Equipped newspapers of high standards like the New York _World_
+require recourse to reference books, the "morgue," and the files in
+every story where details can be added to the day's digging in that
+particular news vein. Condensation comes next. The young cub reporter
+generally shuns both. He hates to look up his subject. He spreads
+himself like a sitting hen over one egg. Both must be required for
+efficient training. Compression it is difficult to enforce in a school
+where paper bills are small or do not exist and the space pressure of
+the large daily is absent. A number of dailies of large circulation
+are cultivating very close handling of news and space for feature and
+woman stuff with very great profit, and the schools give too little
+attention to this new phase of the newspaper. In all papers, the old
+tendency to print anything that came by wire is gone and mere "news"
+has not the place it once had. In particular, local news was cut down
+one half in a majority of dailies in cities of 250,000 and over from
+August, 1914, to the close of the war. The small daily in places of
+less than 50,000 and weeklies did not do this, which is one reason why
+great tracts of the United States were not ready for war when it came.
+Woe to the land whose watchmen sleep!
+
+=The teaching of copy-editing=
+
+Copy-editing is the next task in the training of the coming newspaper
+man. On the small daily and weekly, there is little of this, but it is
+practiced on the metropolitan daily. There ten to twelve men are
+needed, doing nothing else but editing copy. In the office, two or
+three years are needed to bring a man to this work. No school can
+teach this unless its men give at least a full day to editing a flood
+of copy that will fill a 12 to 16 page newspaper. Where the work of
+the students runs day by day on the copy of one of the lesser dailies,
+editing for that purpose is secured, but not the intensive training
+needed to handle the copy-desk requirements of newspapers in a city of
+1,000,000 population or more in its urban ring. Success in this field
+is proved when men go direct from the classroom to such a desk. This
+carries with it tuition in heads for all needs, make-up, and the close
+editing of special articles, features, and night Associated Press
+copy.
+
+=A liberal curriculum must be part of training for journalism=
+
+Newspaper training will always deal also with subjects and needs a
+course containing a larger proportion of the studies usually taught in
+college or offered in its curriculum. Medicine requires the same
+chemistry, organic and inorganic, the same physics, and the same
+elementary biology as our college courses cover; these sciences are
+more or less like a Mother Hubbard, no very close fit and concealing
+more than is revealed. Johns Hopkins has been able at this point to
+apply tests, personal and particular, gauging both teacher and taught,
+more searching than are elsewhere required. The fruits abundantly
+justify this course, and in time some school of journalism will apply
+like tests to history,--ancient, medieval, and modern,--political
+economy, political science, and the modern languages, which are the
+basis of its work. The practical difficulty is that it is far easier
+to test the three sciences just mentioned than history, politics, and
+economics. No one will seriously assert that these are as rigorously
+taught as chemistry, physics, and biology. The personal equation of
+the teacher counts for more, it is both easier and more tempting to
+inject social theories, not yet tested by current facts, than in
+science. Sciolism is less easily detected in courses which deal with
+the humanitarian held than in science, but it is not less perilous and
+it is not less possible to apply the same experimental tests as in the
+scientific laboratory. He is blind, however, who does not see that
+much advance in the current teaching at any time of history, politics,
+and economics has had its experimental tests as complete and as
+convincing as in any laboratory, which certain teachers wholly refuse
+to accept--sometimes because they are behind the times, sometimes
+because they are before the times; sometimes they are in no time
+whatever but the fool time of vain imaginings that somewhere,
+somewhen, and somehow there is a place where human desires are
+stronger than the inevitable laws which guide and guard the physics,
+the chemistry, and the biology of social bodies.
+
+=Social sciences must be related to life=
+
+A notable difference exists between the views of law taught and
+discussed in a law school and in a school of political science. The
+medical lectures preserve a sobriety in discussing sundry biological
+problems not always present in advanced courses of biology. Both
+lecturers, in both instances, are scientific men, both are faithful to
+the truths of science, but as a distinguished economist, who in his
+early years had been accused of being an advanced socialist, said,
+after he had won a comfortable fortune by judicious investments in
+business, banking, and realty, to a friend of earlier and far-distant
+years: "My principles remain exactly the same, but, I admit, my point
+of view has changed." There is not one biology of the medical school,
+another of the biological laboratory. Neither does the body of law
+differ in a law school or in a school of political science. The
+principles remain exactly the same. Of necessity, however, the point
+of view has changed and treatment has changed with it. So has
+responsibility.
+
+The subject offers some difficulties. The analogy is not at all points
+exact. Medicine and law have a definite body of doctrine. Schools of
+biology and political science have not, but granting all this, it
+still remains true that exactly as the law student and the medical
+student must have what is defined, established, and unmistakable in
+the world of law and of life, so the student looking to journalism
+needs and must have what is defined, established, and unmistakable in
+economics and political science. Here, again, no one will pretend that
+the usual college course in either of these branches is taught with
+the same determination to keep within the same metes and bounds of
+recorded, tested, and ascertained facts as is true of courses in
+physics, chemistry, and biology. The boundary marked is less distinct.
+The periodic law by which the atomic values of elements are
+established is more definite than the periodic law under which wealth
+is distributed through society, though in the end some Mendelleeff
+will record the periodic law of social elements in their composition
+and action. Research is needed and must be free. Theory and
+speculation are as necessary to secure an experiment and observation.
+The principle is clear, however, that the student who is to make
+professional use of a topic needs to have a definite and established
+instruction, not required in one to whom topic is incidental. The
+medical student or law student who has a new view of economic results
+or a new theory of the cause and purpose of our judicial and
+constitutional system as organized to protect the few against the many
+will work this off in the school of life, and is unaffected in his
+professional work. The journalist within his first year's work must
+apply his college economics and political science, and a wrong
+starting point may have serious consequences to his own career in the
+end, perhaps to society. Fortunately the work of the journalist so
+brings him in contact with things as they are, that the body of
+newspaper writers, taken as a whole, represents the stability of
+society. The convictions and principles created by their daily work
+tend this way. The labor union has few illusions to the reporter, and
+it was the editorial writers of the land who carried the gold standard
+in 1896, when many a publisher was hazy and scary. The causes of crime
+grow pretty clear to a police reporter, and a few assignments in which
+a newspaper man sees a riot convinces him of the value of public
+order, rigidly enforced. None the less, the reporter should start
+right on these sciences, basic in his calling; in the end, as the
+medical school has steadied the college teaching of chemistry and
+biology, so the school of journalism, the school of business, and the
+school of railroad practice _et al_ will steady economics and
+political science. But the duty of the college and university remains
+clear, to be as watchful that the sciences of social action and
+reaction shall be taught with the same adherence to the established
+and the same responsibility to their professional use as the sciences
+of physical, chemical, and biological action and reaction.
+
+=Especially adapted content in social sciences to meet professional needs=
+
+The college studies needed as preparation for journalism call for a
+special proficiency and content as much as for a professional
+viewpoint. The journalist makes precisely the same use of his
+fundamental studies as does the medical student of his. If a future
+lawyer neglects his chemistry and biology, it is of little moment. He
+can get up what he needs of a case. A medical student who neglects
+these studies will find that the best schools bar him. In time the
+school of journalism will refuse the college passing mark for
+admission. The newspaper man almost from the start has to use his
+economics, his political science, and his history. Elementary
+economics is in great measure given to theory, though a change has
+begun. For the journalist, this course needs to be brought in close
+contact with the actual economic working of society. The theory may be
+useful to the man who expects in the end to teach economics. It is of
+next to no value to the writer on public affairs. Of what possible use
+is it to him to learn the various theoretic explanations of
+Boehm-Bawerk's cost and value? The newspaper man needs to see these
+things and be taught them as Bagehot wrote on them and Walker and
+Sumner taught them.
+
+=General science course of inestimable worth to the journalist=
+
+In Columbia, this change is already recognized as necessary. So in
+political science, the actual working of the body politic needs to be
+taught, and this is too often neglected for explanatory theories and a
+special interpretation. A single elementary course in chemistry,
+physics, or biology presupposes two or three more courses which fill
+out the special opening sketch. Newspaper works requires a general
+account of science, derided by the scientist who is himself satisfied
+in his own education with a similar sketch in history. These general
+science courses are being smuggled in as "history of science," or
+"scientific nomenclature." Much can be done in a year with such a
+three-hour course, if the teaching be in exceptional hands; but
+adequate treatment requires two years of three hours, one on organic
+and one on inorganic science. The latter should give a view of
+anthropology and the former dwell on the application of science in
+modern industry.
