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+Project Gutenberg's An Ethnologist's View of History, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: An Ethnologist's View of History
+       An Address Before the Annual Meeting of the New Jersey
+       Historical Society, at Trenton, New Jersey, January 28, 1896
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: July 31, 2009 [EBook #29554]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHNOLOGIST'S VIEW OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a
+description in the complete list found at the end of the text.
+
+
+
+
+                            AN
+
+              ETHNOLOGIST'S VIEW OF HISTORY.
+
+
+                        AN ADDRESS
+                        BEFORE THE
+  ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NEW JERSEY HISTORICAL SOCIETY,
+                            AT
+          TRENTON, NEW JERSEY, JANUARY 28, 1896.
+
+                            BY
+
+     DANIEL G. BRINTON, A. M., M. D., LL. D., D. Sc.
+
+  PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF
+       PENNSYLVANIA AND OF GENERAL ETHNOLOGY AT THE
+       ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA.
+
+                    PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+                          1896.
+
+
+
+
+An Ethnologist's View of History.
+
+
+MR. PRESIDENT:
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The intelligent thought of the world is ever advancing to a fuller
+appreciation of the worth of the past to the present and the future.
+Never before have associations, societies and journals devoted to
+historical studies been so numerous. All times and tribes are searched
+for memorials; the remote corners of modern, medieval and ancient
+periods are brought under scrutiny; and going beyond these again, the
+semi-historic eras of tradition and the nebulous gleams from
+pre-historic milleniums[TN-1] are diligently scanned, that their
+uncertain story may be prefaced to that registered in "the syllables of
+recorded time."
+
+In this manner a vast mass of material is accumulating with which the
+historian has to deal. What now is the real nature of the task he sets
+before himself? What is the mission with which he is entrusted?
+
+To understand this task, to appreciate that mission, he must ask himself
+the broad questions: What is the aim of history? What are the purposes
+for which it should be studied and written?
+
+He will find no lack of answers to these inquiries, all offered with
+equal confidence, but singularly discrepant among themselves. His
+embarrassment will be that of selection between widely divergent views,
+each ably supported by distinguished advocates.
+
+As I am going to add still another, not exactly like any already on the
+list, it may well be asked of me to show why one or other of those
+already current is not as good or better than my own. This requires me
+to pass in brief review the theories of historic methods, or, as it is
+properly termed, of the Philosophy of History, which are most popular
+to-day.
+
+They may be classified under three leading opinions, as follows:
+
+1. History should be an accurate record of events, and nothing more; an
+exact and disinterested statement of what has taken place, concealing
+nothing and coloring nothing, reciting incidents in their natural
+connections, without bias, prejudice, or didactic application of any
+kind.
+
+This is certainly a high ideal and an excellent model. For many, yes,
+for the majority of historical works, none better can be suggested. I
+place it first and name it as worthiest of all current theories of
+historical composition. But, I would submit to you, is a literary
+production answering to this precept, really _History_? Is it anything
+more than a well-prepared annal or chronicle? Is it, in fact anything
+else than a compilation containing the materials of which real history
+should be composed?
+
+I consider that the mission of the historian, taken in its completest
+sense, is something much more, much higher, than the collection and
+narration of events, no matter how well this is done. The historian
+should be like the man of science, and group his facts under inductive
+systems so as to reach the general laws which connect and explain them.
+He should, still further, be like the artist, and endeavor so to exhibit
+these connections under literary forms that they present to the reader
+the impression of a symmetrical and organic unity, in which each part or
+event bears definite relations to all others. Collection and collation
+are not enough. The historian must "work up his field notes," as the
+geologists say, so as to extract from his data all the useful results
+which they are capable of yielding.
+
+I am quite certain that in these objections I can count on the suffrages
+of most. For the majority of authors write history in a style widely
+different from that which I have been describing. They are distinctly
+teachers, though not at all in accord as to what they teach. They are
+generally advocates, and with more or less openness maintain what I call
+the second theory of the aim of history, to wit:
+
+2. History should be a collection of evidence in favor of certain
+opinions.
+
+In this category are to be included all religious and political
+histories. Their pages are intended to show the dealings of God with
+man; or the evidences of Christianity, or of one of its sects,
+Catholicism or Protestantism; or the sure growth of republican or of
+monarchial institutions; or the proof of a divine government of the
+world; or the counter-proof that there is no such government; and the
+like.
+
+You will find that most general histories may be placed in this class.
+Probably a man cannot himself have very strong convictions about
+politics or religion, and not let them be seen in his narrative of
+events where such questions are prominently present. A few familiar
+instances will illustrate this. No one can take either Lingard's or
+Macauley's History of England as anything more than a plea for either
+writer's personal views. Gibbon's anti-Christian feeling is as
+perceptibly disabling to him in many passages as in the church
+historians is their search for "acts of Providence," and the hand of God
+in human affairs.
+
+All such histories suffer from fatal flaws. They are deductive instead
+of inductive; they are a _defensio sententiarum_ instead of an
+_investigatio veri_; they assume the final truth as known, and go not
+forth to seek it. They are therefore "teleologic," that is, they study
+the record of man as the demonstration of a problem the solution of
+which is already known. In this they are essentially "divinatory,"
+claiming foreknowledge of the future; and, as every ethnologist knows,
+divination belongs to a stadium of incomplete intellectual culture, one
+considerably short of the highest. As has been well said by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt, any teleologic theory "disturbs and falsifies the facts of
+history;"[6-1] and it has been acutely pointed out by the philosopher
+Hegel, that it contradicts the notion of progress and is no advance over
+the ancient tenet of a recurrent cycle.[6-2]
+
+I need not dilate upon these errors. They must be patent to you. No
+matter how noble the conviction, how pure the purpose, there is
+something nobler and purer than it, and that is, unswerving devotion to
+rendering in history the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the
+truth.
+
+I now turn to another opinion, that which teaches that--
+
+3. History should be a portraiture, more or less extended, of the
+evolution of the human species.
+
+This is claimed to be the "scientific" view of history. It was tersely
+expressed by Alexander von Humboldt in the phrase: "The history of the
+world is the mere expression of a predetermined, that is, fixed,
+evolution."[6-3]
+
+It is that advocated by Auguste Comte, Draper and Spencer, and a few
+years ago Prof. Gerland, of Strasburg, formulated its basic maxim in
+these words: "Man has developed from the brute through the action of
+purely mechanical, therefore fixed, laws."[7-1]
+
+The scientist of to-day who hesitates to subscribe to these maxims is
+liable to be regarded as of doubtful learning or of debilitated
+intellect. I acknowledge that I am one such, and believe that I can show
+sound reasons for denying the assumption on which this view is based.
+
+It appears to me just as teleologic and divinatory as those I have
+previously named. It assumes Evolution as a law of the universe, whereas
+in natural science it is only a limited generalization, inapplicable to
+most series of natural events, and therefore of uncertain continuance in
+any series. The optimism which it inculcates is insecure and belongs to
+deductive, not inductive, reasoning. The mechanical theory on which it
+is based lacks proof, and is, I maintain, insufficient to explain
+motive, and, therefore, historic occurrences. The assumption that
+history is the record of a necessary and uninterrupted evolution,
+progressing under ironclad mechanical laws, is a preconceived theory as
+detrimental to clear vision as are the preoccupations of the theologian
+or the political partisan.
+
+Any definition of evolution which carries with it the justification of
+optimism is as erroneous in history, as it would be in biology to assert
+that all variations are beneficial. There is no more certainty that the
+human species will improve under the operation of physical laws than
+that any individual will; there is far more evidence that it will not,
+as every species of the older geologic ages has succumbed to those laws,
+usually without leaving a representative.
+
+I am aware that I am here in opposition to the popular as well as the
+scientific view. No commonplace is better received than that, "Eternal
+progress is the law of nature;" though by what process eternal laws are
+discovered is imperfectly explained.
+
+Applied to history, a favorite dream of some of the most recent teachers
+is that the life of the species runs the same course as that of one of
+its members. Lord Acton, of Oxford, in a late lecture states that: "The
+development of society is like that of individual;"[8-1] and Prof.
+Fellows, of the University of Chicago, advances the same opinion in the
+words, "Humanity as a whole developes[TN-2] like a child."[8-2]
+
+The error of this view was clearly pointed out some years ago by Dr.
+Tobler.[8-3] There has been no growth of humanity at large at all
+comparable to that of the individual. There are tribes to-day in the
+full stone age, and others in all stages of culture above it. The
+horizons of progress have been as local as those of geography. No
+solidarity of advancement exists in the species as a whole. Epochs and
+stadia of culture vary with race and climate. The much talked of "law of
+continuity" does not hold good either in national or intellectual
+growth.
+
+Such are the criticisms which may be urged against the historical
+methods now in vogue. What, you will ask, is offered in their stead?
+That which I offer is the view of the ethnologist. It is not so
+ambitious as some I have named. It does not deal in eternal laws, nor
+divine the distant future. The ethnologist does not profess to have been
+admitted into the counsels of the Almighty, nor to have caught in his
+grasp the secret purposes of the Universe. He seeks the sufficient
+reason for known facts, and is content with applying the knowledge he
+gains to present action.
+
+Before stating the view of the ethnologist, I must briefly describe what
+the science of Ethnology is. You will see at once how closely it is
+allied to history, and that the explanation of the one almost carries
+with it the prescription for the other.
+
+It begins with the acknowledged maxim that man is by nature a gregarious
+animal, a _zoon politikon_, as Aristotle called him, living in society,
+and owing to society all those traits which it is the business of
+history, as distinguished from biology, to study.
+
+From this standpoint, all that the man is he owes to others; and what
+the others are, they owe, in part, to him. Together, they make up the
+social unit, at first the family or clan, itself becoming part of a
+larger unit, a tribe, nation or people. The typical folk, or _ethnos_,
+is a social unit, the members of which are bound together by certain
+traits common to all or most, which impart to them a prevailing
+character, an organic unity, specific peculiarities and general
+tendencies.
+
+You may inquire what these traits are to which I refer as making up
+ethnic character. The answer cannot be so precise as you would like. We
+are dealing with a natural phenomenon, and Nature, as Goethe once
+remarked, never makes groups, but only individuals. The group is a
+subjective category of our own minds. It is, nevertheless,
+psychologically real, and capable of definition.
+
+The _Ethnos_ must be defined, like a species of natural history, by a
+rehearsal of a series of its characteristics, not by one alone. The
+members of this series are numerous, and by no means of equal
+importance; I shall mention the most prominent of them, and in the order
+in which I believe they should be ranked for influence on national
+character.
+
+First, I should rank Language. Not only is it the medium of intelligible
+intercourse, of thought-tranference,[TN-3] but thought itself is
+powerfully aided or impeded by the modes of its expression in sound. As
+"spoken language," in poetry and oratory, its might is recognized on all
+hands; while in "written language," as literature, it works silently but
+with incalculable effect on the character of a people.[10-1]
+
+Next to this I should place Government, understanding this word in its
+widest sense, as embracing the terms on which man agrees to live with
+his fellow man and with woman, family, therefore, as well as society
+ties. This includes the legal standards of duty, the rules of
+relationship and descent, the rights of property and the customs of
+commerce, the institutions of castes, classes and rulers, and those
+international relations on which depend war and peace. I need not
+enlarge on the profound impress which these exert on the traits of the
+people.[10-2]
+
+After these I should name Religion, though some brilliant scholars, such
+as Schelling and Max Müller,[10-3] have claimed for it the first place
+as a formative influence on ethnic character. No one will deny the
+prominent rank it holds in the earlier stages of human culture. It is
+scarcely too much to say that most of the waking hours of the males of
+some tribes are taken up with religious ceremonies. Religion is,
+however, essentially "divinatory," that is, its chief end and aim is
+toward the future, not the present, and therefore the impress it leaves
+on national character is far less permanent, much more ephemeral, than
+either government or language. This is constantly seen in daily life.
+Persons change their religion with facility, but adhere resolutely to
+the laws which protect their property. The mighty empire of Rome secured
+ethnic unity to a degree never since equalled in parallel circumstances,
+and its plan was to tolerate all religions--as, indeed, do all
+enlightened states to-day--but to insist on the adoption of the Roman
+law, and, in official intercourse, the Latin language. I have not
+forgotten the converse example of the Jews, which some attribute to
+their religion; but the Romany, who have no religion worth mentioning,
+have been just as tenacious of their traits under similar adverse
+circumstances.
+
+The Arts, those of Utility, such as pottery, building, agriculture and
+the domestication of animals, and those of Pleasure, such as music,
+painting and sculpture, must come in for a full share of the
+ethnologist's attention. They represent, however, stadia of culture
+rather than national character. They influence the latter materially and
+are influenced by it, and different peoples have toward them widely
+different endowments; but their action is generally indirect and
+unequally distributed throughout the social unit.
+
+These four fields, Language, Government, Religion and the Arts, are
+those which the ethnologist explores when he would render himself
+acquainted with a nation's character; and now a few words about the
+methods of study he adopts, and the aims, near or remote, which he keeps
+in view.
+
+He first gathers his facts, from the best sources at his command, with
+the closest sifting he can give them, so as to exclude errors of
+observation or intentional bias. From the facts he aims to discover on
+the above lines what are or were the regular characteristics of the
+people or peoples he is studying. The ethnic differences so revealed are
+to him what organic variations are to the biologist and morphologist;
+they indicate evolution or retrogression, and show an advance toward
+higher forms and wider powers, or toward increasing feebleness and
+decay.
+
+To understand them they must be studied in connection and causation.
+Hence, the method of the ethnologist becomes that which in the natural
+sciences is called the "developmental" method. It may be defined as the
+historic method where history is lacking. The biologist explains the
+present structure of an organ by tracing it back to simpler forms in
+lower animals until he reaches the germ from which it began. The
+ethnologist pursues the same course. He selects, let us say, a peculiar
+institution, such as caste, and when he loses the traces of its origin
+through failure of written records, he seeks for them in the survivals
+of unwritten folk-lore, or in similar forms in primitive conditions of
+culture.
+
+Here is where Archæology renders him most efficient aid. By means of it
+he has been able to follow the trail of most of the arts and
+institutions of life back to a period when they were so simple and
+uncomplicated that they are quite transparent and intelligible. Later
+changes are to be analyzed and explained by the same procedure.[12-1]
+
+This is the whole of the ethnologic method. It is open and easy when the
+facts are in our possession. There are no secret springs, no occult
+forces, in the historic development of culture. Whatever seems hidden or
+mysterious, is so only because our knowledge of the facts is imperfect.
