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diff --git a/29502.txt b/29502.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa4b89b --- /dev/null +++ b/29502.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4586 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Little Masterpieces of Science: Explorers, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Little Masterpieces of Science: Explorers + +Author: Various + +Editor: George Iles + +Release Date: July 24, 2009 [EBook #29502] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPLORERS *** + + + + +Produced by Sigal Alon, Marcia Brooks, Fox in the Stars +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +LITTLE MASTERPIECES OF SCIENCE + +[Illustration: Christopher Columbus.] + + + + +Little Masterpieces +of Science + +Edited by George Iles + + + + +EXPLORERS + + + Christopher Columbus Charles Wilkes + Lewis and Clarke Clarence King + Zebulon M. Pike John Wesley Powell + +[Illustration] + +NEW YORK + +DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY + +1902 + + +Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page & Co. + +Copyright, 1891, by Justin Winsor + +Copyright, 1871, by Oliver Wendell Holmes + + + + +PREFACE + + "Peace hath her victories + No less renown'd than war." + + +The love of adventure, the expectation of the unexpected, have ever +prompted men stout of heart, and ready of resource, to brave the perils +of wilderness and sea that they might set their feet where man never +trod before. The world owes much to the explorers who have faced hostile +savages, stood in jeopardy from the cobra and the lion, the foes as +deadly which lurk in the brook which quenches thirst. A traveller like +Clarke takes his life in his hands. He breaks a path which leads he +knows not whither: it may bring him to a shore whence he has no ship to +sail from; it may end in an abyss he cannot bridge. The thickets rend +and sting him, poison may colour a tempting grain or berry, frost may +deaden his energies and lull him to the sleep that knows no waking. He +has but little aid from science: beyond food and medicine he carries +little more than a watch, a compass, a rifle, and a cartridge belt. +Beyond all instruments and weapons are his skill, agility, gumption, +diplomacy. And these resources in no mean measure are shared by the man +for whom he prepares the way, the immigrant, who, in the early days of +settlement, requires a constancy even higher than the explorer's own. +It is one thing to traverse a wilderness under the excitement of hourly +adventure; it is another thing to stay there for a lifetime and convert +it to a home. + +The race of American explorers is not extinct. Major Powell is with us +to-day, hale and hearty still. Peary, in the prime of his powers, is as +capital an example of courage and resource as ever threw themselves upon +the riddle of the frozen north. Beyond the Arctic and Antarctic circles +little remains unknown on earth. When at last every rood of ground and +knot of sea is mapped and charted, whither shall the explorer direct his +steps? He cannot repeat the conquests of Lewis and Clarke, Pike and +Peary, but he need not on that account fold his hands so long as a brave +heart and a quick wit are wanted in the world. + +GEORGE ILES + + + + +CONTENTS + + + WINSOR, JUSTIN + + COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA + + Embarks at Palos, August 3, 1492. A mishap befalls the + _Pinta_. Sees the Peak of Teneriffe in eruption. Arrives at + the Canaries. Falsifies his reckoning to conceal from his crew + the length of the voyage. On September 13th his compass points + to the true north, a fact without precedent. Next day a water + wagtail is seen, betokening an approach to land. Two pelicans + alight on board, with the same significance. These promises + fail, and the crew becomes disheartened and discontented. On + October 11th Columbus sees a light, presumably on shore: four + hours later, next day, land is descried and named by Columbus + San Salvador. Discussion as to where this place is: the + balance of probability inclines to Watling's Island. 3 + + + LEWIS AND CLARKE + + ARRIVAL AT THE PACIFIC OCEAN, 1805 + + Descent of the last rapid of the Columbia River, November 2. A + feast of wappatoo root. Meet unfriendly Indians. Observe Mount + St. Helen, of Vancouver, about ninety miles off. The country + fertile and delightful, abounding with game. The ocean suddenly + appears. Rough weather and its effects. Friendly Indians bring + food. Rain ruins merchandise, clothing and food. Thievish + Indians are withstood. The journey comes successfully to an + end. 29 + + + PIKE, ZEBULON M. + + THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI, 1806 + + Meets friendly Indians and whites. A serious fire. Deep snow + inflicts severe hardship. A trackless journey ends in safety + and a hospitable welcome. Provisions exorbitant in price. A + march on snowshoes. Sleds of native pattern are made. Delay + through water on the ice. Bitter cold and the curse of solitude. + A dismal swamp. Unfriendly Indians and the purchasing power + of whiskey. The main source of the Mississippi comes into + view. Disabled by excessive exertion. Hoists the flag. Visits + of Indian chiefs. 