+
+=In history attention must be focalized on modern movements=
+
+College history courses end thirty to fifty years ago. The journalist
+needs to know closely the last thirty years, at home and abroad. Weeks
+given to colonial charters in American history are as much waste as to
+set a law student to a special study of the Year Books of Edward I
+and II. College students have to put up with a good deal of this kind
+of waste. If twelve hours can be assigned to history, three should be
+on the classical period, three introductory to the modern world, three
+to European history since 1870, and three hours for American history;
+at least two of these three hours should go to American history since
+Garfield.
+
+=Recent progress in all subjects must be summed up for the student of
+journalism=
+
+The writing course should be used to supplement this by articles on
+both these fields so that a student will learn the sources of history
+for the last thirty years, its treaties, its elections, its movements,
+its statutes, its reference works. He will need all this knowledge as
+soon as he has to write as a correspondent, a feature writer, or an
+editor, on the important topics of the day. Statistics need to
+supplement economics and advanced courses, two, if possible, should
+give knowledge and method in the approach to new problems in currency,
+banking, trusts, and unions. At least one general course in philosophy
+is needed, and Freud is as important for him here as Aristotle. The
+contact of the newspaper man with book reviewing, book advertising,
+and the selection of fiction and news in supplements and magazines
+calls for the "survey course in English literature" and a knowledge of
+the current movement in letters for thirty years back. In science, in
+politics, in history, in economics, in philosophy, and in letters, it
+is indispensable that the young newspaper man should be introduced by
+lecture, and still more by reading, to the speaking figures of his own
+day on affairs, political life, letters, the theatre, and art.
+
+=The journalist must ever be a student of human affairs=
+
+These things are indispensable. The man who knows them can learn to
+write and edit, but the man who can only write and edit and does not
+know them will speedily run dry in the newspaper, weekly and monthly.
+News is today standardized. Each President, each decade, each great
+war, the Associated Press and City Press Associations cover more
+completely the current news. Presentation, comment, handling special
+articles, grow each year more important and more in demand. The price
+of supplement and magazine articles has trebled in the last twenty
+years. The newspaper grows more and more to be a platform,
+particularly the Sunday newspaper and popular magazine. If a man is to
+be a figure in the day's conflict and on its wider issues, he needs
+the special training just outlined, and when this outline is begun, he
+will find the toil of the years in these fields has but begun. About
+the safe harbors of journalism where men come and go, dealing with the
+affairs of and ending the ready market of the day, are the reefs
+strewn with the wrecks of ready and often "brilliant" writers whose
+few brief years left them empty and adrift, telling all they meet that
+no man can long earn a fair income and hold his own through the years
+in journalism.
+
+A school can ameliorate all this by one course which requires much
+reading of the Bible and Shakespeare, by furnishing in the school
+library abundant access to the best current prose and verse of the day
+which will directly appeal to the young reader, since each decade has
+its new gods in letters, and by selecting teachers for the
+professional courses who have shown that they can write at least well
+enough to be paid by newspapers and magazines for their work. The
+teacher in writing whose work is not salable is not as likely to teach
+students how to write so that their work can sell as one who has
+earned his living by selling his stuff.
+
+                                               TALCOTT WILLIAMS
+  _School of Journalism, Columbia University_
+
+
+
+
+XXVIII
+
+BUSINESS EDUCATION
+
+
+=Evolution of business education=
+
+Business education of collegiate grade is a very recent development.
+The world's first commercial college was established at Antwerp in
+1852, while the forerunner of American institutions of this sort, the
+Wharton School, was founded in 1881. Others followed in the nineties,
+but the general establishment of schools of commerce as parts of
+colleges and universities, as well as the inclusion of business
+subjects in the curricula of liberal colleges, took place after 1900.
+This sudden flowering at the top was preceded by a long evolution
+quite typical of the development of education in all the branches of
+learning to which institutions devote time because of their cultural
+or professional worth.
+
+Some practical end and not the desire for abstract knowledge prompted
+early instruction and stimulated business education as well as
+education in general through various stages of progress. Of course all
+education is a process whereby technical operations and abstract truth
+developed by many generations are systematized, compressed, and
+imparted to individuals in a relatively short time.
+
+The first stage in the evolution in a given field may be called the
+_apprentice stage_. Just as physicians, lawyers, and in fact
+practitioners in all the professions and crafts trained their
+assistants in their establishments for the purpose of making them
+proficient in their daily work, so did merchants at this stage give
+apprentice training in commercial branches to their employees.
+Traditional ways of carrying out certain transactions, convenient
+rules of thumb, and habits of neatness and reliability were passed on
+in a given establishment. As industry grew and guilds were formed, the
+training tended to become more standardized and merchants joined in
+establishing guild schools for their employees. Many such schools
+were conducted in the various crafts, and their modern counterparts
+are the well-known vocational or trade schools. This _vocational
+training_ stage was developed by business men for persons not employed
+as productive craftsmen but rather as workers in business offices
+which administered production and directly attended to selling and
+exchange, and for others looking forward to such employment. At this
+stage there grew up also private schools, usually conducted by
+teachers especially proficient in particular lines of service. Thus
+inventors of shorthand systems, devisers of systems of penmanship, and
+authors of methods of bookkeeping and accounting set up schools in
+these specialties. Here we have training outside the business house
+itself to prepare for participation in business, and the enterprises
+flourish because there is a demand for the people they train. At this
+stage rules of thumb are supplanted by systems based on principles,
+and the way is paved for the _technical school stage_. The training
+here is practical, but it is broad and based on scientific knowledge.
+This stage is not reached in all fields of endeavor, for some stop at
+the first or the second, while on the other hand the existence of a
+higher stage of education does not preclude the continuation at the
+same time of agencies carrying on instruction after the mode of the
+lower stages. With the rise of the factory system and the extension of
+capitalistic production and industrial integration in the form of "big
+business," there came a demand in the business world for men widely
+informed and thoroughly trained. Not only did men to meet this demand
+have to have good foundations of general education, but they needed
+technical preparation in the specialized field of business itself.
+
+Business science is not only applied science, but it is secondary or
+derived from a number of the fundamental sciences. It draws its
+principles from the physical sciences of physics, chemistry, geology,
+and biology; it utilizes the engineering applications of these
+sciences; it derives valuable information from physiology and
+psychology, and it makes use of the modern languages. Borrowing from
+all the pure sciences and their applied counterparts, it formulates
+its own regulations so that it may manage the work of the world
+_economically_, so that it may bring about the production of goods
+necessary to meet humanity's many, varied, and recurrent wants, and
+make these commodities available in advantageous times and places with
+individual title to them established according to existing standards
+of personal justice and social expediency.
+
+The final stage, the _cultural stage_, is reached when the educator
+determines that the field in question is so much a part of the general
+civilization or intellectual wealth of the world that it ought to
+receive some consideration, not only by specialists in the field but
+also by the student pursuing a well-planned course of a general or
+non-technical character designed to enable him to appreciate and play
+some role in the world in which he lives. It is because new branches
+of human endeavor constantly blossom forth into this stage, while more
+ancient branches wither and no longer bear fruit of contemporary
+significance, that the very humanities themselves change as well as
+realities.
+
+Business as a field of human thought and activity has reached this
+stage, and educators reckon with it in laying out courses of general
+elementary, secondary, and collegiate study.
+
+No one would contend that educators should in any way cease to offer
+general or cultural courses, but they should insist that these general
+courses embrace all of humanity's wealth, including that which modern
+society contributed, and that they should with each addition reshape
+their general offerings so that appropriate proportions will be
+preserved.
+
+=Definition of business education=
+
+Before the development of modern highly organized production, business
+training would have been synonymous with commercial training; that is,
+training to prepare men to play their parts in the _exchange_ of
+goods. This would embrace correspondence with customers, the keeping
+of records of stock, the cost of stock, making out bills, and
+attending to all financial operations which were associated with
+marketing and exchange. Successful training would imply, of course,
+the broad foundational grasp of arithmetic, reading, and writing of
+the mother tongue and of such foreign languages as the nature of the
+market might require, a grasp of various money values, banking
+procedure, and other information concerning financial affairs, the
+means of transportation, freight charges, etc. Manual skill had to be
+developed in penmanship, in the technique of bookkeeping, general
+office organization, and filing. With the invention of mechanical and
+labor-saving office devices, facility in operating them was required
+to supplement skill in penmanship.
+
+Of course, with the development of the market the complexity of office
+management increased. In modern times the business man concerns
+himself not only with the duties of the merchant and exchanger, but
+also with the organization of industry and economical procedure. The
+modern business man, entrepreneur or manager, and all those assisting
+him in the discharge of his duties, perform functions in two
+directions: first, in the direction of the market in the establishment
+of price, in the selling of his goods, and in attending to all matters
+which flow therefrom, and secondly toward the production plant itself;
+while he employs technicians who know how to perform operations
+skillfully according to the laws of science, nevertheless he must know
+how to buy labor and how to organize labor and materials and put them
+in coordinate working relationship most economically.