+No magic and no miracle has aided man in his long conflict with the
+material forces around him. No ghost has come from the grave, no God
+from on high, to help him in the bitter struggle. What he has won is his
+own by the right of conquest, and he can apply to himself the words of
+the poet:
+
+    "Hast du nicht alles selbst vollendet,
+    Heilig glühend Herz?" (_Goethe_).
+
+Freed from fear we can now breathe easily, for we know that no _Deus ex
+machina_ meddles with those serene and mighty forces whose adamantine
+grasp encloses all the phenomena of nature and of life.
+
+The ethnologist, however, has not completed his task when he has defined
+an _ethnos_, and explained its traits by following them to their
+sources. He has merely prepared himself for a more delicate and
+difficult part of his undertaking.
+
+It has been well said by one of the ablest ethnologists of this
+generation, the late Dr. Post, of Bremen, that "The facts of ethnology
+must ever be regarded as the expressions of the general consciousness of
+Humanity."[13-1] The time has passed when real thinkers can be satisfied
+with the doctrines of the positive philosophers, who insisted that
+events and institutions must be explained solely from the phenomenal or
+objective world, that is, by other events.
+
+Sounder views prevail, both in ethnology and its history. "The history
+of man," says a German writer, "is neither a divine revelation, nor a
+process of nature; it is first and above all, the work of man;"[13-2] an
+opinion reiterated by Prof. Flint in his work on the philosophy of
+history in these words: "History is essentially the record of the work
+and manifestation of _human nature_."[14-1] In both sciences it is the
+essentially human which alone occupies us; it is the _life of man_.
+
+Now men do not live in material things, but in mental states; and solely
+as they affect these are the material things valuable or valueless.
+Religions, arts, laws, historic events, all have but one standard of
+appraisement, to wit, the degree to which they produce permanently
+beneficial mental states in the individuals influenced by them. All must
+agree to this, though they may differ widely as to what such a mental
+state may be; whether one of pleasurable activity, or that of the
+Buddhist hermit who sinks into a trance by staring at his navel, or that
+of the Trappist monk whose occupations are the meditation of death and
+digging his own grave.
+
+The ethnologist must make up his own mind about this, and with utmost
+care, for if his standard of merit and demerit is erroneous, his
+results, however much he labors on them, will have no permanent value.
+There are means, if he chooses to use them, which will aid him here.
+
+He must endeavor to picture vividly to himself the mental condition
+which gave rise to special arts and institutions, or which these evolved
+in the people. He must ascertain whether they increased or diminished
+the joy of living, or stimulated the thirst for knowledge and the love
+of the true and the beautiful. He must cultivate the liveliness of
+imagination which will enable him to transport himself into the epoch
+and surroundings he is studying, and feel on himself, as it were, their
+peculiar influences. More than all, chief of all, he must have a broad,
+many-sided, tender sympathy with all things human, enabling him to
+appreciate the emotions and arguments of all parties and all peoples.
+
+Such complete comprehension and spiritual accord will not weaken, but
+will strengthen his clear perception of those standards by which all
+actions and institutions must ultimately be weighed and measured. There
+are such standards, and the really learned ethnologist will be the last
+to deny or overlook them.
+
+The saying of Goethe that "The most unnatural action is yet natural," is
+a noble suggestion of tolerance; but human judgment can scarcely go to
+the length of Madame de Stael's opinion, when she claims that "To
+understand all actions is to pardon all." We must brush away the
+sophisms which insist that all standards are merely relative, and that
+time and place alone decide on right and wrong. Were that so, not only
+all morality, but all science and all knowledge were fluctuating as
+sand. But it is not so. The principles of Reason, Truth, Justice and
+Love have been, are, and ever will be the same. Time and place, race and
+culture, make no difference. Whenever a country is engaged in the
+diffusion of these immortal verities, whenever institutions are
+calculated to foster and extend them, that country, those institutions,
+take noble precedence over all others whose efforts are directed to
+lower aims.[15-1]
+
+Something else remains. When the ethnologist has acquired a competent
+knowledge of his facts, and deduced from them a clear conception of the
+mental states of the peoples he is studying, he has not finished his
+labors. Institutions and arts in some degree reflect the mental
+conditions of a people, in some degree bring them about; but the
+underlying source of both is something still more immaterial and
+intangible, yet more potent, to wit, Ideas and Ideals. These are the
+primary impulses of conscious human endeavor, and it is vain to attempt
+to understand ethnology or to write history without assigning their
+consideration the first place in the narration.
+
+I am anxious to avoid here any metaphysical obscurity. My assertion is,
+that the chief impulses of nations and peoples are abstract ideas and
+ideals, unreal and unrealizable; and that it is in pursuit of these that
+the great as well as the small movements on the arena of national life
+and on the stage of history have taken place.
+
+You are doubtless aware that this is no new discovery of mine. Early in
+this century Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote: "The last and highest duty of
+the historian is to portray the effort of the Idea to attain realization
+in fact;" and the most recent lecture on the philosophy of history which
+I have read, that by Lord Acton, contains this maxim: "Ideas which in
+religion and politics are truths, in history are living forces."
+
+I do claim that it is timely for me to repeat these doctrines and to
+urge them with vehemence, for they are generally repudiated by the
+prevailing schools of ethnology and history in favor of the opinion that
+objective, mechanical influences alone suffice to explain all the
+phenomena of human life. This I pronounce an inadequate and an
+unscientific opinion.
+
+There is in living matter everywhere something which escapes the most
+exhaustive investigation, some subtle center of impulse, which lies
+beyond the domain of correlated energy, and which acts directively,
+without increasing or diminishing the total of that energy. Also in the
+transformations of organic forms, there are preparations and propulsions
+which no known doctrine of the mechanical, natural causes can interpret.
+We must accept the presence of the same powers, and in a greater
+degree, in the life and the history of man.[17-1]
+
+It may be objected that abstract ideas are far beyond the grasp of the
+uncultivated intellect. The reply is, consciously to regard them as
+abstract, may be; but they exist and act for all that. All sane people
+think and talk according to certain abstract laws of grammar and logic;
+and they act in similar unconsciousness of the abstractions which impel
+them. Moreover, the Idea is usually clothed in a concrete Ideal, a
+personification, which brings it home to the simplest mind. This was
+long ago pointed out by the observant Machiavelli in his statement that
+every reform of a government or religion is in the popular mind
+personified as the effort of one individual.
+
+In every nation or _ethnos_ there is a prevailing opinion as to what the
+highest typical human being should be. This "Ideal of Humanity," as it
+has been called, is more or less constantly and consciously pursued, and
+becomes a spur to national action and to a considerable degree an
+arbiter of national destiny. If the ideal is low and bestial, the course
+of that nation is downward, self-destroying; if it is lofty and pure,
+the energies of the people are directed toward the maintenance of those
+principles which are elevating and preservative. These are not
+mechanical forces, in any rational sense of the term; but they are
+forces the potent directive and formative influence of which cannot be
+denied and must not be underestimated.
+
+Just in proportion as such ideas are numerous, clear and true in the
+national mind, do their power augment and their domain extend; just so
+much more quickly and firmly do they express themselves, in acts, forms
+and institutions, and thus enable the nation to enrich, beautify and
+strengthen its own existence. We have but to glance along the nations
+of the world and to reflect on the outlines of their histories, to
+perceive the correctness of the conclusion which Prof. Lazarus, perhaps
+the most eminent analyst of ethnic character of this generation, reaches
+in one of his essays: "A people which is not rich in ideas, is never
+rich; one that is not strong in its thinking powers, is never
+strong."[18-1]
+
+I claim, therefore, that the facts of ethnology and the study of racial
+psychology justify me in formulating this maxim for the guidance of the
+historian: _The conscious and deliberate pursuit of ideal aims is the
+highest causality in human history._
+
+The historian who would fulfil his mission in its amplest sense must
+trace his facts back to the ideas which gave them birth; he must
+recognize and define these as the properties of specific peoples; and he
+must estimate their worth by their tendency to national preservation or
+national destruction.
+
+This is the maxim, the axiom, if you please, which both the ethnologist
+and the historian must bear ever present in mind if they would
+comprehend the meaning of institutions or the significance of events.
+They must be referred to, and explained by, the ideas which gave them
+birth. As an American historian has tersely put it, "The facts relating
+to successive phases of _human thought_ constitute History."[18-2]
+
+I am aware that a strong school of modern philosophers will present the
+objection that thought itself is but a necessary result of chemical and
+mechanical laws, and therefore that it cannot be an independent cause.
+Dr. Post has pointedly expressed this position in the words: "We do not
+think; thinking goes on within us,"[19-1] just as other functions, such
+as circulation and secretion, go on.
+
+It is not possible for me at this time to enter into this branch of the
+discussion. But I may ask your attention to the fact that one of the
+highest authorities on the laws of natural science, the late George J.
+Romanes, reached by the severest induction an exactly opposite opinion,
+which he announced in these words: "The human mind is itself a causal
+agent. Its motives are in large part matters of its own creation. * * *
+Intelligent volition is a true cause of adjustive movement."[19-2]
+
+For myself, after what I have endeavored to make an unbiased study of
+both opinions, I subscribe unhesitatingly to the latter, and look upon
+Mind not only as a potent but as an independent cause of motion in the
+natural world, of action in the individual life, and, therefore, of
+events in the history of the species.
+
+Confining ourselves to ethnology and history, the causative idea, as I
+have said, makes itself felt through ethnic ideals. These are
+influential in proportion as they are vividly realized by the national
+genius; and elevating in proportion as they partake of those final
+truths already referred to, which are all merely forms of expression of
+right reasoning. These ideals are the _idola fori_, which have sometimes
+deluded, sometimes glorified, those who believed in them.
+
+I shall mention a few of them to make my meaning more apparent.
+
+That with which we are most familiar in history is the warrior ideal,
+the personification of military glory and martial success. It is present
+among the rudest tribes, and that it is active to-day, events in recent
+European history prove only too clearly; and among ourselves, little
+would be needed to awaken it to vivid life.
+
+We are less acquainted with religious ideals, as they have weakened
+under the conditions of higher culture. They belong in European history
+more to the medieval than to the modern period. Among Mohammedans and
+Brahmins we can still see them in their full vigor. In these lower
+faiths we can still find that intense fanaticism which can best be
+described by the expression of Novalis, "intoxicated with God," drunk
+with the divine;[20-1] and this it is which preserves to these nations
+what power they still retain.
+
+Would that I could claim for our own people a grander conception of the
+purpose of life than either of these. But alas! their ideal is too
+evident to be mistaken. I call it the "divitial" ideal, that of the rich
+man, that which makes the acquisition of material wealth the one
+standard of success in life, the only justifiable aim of effort. To most
+American citizens the assertion that there is any more important, more
+sensible purpose than this, is simply incomprehensible or incredible.
+
+In place of any of these, the man who loves his kind would substitute
+others; and as these touch closely on the business of the ethnologist
+and the historian when either would apply the knowledge he has gained to
+the present condition of society, I will briefly refer to some advanced
+by various writers.
+
+The first and most favorite is that of _moral perfection_. It has been
+formulated in the expression: "In the progress of ethical conceptions
+lies the progress of history itself." (Schäfer.) To such writers the
+ideal of duty performed transcends all others, and is complete in
+itself. The chief end of man, they say, is to lead the moral life,
+diligently to cultivate the ethical perception, the notion of "the
+ought," and to seek in this the finality of his existence.[21-1]
+
+Keener thinkers have, however, recognized that virtue, morality, the
+ethical evolution, cannot be an end in itself, but must be a means to
+some other end. Effort directed toward other, altruism in any form, must
+have its final measurement of value in terms of self; otherwise the
+immutable principles of justice are attacked. I cannot enlarge upon this
+point, and will content myself with a reference to Prof. Steinthal's
+admirable essay on "The Idea of ethical Perfection," published some
+years ago.[21-2] He shows that in its last analysis the Good has its
+value solely in the freedom which it confers. Were all men truly
+ethical, all would be perfectly free. Therefore Freedom, in its highest
+sense, according to him and several other accomplished reasoners, is the
+aim of morality, and is that which gives it worth.
+
+This argument seems to me a step ahead, but yet to remain incomplete.
+For after all, what is freedom? It means only opportunity, not action;
+and opportunity alone is a negative quantity, a zero. Opportunity for
+what, I ask?
+
+For an answer, I turn with satisfaction to an older writer on the
+philosophy of history, one whose genial sympathy with the human heart
+glows on every page of his volumes, to Johann Gottfried von
+Herder.[21-3] The one final aim, he tells us, of all institutions, laws,
+governments and religions, of all efforts and events, is that each
+person, undisturbed by others, may employ his own powers to their
+fullest extent, and thus gain for himself a completer existence, a more
+beautiful enjoyment of his faculties.
+
+Thus, to the enriching of the individual life, its worth, its happiness
+and its fullness, does all endeavor of humanity tend; in it, lies the
+end of all exertion, the reward of all toil; to define it, should be the
+object of ethnology; and to teach it, the purpose of history.
+
+Let me recapitulate.
+
+The ethnologist regards each social group as an entity or individual,
+and endeavors to place clearly before his mind its similarities and
+differences with other groups. Taking objective facts as his guides,
+such as laws, arts, institutions and language, he seeks from these to
+understand the mental life, the psychical welfare of the people, and
+beyond this to reach the ideals which they cherished and the ideas which
+were the impulses of their activities. Events and incidents, such as are
+recorded in national annals, have for him their main, if not only value,
+as indications of the inner or soul life of the people.
+
+By the comparison of several social groups he reaches wider
+generalizations; and finally to those which characterize the common
+consciousness of Humanity, the psychical universals of the species. By
+such comparison he also ascertains under what conditions and in what
+directions men have progressed most rapidly toward the cultivation and
+the enjoyment of the noblest elements of their nature; and this strictly
+inductive knowledge is that alone which he would apply to furthering the
+present needs and aspirations of social life.
+
+This is the method which he would suggest for history in the broad
+meaning of the term. It should be neither a mere record of events, nor
+the demonstration of a thesis, but a study, through occurrences and
+institutions, of the mental states of peoples at different epochs,
+explanatory of their success or failure, and practically applicable to
+the present needs of human society.
+
+Such explanation should be strictly limited in two directions. First, by
+the principle that man can be explained only by man, and can be so
+explained completely. That is, no super-human agencies need be invoked
+to interpret any of the incidents of history: and, on the other hand, no
+merely material or mechanical conditions, such as climate, food and
+environment, are sufficient for a full interpretation. Beyond these lie
+the inexhaustible sources of impulse in the essence of Mind itself.