55 + + + WILKES, CHARLES + + MANILA IN 1842 + + Character of the city Spanish and Oriental: numerous canals. A + strange and motley population, the artisans for the most part + Chinese. Malays and Chinese live apart. Much evidence of + volcanic activity in the Philippines. Natural resources + abundant. Primitive tools cause much waste of labour. The + buffalo as a draught animal. Rice the staple diet: defective + mode of culture. Hemp, its growth and manufacture. Crops of + coffee, sugar and cotton. The ravages of locusts. Geography of + the country and the diverse elements of its population. Its + army of about 6,000. Frequent rebellions among the troops and + tribes. Iron rule of the Government. The market-place a scene + of unending interest. Excellent poultry. The environs of + Manila delightful. 71 + + + KING, CLARENCE + + THE ASCENT OF MOUNT TYNDALL + + An eight hours' climb over ridges of granite and snow. "Shall + we ascend Mount Tyndall?" "Why not?" At first Professor + Brewer believes the attempt madness, but yields consent at + last. The climb begins and steadily increases in difficulty. A + gulf of 5,000 feet in depth. A night's lodging in a granite + crevice. Rocks of many tons strike near. The galling pain + of heavy burdens. A profound chasm is crossed on a rope. + Exhilaration of utmost peril. A small bush ensures salvation. + A welcome stretch of trees and flowers. A spire, all but + perpendicular, of rock and ice is surmounted, and at last is + reached the crest of Mount Tyndall. 97 + + + POWELL, JOHN WESLEY + + THE GRAND CANON OF THE COLORADO IS EXPLORED + + Embarkation under cliffs 4,000 feet high. A swift run ends in + a descent of eighty feet in one-third of a mile. Breakers + render a boat unmanageable. Walls more than a mile high. The + baffling waters capsize a boat. Relics of ancient dwelling-places. + Rations destroyed by wet. Clothing lost and blankets scarce. + Grand views not fully enjoyed. A wild run through ten miles + of rapids. In places the rocks so cut by water that it is + impossible to see overhead. Great amphitheatres, half-dome + shaped. Mammoth springs of lime-laden waters. An ancient + lava-bed channelled out. Stolen squashes provide a feast. + Difficulties thicken: is it wise to go on? Three of the party + say no, the remainder proceed. All but lost in a whirlpool. + Emergence from the Grand Canon in safety and joy. 131 + + + + +EXPLORERS COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA + +Justin Winsor + + [Part of Chapter IX., "The Final Agreement and the First + Voyage" from "Christopher Columbus and How He Received and + Imparted the Spirit of Discovery," copyright by Houghton, + Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York, 1892.] + + +So, everything being ready, on the 3rd of August, 1492, a half-hour +before sunrise, he unmoored his little fleet in the stream, and, +spreading his sails, the vessels passed out of the little river +roadstead of Palos, gazed after, perhaps, in the increasing light, as +the little crafts reached the ocean, by the friar of Rabida, from its +distant promontory of rock. + +The day was Friday, and the advocates of Columbus's canonization have +not failed to see a purpose in its choice as the day of our Redemption, +and as that of the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre by Geoffrey de +Bouillon, and of the rendition of Granada, with the fall of the Moslem +power in Spain. We must resort to the books of such advocates, if we +would enliven the picture with a multitude of rites and devotional +feelings that they gather in the meshes of the story of the departure. +They supply to the embarkation a variety of detail that their holy +purposes readily imagine, and place Columbus at last on his poop, with +the standard of the Cross, the image of the Saviour nailed to the holy +wood, waving in the early breeze that heralded the day. The +embellishments may be pleasing, but they are not of the strictest +authenticity. + +In order that his performance of an embassy to the princes of the East +might be duly chronicled, Columbus determined, as his journal says, to +keep an account of the voyage by the west, "by which course," he says, +"unto the present time, we do not know, _for certain_, that any one has +passed." It was his purpose to write down, as he proceeded, everything +he saw and all that he did, and to make a chart of his discoveries, and +to show the directions