+
+We can therefore define business _education as education which
+directly prepares people to discharge the business function: namely,
+the economical organization of men and materials in production and the
+most advantageous distribution and exchange of the commodities or
+service for consumption_.
+
+In the modern world it is hard sometimes to draw the line between the
+field of technology in production and the field of business management
+in production, but in general the two functions are fairly distinct.
+The technician is interested in operations of production, while the
+business manager is interested in their economical organization and in
+their government with relation to market conditions. The very
+engineers themselves must be selected, engineered, and paid by the
+business man. The business manager is interested in keeping the total
+price of his commodities above his total entrepreneur's cost. The
+technician is interested in inventing and operating the machinery of
+production, if and when the business man determines what operations
+will be profitable.
+
+=Aims and curricula of business education=
+
+The aims of business education are, first and foremost, professional;
+second, civic; and third, cultural. At no time can the three be
+separated, but it is possible to devise a curriculum which stresses
+one or two of the aims. It is also possible to treat a subject so as
+to emphasize technical and practical skill or to promote philosophical
+reflection.
+
+The professional aim prompted the establishment of the first schools
+or colleges of commerce, and it is kept to the fore not only in
+institutions giving courses of study which lead to distinctive degrees
+in commerce, but also in places which give specialized instruction in
+particular fields. We shall consider curricula of the following types:
+
+_Type I._ Curriculum designed to give the student training to meet a
+definite professional requirement established by law.
+
+_Type II._ Curriculum designed to make a student proficient in a
+particular narrow field.
+
+_Type III._ Curriculum leading to a baccalaureate degree in commerce
+or business, vertical type.
+
+_Type IV._ Curriculum leading to a baccalaureate degree in commerce or
+business, horizontal type.
+
+
+TYPE I. TECHNICAL COURSE, DESIGNED TO PREPARE STUDENTS TO MEET THE
+STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS
+
+_Entrance requirements_ for students matriculating for the whole
+course as candidates for a Diploma of Graduate in Accountancy--high
+school graduation, college entrance or a State Regents' C.P.A.
+Qualifying Certificate.
+
+Non-matriculated students--mature persons wishing to pursue certain
+subjects without academic credit.
+
+  _Prescribed_
+
+  Accounting, Theory, Practice and Problems
+                     4 terms, 4 hours a week--256 hours
+
+       This course covers general accounting for the single proprietor,
+       partnerships and corporations, embracing financing,
+       manufacturing, and selling operations, with agencies and
+       branches, the formation of mergers, syndicates, holding
+       companies, etc.; dissolutions and reorganizations.
+
+  Cost accounting    1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Auditing           1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Public utilities accounting
+                     1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Judicial (fiduciary) accounting
+                     1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Advanced accounting, theory, and problems
+                     2 term, 2 hours a week--64 hours
+
+  Commercial Law 3 terms, 3 hours a week 144 hours
+
+       Covering general principles of law, contracts, and all forms of
+       special contracts of interest to the business man, especially
+       those related to personal property, risk insurance, credit and
+       real property, and forms of business associations.
+
+  Economics
+    Economic principles
+                      1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+    Economic development of the United States
+                      1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+    Money and banking 1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  English--Written, Business English
+                      2 terms, 2 hours a week--64 hours
+
+    Oral English--Public Speaking
+                      4 terms, 1 hour a week--64 hours
+
+  _Additional electives_--one course of at least 96 hours in Government
+      and enough other elective subjects in technical commercial work or
+      Political Science to accrue at least a total of 1000 hours.
+
+      The available additional electives in accounting are advanced
+      courses in different special fields such as Advanced Cost
+      Accounting, Municipal Accounting--General and Departmental,
+      Systems for particular industries or forms of business, Public
+      Utilities Rate Making and Regulation, etc.
+
+      In Government the available electives include such subjects as
+      American Government and Citizenship, American Constitutional Law,
+      International Law, Political Theory, Comparative Government, State
+      Legislation and Administration, Municipal Administration, etc.
+
+      In Political Science, courses in Economics and Business, such as
+      Economic Problems, Business Organization and Management, Public
+      Finance, Foreign Trade, Foreign Exchange, Insurance, Advertising,
+      Salesmanship, etc., are available, while general and special
+      courses may be taken in Sociology and Statistics.
+
+
+Courses of study of this sort in a specialized field are offered in
+colleges usually at night for students who are in active business
+during the day. With more or less extensive additions in scientific,
+literary, and linguistic fields they become the curricula leading to
+baccalaureate degrees as represented by Type III, to follow. Large
+private institutes or schools conducted for profit and also
+correspondence institutions offer similar courses. Other groups of
+studies in particular fields are: in banking, in transportation or
+traffic, in sales management, including advertising and salesmanship,
+and in foreign trade.
+
+A group in Foreign Trade will typify this sort of course of study,
+which differs from the one in Accountancy just given because the
+make-up will be determined wholly by each institution quite
+independent of legally established professional standards.
+
+
+TYPE II. TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR WORK IN A SPECIAL FIELD, FOREIGN
+TRADE
+
+  Principles of economics
+                      1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  Economic resources of the U. S.
+                      1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  Commercial geography
+                      1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  Money and banking   1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  Foreign exchange    1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  Foreign credit      1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  International law   1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
+
+  Tariff history of the U. S.
+                      1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  U. S. and foreign customs administrations
+                      1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Export technique    1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Practical steamship operation
+                      1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Marketing and salesmanship
+
+  General course      1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
+
+  Special courses as desired on South American Markets, Mediterranean
+      Markets, Russian Markets, Northwest Empire Markets, etc.
+
+  Foreign Languages:
+
+    Practical courses in Conversation and correspondence in French,
+      Spanish, Portuguese, German, Russian, etc., according to market in
+      which trade is specialized, at least
+                       4 terms, 3 hours a week--192 hours
+
+    Total (in 2 years, with weekly schedule of 10 or 12 hrs.)
+                                                672 hours
+
+A special course of this sort usually leads to a certificate but not a
+diploma or degree. Obviously the technical aim is very prominent,
+though civic and cultural benefits of no mean character will of
+necessity be derived. New groups will be found as new fields of
+business become important and develop definite, recognizable
+requirements of a scientific sort. Naturally each such specialty goes
+through the usual evolution and contributes its philosophical
+distillation or essence to the cultural college course.
+
+When we come to the construction of a curriculum leading to a
+bachelor's degree in business, economics, or commerce, we have the
+problems of the engineering schools. Just how far will specialization
+be carried, in what sequence will the foundational subjects and the
+specialties be taken up, and to what extent will other more general
+subjects not directly contributing to a technical end be admitted? In
+most institutions of good standards the degree is regarded as
+representing not only technical proficiency in business but also some
+acquaintance with science, politics, and letters in general. The
+question (already an old one in schools of engineering) arises then
+concerning the best way to arrange the special or distinctively
+business subjects in relation to the more general. Although there are
+a number of variations, two outstanding types are recognizable. We may
+devise labels for them: the _vertical_ curriculum, which offers both
+general and special courses side by side right up through the college
+course, and the _horizontal_, which requires a completion of the whole
+or nearly all of the general group during the first two years of
+college before the special subjects are pursued in the last two.
+
+
+TYPE III. VERTICAL TYPE OF UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM, LEADING TO THE
+DEGREE OF B. S. IN ECONOMICS
+
+_Entrance_: College entrance requirements.
+
+_Requirement for graduation_: 74 units, of which 40 must be in general
+business and in liberal subjects, with 34 in specialized fields of
+business activity, to be taken after the freshman year.
+
+     A unit here represents successful work for one hour a week for
+     two semesters. Therefore the total 74 is equivalent to 148 of the
+     usual collegiate units.