+
+Secondly, the past can teach us nothing of the future beyond a vague
+surmise. All theories which proceed on an assumption of knowledge
+concerning finalities, whether in science or dogma, are cobwebs of the
+brain, not the fruit of knowledge, and obscure the faculty of
+intellectual perception. It is wasteful of one's time to frame them, and
+fatal to one's work to adopt them.
+
+These are also two personal traits which, it seems to me, are requisite
+to the comprehension of ethnic psychology, and therefore are desirable
+to both the ethnologist and the historian. The one of these is the
+poetic instinct.
+
+I fear this does not sound well from the scientific rostrum, for the
+prevailing notion among scientists is that the poet is a fabulist, and
+is therefore as far off as possible from the platform they occupy. No
+one, however, can really understand a people who remains outside the
+pale of the world of imagination in which it finds its deepest joys; and
+nowhere is this depicted so clearly as in its songs and by its bards.
+The ethnologist who has no taste for poetry may gather much that is
+good, but will miss the best; the historian who neglects the poetic
+literature of a nation turns away his eyes from the vista which would
+give him the farthest insight into national character.
+
+The other trait is more difficult to define. To apprehend what is
+noblest in a nation one must oneself be noble. Knowledge of facts and an
+unbiased judgment need to be accompanied by a certain development of
+personal character which enables one to be in sympathy with the finest
+tissue of human nature, from the fibre of which are formed heroes and
+martyrs, patriots and saints, enthusiasts and devotees. To appreciate
+these something of the same stuff must be in the mental constitution of
+the observer.
+
+Such is the ethnologist's view of history. He does not pretend to be
+either a priest or a prophet. He claims neither to possess the final
+truth nor to foresee it. He is, therefore equally unwelcome to the
+dogmatist, the optimistic naturalist and the speculative philosopher. He
+refuses any explanations which either contradict or transcend human
+reason; but he insists that human reason is one of the causal facts
+which he has to consider; and this brings him into conflict with both
+the mystic and the materialist.
+
+Though he exalts the power of ideas, he is no idealist, but practical to
+the last degree; for he denies the worth of any art, science, event or
+institution which does not directly or indirectly contribute to the
+elevation of the individual man or woman, the common average person, the
+human being.
+
+To this one end, understanding it as we best can, he claims all effort
+should tend; and any other view than this of the philosophy of history,
+any other standard of value applied to the records of the past, he looks
+upon as delusive and deceptive, no matter under what heraldry of title
+or seal of sanctity it is offered.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6-1] In his epochal essay "Die Aufgabe des Geschichtschreibers."
+_Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. I., s. 13. It was republished with a
+discriminating introduction by Professor Steinthal in _Die
+Sprachphilosophischen Werke Wilhelm von Humboldt's_ (Berlin, 1883).
+
+[6-2] "Der Zweck-Begriff bewirkt nur sich selbst, und ist am Ende was er
+im Anfange, in der Unsprünglichkeit, war." _Encyclopädie der
+philosophischen Wissenschaften._ Theil,[TN-4] I., § 204.
+
+[6-3] "Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck einer vorbestimmten
+Entwicklung." (Quoted by Lord Acton.)
+
+[7-1] "Die Menschheit hat sich aus natürlicher, tierischer Grundlage auf
+rein natürliche mechanische Weise entwickelt." _Anthropolgische
+Beiträge_, s. 21.
+
+[8-1] _A Lecture on the Study of History_, p. 1 (London, 1895).
+
+[8-2] See his article "The Relation of Anthropology to the Study of
+History," in _The American Journal of Sociology_, July, 1895.
+
+[8-3] Ludwig Tobler, in his article "Zur Philosophie der Geschichte," in
+the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. XII., s. 195.
+
+[10-1] One of the most lucid of modern German philosophical writers
+says, "Without language, there could be no unity of mental life, no
+national life at all." Friedrich Paulsen, _Introduction to Philosophy_,
+p. 193. (English translation, New York, 1895.) I need scarcely recall to
+the student that this was the cardinal principle of the ethnological
+writings of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and that his most celebrated essay is
+entitled "Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und
+ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts."
+The thought is well and tersely put by Prof. Frank Granger--"Language is
+the instinctive expression of national spirit." (_The Worship of the
+Romans_, p. 19, London, 1896.)
+
+[10-2] "Law, in its positive forms, may be viewed as an instrument used
+to produce a certain kind of character." Frank Granger, ubi supra, p.
+19.
+
+[10-3] _Lectures on the Science of Religion_, p. 55.
+
+[12-1] How different from the position of Voltaire, who,
+expressing,[TN-5] the general sentiment of his times, wrote,--"The
+history of barbarous nations has no more interest than that of bears and
+wolves!"
+
+[13-1] _Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz_, Bd. I., s. 5.
+(Leipzig, 1894.)
+
+[13-2] "Das Geschichte ist weder eine Offenbarung Gottes, noch ein
+Naturprocess, sondern eben Menschenwerk." Tobler in the _Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. XII., s. 201.
+
+[14-1] _History of the Philosophy of History_, p. 579.
+
+[15-1] There is nothing in this inconsistent with the principle laid
+down by Lecky: "The men of each age must be judged by the ideal of their
+own age and country, and not by the ideal of ourselves."--_The Political
+Value of History_, p. 50, New York, 1892. The distinction is that
+between the relative standard, which we apply to motives and persons,
+and the absolute standard, which we apply to actions. The effects of the
+latter, for good or evil, are fixed, and independent of the motives
+which prompt them.
+
+[17-1] "The historian," says Tolstoi, "is obliged to admit an
+inexplicable force, which acts upon his elementary forces." _Power and
+Liberty_, p. 28 (Eng. Trans., New York, 1888).
+
+[18-1] See his article "Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte," in the
+_Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_.[TN-6] Bd. III., S. 486.
+
+[18-2] Brooks Adams, _The Law of Civilization and Decay_, Preface
+(London, 1895). This author has reached an advanced position with
+reference to thought and emotion as the impulses of humanity.
+
+[19-1] _Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz_, Band I., s. 4.
+
+[19-2] _Mind and Motion_, pp. 29, 140, etc. (London, 1895.) Prof.
+Paulsen goes much further, as, "The inner disposition spontaneously
+determines the development of the individual," and "The organism is, as
+it were, congealed voluntary action."--_Introduction to Philosophy_,
+pp,[TN-7] 187, 190.
+
+[20-1] Before him, however, the expression "ebrius Deo" was applied to
+the ancient rhapsodists.
+
+[21-1] As expressed by Prof. Droysen, in his work, _Principles of
+History_, (p. 16, New York, 1893), recently translated by President
+Andrews, of Brown University--"Historical things are the perpetual
+actualization of the moral forces." Elsewhere he says--"History is
+humanity becoming conscious concerning itself,"[TN-8] There is no
+objection to such expressions; they are good as far as they go; but
+they do not go to the end.
+
+[21-2] In the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Band XI., Heft II.
+
+[21-3] _Ideen zur Geschichte der Menschheit_, B. XV., Cap. I.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+
+The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained.
+
+       Page       Error
+  TN-1   3        milleniums should read millenniums
+  TN-2   8        developes should read develops
+  TN-3  10        thought-tranference, should read thought-transference
+  TN-4  fn. 6-2   Theil, should read Theil
+  TN-5  fn. 12-1  expressing, should read expressing
+  TN-6  fn. 18-1  _Völkerpsychologie_. should read _Völkerpsychologie_,
+  TN-7  fn. 19-2  pp, should read pp.
+  TN-8  fn. 21-1  itself," should read itself."
+
+
+
+
+
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+Daniel G. Brinton
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+Project Gutenberg's An Ethnologist's View of History, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: An Ethnologist's View of History
+       An Address Before the Annual Meeting of the New Jersey
+              Historical Society, at Trenton, New Jersey, January 28, 1896
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: July 31, 2009 [EBook #29554]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHNOLOGIST'S VIEW OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
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+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber&#8217;s Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins> and the corrected text is shown in the popup.
+A description of the errors is found in the <a href="#trans_note">list</a> at the end of the text.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1 class="chapterhead" style="line-height: 1.5em;"><span style="font-size: smaller;">AN</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Ethnologist’s View of History.</span></h1>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span style="font-size: 120%;">AN ADDRESS</span><br />
+<span style="font-size: 60%;">BEFORE THE</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Annual Meeting of the New Jersey Historical Society</span>,<br />
+<span style="font-size: 60%;">AT</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Trenton, New Jersey, January 28, 1896</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span style="font-size: 60%;">BY</span><br />
+
+DANIEL G. BRINTON, A. M., M. D., LL. D., D. Sc.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;"><span class="smcap">Professor of American Arch&aelig;ology in the University of<br />
+Pennsylvania and of General Ethnology at the<br />
+Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p class="titlepage">PHILADELPHIA, PA.<br />
+1896.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">An Ethnologist’s View of History.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mr. President</span>:</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="letter-spacing: 1em;">* * * * * * *</p>
+
+<p>The intelligent thought of the world is ever advancing to a fuller
+appreciation of the worth of the past to the present and the future.
+Never before have associations, societies and journals devoted to
+historical studies been so numerous. All times and tribes are searched
+for memorials; the remote corners of modern, medieval and ancient
+periods are brought under scrutiny; and going beyond these again, the
+semi-historic eras of tradition and the nebulous gleams from
+pre-historic <a name="corr01" id="corr01"></a><ins class="correction" title="millenniums">milleniums</ins> are diligently scanned, that their
+uncertain story may be prefaced to that registered in “the syllables of
+recorded time.�</p>
+
+<p>In this manner a vast mass of material is accumulating with which the
+historian has to deal. What now is the real nature of the task he sets
+before himself? What is the mission with which he is entrusted?</p>
+
+<p>To understand this task, to appreciate that mission, he must ask himself
+the broad questions: What is the aim of history? What are the purposes
+for which it should be studied and written?</p>
+
+<p>He will find no lack of answers to these inquiries, all offered with
+equal confidence, but singularly discrepant among themselves. His
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>embarrassment will be that of selection between widely divergent views,
+each ably supported by distinguished advocates.</p>
+
+<p>As I am going to add still another, not exactly like any already on the
+list, it may well be asked of me to show why one or other of those
+already current is not as good or better than my own. This requires me
+to pass in brief review the theories of historic methods, or, as it is
+properly termed, of the Philosophy of History, which are most popular
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>They may be classified under three leading opinions, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. History should be an accurate record of events, and nothing more; an
+exact and disinterested statement of what has taken place, concealing
+nothing and coloring nothing, reciting incidents in their natural
+connections, without bias, prejudice, or didactic application of any
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>This is certainly a high ideal and an excellent model. For many, yes,
+for the majority of historical works, none better can be suggested. I
+place it first and name it as worthiest of all current theories of
+historical composition. But, I would submit to you, is a literary
+production answering to this precept, really <i>History</i>? Is it anything
+more than a well-prepared annal or chronicle? Is it, in fact anything
+else than a compilation containing the materials of which real history
+should be composed?</p>
+
+<p>I consider that the mission of the historian, taken in its completest
+sense, is something much more, much higher, than the collection and
+narration of events, no matter how well this is done. The historian
+should be like the man of science, and group his facts under inductive
+systems so as to reach the general laws which connect and explain them.
+He should, still further, be like the artist, and endeavor so to exhibit
+these connections under literary forms that they present to the reader
+the impression of a symmetrical and organic unity, in which each part or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>event bears definite relations to all others. Collection and collation
+are not enough. The historian must “work up his field notes,� as the
+geologists say, so as to extract from his data all the useful results
+which they are capable of yielding.</p>
+
+<p>I am quite certain that in these objections I can count on the suffrages
+of most. For the majority of authors write history in a style widely
+different from that which I have been describing. They are distinctly
+teachers, though not at all in accord as to what they teach. They are
+generally advocates, and with more or less openness maintain what I call
+the second theory of the aim of history, to wit:</p>
+
+<p>2. History should be a collection of evidence in favor of certain
+opinions.</p>
+
+<p>In this category are to be included all religious and political
+histories. Their pages are intended to show the dealings of God with
+man; or the evidences of Christianity, or of one of its sects,
+Catholicism or Protestantism; or the sure growth of republican or of
+monarchial institutions; or the proof of a divine government of the
+world; or the counter-proof that there is no such government; and the
+like.</p>
+
+<p>You will find that most general histories may be placed in this class.
+Probably a man cannot himself have very strong convictions about
+politics or religion, and not let them be seen in his narrative of
+events where such questions are prominently present. A few familiar
+instances will illustrate this. No one can take either Lingard’s or
+Macauley’s History of England as anything more than a plea for either
+writer’s personal views. Gibbon’s anti-Christian feeling is as
+perceptibly disabling to him in many passages as in the church
+historians is their search for “acts of Providence,� and the hand of God
+in human affairs.</p>
+
+<p>All such histories suffer from fatal flaws. They are de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>ductive instead
+of inductive; they are a <i>defensio sententiarum</i> instead of an
+<i>investigatio veri</i>; they assume the final truth as known, and go not
+forth to seek it. They are therefore “teleologic,� that is, they study
+the record of man as the demonstration of a problem the solution of
+which is already known. In this they are essentially “divinatory,�
+claiming foreknowledge of the future; and, as every ethnologist knows,
+divination belongs to a stadium of incomplete intellectual culture, one
+considerably short of the highest. As has been well said by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt, any teleologic theory “disturbs and falsifies the facts of
+history;�<a name="FNanchor_6-1_1" id="FNanchor_6-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-1_1" class="fnanchor">6-1</a> and it has been acutely pointed out by the philosopher
+Hegel, that it contradicts the notion of progress and is no advance over
+the ancient tenet of a recurrent cycle.<a name="FNanchor_6-2_2" id="FNanchor_6-2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-2_2" class="fnanchor">6-2</a></p>
+
+<p>I need not dilate upon these errors. They must be patent to you. No
+matter how noble the conviction, how pure the purpose, there is
+something nobler and purer than it, and that is, unswerving devotion to
+rendering in history the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>I now turn to another opinion, that which teaches that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>3. History should be a portraiture, more or less extended, of the
+evolution of the human species.</p>
+
+<p>This is claimed to be the “scientific� view of history. It was tersely
+expressed by Alexander von Humboldt in the phrase: “The history of the
+world is the mere expression of a predetermined, that is, fixed,
+evolution.�<a name="FNanchor_6-3_3" id="FNanchor_6-3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-3_3" class="fnanchor">6-3</a></p>
+
+<p>It is that advocated by Auguste Comte, Draper and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> Spencer, and a few
+years ago Prof. Gerland, of Strasburg, formulated its basic maxim in
+these words: “Man has developed from the brute through the action of
+purely mechanical, therefore fixed, laws.�<a name="FNanchor_7-1_4" id="FNanchor_7-1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-1_4" class="fnanchor">7-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The scientist of to-day who hesitates to subscribe to these maxims is
+liable to be regarded as of doubtful learning or of debilitated
+intellect. I acknowledge that I am one such, and believe that I can show
+sound reasons for denying the assumption on which this view is based.</p>
+
+<p>It appears to me just as teleologic and divinatory as those I have
+previously named. It assumes Evolution as a law of the universe, whereas
+in natural science it is only a limited generalization, inapplicable to
+most series of natural events, and therefore of uncertain continuance in
+any series. The optimism which it inculcates is insecure and belongs to
+deductive, not inductive, reasoning. The mechanical theory on which it
+is based lacks proof, and is, I maintain, insufficient to explain
+motive, and, therefore, historic occurrences. The assumption that
+history is the record of a necessary and uninterrupted evolution,
+progressing under ironclad mechanical laws, is a preconceived theory as
+detrimental to clear vision as are the preoccupations of the theologian
+or the political partisan.</p>
+
+<p>Any definition of evolution which carries with it the justification of
+optimism is as erroneous in history, as it would be in biology to assert
+that all variations are beneficial. There is no more certainty that the
+human species will improve under the operation of physical laws than
+that any individual will; there is far more evidence that it will not,
+as every species of the older geologic ages has succumbed to those laws,
+usually without leaving a representative.</p>
+
+<p>I am aware that I am here in opposition to the popular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> as well as the
+scientific view. No commonplace is better received than that, “Eternal
+progress is the law of nature;� though by what process eternal laws are
+discovered is imperfectly explained.</p>
+
+<p>Applied to history, a favorite dream of some of the most recent teachers
+is that the life of the species runs the same course as that of one of
+its members. Lord Acton, of Oxford, in a late lecture states that: “The
+development of society is like that of individual;�<a name="FNanchor_8-1_5" id="FNanchor_8-1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-1_5" class="fnanchor">8-1</a> and Prof.