of his track. + +Nothing occurred during those early August days to mar his run to the +Canaries, except the apprehension which he felt that an accident, +happening to the rudder of the _Pinta_,--a steering gear now for some +time in use, in place of the old lateral blades,--was a trick of two +men, her owners, Gomez Rascon and Christopher Quintero, to impede a +voyage in which they had no heart. The Admiral knew the disposition of +these men well enough not to be surprised at the mishap, but he tried to +feel secure in the prompt energy of Pinzon, who commanded the _Pinta_. + +As he passed (August 24-25, 1492) the peak of Teneriffe, it was the time +of an eruption, of which he makes bare mention in his journal. It is to +the corresponding passage of the _Historie_, [written by his son, +Fernando,] that we owe the somewhat sensational stories of the terrors +of the sailors, some of whom certainly must long have been accustomed to +like displays in the volcanoes of the Mediterranean. + +At the Gran Canarie the _Nina_ was left to have her lateen sails changed +to square ones; and the _Pinta_, it being found impossible to find a +better vessel to take her place, was also left to be overhauled for her +leaks, and to have her rudder again repaired, while Columbus visited +Gomera, another of the islands. The fleet was reunited at Gomera on +September 2. Here he fell in with some residents of the Ferro, the +westermost of the group, who repeated the old stories of land +occasionally seen from its heights, lying towards the setting sun. +Having taken on board wood, water, and provisions, Columbus finally +sailed from Gomera on the morning of Thursday, September 6. He seems to +have soon spoken a vessel from Ferro, and from this he learned that +three Portuguese caravels were lying in wait for him in the +neighbourhood of that island, with a purpose, as he thought, of visiting +in some way upon him, for having gone over to the interests of Spain, +the indignation of the Portuguese king. He escaped encountering them. + +Up to Sunday, September 9, they had experienced so much calm weather, +that their progress had been slow. This tediousness soon raised an +apprehension in the mind of Columbus that the voyage might prove too +long for the constancy of his men. He accordingly determined to falsify +his reckoning. This deceit was a large confession of his own timidity +in dealing with his crew, and it marked the beginning of a long struggle +with deceived and mutinous subordinates, which forms so large a part of +the record of his subsequent career. + +The result of Monday's sail, which he knew to be sixty leagues, he noted +as forty-eight, so that the distance from home might appear less than it +was. He continued to practise this deceit. + +The distances given by Columbus are those of dead reckoning beyond any +question. Lieutenant Murdock, of the United States Navy, who has +commented on this voyage, makes his league the equivalent of three +modern nautical miles, and his mile about three-quarters of our present +estimate for that distance. Navarrete says that Columbus reckoned in +Italian miles, which are a quarter less than Spanish miles. The Admiral +had expected to make land after sailing about seven hundred leagues from +Ferro; and in ordering his vessels in case of separation to proceed +westward, he warned them when they sailed that distance to come to the +wind at night, and only to proceed by day. + +The log as at present understood in navigation had not yet been devised. +Columbus depended in judging of his distance on the eye alone, basing +his calculations on the passage of objects or bubbles past the ship, +while the running out of his hour glasses afforded the multiple for long +distances. + +On Thursday, the 13th of September, he notes that the ships were +encountering adverse currents. He was now three degrees west of Flores, +and the needle of the compass pointed as it had never been observed +before, directly to the true north. His observation of this fact marks a +significant point in the history of navigation. The polarity of the +magnet, an ancient possession of the Chinese, had been known perhaps for +three hundred years, when this new spirit of discovery awoke in the +fifteenth century. The Indian Ocean and its traditions were to impart, +perhaps through the Arabs, perhaps through the returning Crusaders, a +knowledge of the magnet to the dwellers on the shores of the +Mediterranean, and to the hardier mariners who had pushed beyond the +pillars of Hercules, so that the new route to that same Indian Ocean was +made possible in the fifteenth century. The way was prepared for it +gradually. The Catalans from the port of Barcelona pushed out into the +great Sea of Darkness under the direction of their needles, as early at +least as the twelfth century. The pilots