+
+  _Freshman Required Work_
+
+  English composition                2 hours a week--2 terms
+  English, history of the language   1 hour a week--2 terms
+  English literature                 1 hour a week--2 terms
+  Chemistry--general  )
+         or           }              3 hours a week--2 terms
+  Business law        )
+  Physical education                 2 hours a week--2 terms
+  Government--federal and state      3 hours a week--2 terms
+  Principles of economics            3 hours a week--2 terms
+  Economic resources                 2 hours a week--2 terms
+  Accounting--general course         3 hours a week--2 terms
+
+
+  _Sophomore Required Work_
+
+  English literature and composition 3 hours a week--2 terms
+  Physical education                 2 hours a week--2 terms
+  General history                    2 hours a week--2 terms
+
+  _Required before End of Junior Year_
+
+  Additional political science       2 hours a week--2 terms
+  Physical education                 1 hour a week--2 terms
+
+  _Required before Graduation_
+
+  Additional history                 3 hours a week--2 terms
+
+  Physical education                 1 hour a week--2 terms
+  A modern language beyond the
+    first year in college            3 hours a week--4 terms
+
+  Total required units                 40 units
+
+
+Elect after the Freshman year courses aggregating 34 additional units in
+  fields of
+
+     I. Business law                 4 courses, 10 units available
+    II. Commerce and transportation  9 courses, 19 units available
+   III. Economics                    8 courses, 15 units available
+    IV. Finance and accounting      20 courses, 53 units available
+     V. Geography and industry      11 courses, 26 units available
+    VI. Insurance                    7 courses, 16 units available
+   VII. Political science           22 courses, 43 units available
+  VIII. Sociology                    6 courses, 12 units available
+
+                 Total required for the degree, 74 units
+
+
+There is a school which grants a degree in Commerce for the equivalent
+of 36 of these units or 72 of the usual college credits, if the
+student has business experience, and for the equivalent of 48 of these
+units or 96 of the usual college credits if he has not. The course is
+essentially like Type I and includes no broad liberal requirements in
+literature, foreign language, and history and on the other hand is not
+so strictly prescribed as Type I. A strictly technical degree may be
+desirable for such a short course, provided the prescription is severe
+and includes languages. Generally it seems best to reserve degrees for
+full college courses of four years or more which include a reasonable
+general requirement in languages and science. This leads us to Type
+IV, or the curriculum which requires the first regular two years of
+the college course prescribed for one of the liberal degrees and
+permits business specialization in the last two undergraduate years or
+these with an additional postgraduate year. One institution requires
+the first three years as a foundation for a two-year course in
+business, and one conducts a postgraduate school of business
+administration leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Business Economics.
+No doubt postgraduate work will be continued mainly in the research
+direction, but undergraduate day and continuation courses will be
+devoted mainly to preparation for business.
+
+It is not necessary to illustrate Type IV, because the first two years
+consist simply of the Freshman and Sophomore work of any sort of
+liberal college course, Classical, Scientific, or Modern Language,
+while the succeeding years are made up of special work in Economics
+and Business of more or less concentrated character.
+
+The advantage of the type is obviously administrative. The whole
+vexing problem of insuring fairly wide cultivation along with
+opportunities for specialization is conveniently settled by giving
+general training, most of it remote from business work, for two years,
+after which the student is considered cultivated enough to withstand
+the blighting effect of specialization. But there are serious
+pedagogical objections to this arrangement which make the vertical
+plan seem preferable. A student coming from one of our constantly
+improving high schools of commerce is checked for two years and given
+time to forget all the bookkeeping and other commercial work which he
+has learned and on which advanced commercial instruction may be built,
+while he pursues an academic course. It would be far better to
+continue the modern languages, the mathematics, and natural sciences,
+along with business courses. Furthermore there is much to be done by
+educators in arranging such parallel sequences of subjects so that
+advantage may be taken of vocational interest to stimulate broad and
+deep study of related fundamentals. Considerable improvement could be
+made over Type III, but that type seems better than the one we have
+styled "horizontal."
+
+In all these courses of study we quite properly find both the
+philosophical and analytical courses, those which are historical and
+descriptive and those of detailed practical technique; we find
+economic theory, industrial history, business management, and
+practical accounting; we find theory of money and banking, history of
+banking in the United States, and practical banking; we find theory of
+international exchange, tariff history, and the technique of customs
+administration. Concerning methods of teaching particular subjects we
+shall speak later.
+
+Seldom do we find curricula drawn up with the purely civic end in
+view, though many schools and associations throughout the country are
+agitating the question of organized training of men for public
+service. Strictly speaking, this kind of training is both professional
+and civic because it is designed to make men proficient in carrying on
+the business of the State. In New York City the municipal college
+conducts courses of this sort for persons in the city service, while
+private bureaus of municipal research conduct their own courses. So
+far in America no courses are yet accepted officially for entrance
+into public service or as the only qualification for advancement in
+the service. Nevertheless, progress is being made in this direction.
+The curricula offered include courses in Government and especially
+Municipal Government, Public Finance and Taxation, the practical
+organization and administration of various departments such as Police,
+Charities, Public Works, the establishment and maintenance of special
+systems of municipal accounts.
+
+But the great civic benefit comes from general courses in business,
+for the business man who has a real grasp of his work and sees it in
+the light of general social welfare becomes a good citizen. Business
+education gives some sense of the interdependence of industry,
+personal ethics, and government. The broadly trained business man
+realizes that he is in a sense a servant of the community, that his
+property is wrapped up with the welfare of his fellow men, and that
+what he has is a trust which society grants to him to be conducted
+after the manner of a good steward. Such training reveals to him the
+_raison d'etre_ of labor legislation, factory laws, the various
+qualifications of the property right, the necessity for taxation, and
+the importance of good government to all the citizens of the State
+both as cooperative agents in production and as consumers. Continued
+and improved business education will elevate the mind of the merchant
+and the manager so that its horizon is no longer the profit balance
+but the welfare of all society.
+
+The cultural aim of business courses is consciously kept in mind by
+the makers of curricula for colleges of liberal arts and sciences
+which permit a rather free choice of electives in the department of
+Economics and Business or of Political Science, according to the
+departmental organization of the institution. Here, of course, we find
+Economics, which bears to practical business much the relation which
+Philosophy bears to active life in general. We find also courses in
+Money and Banking, usually offered from the historical and descriptive
+rather than the technical point of view. Recently, however, colleges
+have included in this field of election practical courses in
+Accountancy and Commercial Law. The tendency is in the direction of
+including more and more of the practical and technical courses,
+although the historical and philosophical courses are retained.
+Nevertheless the cultural value is undiminished, unless one were to
+maintain that nothing which is exact can be cultural.
+
+=Methods of teaching=
+
+The field of business is so wide and embraces so many subjects that
+the methods of teaching giving the best results will be varied and
+used in different combinations with different subjects. Those subjects
+which are practical and largely habit forming, such as stenography,
+typewriting, bookkeeping, and the manipulation of mechanical and
+labor-saving office devices, are of course taught by some method of
+training which will insure quick reaction. In these courses the object
+is to cultivate habits of manual dexterity and habits of orderliness
+and neatness. Here we find that exposition is reduced to a minimum,
+lectures are few, recitations do not exist to any great extent, but
+that practice,
+  1st, to secure proper form, and
+  2d, to secure speed,
+is the controlling aim of the method. The teachers show their
+ingenuity in devising exercises which will give accuracy of form and
+then develop speed without sacrifice of accuracy.
+
+In colleges these courses are reduced to a minimum because they are
+usually cared for in lower schools, but for students who come directly
+to the commercial college without them, preparatory courses of this
+sort are often conducted.
+
+Among the technical subjects the one which calls for the most practice
+is, of course, Accountancy, first for the single proprietor, next for
+the partnership, and finally for the corporation. Various methods of
+presenting Accountancy have been suggested. Very few teachers employ
+extensive recitation work in this field. It is found most desirable to
+have periods of at least two hours' duration, so that the teacher can
+give such exposition and lecture work at the beginning of the period
+as he may see fit, and the class may then take up practice. In some
+schools it is customary to have one course in theory, another course
+in practical accounting, and another course in problems of accounting.
+However, the tendency seems to be in the direction of making these
+three aspects of the work mutually helpful, and the course is offered
+as a course in Accounting, Theory, Practice, and Problems. The theory
+is set forth in a lecture, practice is given with typical situations
+in mind, and then related problems are taken up for solution. Many
+excellent texts are now appearing and can be used in the customary
+manner. Assignments in these books tend to make unnecessary many long
+or formal lectures, but there still remains the need for classroom
+talks and quizzes. As the course progresses, the problems become more
+and more difficult and complicated, and the final problem work is
+exceedingly difficult and calls for a considerable power of analysis,
+clarity of statement, and care in arrangement on the part of the
+student.
+
+A complete course of this sort usually covers two and a half or three
+years. At the end of the first year of general accountancy, special
+subjects may be pursued parallel with the general course. The order in
+which these specialties are introduced is usually Cost Accounting,
+Auditing Systems, Judicial or Fiduciary Accounting, and then other
+special branches such as Brokers' Accounts, Public Utilities
+Accounting, Foreign Exchange Accounting, etc.
+
+General Accounting is very important both as an instrument for the
+business man to use and as a training to insure the grasp of general
+business organization. It is the opinion of the writer that whether a
+business man expects to become an accountant or not, he should have a
+thorough and technical grasp of this subject. In these specialties it
+is necessary to depend upon lectures rather than textbooks, not only
+because textbooks here are few and other works are not well adapted to
+teaching use, but also because the subject matter must be kept up to
+date and in keeping with changing practice. The lecturers should be
+practical experts in each particular field as well as acceptable
+teachers.