+Fellows, of the University of Chicago, advances the same opinion in the
+words, “Humanity as a whole <a name="corr02" id="corr02"></a><ins class="correction" title="develops">developes</ins> like a child.�<a name="FNanchor_8-2_6" id="FNanchor_8-2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-2_6" class="fnanchor">8-2</a></p>
+
+<p>The error of this view was clearly pointed out some years ago by Dr.
+Tobler.<a name="FNanchor_8-3_7" id="FNanchor_8-3_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-3_7" class="fnanchor">8-3</a> There has been no growth of humanity at large at all
+comparable to that of the individual. There are tribes to-day in the
+full stone age, and others in all stages of culture above it. The
+horizons of progress have been as local as those of geography. No
+solidarity of advancement exists in the species as a whole. Epochs and
+stadia of culture vary with race and climate. The much talked of “law of
+continuity� does not hold good either in national or intellectual
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the criticisms which may be urged against the historical
+methods now in vogue. What, you will ask, is offered in their stead?
+That which I offer is the view of the ethnologist. It is not so
+ambitious as some I have named. It does not deal in eternal laws, nor
+divine the distant future. The ethnologist does not profess to have been
+admitted into the counsels of the Almighty, nor to have caught in his
+grasp the secret purposes of the Universe. He seeks the sufficient
+reason for known facts, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> is content with applying the knowledge he
+gains to present action.</p>
+
+<p>Before stating the view of the ethnologist, I must briefly describe what
+the science of Ethnology is. You will see at once how closely it is
+allied to history, and that the explanation of the one almost carries
+with it the prescription for the other.</p>
+
+<p>It begins with the acknowledged maxim that man is by nature a gregarious
+animal, a <i>zoon politikon</i>, as Aristotle called him, living in society,
+and owing to society all those traits which it is the business of
+history, as distinguished from biology, to study.</p>
+
+<p>From this standpoint, all that the man is he owes to others; and what
+the others are, they owe, in part, to him. Together, they make up the
+social unit, at first the family or clan, itself becoming part of a
+larger unit, a tribe, nation or people. The typical folk, or <i>ethnos</i>,
+is a social unit, the members of which are bound together by certain
+traits common to all or most, which impart to them a prevailing
+character, an organic unity, specific peculiarities and general
+tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>You may inquire what these traits are to which I refer as making up
+ethnic character. The answer cannot be so precise as you would like. We
+are dealing with a natural phenomenon, and Nature, as Goethe once
+remarked, never makes groups, but only individuals. The group is a
+subjective category of our own minds. It is, nevertheless,
+psychologically real, and capable of definition.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ethnos</i> must be defined, like a species of natural history, by a
+rehearsal of a series of its characteristics, not by one alone. The
+members of this series are numerous, and by no means of equal
+importance; I shall mention the most prominent of them, and in the order
+in which I believe they should be ranked for influence on national
+character.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>First, I should rank Language. Not only is it the medium of intelligible
+intercourse, of thought-<a name="corr03" id="corr03"></a><ins class="correction" title="transference,">tranference,</ins> but thought itself is
+powerfully aided or impeded by the modes of its expression in sound. As
+“spoken language,� in poetry and oratory, its might is recognized on all
+hands; while in “written language,� as literature, it works silently but
+with incalculable effect on the character of a people.<a name="FNanchor_10-1_8" id="FNanchor_10-1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-1_8" class="fnanchor">10-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Next to this I should place Government, understanding this word in its
+widest sense, as embracing the terms on which man agrees to live with
+his fellow man and with woman, family, therefore, as well as society
+ties. This includes the legal standards of duty, the rules of
+relationship and descent, the rights of property and the customs of
+commerce, the institutions of castes, classes and rulers, and those
+international relations on which depend war and peace. I need not
+enlarge on the profound impress which these exert on the traits of the
+people.<a name="FNanchor_10-2_9" id="FNanchor_10-2_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-2_9" class="fnanchor">10-2</a></p>
+
+<p>After these I should name Religion, though some brilliant scholars, such
+as Schelling and Max M&uuml;ller,<a name="FNanchor_10-3_10" id="FNanchor_10-3_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-3_10" class="fnanchor">10-3</a> have claimed for it the first place
+as a formative influence on ethnic character. No one will deny the
+prominent rank it holds in the earlier stages of human culture. It is
+scarcely too much to say that most of the waking hours of the males of
+some tribes are taken up with religious ceremo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>nies. Religion is,
+however, essentially “divinatory,� that is, its chief end and aim is
+toward the future, not the present, and therefore the impress it leaves
+on national character is far less permanent, much more ephemeral, than
+either government or language. This is constantly seen in daily life.
+Persons change their religion with facility, but adhere resolutely to
+the laws which protect their property. The mighty empire of Rome secured
+ethnic unity to a degree never since equalled in parallel circumstances,
+and its plan was to tolerate all religions&mdash;as, indeed, do all
+enlightened states to-day&mdash;but to insist on the adoption of the Roman
+law, and, in official intercourse, the Latin language. I have not
+forgotten the converse example of the Jews, which some attribute to
+their religion; but the Romany, who have no religion worth mentioning,
+have been just as tenacious of their traits under similar adverse
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The Arts, those of Utility, such as pottery, building, agriculture and
+the domestication of animals, and those of Pleasure, such as music,
+painting and sculpture, must come in for a full share of the
+ethnologist’s attention. They represent, however, stadia of culture
+rather than national character. They influence the latter materially and
+are influenced by it, and different peoples have toward them widely
+different endowments; but their action is generally indirect and
+unequally distributed throughout the social unit.</p>
+
+<p>These four fields, Language, Government, Religion and the Arts, are
+those which the ethnologist explores when he would render himself
+acquainted with a nation’s character; and now a few words about the
+methods of study he adopts, and the aims, near or remote, which he keeps
+in view.</p>
+
+<p>He first gathers his facts, from the best sources at his command, with
+the closest sifting he can give them, so as to exclude errors of
+observation or intentional bias. From<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> the facts he aims to discover on
+the above lines what are or were the regular characteristics of the
+people or peoples he is studying. The ethnic differences so revealed are
+to him what organic variations are to the biologist and morphologist;
+they indicate evolution or retrogression, and show an advance toward
+higher forms and wider powers, or toward increasing feebleness and
+decay.</p>
+
+<p>To understand them they must be studied in connection and causation.
+Hence, the method of the ethnologist becomes that which in the natural
+sciences is called the “developmental� method. It may be defined as the
+historic method where history is lacking. The biologist explains the
+present structure of an organ by tracing it back to simpler forms in
+lower animals until he reaches the germ from which it began. The
+ethnologist pursues the same course. He selects, let us say, a peculiar
+institution, such as caste, and when he loses the traces of its origin
+through failure of written records, he seeks for them in the survivals
+of unwritten folk-lore, or in similar forms in primitive conditions of
+culture.</p>
+
+<p>Here is where Arch&aelig;ology renders him most efficient aid. By means of it
+he has been able to follow the trail of most of the arts and
+institutions of life back to a period when they were so simple and
+uncomplicated that they are quite transparent and intelligible. Later
+changes are to be analyzed and explained by the same procedure.<a name="FNanchor_12-1_11" id="FNanchor_12-1_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_12-1_11" class="fnanchor">12-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This is the whole of the ethnologic method. It is open and easy when the
+facts are in our possession. There are no secret springs, no occult
+forces, in the historic development of culture. Whatever seems hidden or
+mysterious, is so only because our knowledge of the facts is imperfect.
+No magic and no miracle has aided man in his long con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>flict with the
+material forces around him. No ghost has come from the grave, no God
+from on high, to help him in the bitter struggle. What he has won is his
+own by the right of conquest, and he can apply to himself the words of
+the poet:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“Hast du nicht alles selbst vollendet,<br />
+Heilig gl&uuml;hend Herz?� (<i>Goethe</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Freed from fear we can now breathe easily, for we know that no <i>Deus ex
+machina</i> meddles with those serene and mighty forces whose adamantine
+grasp encloses all the phenomena of nature and of life.</p>
+
+<p>The ethnologist, however, has not completed his task when he has defined
+an <i>ethnos</i>, and explained its traits by following them to their
+sources. He has merely prepared himself for a more delicate and
+difficult part of his undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>It has been well said by one of the ablest ethnologists of this
+generation, the late Dr. Post, of Bremen, that “The facts of ethnology
+must ever be regarded as the expressions of the general consciousness of
+Humanity.�<a name="FNanchor_13-1_12" id="FNanchor_13-1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-1_12" class="fnanchor">13-1</a> The time has passed when real thinkers can be satisfied
+with the doctrines of the positive philosophers, who insisted that
+events and institutions must be explained solely from the phenomenal or
+objective world, that is, by other events.</p>
+
+<p>Sounder views prevail, both in ethnology and its history. “The history
+of man,� says a German writer, “is neither a divine revelation, nor a
+process of nature; it is first and above all, the work of man;�<a name="FNanchor_13-2_13" id="FNanchor_13-2_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-2_13" class="fnanchor">13-2</a> an
+opinion reiterated by Prof. Flint in his work on the philosophy of
+history in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> words: “History is essentially the record of the work
+and manifestation of <i>human nature</i>.�<a name="FNanchor_14-1_14" id="FNanchor_14-1_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14-1_14" class="fnanchor">14-1</a> In both sciences it is the
+essentially human which alone occupies us; it is the <i>life of man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now men do not live in material things, but in mental states; and solely
+as they affect these are the material things valuable or valueless.
+Religions, arts, laws, historic events, all have but one standard of
+appraisement, to wit, the degree to which they produce permanently
+beneficial mental states in the individuals influenced by them. All must
+agree to this, though they may differ widely as to what such a mental
+state may be; whether one of pleasurable activity, or that of the
+Buddhist hermit who sinks into a trance by staring at his navel, or that
+of the Trappist monk whose occupations are the meditation of death and
+digging his own grave.</p>
+
+<p>The ethnologist must make up his own mind about this, and with utmost
+care, for if his standard of merit and demerit is erroneous, his
+results, however much he labors on them, will have no permanent value.
+There are means, if he chooses to use them, which will aid him here.</p>
+
+<p>He must endeavor to picture vividly to himself the mental condition
+which gave rise to special arts and institutions, or which these evolved
+in the people. He must ascertain whether they increased or diminished
+the joy of living, or stimulated the thirst for knowledge and the love
+of the true and the beautiful. He must cultivate the liveliness of
+imagination which will enable him to transport himself into the epoch
+and surroundings he is studying, and feel on himself, as it were, their
+peculiar influences. More than all, chief of all, he must have a broad,
+many-sided, tender sympathy with all things human, enabling him to
+appreciate the emotions and arguments of all parties and all peoples.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>Such complete comprehension and spiritual accord will not weaken, but
+will strengthen his clear perception of those standards by which all
+actions and institutions must ultimately be weighed and measured. There
+are such standards, and the really learned ethnologist will be the last
+to deny or overlook them.</p>
+
+<p>The saying of Goethe that “The most unnatural action is yet natural,� is
+a noble suggestion of tolerance; but human judgment can scarcely go to
+the length of Madame de Stael’s opinion, when she claims that “To
+understand all actions is to pardon all.� We must brush away the
+sophisms which insist that all standards are merely relative, and that
+time and place alone decide on right and wrong. Were that so, not only
+all morality, but all science and all knowledge were fluctuating as
+sand. But it is not so. The principles of Reason, Truth, Justice and
+Love have been, are, and ever will be the same. Time and place, race and
+culture, make no difference. Whenever a country is engaged in the
+diffusion of these immortal verities, whenever institutions are
+calculated to foster and extend them, that country, those institutions,
+take noble precedence over all others whose efforts are directed to
+lower aims.<a name="FNanchor_15-1_15" id="FNanchor_15-1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15-1_15" class="fnanchor">15-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Something else remains. When the ethnologist has acquired a competent
+knowledge of his facts, and deduced from them a clear conception of the
+mental states of the peoples he is studying, he has not finished his
+labors. Institutions and arts in some degree reflect the mental
+conditions of a people, in some degree bring them about; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> the
+underlying source of both is something still more immaterial and
+intangible, yet more potent, to wit, Ideas and Ideals. These are the
+primary impulses of conscious human endeavor, and it is vain to attempt
+to understand ethnology or to write history without assigning their
+consideration the first place in the narration.</p>
+
+<p>I am anxious to avoid here any metaphysical obscurity. My assertion is,
+that the chief impulses of nations and peoples are abstract ideas and
+ideals, unreal and unrealizable; and that it is in pursuit of these that
+the great as well as the small movements on the arena of national life
+and on the stage of history have taken place.</p>
+
+<p>You are doubtless aware that this is no new discovery of mine. Early in
+this century Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote: “The last and highest duty of
+the historian is to portray the effort of the Idea to attain realization
+in fact;� and the most recent lecture on the philosophy of history which
+I have read, that by Lord Acton, contains this maxim: “Ideas which in
+religion and politics are truths, in history are living forces.�</p>
+
+<p>I do claim that it is timely for me to repeat these doctrines and to
+urge them with vehemence, for they are generally repudiated by the
+prevailing schools of ethnology and history in favor of the opinion that
+objective, mechanical influences alone suffice to explain all the
+phenomena of human life. This I pronounce an inadequate and an
+unscientific opinion.</p>
+
+<p>There is in living matter everywhere something which escapes the most
+exhaustive investigation, some subtle center of impulse, which lies
+beyond the domain of correlated energy, and which acts directively,
+without increasing or diminishing the total of that energy. Also in the
+transformations of organic forms, there are preparations and propulsions
+which no known doctrine of the mechanical, natural causes can interpret.