of Genoa and Venice, the hardy +Majorcans and the adventurous Moors, were followers of almost equal +temerity. + +A knowledge of the variation of the needle came more slowly to be known +to the mariners of the Mediterranean. It had been observed by Peregrini +as early as 1269, but that knowledge of it which rendered it greatly +serviceable in voyages does not seem to be plainly indicated in any of +the charts of these transition centuries, till we find it laid down on +the maps of Andrea Bianco in 1436. + +It was no new thing then when Columbus, as he sailed westward, marked +the variation, proceeding from the northeast more and more westerly; but +it was a revelation when he came to a position where the magnetic north +and the north star stood in conjunction, as they did on this 13th of +September, 1492. As he still moved westerly the magnetic line was found +to move farther and farther away from the pole as it had before the 13th +approached it. To an observer of Columbus's quick perceptions, there was +a ready guess to possess his mind. This inference was that this line of +no variation was a meridian line, and that divergence from it east and +west might have a regularity which would be found to furnish a method of +ascertaining longitude far easier and surer than tables or water clocks. +We know that four years later he tried to sail his ship on observations +of this kind. The same idea seems to have occurred to Sebastian Cabot, +when a little afterwards he approached and passed in a higher latitude, +what he supposed to be the meridian of no variation. Humboldt is +inclined to believe that the possibility of such a method of +ascertaining longitude was that uncommunicable secret, which Sebastian +Cabot many years later hinted at on his death-bed. + +The claim was made near a century later by Livio Sanuto in his +_Geographia_, published at Venice, in 1588, that Sebastian Cabot had +been the first to observe this variation, and had explained it to +Edward VI., and that he had on a chart placed the line of no variation +at a point one hundred and ten miles west of the island of Flores in the +Azores. + +These observations of Columbus and Cabot were not wholly accepted during +the sixteenth century. Robert Hues, in 1592, a hundred years later, +tells us that Medina, the Spanish grand pilot, was not disinclined to +believe that mariners saw more in it than really existed and that they +found it a convenient way to excuse their own blunders. Nonius was +credited with saying that it simply meant that worn-out magnets were +used, which had lost their power to point correctly to the pole. Others +had contended that it was through insufficient application of the +loadstone to the iron that it was so devious in its work. + +What was thought possible by the early navigators possessed the minds of +all seamen in varying experiments for two centuries and a half. Though +not reaching such satisfactory results as were hoped for, the +expectation did not prove so chimerical as was sometimes imagined when +it was discovered that the lines of variation were neither parallel, nor +straight, nor constant. The line of no variation which Columbus found +near the Azores had moved westward with erratic inclinations, until +to-day it is not far from a straight line from Carolina to Guinea. +Science, beginning with its crude efforts at the hands of Alonzo de +Santa Cruz, in 1530, has so mapped the surface of the globe with +observations of its multifarious freaks of variation, and the changes +are so slow, that a magnetic chart is not a bad guide to-day for +ascertaining the longitude in any latitude for a few years neighbouring +to the date of its records. So science has come around in some measure +to the dreams of Columbus and Cabot. + +But this was not the only development which came from this ominous day +in the mid-Atlantic in that September of 1492. The fancy of Columbus was +easily excited, and notions of a change of climate, and even aberration +of the stars were easily imagined by him amid the strange phenomena of +that untracked waste. + +While Columbus was suspecting that the north star was somewhat wilfully +shifting from the magnetic pole, now to a distance of 5 deg. and then of +10 deg., the calculations of modern astronomers have gauged the polar +distance existing in 1492 at 3 deg. 28', as against the 1 deg. 20' of to-day. +The confusion of Columbus was very like his confounding an old world +with a new, inasmuch as he supposed it was the pole star and not the +needle which was shifting. + +He argued from what he saw, or what he thought he saw, that the line of +no variation marked the beginning of a protuberance of the earth, up +which he ascended as he sailed westerly, and that this was the reason of +the cooler weather which he experienced. He never got over some notions +of