+
+Closely related to Accountancy is Commercial Law. Commercial Law
+should, of course, be understood by every business man, not because he
+expects to become a practitioner of law but because he wishes to avoid
+unnecessary disputes and to shape his course wisely from a legal
+standpoint in dealing with his employees, his business associates, and
+his customers.
+
+There are various methods of teaching Commercial Law. The one which
+has been in vogue thus far has been the textbook method, in which the
+principles of law of interest to the business man are set forth.
+Lessons are assigned in the book, and recitations are held. The
+lecture method also is advocated. In some universities which have both
+law schools and schools of commerce, the commercial students receive
+lectures in the school of law in such subjects as contracts, agencies,
+insurance, etc. It seems to the writer that neither of these practices
+is desirable but that the proper way to teach Commercial Law to the
+commercial students is the case method, in which the principles of law
+of interest to the business man are developed from an examination of
+actual cases of business litigation. We may very likely look forward
+to the publication of case books which can be used either alone or in
+conjunction with textbooks on legal principles. Lectures on law to
+commercial students should be reduced to a minimum, and then they
+should confine themselves to very broad principles which need no
+lengthy exposition or to fields in which the students may be expected
+to have a general grasp but no very detailed knowledge. But such
+subjects as contracts, agency, bankruptcy, sales, insurance,
+negotiable instruments, and forms of business association should be
+taught thoroughly to the student in the classroom through the case
+method, in which each case is fully discussed by the class and from
+which discussion legal principles are evolved. It is interesting to
+note that the states which stand highest in the matter of Certified
+Public Accountancy licenses are requiring very thorough preparation in
+law. To meet such requirements a course in law covering at least three
+semesters, three hours a week, with a case method is certainly
+necessary.
+
+The modern languages taught in schools of commerce should be by the
+direct method, and always with the vocational end clearly before the
+student. Actual business transactions, such as selling to a foreign
+customer in the foreign language, correspondence, newspapers,
+catalogues and other documents of business, should be the
+supplementary reading and exercise material of the class. Facility in
+conversation and writing should be developed as rapidly as possible,
+and the grasp of the methodical rules should follow. It would probably
+be presumptuous to take a strong position here on the question of
+teaching modern languages, but experience with commercial students has
+clearly indicated that greatest progress can be made if the language
+is taught by a conversation or direct method from the very start, and
+if paradigms and rules of syntax are evolved after some vocabulary has
+been developed and some facility in speech has been acquired. We may
+say here, incidentally, that it seems wise to teach the spoken
+language for a while before taking up the problem of the written
+language, especially where the foreign language assigns different
+phonetic values to the printed symbols from those assigned in English.
+
+While the various technical subjects offer different problems because
+of differences in their character, we may say in general that the aim
+of the school should always be to keep in touch with the actual
+practice in the business world; to have the lecturer use material
+which is up to the minute, and, where possible, to give the students
+the advantage of field work or at least to take them on tours of
+inspection in the different houses engaged in this or that line of
+business.
+
+The curriculum of any good commercial college or university department
+of business includes courses in Economics, Commercial Geography,
+Industrial History, Business Management, and similar subjects. No
+doubt other chapters of this book discuss methods of teaching these
+subjects. But it may not be out of place here to indicate that the
+best approach to the study of Economics is through practical business
+courses in Accountancy, Commercial Law, and Practical Management.
+Economics is the Philosophy of Business, and it cannot be understood
+by one who is unfamiliar with the facts of business. Certainly it
+cannot be related to real business life by the academic student. It
+would seem, therefore, best to reserve the course in Economic Theory
+for the senior year of a business course and precede it with courses
+in Accounting, Law, Industrial History, and Management. Then, when it
+is taught, it should be presented through practical problems from
+which the general principles may, by induction, be derived.
+
+=Relations with the business world=
+
+It is important that commercial education should not grow academic and
+remote from the real world of affairs. Therefore schools of business
+should keep in close contact with merchants' associations, chambers of
+commerce, and such other bodies of business men as may be in the
+neighborhood of the school. Committees from such associations should
+have either a voice in the conduct of the school, or at least have
+very strong advisory representation on committees. In France, Germany,
+and in fact most European countries, colleges of commerce were
+directly established by chambers of commerce and associations of
+merchants, and the work is to a large extent conducted under their
+direction. Whether the college of commerce in America be a private
+institution or one supported by the public, it should form some
+sympathetic contact with the leading business organizations. Of course
+certain business associations have their own technical schools of
+training. The American Bankers' Association conducts its own courses,
+drawing upon various universities for lecturers in some subjects and
+drawing upon experts in business for other kinds of technical work. So
+also various corporations have their corporation schools which seek to
+develop business executives by progressive courses of training for
+those in the lower ranks.
+
+Nevertheless, the collegiate institutions offering organized courses
+in commerce will do well to keep in touch with business men. Another
+way in which such schools and colleges can keep abreast of the times
+is to employ lecturers who do not make teaching their main business of
+life but who are expert in certain particular fields. Indeed, it is
+almost impossible to teach certain of the very advanced and
+specialized courses without employing men of this sort. They are
+attracted to teaching not by the pay but by the honor of being
+connected with an institution of learning, and by sincere desire to
+contribute something to the development of the work in which they are
+interested. These men, of course, can be scheduled only for a
+relatively few hours a week, and sometimes they can be had only for
+evening lectures, but in any event they are very much worth while.
+Obviously the director of studies in the college should give these men
+all possible assistance of a pedagogical sort, so that their
+advantages as experts in business will not be offset by deficiencies
+as teachers.
+
+=Evening work in commercial courses=
+
+This brings us to another consideration which is very important. It
+seems to the writer that the ideal training for a student who has
+reached the stage of entrance to college and who wishes to go into
+business is as follows:
+
+He should enroll in the college course which is preparatory for
+business training and pursue his modern languages, Mathematics,
+English, and the Social Sciences, and also take up such accounting and
+technical work as he can have the first two years of his course. Then
+he should enter the world of business itself, be in a business house
+during the day, and continue his studies at night. It seems very
+desirable that this parallel progress, in organized theory and
+instruction, on the one hand, and in actual business with its
+difficulties which arise almost haphazard, should be carried on. The
+relationship is very helpful. Of course a substitute for this is the
+cooperative plan, in which the student spends a part of his time in
+college and a part of the time in a business house. Another
+alternative in institutions which have the three-term year is to put
+two terms in at college and one term in at business. The calendar
+arrangement of any institution will suggest variations of this
+suggested arrangement, the purpose of which will be to insure
+progressive development in business practice and also in collegiate
+instruction.
+
+=Recent developments=
+
+It is to be noticed that in the last few years business has become
+more and more intense. The developments are in two directions. The
+first direction is saving and efficiency through organization. This
+tends to keep down cost. The other direction is in the stimulation of
+the market and in perfecting advertising and selling methods.
+Naturally there have been developments in the recording, accounting,
+and clerical ends of the business, but scientific management in
+production on the one hand, and scientific selling on the other, are
+the two great developments. In both, engineering plays a prominent
+part and dictates a close correlation of the business and the
+engineering curricula of a college or university seeking to give most
+effective training either to the student of business or the student of
+engineering. On the selling side we are having the further
+developments which come with the growth of foreign trade.
+
+In order to meet the demand for men competent to organize production
+wisely and from a business viewpoint, more courses will be given in
+what we may call production management or commercial engineering.
+Furthermore, the sales engineer must be trained. The curriculum of the
+course of collegiate grade should be made up somewhat as follows:
+
+A two years' prescribed course in the general sciences and in general
+principles of business, followed by a two or three year curriculum in
+technical business management, on the one hand, including especially
+accounting, cost accounting, wage systems, employment management, and
+some branch of engineering on the other hand. The engineering course
+should be general but thorough. It should not go up into specialized
+fields of design, but it should include all the fundamental courses of
+engineering--of mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering. A
+combination course in engineering and business management is needed
+also to prepare men for places in banks as investment managers. The
+banks must advance funds to industrial concerns, and such loans cannot
+be made wisely save upon the advice of one who is thoroughly
+acquainted with plant management, equipment, and mechanical operations
+as well as costs of production and market possibilities. In addition,
+such a man must be well acquainted with systems of accounting and
+methods of preparing financial statements. In the field of
+salesmanship, engineering training is growing in importance. In short,
+the highly organized state of modern production and the tremendous
+part played by engineering in modern industry indicate the need for a
+close coordination of business and engineering education.
+
+In conclusion we may say that business education is now at the stage
+where it has its own technology, is in close touch with other fields
+of technology, and is making its contribution to the general fund of
+modern culture. Texts and scientific treatises in the field of
+business are increasing, the pedagogy of the various included subjects
+is receiving satisfactory attention, and schools of collegiate and
+university grade are keeping abreast of the demands of the business
+world for adequate general and specific training in business.