+We must accept the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> presence of the same powers, and in a greater
+degree, in the life and the history of man.<a name="FNanchor_17-1_16" id="FNanchor_17-1_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-1_16" class="fnanchor">17-1</a></p>
+
+<p>It may be objected that abstract ideas are far beyond the grasp of the
+uncultivated intellect. The reply is, consciously to regard them as
+abstract, may be; but they exist and act for all that. All sane people
+think and talk according to certain abstract laws of grammar and logic;
+and they act in similar unconsciousness of the abstractions which impel
+them. Moreover, the Idea is usually clothed in a concrete Ideal, a
+personification, which brings it home to the simplest mind. This was
+long ago pointed out by the observant Machiavelli in his statement that
+every reform of a government or religion is in the popular mind
+personified as the effort of one individual.</p>
+
+<p>In every nation or <i>ethnos</i> there is a prevailing opinion as to what the
+highest typical human being should be. This “Ideal of Humanity,� as it
+has been called, is more or less constantly and consciously pursued, and
+becomes a spur to national action and to a considerable degree an
+arbiter of national destiny. If the ideal is low and bestial, the course
+of that nation is downward, self-destroying; if it is lofty and pure,
+the energies of the people are directed toward the maintenance of those
+principles which are elevating and preservative. These are not
+mechanical forces, in any rational sense of the term; but they are
+forces the potent directive and formative influence of which cannot be
+denied and must not be underestimated.</p>
+
+<p>Just in proportion as such ideas are numerous, clear and true in the
+national mind, do their power augment and their domain extend; just so
+much more quickly and firmly do they express themselves, in acts, forms
+and institutions, and thus enable the nation to enrich, beautify and
+strengthen its own existence. We have but to glance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> along the nations
+of the world and to reflect on the outlines of their histories, to
+perceive the correctness of the conclusion which Prof. Lazarus, perhaps
+the most eminent analyst of ethnic character of this generation, reaches
+in one of his essays: “A people which is not rich in ideas, is never
+rich; one that is not strong in its thinking powers, is never
+strong.�<a name="FNanchor_18-1_17" id="FNanchor_18-1_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_18-1_17" class="fnanchor">18-1</a></p>
+
+<p>I claim, therefore, that the facts of ethnology and the study of racial
+psychology justify me in formulating this maxim for the guidance of the
+historian: <i>The conscious and deliberate pursuit of ideal aims is the
+highest causality in human history.</i></p>
+
+<p>The historian who would fulfil his mission in its amplest sense must
+trace his facts back to the ideas which gave them birth; he must
+recognize and define these as the properties of specific peoples; and he
+must estimate their worth by their tendency to national preservation or
+national destruction.</p>
+
+<p>This is the maxim, the axiom, if you please, which both the ethnologist
+and the historian must bear ever present in mind if they would
+comprehend the meaning of institutions or the significance of events.
+They must be referred to, and explained by, the ideas which gave them
+birth. As an American historian has tersely put it, “The facts relating
+to successive phases of <i>human thought</i> constitute History.�<a name="FNanchor_18-2_18" id="FNanchor_18-2_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18-2_18" class="fnanchor">18-2</a></p>
+
+<p>I am aware that a strong school of modern philosophers will present the
+objection that thought itself is but a necessary result of chemical and
+mechanical laws, and therefore that it cannot be an independent cause.
+Dr. Post has pointedly expressed this position in the words: “We do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> not
+think; thinking goes on within us,�<a name="FNanchor_19-1_19" id="FNanchor_19-1_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19-1_19" class="fnanchor">19-1</a> just as other functions, such
+as circulation and secretion, go on.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible for me at this time to enter into this branch of the
+discussion. But I may ask your attention to the fact that one of the
+highest authorities on the laws of natural science, the late George J.
+Romanes, reached by the severest induction an exactly opposite opinion,
+which he announced in these words: “The human mind is itself a causal
+agent. Its motives are in large part matters of its own creation. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;*
+Intelligent volition is a true cause of adjustive movement.�<a name="FNanchor_19-2_20" id="FNanchor_19-2_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_19-2_20" class="fnanchor">19-2</a></p>
+
+<p>For myself, after what I have endeavored to make an unbiased study of
+both opinions, I subscribe unhesitatingly to the latter, and look upon
+Mind not only as a potent but as an independent cause of motion in the
+natural world, of action in the individual life, and, therefore, of
+events in the history of the species.</p>
+
+<p>Confining ourselves to ethnology and history, the causative idea, as I
+have said, makes itself felt through ethnic ideals. These are
+influential in proportion as they are vividly realized by the national
+genius; and elevating in proportion as they partake of those final
+truths already referred to, which are all merely forms of expression of
+right reasoning. These ideals are the <i>idola fori</i>, which have sometimes
+deluded, sometimes glorified, those who believed in them.</p>
+
+<p>I shall mention a few of them to make my meaning more apparent.</p>
+
+<p>That with which we are most familiar in history is the warrior ideal,
+the personification of military glory and martial success. It is present
+among the rudest tribes, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> that it is active to-day, events in recent
+European history prove only too clearly; and among ourselves, little
+would be needed to awaken it to vivid life.</p>
+
+<p>We are less acquainted with religious ideals, as they have weakened
+under the conditions of higher culture. They belong in European history
+more to the medieval than to the modern period. Among Mohammedans and
+Brahmins we can still see them in their full vigor. In these lower
+faiths we can still find that intense fanaticism which can best be
+described by the expression of Novalis, “intoxicated with God,� drunk
+with the divine;<a name="FNanchor_20-1_21" id="FNanchor_20-1_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_20-1_21" class="fnanchor">20-1</a> and this it is which preserves to these nations
+what power they still retain.</p>
+
+<p>Would that I could claim for our own people a grander conception of the
+purpose of life than either of these. But alas! their ideal is too
+evident to be mistaken. I call it the “divitial� ideal, that of the rich
+man, that which makes the acquisition of material wealth the one
+standard of success in life, the only justifiable aim of effort. To most
+American citizens the assertion that there is any more important, more
+sensible purpose than this, is simply incomprehensible or incredible.</p>
+
+<p>In place of any of these, the man who loves his kind would substitute
+others; and as these touch closely on the business of the ethnologist
+and the historian when either would apply the knowledge he has gained to
+the present condition of society, I will briefly refer to some advanced
+by various writers.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most favorite is that of <i>moral perfection</i>. It has been
+formulated in the expression: “In the progress of ethical conceptions
+lies the progress of history itself.� (Sch&auml;fer.) To such writers the
+ideal of duty performed transcends all others, and is complete in
+itself. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> chief end of man, they say, is to lead the moral life,
+diligently to cultivate the ethical perception, the notion of “the
+ought,� and to seek in this the finality of his existence.<a name="FNanchor_21-1_22" id="FNanchor_21-1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-1_22" class="fnanchor">21-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Keener thinkers have, however, recognized that virtue, morality, the
+ethical evolution, cannot be an end in itself, but must be a means to
+some other end. Effort directed toward other, altruism in any form, must
+have its final measurement of value in terms of self; otherwise the
+immutable principles of justice are attacked. I cannot enlarge upon this
+point, and will content myself with a reference to Prof. Steinthal’s
+admirable essay on “The Idea of ethical Perfection,� published some
+years ago.<a name="FNanchor_21-2_23" id="FNanchor_21-2_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-2_23" class="fnanchor">21-2</a> He shows that in its last analysis the Good has its
+value solely in the freedom which it confers. Were all men truly
+ethical, all would be perfectly free. Therefore Freedom, in its highest
+sense, according to him and several other accomplished reasoners, is the
+aim of morality, and is that which gives it worth.</p>
+
+<p>This argument seems to me a step ahead, but yet to remain incomplete.
+For after all, what is freedom? It means only opportunity, not action;
+and opportunity alone is a negative quantity, a zero. Opportunity for
+what, I ask?</p>
+
+<p>For an answer, I turn with satisfaction to an older writer on the
+philosophy of history, one whose genial sympathy with the human heart
+glows on every page of his volumes, to Johann Gottfried von
+Herder.<a name="FNanchor_21-3_24" id="FNanchor_21-3_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-3_24" class="fnanchor">21-3</a> The one final aim, he tells us, of all institutions, laws,
+governments and religions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> of all efforts and events, is that each
+person, undisturbed by others, may employ his own powers to their
+fullest extent, and thus gain for himself a completer existence, a more
+beautiful enjoyment of his faculties.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, to the enriching of the individual life, its worth, its happiness
+and its fullness, does all endeavor of humanity tend; in it, lies the
+end of all exertion, the reward of all toil; to define it, should be the
+object of ethnology; and to teach it, the purpose of history.</p>
+
+<p>Let me recapitulate.</p>
+
+<p>The ethnologist regards each social group as an entity or individual,
+and endeavors to place clearly before his mind its similarities and
+differences with other groups. Taking objective facts as his guides,
+such as laws, arts, institutions and language, he seeks from these to
+understand the mental life, the psychical welfare of the people, and
+beyond this to reach the ideals which they cherished and the ideas which
+were the impulses of their activities. Events and incidents, such as are
+recorded in national annals, have for him their main, if not only value,
+as indications of the inner or soul life of the people.</p>
+
+<p>By the comparison of several social groups he reaches wider
+generalizations; and finally to those which characterize the common
+consciousness of Humanity, the psychical universals of the species. By
+such comparison he also ascertains under what conditions and in what
+directions men have progressed most rapidly toward the cultivation and
+the enjoyment of the noblest elements of their nature; and this strictly
+inductive knowledge is that alone which he would apply to furthering the
+present needs and aspirations of social life.</p>
+
+<p>This is the method which he would suggest for history in the broad
+meaning of the term. It should be neither a mere record of events, nor
+the demonstration of a thesis, but a study, through occurrences and
+institutions, of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> mental states of peoples at different epochs,
+explanatory of their success or failure, and practically applicable to
+the present needs of human society.</p>
+
+<p>Such explanation should be strictly limited in two directions. First, by
+the principle that man can be explained only by man, and can be so
+explained completely. That is, no super-human agencies need be invoked
+to interpret any of the incidents of history: and, on the other hand, no
+merely material or mechanical conditions, such as climate, food and
+environment, are sufficient for a full interpretation. Beyond these lie
+the inexhaustible sources of impulse in the essence of Mind itself.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the past can teach us nothing of the future beyond a vague
+surmise. All theories which proceed on an assumption of knowledge
+concerning finalities, whether in science or dogma, are cobwebs of the
+brain, not the fruit of knowledge, and obscure the faculty of
+intellectual perception. It is wasteful of one’s time to frame them, and
+fatal to one’s work to adopt them.</p>
+
+<p>These are also two personal traits which, it seems to me, are requisite
+to the comprehension of ethnic psychology, and therefore are desirable
+to both the ethnologist and the historian. The one of these is the
+poetic instinct.</p>
+
+<p>I fear this does not sound well from the scientific rostrum, for the
+prevailing notion among scientists is that the poet is a fabulist, and
+is therefore as far off as possible from the platform they occupy. No
+one, however, can really understand a people who remains outside the
+pale of the world of imagination in which it finds its deepest joys; and
+nowhere is this depicted so clearly as in its songs and by its bards.
+The ethnologist who has no taste for poetry may gather much that is
+good, but will miss the best; the historian who neglects the poetic
+literature of a nation turns away his eyes from the vista which would
+give him the farthest insight into national character.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>The other trait is more difficult to define. To apprehend what is
+noblest in a nation one must oneself be noble. Knowledge of facts and an
+unbiased judgment need to be accompanied by a certain development of
+personal character which enables one to be in sympathy with the finest
+tissue of human nature, from the fibre of which are formed heroes and
+martyrs, patriots and saints, enthusiasts and devotees. To appreciate
+these something of the same stuff must be in the mental constitution of
+the observer.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the ethnologist’s view of history. He does not pretend to be
+either a priest or a prophet. He claims neither to possess the final
+truth nor to foresee it. He is, therefore equally unwelcome to the
+dogmatist, the optimistic naturalist and the speculative philosopher. He
+refuses any explanations which either contradict or transcend human
+reason; but he insists that human reason is one of the causal facts
+which he has to consider; and this brings him into conflict with both
+the mystic and the materialist.</p>
+
+<p>Though he exalts the power of ideas, he is no idealist, but practical to
+the last degree; for he denies the worth of any art, science, event or
+institution which does not directly or indirectly contribute to the
+elevation of the individual man or woman, the common average person, the
+human being.</p>
+
+<p>To this one end, understanding it as we best can, he claims all effort
+should tend; and any other view than this of the philosophy of history,
+any other standard of value applied to the records of the past, he looks
+upon as delusive and deceptive, no matter under what heraldry of title
+or seal of sanctity it is offered.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-1_1" id="Footnote_6-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-1_1"><span class="label">6-1</span></a> In his epochal essay “Die Aufgabe des
+Geschichtschreibers.� <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. I., s. 13. It was
+republished with a discriminating introduction by Professor Steinthal in
+<i>Die Sprachphilosophischen Werke Wilhelm von Humboldt’s</i> (Berlin,
+1883).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-2_2" id="Footnote_6-2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-2_2"><span class="label">6-2</span></a> “Der Zweck-Begriff bewirkt nur sich selbst, und ist am
+Ende was er im Anfange, in der Unspr&uuml;nglichkeit, war.� <i>Encyclop&auml;die der
+philosophischen Wissenschaften.</i> <a name="corr04" id="corr04"></a><ins class="correction" title="Theil">Theil,</ins> I., &sect; 204.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-3_3" id="Footnote_6-3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-3_3"><span class="label">6-3</span></a> “Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck einer
+vorbestimmten Entwicklung.� (Quoted by Lord Acton.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7-1_4" id="Footnote_7-1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-1_4"><span class="label">7-1</span></a> “Die Menschheit hat sich aus nat&uuml;rlicher, tierischer
+Grundlage auf rein nat&uuml;rliche mechanische Weise entwickelt.�
+<i>Anthropolgische Beitr&auml;ge</i>, s. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8-1_5" id="Footnote_8-1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-1_5"><span class="label">8-1</span></a> <i>A Lecture on the Study of History</i>, p. 1 (London,
+1895).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8-2_6" id="Footnote_8-2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-2_6"><span class="label">8-2</span></a> See his article “The Relation of Anthropology to the
+Study of History,� in <i>The American Journal of Sociology</i>, July, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8-3_7" id="Footnote_8-3_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-3_7"><span class="label">8-3</span></a> Ludwig Tobler, in his article “Zur Philosophie der
+Geschichte,� in the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. XII., s.