+
+                                         FREDERICK B. ROBINSON
+  _College of the City of New York_
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+COOLEY, E. G. _Vocational Education in Europe._ Commercial Club of
+Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 1912. Chapters on Vocational Education in
+General, Commercial Schools, and the Conclusion.
+
+FARRINGTON, F. E. _Commercial Education in Germany._ The Macmillan
+Company, 1914.
+
+HERRICK, C. A. _Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education_, and
+other works in the Macmillan Commercial Series, 1904. There is an
+excellent bibliography on the whole subject of commercial education as
+an appendix to Herrick's Commercial Education.
+
+HOOPER, FREDERICK, and GRAHAM, JAMES. _Commercial Education at Home
+and Abroad._ The Macmillan Company, 1901.
+
+There are numerous contributions on particular aspects and general
+methods and special methods in commercial subjects. The best printed
+bibliography of these is in the back of Herrick's book. A typical work
+on methods is Klein and Kahn's _Methods in Commercial Education_.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  Accountancy. _See_ Business Education
+
+  Adapting course of study, 95-97, 202, 244, 480, 572
+
+  Adler, Felix, 323, 325
+
+  AEsthetic aim, in teaching, 52, 92;
+    in music, 470
+
+  Aims, in teaching, 48-51;
+    modified for different students, 54;
+    in organization of knowledge, 65;
+    in teaching biology, 88-94;
+    in teaching mathematics, 172;
+    in physical education, 184-190;
+    in teaching economics, 217-220;
+    in teaching American history, 218;
+    in teaching political science, 282-287;
+    in teaching philosophy, 304;
+    in teaching ethics, 320-328;
+    in teaching psychology, 337;
+    in teaching English literature, 380-384, 422-423;
+    in teaching classics, 405;
+    in teaching Romance languages, 426-427;
+    in teaching music, 460-462, 467;
+    of art instruction, 478;
+    in teaching engineering subjects, 508-511;
+    in teaching mechanical drawing, 525-527;
+    in business education, 559.
+    _See_ Civic, Disciplinary, Utilitarian
+
+  Allen, J. T., 411
+
+  Angell, J. B., 30
+
+  Application of knowledge, 72
+
+  Art, 475-497
+
+  Art instruction, 475
+
+  Athletics. _See_ Physical education
+
+  Author's life, in literary study, 385
+
+
+  Biological basis of education, 85-87, 94, 364
+
+  Biology, 85-109
+
+  Brown, E. E., 358
+
+  Brown University, 5
+
+  Business education, 555-577
+
+  Butler, N. M., 30, 404
+
+
+  Calkins, Mary W., 339
+
+  Canby, H. S., 42
+
+  Case method, in political science, 292;
+    in philosophy, 316;
+    in ethics, 329;
+    in psychology, 338-340;
+    in commercial law, 572-573
+
+  Cattell, J. M., 30
+
+  Chemistry, 108-125
+
+  Chronological viewpoint in history, 257
+
+  Citizenship, training for, 282
+
+  Civic aim in economics, 219
+
+  Classics, 404-423;
+    in Colonial colleges, 5-6;
+    status in college teaching, 404;
+    through the vernacular, 418;
+    through ancient authors, 421
+
+  Coeducation, 18-21
+
+  College teaching, why ineffective, 46-48
+
+  Collegiate Institute, 4
+
+  Colonial period, 3
+
+  Columbia University, 5, 8
+
+  Commercial education. _See_ Business education
+
+  Commercial law, 571-572
+
+  Committee on standards of American universities, 42
+
+  Comparisons in teaching, 70
+
+  Composition and journalism, 546
+
+  Composition teaching, status of, 390.
+    _See_ English
+
+  Correlation, 70, 151, 156-157, 297, 295-297, 314
+
+  Course of study, 477, 481-485, 486-490;
+    in biology, 95-98;
+    logical and psychological, 103;
+    in chemistry, 111;
+    in physics, 134-137, 138-139;
+    in geology, 153-156, 158;
+    in hygiene and physical training, 206;
+    in economics, 225;
+    in sociology, 244-246;
+    determined by community, 246;
+    in American history, 259-262;
+    in European history, 269-276;
+    in political science, 280-281;
+    in philosophy, 312-314;
+    in education, 353;
+    in English literature, 386;
+    in classics, 410;
+    in Romance languages, 431-436;
+    in German, 442-453;
+    in engineering, 502-504;
+    in mechanical drawing, 526-530;
+    in business education, 559-567
+
+  Cultural aim, 220, 336, 348, 382-384
+
+
+  Dartmouth College Case and college development, 8-9
+
+  Democracy, 259
+
+  Descriptive geometry, 530
+
+  Design in engineering, 517
+
+  Development method, 73, 75-76
+    _See_ Recitation
+
+  Dewey, J., 362-364
+
+  Dexter, E. G., 30, 355
+
+  Differentiated courses, 504-508
+
+  Direct method, 444
+
+  Disciplinary aim, 51-52;
+    in physics, 126-127;
+    in geology, 143-150;
+    in history, 264;
+    in psychology, 336;
+    in education, 349;
+    in literature, 382-384;
+    in Romance languages, 424;
+    in music, 467-468
+
+  Draper, A. S., 30
+
+  Duggan, S. P., 353
+
+
+  Economic viewpoint in history, 257
+
+  Economics, 58, 217-240
+
+  Education as college subject, 347-376
+
+  Educational and instructional aim, 50-51
+
+  Elective system, 11-14
+
+  Elementary language courses as college courses, 426
+
+  Eliot, Charles W., 11
+
+  Emotional reaction in literature, 384
+
+  Engineering subjects, 501-524
+
+  English, teaching of, 49, 379-388, 389-403.
+    _See_ Composition, Literature
+
+  Equipment for art instruction, 490
+
+  Ethics, 320-333
+
+  Evening session for business education, 573
+
+  Examination, 80. _See_ Tests
+
+  Experimental work in psychology, 342.
+    _See_ Laboratory method
+
+  Expressional limitations of college students, 545
+
+
+  Field work, 254, 298, 517
+
+  Finance, teaching of. _See_ Business education
+
+  Flexner, A., 30, 42
+
+  Foster, W. T., 30
+
+  Functional aspect in teaching, 292
+
+
+  Geology, 142-160
+
+  German, 440-453
+
+  German influence on American college, 14
+
+  Gradation of subject matter, 56, 387
+
+  Graduate schools, 14-15
+
+  Graves, 353
+
+
+  Habits, 91, 199.
+    _See_ Aims, Disciplinary aim
+
+  Handschin, C. H., 42
+
+  Harper, W. R., 30
+
+  Hart, 355
+
+  Harvard, 3
+
+  Health instruction, 197.
+    _See_ Physical education
+
+  Heuristic method. _See_ Development method, Recitation
+
+  High school preparation, in physical education, 190;
+    in music, 469, 485
+
+  History, of American college, 3;
+    of college mathematics, 167;
+    of sociology, 241;
+    of music as college subject, 357;
+    of teaching of journalism, 533-539;
+    of business education in the college, 555-557
+
+  Holliday, C., 42
+
+  Horne, H. H., 36, 42
+
+
+  Illustrations, 243
+
+  Immigration and status of English teaching, 394.
+
+  Informal aim in teaching, 51
+
+  Informal examination, 308
+
+  Introductory course, in ethics, 328;
+    in political science, 288, 298;
+    in philosophy, 307, 315;
+    in psychology, 334;
+    in mechanical drawing, 527-528
+
+
+  Jefferson and founding of American college, 7
+
+  Johns Hopkins University, 32
+
+  Journalism as college subject, 24, 533-554
+
+  Junior college, 26-27
+
+
+  King's College, 5
+
+  Kingsley, C. D., 30
+
+
+  Laboratory method, 73, 78;
+    in chemistry, 62, 114;
+    in biology, 99;
+    in physics, 132;
+    in geology, 157;
+    in psychology, 343;
+    in engineering, 516
+
+  Language as index of mentality, 388
+
+  Law, 17;
+    commercial, 571-572
+
+  Lecture method, 73;
+    in chemistry, 113-114;
+    in physics, 131, 133;
+    in mathematics, 175;
+    in economics, 227, 231-235;
+    in sociology, 242;
+    in history, 260, 265;
+    in philosophy, 308-310;
+    in psychology, 340-341;
+    in classics, 419-421;
+    in engineering, 511-513;
+    in commercial education, 568-572
+
+  Length of periods in accountancy, 569
+
+  Literary analysis, 386
+
+  Literary appreciation, 380.
+    _See_ Aims, Cultural, AEsthetic
+
+  Literary style, 386
+
+  Literature and the classics, 407-408, 415.
+    _See_ English
+
+  Logical association, 63-64
+
+
+  MacLean, G. E., 30
+
+  Mathematics, 59, 161-182
+
+  Mechanical drawing, 525-532
+
+  Medicine, 17
+
+  Mental development and acquisition of language, 388
+
+  Methods of teaching conditioned by aims, 98.
+    _See_ Aims
+
+  Mezes, S. F., 48
+
+  Modern languages, when introduced, 7;
+    in business education, 571
+
+  Modern literature and the classics, 412
+
+  Monroe, P., 353
+
+  Morrill Act, 10
+
+  Motivation in teaching, 55-56
+
+  Municipal research, 298.
+    _See_ Laboratory method, Sociology, Political science
+
+  Music in secondary schools, 465
+
+
+  Natural method in classics, 411, 416-417
+
+  Newspaper English, 541-542
+
+  Non-sectarianism in American colleges, 7
+
+  Notebook of students, 356
+
+
+  Oberlin and coeducation, 20
+
+  Oral composition in German, 447
+
+  Oral reading and English literature, 384
+
+  Ordinance of 1787, 9
+
+  Organization of subject matter, 62-66
+
+  Outlines in biology, 102
+
+
+  Parker, S. C., 355
+
+  Pennsylvania University, 4
+
+  Philosophy, 57, 70-71, 123, 127, 302-319
+
+  Physical education, 22, 183-314
+
+  Physics, 126-141
+
+  Pitkin, W. B., 46-50
+
+  Place in curriculum, of political science, 287;
+    of ethics, 328;
+    of psychology, 334, 344;
+    of history of education, 351;
+    of educational theory, 359;
+    of German, 440;
+    of art education, 475
+
+  Point of contact in teaching, 57-62
+
+  Political science, 279-301
+
+  Preparatory training, in chemistry, 109;
+    in physics, 129;
+    in mathematics, 164, 176-178;
+    in physical education, 190;
+    in German, 448;
+    for journalism, 549
+
+  Problem method, in economics, 228, 231-235;
+    in sociology, 248-251
+
+  Professional preparation, for women, 20;
+    through political science, 283
+
+  Prose composition and the classics, 414
+
+  Psychology, 57, 334-346, 364
+
+  Public service, training for, 284
+
+
+  Quiz, how to conduct, 118
+
+
+  Recitation, 118, 174, 513-516, 568-572
+
+  Reduction of college course, 27
+
+  Reference reading, 73, 76, 267, 514
+
+  Relating course to students, 128, 370;
+    in chemistry, 120;
+    in sociology, 245;
+    in philosophy, 309;
+    in ethics, 321-327, 331-332;
+    in psychology, 338;
+    in music, 459;
+    in business education, 572.
+    _See_ Adapting course of study
+
+  Relative importance in organization of knowledge, 64
+
+  Religious character of American college, 5-7, 22
+
+  Reporting, teaching art of, 547
+
+  Research, 285.
+    _See_ Reference reading, Problem method, Seminar
+
+  Research scholars as teachers, 105-106, 124, 137, 178
+
+  Robinson, M. L., 42
+
+  Romance languages, 424-428
+
+
+  Scholarship as preparation for teaching, 38
+
+  Science, teaching of, 61-64;
+    place of, in journalism course, 552
+
+  Scientific methods, in political science, 298;
+    in psychology, 343
+
+  Scope of course in educational theory, 361
+
+  Self-activity, 72
+
+  Self-government, 24
+
+  Seminar, 76
+
+  Senior college, 26-28
+
+  Sequence of courses in political science, 289
+
+  Skill to be developed in biology, 90
+
+  Smith, F. W., 55
+
+  Snow, L. F., 30
+
+  Social museum, the, 254
+
+  Social sciences, place in journalism course, 550
+
+  Sociology, 241-255
+
+  Socratic method. _See_ Recitation, Development method
+
+  Stanley, A. A., 465
+
+  Student Army Training Corps, 335
+
+  Summaries in teaching, 66
+
+
+  Teacher, as scholar, 105.
+    _See_ Research, Teacher training
+
+  Teacher training, 18, 31, 37-39, 256-257, 436, 468-470
+
+  Technical subjects in college curriculum, 16, 25-26, 479, 504-508
+
+  Technique, as aim in teaching, 52
+
+  Testing results of instruction, 136;
+    in economics, 244;
+    in history, 261, 268;
+    in psychology, 343;
+    in music, 473;
+    in art, 493-496;
+    in engineering subjects, 519-522
+
+  Textbook, in geology, 158;
+    in mathematics, 179;
+    in economics, 228, 231-235;
+    in sociology, 253;
+    in history, 259;
+    in ethics, 330
+
+  Theology, in separate school, 16
+
+  Thoroughness, 66-72, 104
+
+  Thwing, C. F., 30
+
+  Time to be given to subjects, 345, 486.
+    _See_ Place in curriculum
+
+  Topical method in history, 266
+
+  Types of instruction, 396-398
+
+
+  Undergraduate and graduate teaching, 388
+
+  Unified courses, 59, 302
+
+  Utilitarian aim, 217;
+    of physics, 126;
+    of geology, 142;
+    of political science, 286;
+    of psychology, 337;
+    of history of education, 348
+
+
+  Values, 355. _See_ Aims
+
+  Vernacular, in teaching German, 445
+
+  Viewpoint in teaching, a new, 69
+
+  Virginia, University of, 7
+
+
+  West, A. F., 30
+
+  William and Mary, 4
+
+  Wolfe, A. B., 36, 42
+
+  Women, education of, 18-21.
+    _See_ Coeducation
+
+  World War, effect on curriculum, 183
+
+
+  Yale, 4
+
+
+
+
+_A review of the factors and problems connected with the learning and
+teaching of modern languages with an analysis of the various methods
+which may be adopted in order to obtain satisfactory results._
+
+  THE SCIENTIFIC
+  STUDY AND TEACHING
+  OF LANGUAGES
+
+  By HAROLD D. PALMER
+  _Phonetics Department, University College, London_
+
+"The aim of the book," the author says, "is to add to the general
+store of ever increasing knowledge of the nature of language, and to
+contribute a share toward ascertaining the principles which will help
+to emancipate language-teaching and language-study from the domain of
+empiricism and will place it once for all on a true scientific basis."
+
+This book undertakes to analyze the language-teaching problem, to
+discover the factors that enter into it, and from the data thus
+acquired to formulate principles for the teaching and learning of
+languages.
+
+The constant reference to actual conditions and the wealth of
+illustrations from the author's long experience furnish a store of
+practical suggestions for classroom work. Nothing could be more
+practically helpful and suggestive than the example of a standard
+course, which is worked out in detail for three years of French, or
+the discussion of such topics as applications of the laws of memory,
+the use of association and visualization, how to guard against what
+the author classifies as "the six vicious tendencies of all students
+of languages," when translation is and is not allowable.
+
+It is a book of particular importance in college classes in the
+pedagogy of language teaching, and is helpful to all teachers of
+languages, especially to teachers of French.
+
+_Cloth. Illustrated. Charts. 328 pages. Price $3.00_
+
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
+  YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
+  2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+NEW-WORLD SPANISH SERIES
+
+
+LESSON BOOKS
+
+POCO A POCO, _by_ GUILLERMO HALL. An easy book, profusely illustrated,
+especially well adapted to junior high schools. $1.28.
+
+ALL SPANISH METHOD, _by_ GUILLERMO HALL. Furnishes the best
+direct-method Spanish course published. Designed for high-school or
+college beginning classes. _First Book_ $1.30. _Second Book_ $1.48, or
+in one volume _Complete_ $1.92.
+
+
+READERS
+
+FABULAS Y CUENTOS, _by_ CLIFFORD G. ALLEN. A reader for beginning
+classes. $1.00.
+
+POR TIERRAS MEJICANAS, _by_ MANUEL URIBE-TRONCOSO. An easy reader for
+beginners in Spanish. Well illustrated. $1.00.
+
+PAGINAS SUDAMERICANAS, _by_ HELEN M. PHIPPS. Another easy-reading
+book, well illustrated, for students of high-school grade. $1.00.
+
+_Libro Primario de Lectura: Aplicado a la Higiene_ (60 cents),
+_Higiene Practica_ (72 cents), and _Higiene Personal_ (84
+cents)--three books on health for Latin American countries--furnish
+excellent, simple, everyday, and practical Spanish for reading
+practice. _Escribo y Leo_ (60 cents) is an exceptionally well
+illustrated primer for use by natives of the Spanish language.
+
+
+ANNOTATED TEXTS
+
+Martinez Sierra's TEATRO DE ENSUENO, _edited by_ AURELIO M. ESPINOSA.