+195.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-1_8" id="Footnote_10-1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-1_8"><span class="label">10-1</span></a> One of the most lucid of modern German philosophical
+writers says, “Without language, there could be no unity of mental life,
+no national life at all.� Friedrich Paulsen, <i>Introduction to
+Philosophy</i>, p. 193. (English translation, New York, 1895.) I need
+scarcely recall to the student that this was the cardinal principle of
+the ethnological writings of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and that his most
+celebrated essay is entitled “Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen
+Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des
+Menschengeschlechts.� The thought is well and tersely put by Prof. Frank
+Granger&mdash;“Language is the instinctive expression of national spirit.�
+(<i>The Worship of the Romans</i>, p. 19, London, 1896.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-2_9" id="Footnote_10-2_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-2_9"><span class="label">10-2</span></a> “Law, in its positive forms, may be viewed as an
+instrument used to produce a certain kind of character.� Frank Granger,
+ubi supra, p. 19.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-3_10" id="Footnote_10-3_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-3_10"><span class="label">10-3</span></a> <i>Lectures on the Science of Religion</i>, p. 55.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12-1_11" id="Footnote_12-1_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12-1_11"><span class="label">12-1</span></a> How different from the position of Voltaire, who,
+<a name="corr05" id="corr05"></a><ins class="correction" title="expressing">expressing,</ins> the general sentiment of his times, wrote,&mdash;“The
+history of barbarous nations has no more interest than that of bears and
+wolves!�</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13-1_12" id="Footnote_13-1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-1_12"><span class="label">13-1</span></a> <i>Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz</i>, Bd. I., s.
+5. (Leipzig, 1894.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13-2_13" id="Footnote_13-2_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-2_13"><span class="label">13-2</span></a> “Das Geschichte ist weder eine Offenbarung Gottes, noch
+ein Naturprocess, sondern eben Menschenwerk.� Tobler in the <i>Zeitschrift
+f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. XII., s. 201.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14-1_14" id="Footnote_14-1_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14-1_14"><span class="label">14-1</span></a> <i>History of the Philosophy of History</i>, p. 579.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15-1_15" id="Footnote_15-1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15-1_15"><span class="label">15-1</span></a> There is nothing in this inconsistent with the principle
+laid down by Lecky: “The men of each age must be judged by the ideal of
+their own age and country, and not by the ideal of ourselves.�&mdash;<i>The
+Political Value of History</i>, p. 50, New York, 1892. The distinction is
+that between the relative standard, which we apply to motives and
+persons, and the absolute standard, which we apply to actions. The
+effects of the latter, for good or evil, are fixed, and independent of
+the motives which prompt them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17-1_16" id="Footnote_17-1_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-1_16"><span class="label">17-1</span></a> “The historian,� says Tolstoi, “is obliged to admit an
+inexplicable force, which acts upon his elementary forces.� <i>Power and
+Liberty</i>, p. 28 (Eng. Trans., New York, 1888).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18-1_17" id="Footnote_18-1_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18-1_17"><span class="label">18-1</span></a> See his article “Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte,� in
+the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i><a name="corr06" id="corr06"></a><ins class="correction" title=",">.</ins> Bd. III., S. 486.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18-2_18" id="Footnote_18-2_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18-2_18"><span class="label">18-2</span></a> Brooks Adams, <i>The Law of Civilization and Decay</i>,
+Preface (London, 1895). This author has reached an advanced position
+with reference to thought and emotion as the impulses of humanity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19-1_19" id="Footnote_19-1_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19-1_19"><span class="label">19-1</span></a> <i>Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz</i>, Band I., s.
+4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19-2_20" id="Footnote_19-2_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19-2_20"><span class="label">19-2</span></a> <i>Mind and Motion</i>, pp. 29, 140, etc. (London, 1895.)
+Prof. Paulsen goes much further, as, “The inner disposition
+spontaneously determines the development of the individual,� and “The
+organism is, as it were, congealed voluntary action.�&mdash;<i>Introduction to
+Philosophy</i>, <a name="corr07" id="corr07"></a><ins class="correction" title="pp.">pp,</ins> 187, 190.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20-1_21" id="Footnote_20-1_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20-1_21"><span class="label">20-1</span></a> Before him, however, the expression “ebrius Deo� was
+applied to the ancient rhapsodists.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21-1_22" id="Footnote_21-1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-1_22"><span class="label">21-1</span></a> As expressed by Prof. Droysen, in his work, <i>Principles
+of History</i>, (p. 16, New York, 1893), recently translated by President
+Andrews, of Brown University&mdash;“Historical things are the perpetual
+actualization of the moral forces.� Elsewhere he says&mdash;“History is
+humanity becoming conscious concerning itself<a name="corr08" id="corr08"></a><ins class="correction" title=".">,</ins>� There is no
+objection to such expressions; they are good as far as they go; but they
+do not go to the end.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21-2_23" id="Footnote_21-2_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-2_23"><span class="label">21-2</span></a> In the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>, Band XI.,
+Heft II.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21-3_24" id="Footnote_21-3_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-3_24"><span class="label">21-3</span></a> <i>Ideen zur Geschichte der Menschheit</i>, B. XV., Cap. I.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+  <td>Correction</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr01">3</a></td>
+  <td>milleniums</td>
+  <td>millenniums</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr02">8</a></td>
+  <td>developes</td>
+  <td>develops</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr03">10</a></td>
+  <td>thought-tranference,</td>
+  <td>thought-transference</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr04">fn. 6-2</a></td>
+  <td>Theil,</td>
+  <td>Theil</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr05">fn. 12-1</a></td>
+  <td>expressing,</td>
+  <td>expressing</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr06">fn. 18-1</a></td>
+  <td><i>V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>.</td>
+  <td><i>V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr07">fn. 19-2</a></td>
+  <td>pp,</td>
+  <td>pp.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr08">fn. 21-1</a></td>
+  <td>itself,�</td>
+  <td>itself.�</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Ethnologist's View of History, by 
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+Project Gutenberg's An Ethnologist's View of History, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: An Ethnologist's View of History
+       An Address Before the Annual Meeting of the New Jersey
+       Historical Society, at Trenton, New Jersey, January 28, 1896
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: July 31, 2009 [EBook #29554]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHNOLOGIST'S VIEW OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a
+description in the complete list found at the end of the text.
+
+
+
+
+                            AN
+
+              ETHNOLOGIST'S VIEW OF HISTORY.
+
+
+                        AN ADDRESS
+                        BEFORE THE
+  ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NEW JERSEY HISTORICAL SOCIETY,
+                            AT
+          TRENTON, NEW JERSEY, JANUARY 28, 1896.
+
+                            BY
+
+     DANIEL G. BRINTON, A. M., M. D., LL. D., D. Sc.
+
+  PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF
+       PENNSYLVANIA AND OF GENERAL ETHNOLOGY AT THE
+       ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA.
+
+                    PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+                          1896.
+
+
+
+
+An Ethnologist's View of History.
+
+
+MR. PRESIDENT:
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The intelligent thought of the world is ever advancing to a fuller
+appreciation of the worth of the past to the present and the future.
+Never before have associations, societies and journals devoted to
+historical studies been so numerous. All times and tribes are searched
+for memorials; the remote corners of modern, medieval and ancient
+periods are brought under scrutiny; and going beyond these again, the
+semi-historic eras of tradition and the nebulous gleams from
+pre-historic milleniums[TN-1] are diligently scanned, that their
+uncertain story may be prefaced to that registered in "the syllables of
+recorded time."
+
+In this manner a vast mass of material is accumulating with which the
+historian has to deal. What now is the real nature of the task he sets
+before himself? What is the mission with which he is entrusted?
+
+To understand this task, to appreciate that mission, he must ask himself
+the broad questions: What is the aim of history? What are the purposes
+for which it should be studied and written?
+
+He will find no lack of answers to these inquiries, all offered with
+equal confidence, but singularly discrepant among themselves. His
+embarrassment will be that of selection between widely divergent views,
+each ably supported by distinguished advocates.
+
+As I am going to add still another, not exactly like any already on the
+list, it may well be asked of me to show why one or other of those
+already current is not as good or better than my own. This requires me
+to pass in brief review the theories of historic methods, or, as it is
+properly termed, of the Philosophy of History, which are most popular
+to-day.
+
+They may be classified under three leading opinions, as follows:
+
+1. History should be an accurate record of events, and nothing more; an
+exact and disinterested statement of what has taken place, concealing
+nothing and coloring nothing, reciting incidents in their natural
+connections, without bias, prejudice, or didactic application of any
+kind.
+
+This is certainly a high ideal and an excellent model. For many, yes,
+for the majority of historical works, none better can be suggested. I
+place it first and name it as worthiest of all current theories of
+historical composition. But, I would submit to you, is a literary
+production answering to this precept, really _History_? Is it anything
+more than a well-prepared annal or chronicle? Is it, in fact anything
+else than a compilation containing the materials of which real history
+should be composed?
+
+I consider that the mission of the historian, taken in its completest
+sense, is something much more, much higher, than the collection and
+narration of events, no matter how well this is done. The historian
+should be like the man of science, and group his facts under inductive
+systems so as to reach the general laws which connect and explain them.
+He should, still further, be like the artist, and endeavor so to exhibit
+these connections under literary forms that they present to the reader
+the impression of a symmetrical and organic unity, in which each part or
+event bears definite relations to all others. Collection and collation
+are not enough. The historian must "work up his field notes," as the
+geologists say, so as to extract from his data all the useful results
+which they are capable of yielding.
+
+I am quite certain that in these objections I can count on the suffrages
+of most. For the majority of authors write history in a style widely
+different from that which I have been describing. They are distinctly
+teachers, though not at all in accord as to what they teach. They are
+generally advocates, and with more or less openness maintain what I call
+the second theory of the aim of history, to wit:
+
+2. History should be a collection of evidence in favor of certain
+opinions.
+
+In this category are to be included all religious and political
+histories. Their pages are intended to show the dealings of God with
+man; or the evidences of Christianity, or of one of its sects,
+Catholicism or Protestantism; or the sure growth of republican or of
+monarchial institutions; or the proof of a divine government of the
+world; or the counter-proof that there is no such government; and the
+like.
+
+You will find that most general histories may be placed in this class.
+Probably a man cannot himself have very strong convictions about
+politics or religion, and not let them be seen in his narrative of
+events where such questions are prominently present. A few familiar
+instances will illustrate this. No one can take either Lingard's or
+Macauley's History of England as anything more than a plea for either
+writer's personal views. Gibbon's anti-Christian feeling is as
+perceptibly disabling to him in many passages as in the church
+historians is their search for "acts of Providence," and the hand of God
+in human affairs.
+
+All such histories suffer from fatal flaws. They are deductive instead
+of inductive; they are a _defensio sententiarum_ instead of an
+_investigatio veri_; they assume the final truth as known, and go not
+forth to seek it. They are therefore "teleologic," that is, they study
+the record of man as the demonstration of a problem the solution of
+which is already known. In this they are essentially "divinatory,"
+claiming foreknowledge of the future; and, as every ethnologist knows,
+divination belongs to a stadium of incomplete intellectual culture, one
+considerably short of the highest. As has been well said by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt, any teleologic theory "disturbs and falsifies the facts of
+history;"[6-1] and it has been acutely pointed out by the philosopher
+Hegel, that it contradicts the notion of progress and is no advance over
+the ancient tenet of a recurrent cycle.[6-2]
+
+I need not dilate upon these errors. They must be patent to you. No
+matter how noble the conviction, how pure the purpose, there is
+something nobler and purer than it, and that is, unswerving devotion to
+rendering in history the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the
+truth.
+
+I now turn to another opinion, that which teaches that--
+
+3. History should be a portraiture, more or less extended, of the
+evolution of the human species.
+
+This is claimed to be the "scientific" view of history. It was tersely
+expressed by Alexander von Humboldt in the phrase: "The history of the
+world is the mere expression of a predetermined, that is, fixed,
+evolution."[6-3]
+
+It is that advocated by Auguste Comte, Draper and Spencer, and a few
+years ago Prof. Gerland, of Strasburg, formulated its basic maxim in
+these words: "Man has developed from the brute through the action of
+purely mechanical, therefore fixed, laws."[7-1]
+
+The scientist of to-day who hesitates to subscribe to these maxims is
+liable to be regarded as of doubtful learning or of debilitated
+intellect. I acknowledge that I am one such, and believe that I can show
+sound reasons for denying the assumption on which this view is based.
+
+It appears to me just as teleologic and divinatory as those I have
+previously named. It assumes Evolution as a law of the universe, whereas
+in natural science it is only a limited generalization, inapplicable to
+most series of natural events, and therefore of uncertain continuance in
+any series. The optimism which it inculcates is insecure and belongs to
+deductive, not inductive, reasoning. The mechanical theory on which it
+is based lacks proof, and is, I maintain, insufficient to explain
+motive, and, therefore, historic occurrences. The assumption that
+history is the record of a necessary and uninterrupted evolution,
+progressing under ironclad mechanical laws, is a preconceived theory as
+detrimental to clear vision as are the preoccupations of the theologian
+or the political partisan.
+
+Any definition of evolution which carries with it the justification of
+optimism is as erroneous in history, as it would be in biology to assert
+that all variations are beneficial. There is no more certainty that the
+human species will improve under the operation of physical laws than
+that any individual will; there is far more evidence that it will not,
+as every species of the older geologic ages has succumbed to those laws,
+usually without leaving a representative.