+Easy for the second half year. Introduction, notes, vocabulary. 60
+cents.
+
+Benavente's EL PRINCIPE QUE TODO LO APRENDIO EN LOS LIBROS, _edited
+by_ AURELIO M. ESPINOSA. Easy enough for beginning students. Notes,
+exercises, vocabulary. 60 cents.
+
+Benavente's LOS INTERESES CREADOS, _edited by_ FRANCISCO PINOL GIRO.
+For second-year reading. Notes, exercises, vocabulary. _In press._
+
+Tamayo y Baus' MAS VALE MANA QUE FUERZA, _edited by_ C. EVERETT
+CONANT. For first or second year. Notes, exercises, vocabulary. 60
+cents.
+
+Quintero's LA MUELA DEL REY FARFAN, _edited by_ AURELIO M. ESPINOSA.
+Suitable for both reading and acting by beginning classes. 60 cents.
+
+
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
+  YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
+  2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES
+
+_Edited by_ JOHN W. RITCHIE
+
+
+The publication of books that "apply the world's knowledge to the
+world's needs" is the ideal of this house and it is intended that the
+different volumes of this series shall express this ideal in a very
+concrete way.
+
+
+_Completed_
+
+Human Physiology. By _John W. Ritchie_, Professor of Biology, College
+of William and Mary. A text on physiology, hygiene, and sanitation for
+upper grammar or junior high schools. $1.28.
+
+Laboratory Manual for Human Physiology. By _Carl Hartman_, University
+of Texas. A manual to accompany Ritchie's Human Physiology. Price,
+paper 48 cents, cloth 92 cents.
+
+Science for Beginners. By _Delos Fall_, Albion College, Michigan. A
+beginning text in general science for intermediate schools and junior
+high schools. Price $1.40.
+
+Exercise and Review Book in Biology. By _J. G. Blaisdell_, Yonkers, N.
+Y., High School. A combined laboratory guide, notebook and review book
+for students' use. Written from the standpoint of efficiency and
+furnishing material for a year's work and to accompany any one of
+several high-school texts in general biology. Price 96 cents.
+
+Trees, Stars, and Birds. By _E. L. Moseley_, Ohio State Normal
+College, Bowling Green. A book of outdoor science for junior high
+schools and the upper grammar grades. Price $1.60.
+
+Personal Hygiene and Home Nursing. By _Louisa C. Lippitt_, University
+of Wisconsin. A practical text for use with classes of young women in
+vocational and industrial high schools, colleges, and normal schools.
+Price $1.40.
+
+Science of Plant Life. By _E. N. Transeau_, Ohio State University. A
+scientific and very practical text for high schools. Price $1.60.
+
+Principles of zoology. By _T. D. A. Cockerell_, University of
+Colorado. A text for college use. Price $3.00.
+
+Experimental Organic Chemistry. By _A. P. West_, University of the
+Philippines. A text for college use. Price $3.00.
+
+
+_Ready at an Early Date_
+
+Introductory Ideas in Science. By _Berenice Jenkins_.
+
+Science of the Everyday World. By _Carleton W. Washburne_.
+
+_Other volumes are also in preparation._
+
+
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
+  YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
+  2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+School Efficiency Monographs
+
+_Constructive educational books of handy size covering many
+educational activities named in the order in which they were issued_
+
+  THE PUBLIC AND ITS SCHOOL
+  _By_ WILLIAM MCANDREW
+  Treats educational matters in a big way. Illustrated. _75 cents._
+
+  STANDARDS IN ENGLISH
+  _By_ JOHN J. MAHONEY
+  A course of study in composition for elementary schools. _99 cents._
+
+  AN EXPERIMENT IN THE FUNDAMENTALS
+  _By_ CYRUS D. MEAD
+  Gives results from practice material. Illustrated. _60 cents._
+
+  NEWSBOY SERVICE
+  _By_ ANNA Y. REED
+  Of value to those interested in the Smith-Hughes Act. _99 cents._
+
+  EDUCATION _of_ DEFECTIVES _in the_ PUBLIC SCHOOLS
+  _By_ META L. ANDERSON
+  A thoroughly readable and instructive book. _90 cents._
+
+  RECORD FORMS FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS
+  _By_ JOSEPH J. EATON
+  Forms showing ways to introduce efficiency methods. _75 cents._
+
+  RURAL EDUCATION _and the_ CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL
+  _By_ JULIUS B. ARP
+  The problems of the rural school. Illustrated. _99 cents._
+
+  PROBLEMS IN STATE HIGH SCHOOL FINANCE
+  _By_ JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH
+  A vast amount of data for school officials. _99 cents._
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+  _By_ SHERWIN CODY
+  A working handbook of the National Business Ability Tests. _99 cents._
+
+  THE RECONSTRUCTED SCHOOL
+  _By_ FRANCIS R. PEARSON
+  Discussion of the real problems in the work of reconstruction. _75
+    cents._
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+  THE TEACHING OF SPELLING
+  _By_ WILLARD F. TIDYMAN
+  The only method book written since the famous investigations. _99 cents._
+
+
+_Other volumes in active preparation Prices are for kraft bound books_
+
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+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
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+
+
+
+
+A COLLECTION OF THE WORLD'S BEST LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN
+
+TYPES OF CHILDREN'S LITERATURE
+
+_Collected and Edited by Walter Barnes_
+
+_Head of the Department of English, State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va._
+
+
+This book for the first time presents in convenient form the source
+material that teachers and students of the literature of childhood
+most need to have available. It is made up of classified masterpieces
+that were selected after a thorough sifting of every type of
+children's literature. The different forms of poetry and narrative,
+and descriptions, sketches, essays, and letters are represented.
+
+Every piece is a complete unit or is at least easily detached from its
+original setting, like an Uncle Remus or an Arabian-Nights story. The
+selections are arranged as nearly as may be in the order of increasing
+difficulty. The versions given are the definitive and authoritative
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+apportioned.
+
+A bibliography, index to authors, titles, and first lines of poems and
+helpful notes are included. It is attractive in appearance. Though
+primarily designed for use in normal-school, college and library
+classes, it will interest teachers and parents generally, and it
+should be put into the hands of children.
+
+_xiii + 462 pages. Price, $1.80_
+
+
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
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+
+
+
+
+BOOKS ON GOVERNMENT
+
+FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
+
+  GOVERNMENT HANDBOOKS
+  Edited by _David P. Barrows and Thomas H. Reed_
+
+  GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS OF SWITZERLAND
+  By _Robert C. Brooks_
+
+     A description of the organization and functioning of this
+     government, with a discussion of historical origin and
+     development and with particular emphasis on the modern political
+     life of the country. ($2.00.)
+
+  EVOLUTION OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA
+  By _Edward Porritt_
+
+     The most comprehensive and up-to-date handbook on the government
+     of Canada since its confederation. ($2.20.)
+
+  GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE
+  By _Fritz-Konrad Krueger_
+
+     A careful and authoritative study of the political institutions
+     of the empire before we entered the war. An added pamphlet brings
+     the text up to peace times. ($1.80)
+
+  CITIZENSHIP: AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL ETHICS
+  By _Milton Bennion_
+
+     The nature of society and social problems; social obligations of
+     the individual and the opportunities society offers for
+     development through service. ($1.20)
+
+  FORM AND FUNCTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
+  By _Thomas Harrison Reed_
+
+     A high-school textbook in civics; notable for solid historical
+     basis, modern point of view, and clear treatment of difficult
+     phases of the subject. ($2.00)
+
+  DEMOCRACY AND WORLD RELATIONS
+  By _David Starr Jordan_
+
+    A new book, suitable for high-school and college classes in
+    history or civics, and for the general reader. The first book on
+    reconstruction, written in a candid, non-controversial spirit.
+    ($1.50.)
+
+
+  WORLD BOOK COMPANY
+  YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
+  2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  Passages in italics indicated by underscore _italics_.
+
+  Sidenotes indicated by =sidenote=.
+
+  The note between footnotes 65 and 66 refers to footnotes 61-65.
+
+  The original text's usage of the Greek letter Sigma in a
+  formula has been trancribed in this text as "S".
+
+  Misprints corrected:
+    missing "By" added (Table of Contents)
+    "Asisstant" corrected to "Assistant" (Table of Contents)
+    "is is" corrected to "is" (page 198)
+    missing "to" added to sidenote (page 400)
+    "scupltors" corrected to "sculptors" (page 479)
+    "Cooperaton" corrected to "Cooperation" (page 496)
+    missing hyphens added as necessary
+
+  Additional spacing after some of the quotations is intentional to
+  indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new
+  paragraph as presented in the original text.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of College Teaching, by Paul Klapper
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLEGE TEACHING ***
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