+
+I am aware that I am here in opposition to the popular as well as the
+scientific view. No commonplace is better received than that, "Eternal
+progress is the law of nature;" though by what process eternal laws are
+discovered is imperfectly explained.
+
+Applied to history, a favorite dream of some of the most recent teachers
+is that the life of the species runs the same course as that of one of
+its members. Lord Acton, of Oxford, in a late lecture states that: "The
+development of society is like that of individual;"[8-1] and Prof.
+Fellows, of the University of Chicago, advances the same opinion in the
+words, "Humanity as a whole developes[TN-2] like a child."[8-2]
+
+The error of this view was clearly pointed out some years ago by Dr.
+Tobler.[8-3] There has been no growth of humanity at large at all
+comparable to that of the individual. There are tribes to-day in the
+full stone age, and others in all stages of culture above it. The
+horizons of progress have been as local as those of geography. No
+solidarity of advancement exists in the species as a whole. Epochs and
+stadia of culture vary with race and climate. The much talked of "law of
+continuity" does not hold good either in national or intellectual
+growth.
+
+Such are the criticisms which may be urged against the historical
+methods now in vogue. What, you will ask, is offered in their stead?
+That which I offer is the view of the ethnologist. It is not so
+ambitious as some I have named. It does not deal in eternal laws, nor
+divine the distant future. The ethnologist does not profess to have been
+admitted into the counsels of the Almighty, nor to have caught in his
+grasp the secret purposes of the Universe. He seeks the sufficient
+reason for known facts, and is content with applying the knowledge he
+gains to present action.
+
+Before stating the view of the ethnologist, I must briefly describe what
+the science of Ethnology is. You will see at once how closely it is
+allied to history, and that the explanation of the one almost carries
+with it the prescription for the other.
+
+It begins with the acknowledged maxim that man is by nature a gregarious
+animal, a _zoon politikon_, as Aristotle called him, living in society,
+and owing to society all those traits which it is the business of
+history, as distinguished from biology, to study.
+
+From this standpoint, all that the man is he owes to others; and what
+the others are, they owe, in part, to him. Together, they make up the
+social unit, at first the family or clan, itself becoming part of a
+larger unit, a tribe, nation or people. The typical folk, or _ethnos_,
+is a social unit, the members of which are bound together by certain
+traits common to all or most, which impart to them a prevailing
+character, an organic unity, specific peculiarities and general
+tendencies.
+
+You may inquire what these traits are to which I refer as making up
+ethnic character. The answer cannot be so precise as you would like. We
+are dealing with a natural phenomenon, and Nature, as Goethe once
+remarked, never makes groups, but only individuals. The group is a
+subjective category of our own minds. It is, nevertheless,
+psychologically real, and capable of definition.
+
+The _Ethnos_ must be defined, like a species of natural history, by a
+rehearsal of a series of its characteristics, not by one alone. The
+members of this series are numerous, and by no means of equal
+importance; I shall mention the most prominent of them, and in the order
+in which I believe they should be ranked for influence on national
+character.
+
+First, I should rank Language. Not only is it the medium of intelligible
+intercourse, of thought-tranference,[TN-3] but thought itself is
+powerfully aided or impeded by the modes of its expression in sound. As
+"spoken language," in poetry and oratory, its might is recognized on all
+hands; while in "written language," as literature, it works silently but
+with incalculable effect on the character of a people.[10-1]
+
+Next to this I should place Government, understanding this word in its
+widest sense, as embracing the terms on which man agrees to live with
+his fellow man and with woman, family, therefore, as well as society
+ties. This includes the legal standards of duty, the rules of
+relationship and descent, the rights of property and the customs of
+commerce, the institutions of castes, classes and rulers, and those
+international relations on which depend war and peace. I need not
+enlarge on the profound impress which these exert on the traits of the
+people.[10-2]
+
+After these I should name Religion, though some brilliant scholars, such
+as Schelling and Max Mueller,[10-3] have claimed for it the first place
+as a formative influence on ethnic character. No one will deny the
+prominent rank it holds in the earlier stages of human culture. It is
+scarcely too much to say that most of the waking hours of the males of
+some tribes are taken up with religious ceremonies. Religion is,
+however, essentially "divinatory," that is, its chief end and aim is
+toward the future, not the present, and therefore the impress it leaves
+on national character is far less permanent, much more ephemeral, than
+either government or language. This is constantly seen in daily life.
+Persons change their religion with facility, but adhere resolutely to
+the laws which protect their property. The mighty empire of Rome secured
+ethnic unity to a degree never since equalled in parallel circumstances,
+and its plan was to tolerate all religions--as, indeed, do all
+enlightened states to-day--but to insist on the adoption of the Roman
+law, and, in official intercourse, the Latin language. I have not
+forgotten the converse example of the Jews, which some attribute to
+their religion; but the Romany, who have no religion worth mentioning,
+have been just as tenacious of their traits under similar adverse
+circumstances.
+
+The Arts, those of Utility, such as pottery, building, agriculture and
+the domestication of animals, and those of Pleasure, such as music,
+painting and sculpture, must come in for a full share of the
+ethnologist's attention. They represent, however, stadia of culture
+rather than national character. They influence the latter materially and
+are influenced by it, and different peoples have toward them widely
+different endowments; but their action is generally indirect and
+unequally distributed throughout the social unit.
+
+These four fields, Language, Government, Religion and the Arts, are
+those which the ethnologist explores when he would render himself
+acquainted with a nation's character; and now a few words about the
+methods of study he adopts, and the aims, near or remote, which he keeps
+in view.
+
+He first gathers his facts, from the best sources at his command, with
+the closest sifting he can give them, so as to exclude errors of
+observation or intentional bias. From the facts he aims to discover on
+the above lines what are or were the regular characteristics of the
+people or peoples he is studying. The ethnic differences so revealed are
+to him what organic variations are to the biologist and morphologist;
+they indicate evolution or retrogression, and show an advance toward
+higher forms and wider powers, or toward increasing feebleness and
+decay.
+
+To understand them they must be studied in connection and causation.
+Hence, the method of the ethnologist becomes that which in the natural
+sciences is called the "developmental" method. It may be defined as the
+historic method where history is lacking. The biologist explains the
+present structure of an organ by tracing it back to simpler forms in
+lower animals until he reaches the germ from which it began. The
+ethnologist pursues the same course. He selects, let us say, a peculiar
+institution, such as caste, and when he loses the traces of its origin
+through failure of written records, he seeks for them in the survivals
+of unwritten folk-lore, or in similar forms in primitive conditions of
+culture.
+
+Here is where Archaeology renders him most efficient aid. By means of it
+he has been able to follow the trail of most of the arts and
+institutions of life back to a period when they were so simple and
+uncomplicated that they are quite transparent and intelligible. Later
+changes are to be analyzed and explained by the same procedure.[12-1]
+
+This is the whole of the ethnologic method. It is open and easy when the
+facts are in our possession. There are no secret springs, no occult
+forces, in the historic development of culture. Whatever seems hidden or
+mysterious, is so only because our knowledge of the facts is imperfect.
+No magic and no miracle has aided man in his long conflict with the
+material forces around him. No ghost has come from the grave, no God
+from on high, to help him in the bitter struggle. What he has won is his
+own by the right of conquest, and he can apply to himself the words of
+the poet:
+
+    "Hast du nicht alles selbst vollendet,
+    Heilig gluehend Herz?" (_Goethe_).
+
+Freed from fear we can now breathe easily, for we know that no _Deus ex
+machina_ meddles with those serene and mighty forces whose adamantine
+grasp encloses all the phenomena of nature and of life.
+
+The ethnologist, however, has not completed his task when he has defined
+an _ethnos_, and explained its traits by following them to their
+sources. He has merely prepared himself for a more delicate and
+difficult part of his undertaking.
+
+It has been well said by one of the ablest ethnologists of this
+generation, the late Dr. Post, of Bremen, that "The facts of ethnology
+must ever be regarded as the expressions of the general consciousness of
+Humanity."[13-1] The time has passed when real thinkers can be satisfied
+with the doctrines of the positive philosophers, who insisted that
+events and institutions must be explained solely from the phenomenal or
+objective world, that is, by other events.
+
+Sounder views prevail, both in ethnology and its history. "The history
+of man," says a German writer, "is neither a divine revelation, nor a
+process of nature; it is first and above all, the work of man;"[13-2] an
+opinion reiterated by Prof. Flint in his work on the philosophy of
+history in these words: "History is essentially the record of the work
+and manifestation of _human nature_."[14-1] In both sciences it is the
+essentially human which alone occupies us; it is the _life of man_.
+
+Now men do not live in material things, but in mental states; and solely
+as they affect these are the material things valuable or valueless.
+Religions, arts, laws, historic events, all have but one standard of
+appraisement, to wit, the degree to which they produce permanently
+beneficial mental states in the individuals influenced by them. All must
+agree to this, though they may differ widely as to what such a mental
+state may be; whether one of pleasurable activity, or that of the
+Buddhist hermit who sinks into a trance by staring at his navel, or that
+of the Trappist monk whose occupations are the meditation of death and
+digging his own grave.
+
+The ethnologist must make up his own mind about this, and with utmost
+care, for if his standard of merit and demerit is erroneous, his
+results, however much he labors on them, will have no permanent value.
+There are means, if he chooses to use them, which will aid him here.
+
+He must endeavor to picture vividly to himself the mental condition
+which gave rise to special arts and institutions, or which these evolved
+in the people. He must ascertain whether they increased or diminished
+the joy of living, or stimulated the thirst for knowledge and the love
+of the true and the beautiful. He must cultivate the liveliness of
+imagination which will enable him to transport himself into the epoch
+and surroundings he is studying, and feel on himself, as it were, their
+peculiar influences. More than all, chief of all, he must have a broad,
+many-sided, tender sympathy with all things human, enabling him to
+appreciate the emotions and arguments of all parties and all peoples.
+
+Such complete comprehension and spiritual accord will not weaken, but
+will strengthen his clear perception of those standards by which all
+actions and institutions must ultimately be weighed and measured. There
+are such standards, and the really learned ethnologist will be the last
+to deny or overlook them.
+
+The saying of Goethe that "The most unnatural action is yet natural," is
+a noble suggestion of tolerance; but human judgment can scarcely go to
+the length of Madame de Stael's opinion, when she claims that "To
+understand all actions is to pardon all." We must brush away the
+sophisms which insist that all standards are merely relative, and that
+time and place alone decide on right and wrong. Were that so, not only
+all morality, but all science and all knowledge were fluctuating as
+sand. But it is not so. The principles of Reason, Truth, Justice and
+Love have been, are, and ever will be the same. Time and place, race and
+culture, make no difference. Whenever a country is engaged in the
+diffusion of these immortal verities, whenever institutions are
+calculated to foster and extend them, that country, those institutions,
+take noble precedence over all others whose efforts are directed to
+lower aims.[15-1]
+
+Something else remains. When the ethnologist has acquired a competent
+knowledge of his facts, and deduced from them a clear conception of the
+mental states of the peoples he is studying, he has not finished his
+labors. Institutions and arts in some degree reflect the mental
+conditions of a people, in some degree bring them about; but the
+underlying source of both is something still more immaterial and
+intangible, yet more potent, to wit, Ideas and Ideals. These are the
+primary impulses of conscious human endeavor, and it is vain to attempt
+to understand ethnology or to write history without assigning their
+consideration the first place in the narration.
+
+I am anxious to avoid here any metaphysical obscurity. My assertion is,
+that the chief impulses of nations and peoples are abstract ideas and
+ideals, unreal and unrealizable; and that it is in pursuit of these that
+the great as well as the small movements on the arena of national life
+and on the stage of history have taken place.
+
+You are doubtless aware that this is no new discovery of mine. Early in
+this century Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote: "The last and highest duty of
+the historian is to portray the effort of the Idea to attain realization
+in fact;" and the most recent lecture on the philosophy of history which
+I have read, that by Lord Acton, contains this maxim: "Ideas which in
+religion and politics are truths, in history are living forces."
+
+I do claim that it is timely for me to repeat these doctrines and to
+urge them with vehemence, for they are generally repudiated by the
+prevailing schools of ethnology and history in favor of the opinion that
+objective, mechanical influences alone suffice to explain all the
+phenomena of human life. This I pronounce an inadequate and an
+unscientific opinion.
+
+There is in living matter everywhere something which escapes the most
+exhaustive investigation, some subtle center of impulse, which lies
+beyond the domain of correlated energy, and which acts directively,
+without increasing or diminishing the total of that energy. Also in the
+transformations of organic forms, there are preparations and propulsions
+which no known doctrine of the mechanical, natural causes can interpret.
+We must accept the presence of the same powers, and in a greater
+degree, in the life and the history of man.[17-1]
+
+It may be objected that abstract ideas are far beyond the grasp of the
+uncultivated intellect. The reply is, consciously to regard them as
+abstract, may be; but they exist and act for all that. All sane people
+think and talk according to certain abstract laws of grammar and logic;
+and they act in similar unconsciousness of the abstractions which impel
+them. Moreover, the Idea is usually clothed in a concrete Ideal, a
+personification, which brings it home to the simplest mind. This was
+long ago pointed out by the observant Machiavelli in his statement that
+every reform of a government or religion is in the popular mind
+personified as the effort of one individual.
+
+In every nation or _ethnos_ there is a prevailing opinion as to what the
+highest typical human being should be. This "Ideal of Humanity," as it
+has been called, is more or less constantly and consciously pursued, and
+becomes a spur to national action and to a considerable degree an
+arbiter of national destiny. If the ideal is low and bestial, the course
+of that nation is downward, self-destroying; if it is lofty and pure,
+the energies of the people are directed toward the maintenance of those
+principles which are elevating and preservative. These are not
+mechanical forces, in any rational sense of the term; but they are
+forces the potent directive and formative influence of which cannot be
+denied and must not be underestimated.
+
+Just in proportion as such ideas are numerous, clear and true in the
+national mind, do their power augment and their domain extend; just so
+much more quickly and firmly do they express themselves, in acts, forms
+and institutions, and thus enable the nation to enrich, beautify and
+strengthen its own existence. We have but to glance along the nations
+of the world and to reflect on the outlines of their histories, to
+perceive the correctness of the conclusion which Prof. Lazarus, perhaps
+the most eminent analyst of ethnic character of this generation, reaches
+in one of his essays: "A people which is not rich in ideas, is never
+rich; one that is not strong in its thinking powers, is never
+strong."[18-1]
+
+I claim, therefore, that the facts of ethnology and the study of racial
+psychology justify me in formulating this maxim for the guidance of the
+historian: _The conscious and deliberate pursuit of ideal aims is the
+highest causality in human history._
+
+The historian who would fulfil his mission in its amplest sense must
+trace his facts back to the ideas which gave them birth; he must
+recognize and define these as the properties of specific peoples; and he
+must estimate their worth by their tendency to national preservation or
+national destruction.
+
+This is the maxim, the axiom, if you please, which both the ethnologist
+and the historian must bear ever present in mind if they would
+comprehend the meaning of institutions or the significance of events.
+They must be referred to, and explained by, the ideas which gave them
+birth. As an American historian has tersely put it, "The facts relating
+to successive phases of _human thought_ constitute History."[18-2]
+
+I am aware that a strong school of modern philosophers will present the
+objection that thought itself is but a necessary result of chemical and
+mechanical laws, and therefore that it cannot be an independent cause.
+Dr. Post has pointedly expressed this position in the words: "We do not
+think; thinking goes on within us,"[19-1] just as other functions, such
+as circulation and secretion, go on.
+
+It is not possible for me at this time to enter into this branch of the
+discussion. But I may ask your attention to the fact that one of the
+highest authorities on the laws of natural science, the late George J.
+Romanes, reached by the severest induction an exactly opposite opinion,
+which he announced in these words: "The human mind is itself a causal
+agent. Its motives are in large part matters of its own creation. * * *
+Intelligent volition is a true cause of adjustive movement."[19-2]
+
+For myself, after what I have endeavored to make an unbiased study of
+both opinions, I subscribe unhesitatingly to the latter, and look upon
+Mind not only as a potent but as an independent cause of motion in the
+natural world, of action in the individual life, and, therefore, of
+events in the history of the species.
+
+Confining ourselves to ethnology and history, the causative idea, as I
+have said, makes itself felt through ethnic ideals. These are
+influential in proportion as they are vividly realized by the national
+genius; and elevating in proportion as they partake of those final
+truths already referred to, which are all merely forms of expression of
+right reasoning. These ideals are the _idola fori_, which have sometimes
+deluded, sometimes glorified, those who believed in them.
+
+I shall mention a few of them to make my meaning more apparent.
+
+That with which we are most familiar in history is the warrior ideal,
+the personification of military glory and martial success. It is present
+among the rudest tribes, and that it is active to-day, events in recent
+European history prove only too clearly; and among ourselves, little
+would be needed to awaken it to vivid life.
+
+We are less acquainted with religious ideals, as they have weakened
+under the conditions of higher culture. They belong in European history
+more to the medieval than to the modern period. Among Mohammedans and
+Brahmins we can still see them in their full vigor. In these lower
+faiths we can still find that intense fanaticism which can best be
+described by the expression of Novalis, "intoxicated with God," drunk
+with the divine;[20-1] and this it is which preserves to these nations
+what power they still retain.
+
+Would that I could claim for our own people a grander conception of the
+purpose of life than either of these. But alas! their ideal is too
+evident to be mistaken. I call it the "divitial" ideal, that of the rich
+man, that which makes the acquisition of material wealth the one
+standard of success in life, the only justifiable aim of effort. To most
+American citizens the assertion that there is any more important, more
+sensible purpose than this, is simply incomprehensible or incredible.
+
+In place of any of these, the man who loves his kind would substitute
+others; and as these touch closely on the business of the ethnologist
+and the historian when either would apply the knowledge he has gained to
+the present condition of society, I will briefly refer to some advanced
+by various writers.
+
+The first and most favorite is that of _moral perfection_. It has been
+formulated in the expression: "In the progress of ethical conceptions
+lies the progress of history itself." (Schaefer.) To such writers the
+ideal of duty performed transcends all others, and is complete in
+itself. The chief end of man, they say, is to lead the moral life,
+diligently to cultivate the ethical perception, the notion of "the
+ought," and to seek in this the finality of his existence.[21-1]
+
+Keener thinkers have, however, recognized that virtue, morality, the
+ethical evolution, cannot be an end in itself, but must be a means to
+some other end. Effort directed toward other, altruism in any form, must
+have its final measurement of value in terms of self; otherwise the
+immutable principles of justice are attacked. I cannot enlarge upon this
+point, and will content myself with a reference to Prof. Steinthal's
+admirable essay on "The Idea of ethical Perfection," published some
+years ago.[21-2] He shows that in its last analysis the Good has its
+value solely in the freedom which it confers. Were all men truly
+ethical, all would be perfectly free. Therefore Freedom, in its highest
+sense, according to him and several other accomplished reasoners, is the
+aim of morality, and is that which gives it worth.
+
+This argument seems to me a step ahead, but yet to remain incomplete.
+For after all, what is freedom? It means only opportunity, not action;
+and opportunity alone is a negative quantity, a zero. Opportunity for
+what, I ask?
+
+For an answer, I turn with satisfaction to an older writer on the
+philosophy of history, one whose genial sympathy with the human heart
+glows on every page of his volumes, to Johann Gottfried von
+Herder.[21-3] The one final aim, he tells us, of all institutions, laws,
+governments and religions, of all efforts and events, is that each
+person, undisturbed by others, may employ his own powers to their
+fullest extent, and thus gain for himself a completer existence, a more
+beautiful enjoyment of his faculties.
+
+Thus, to the enriching of the individual life, its worth, its happiness
+and its fullness, does all endeavor of humanity tend; in it, lies the
+end of all exertion, the reward of all toil; to define it, should be the
+object of ethnology; and to teach it, the purpose of history.
+
+Let me recapitulate.
+
+The ethnologist regards each social group as an entity or individual,
+and endeavors to place clearly before his mind its similarities and
+differences with other groups. Taking objective facts as his guides,
+such as laws, arts, institutions and language, he seeks from these to
+understand the mental life, the psychical welfare of the people, and
+beyond this to reach the ideals which they cherished and the ideas which
+were the impulses of their activities. Events and incidents, such as are
+recorded in national annals, have for him their main, if not only value,
+as indications of the inner or soul life of the people.
+
+By the comparison of several social groups he reaches wider
+generalizations; and finally to those which characterize the common
+consciousness of Humanity, the psychical universals of the species. By
+such comparison he also ascertains under what conditions and in what
+directions men have progressed most rapidly toward the cultivation and
+the enjoyment of the noblest elements of their nature; and this strictly
+inductive knowledge is that alone which he would apply to furthering the
+present needs and aspirations of social life.
+
+This is the method which he would suggest for history in the broad
+meaning of the term. It should be neither a mere record of events, nor
+the demonstration of a thesis, but a study, through occurrences and
+institutions, of the mental states of peoples at different epochs,
+explanatory of their success or failure, and practically applicable to
+the present needs of human society.
+
+Such explanation should be strictly limited in two directions. First, by
+the principle that man can be explained only by man, and can be so
+explained completely. That is, no super-human agencies need be invoked
+to interpret any of the incidents of history: and, on the other hand, no
+merely material or mechanical conditions, such as climate, food and
+environment, are sufficient for a full interpretation. Beyond these lie
+the inexhaustible sources of impulse in the essence of Mind itself.
+
+Secondly, the past can teach us nothing of the future beyond a vague
+surmise. All theories which proceed on an assumption of knowledge
+concerning finalities, whether in science or dogma, are cobwebs of the
+brain, not the fruit of knowledge, and obscure the faculty of
+intellectual perception. It is wasteful of one's time to frame them, and
+fatal to one's work to adopt them.
+
+These are also two personal traits which, it seems to me, are requisite
+to the comprehension of ethnic psychology, and therefore are desirable
+to both the ethnologist and the historian. The one of these is the
+poetic instinct.
+
+I fear this does not sound well from the scientific rostrum, for the
+prevailing notion among scientists is that the poet is a fabulist, and
+is therefore as far off as possible from the platform they occupy. No
+one, however, can really understand a people who remains outside the
+pale of the world of imagination in which it finds its deepest joys; and
+nowhere is this depicted so clearly as in its songs and by its bards.
+The ethnologist who has no taste for poetry may gather much that is
+good, but will miss the best; the historian who neglects the poetic
+literature of a nation turns away his eyes from the vista which would
+give him the farthest insight into national character.
+
+The other trait is more difficult to define. To apprehend what is
+noblest in a nation one must oneself be noble. Knowledge of facts and an
+unbiased judgment need to be accompanied by a certain development of
+personal character which enables one to be in sympathy with the finest
+tissue of human nature, from the fibre of which are formed heroes and
+martyrs, patriots and saints, enthusiasts and devotees. To appreciate
+these something of the same stuff must be in the mental constitution of
+the observer.
+
+Such is the ethnologist's view of history. He does not pretend to be
+either a priest or a prophet. He claims neither to possess the final
+truth nor to foresee it. He is, therefore equally unwelcome to the
+dogmatist, the optimistic naturalist and the speculative philosopher. He
+refuses any explanations which either contradict or transcend human
+reason; but he insists that human reason is one of the causal facts
+which he has to consider; and this brings him into conflict with both
+the mystic and the materialist.
+
+Though he exalts the power of ideas, he is no idealist, but practical to
+the last degree; for he denies the worth of any art, science, event or
+institution which does not directly or indirectly contribute to the
+elevation of the individual man or woman, the common average person, the
+human being.
+
+To this one end, understanding it as we best can, he claims all effort
+should tend; and any other view than this of the philosophy of history,
+any other standard of value applied to the records of the past, he looks
+upon as delusive and deceptive, no matter under what heraldry of title
+or seal of sanctity it is offered.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6-1] In his epochal essay "Die Aufgabe des Geschichtschreibers."
+_Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. I., s. 13. It was republished with a
+discriminating introduction by Professor Steinthal in _Die
+Sprachphilosophischen Werke Wilhelm von Humboldt's_ (Berlin, 1883).
+
+[6-2] "Der Zweck-Begriff bewirkt nur sich selbst, und ist am Ende was er
+im Anfange, in der Unspruenglichkeit, war." _Encyclopaedie der
+philosophischen Wissenschaften._ Theil,[TN-4] I., Sec. 204.
+
+[6-3] "Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck einer vorbestimmten
+Entwicklung." (Quoted by Lord Acton.)
+
+[7-1] "Die Menschheit hat sich aus natuerlicher, tierischer Grundlage auf
+rein natuerliche mechanische Weise entwickelt." _Anthropolgische
+Beitraege_, s. 21.
+
+[8-1] _A Lecture on the Study of History_, p. 1 (London, 1895).
+
+[8-2] See his article "The Relation of Anthropology to the Study of
+History," in _The American Journal of Sociology_, July, 1895.
+
+[8-3] Ludwig Tobler, in his article "Zur Philosophie der Geschichte," in
+the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. XII., s. 195.
+
+[10-1] One of the most lucid of modern German philosophical writers
+says, "Without language, there could be no unity of mental life, no
+national life at all." Friedrich Paulsen, _Introduction to Philosophy_,
+p. 193. (English translation, New York, 1895.) I need scarcely recall to
+the student that this was the cardinal principle of the ethnological
+writings of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and that his most celebrated essay is
+entitled "Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und
+ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts."
+The thought is well and tersely put by Prof. Frank Granger--"Language is
+the instinctive expression of national spirit." (_The Worship of the
+Romans_, p. 19, London, 1896.)
+
+[10-2] "Law, in its positive forms, may be viewed as an instrument used
+to produce a certain kind of character." Frank Granger, ubi supra, p.
+19.
+
+[10-3] _Lectures on the Science of Religion_, p. 55.
+
+[12-1] How different from the position of Voltaire, who,
+expressing,[TN-5] the general sentiment of his times, wrote,--"The
+history of barbarous nations has no more interest than that of bears and
+wolves!"
+
+[13-1] _Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz_, Bd. I., s. 5.
+(Leipzig, 1894.)
+
+[13-2] "Das Geschichte ist weder eine Offenbarung Gottes, noch ein
+Naturprocess, sondern eben Menschenwerk." Tobler in the _Zeitschrift fuer
+Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. XII., s. 201.
+
+[14-1] _History of the Philosophy of History_, p. 579.
+
+[15-1] There is nothing in this inconsistent with the principle laid
+down by Lecky: "The men of each age must be judged by the ideal of their
+own age and country, and not by the ideal of ourselves."--_The Political
+Value of History_, p. 50, New York, 1892. The distinction is that
+between the relative standard, which we apply to motives and persons,
+and the absolute standard, which we apply to actions. The effects of the
+latter, for good or evil, are fixed, and independent of the motives
+which prompt them.
+
+[17-1] "The historian," says Tolstoi, "is obliged to admit an
+inexplicable force, which acts upon his elementary forces." _Power and
+Liberty_, p. 28 (Eng. Trans., New York, 1888).
+
+[18-1] See his article "Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte," in the
+_Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_.[TN-6] Bd. III., S. 486.
+
+[18-2] Brooks Adams, _The Law of Civilization and Decay_, Preface
+(London, 1895). This author has reached an advanced position with
+reference to thought and emotion as the impulses of humanity.
+
+[19-1] _Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz_, Band I., s. 4.
+
+[19-2] _Mind and Motion_, pp. 29, 140, etc. (London, 1895.) Prof.
+Paulsen goes much further, as, "The inner disposition spontaneously
+determines the development of the individual," and "The organism is, as
+it were, congealed voluntary action."--_Introduction to Philosophy_,
+pp,[TN-7] 187, 190.
+
+[20-1] Before him, however, the expression "ebrius Deo" was applied to
+the ancient rhapsodists.
+
+[21-1] As expressed by Prof. Droysen, in his work, _Principles of
+History_, (p. 16, New York, 1893), recently translated by President
+Andrews, of Brown University--"Historical things are the perpetual
+actualization of the moral forces." Elsewhere he says--"History is
+humanity becoming conscious concerning itself,"[TN-8] There is no
+objection to such expressions; they are good as far as they go; but
+they do not go to the end.
+
+[21-2] In the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Band XI., Heft II.
+
+[21-3] _Ideen zur Geschichte der Menschheit_, B. XV., Cap. I.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+
+The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained.
+
+       Page       Error
+  TN-1   3        milleniums should read millenniums
+  TN-2   8        developes should read develops
+  TN-3  10        thought-tranference, should read thought-transference
+  TN-4  fn. 6-2   Theil, should read Theil
+  TN-5  fn. 12-1  expressing, should read expressing
+  TN-6  fn. 18-1  _Voelkerpsychologie_. should read _Voelkerpsychologie_,
+  TN-7  fn. 19-2  pp, should read pp.
+  TN-8  fn. 21-1  itself," should read itself."
+
+
+
+
+
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+Daniel G. Brinton
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