this kind, and he believed he found confirmation of them in his later +voyages. + +Even as early as the reign of Edward III. of England, Nicholas of Lynn, +a voyager to the northern seas, is thought to have definitely fixed the +magnetic pole in the Arctic regions, transmitting his views to Cnoyen, +the master of the later Mercator, in respect to the four circumpolar +islands, which in the sixteenth century made so constant a surrounding +of the north pole. + +The next day (September 14), after these magnetic observations, a water +wagtail was seen from the _Nina_,--a bird which Columbus thought +unaccustomed to fly over twenty-five leagues from land, and the ships +were now, according to their reckoning, not far from two hundred leagues +from the Canaries. On Saturday they saw a distant bolt of fire fall into +the sea. On Sunday, they had a drizzling rain, followed by pleasant +weather, which reminded Columbus of the nightingales, gladdening the +climate of Andalusia in April. They found around the ships much green +floatage of weeds, which led them to think some islands must be near. +Navarrete thinks there was some truth in this, inasmuch as the charts of +the early part of this century represent breakers as having been seen in +1802, near the spot where Columbus can be computed to have been at this +time. Columbus was in fact within that extensive _prairie_ of floating +seaweed which is known as the Sargasso Sea, whose principal longitudinal +axis is found in modern times to lie along the parallel of 41 deg. 30', and +the best calculations which can be made from the rather uncertain data +of Columbus's journal seem to point to about the same position. + +There is nothing in all these accounts, as we have them abridged by La +Casas, to indicate any great surprise, and certainly nothing of the +overwhelming fear which, the _Historie_ tells us, the sailors +experienced when they found their ships among these floating masses of +weeds, raising apprehension of a perpetual entanglement in their +swashing folds. + +The next day (September 17) the currents became favourable, and the +weeds still floated about them. The variation of the needle now became +so great that the seamen were dismayed, as the journal says, and the +observation being repeated Columbus practised another deceit and made it +appear that there had been really no variation, but only a shifting of +the polar star! The weeds were now judged to be river weeds, and a live +crab was found among them,--a sure sign of near land, as Columbus +believed, or affected to believe. They killed a tunny and saw others. +They again observed a water wagtail, "which does not sleep at sea." Each +ship pushed on for the advance, for it was thought the goal was near. +The next day the _Pinta_ shot ahead and saw great flocks of birds +towards the west. Columbus conceived that the sea was growing, fresher. +Heavy clouds hung on the northern horizon, a sure sign of land, it was +supposed. + +On the next day two pelicans came on board, and Columbus records that +these birds are not accustomed to go twenty leagues from land. So he +sounded with a line of two hundred fathoms to be sure he was not +approaching land; but no bottom was found. A drizzling rain also +betokened land, which they could not stop to find, but would search for +on their return, as the journal says. The pilots now compared their +reckonings. Columbus said they were 400 leagues, while the _Pinta's_ +record showed 420, and the _Nina's_ 440. + +On September 20 other pelicans came on board; and the ships were again +among the weeds. Columbus was determined to ascertain if these indicated +shoal water and sounded, but could not reach bottom. The men caught a +bird with feet like a gull; but they were convinced it was a river bird. +Then singing land birds, as was fancied, hovered about as it darkened, +but they disappeared before morning. Then a pelican was observed flying +to the southwest, and as "these birds sleep on shore, and go to sea in +the morning," the men encouraged themselves with the belief that they +could not be far from land. The next day a whale could be but another +indication of land; and the weeds covered the sea all about. On +Saturday, they steered west by northwest, and got clear of the weeds. +This change of course so far to the north, which had begun on the +previous day, was occasioned by a head wind, and Columbus says he +welcomed it, because it had the effect of convincing the sailors that +westerly winds to return by were not impossible. On Sunday (September +23), they found the wind still varying; but they made more westering +than before,--weeds, crabs, and birds still about them. Now there was +smooth water, which again depressed the seamen; then the sea arose, +mysteriously, for there was no wind to cause it. They still kept their +course westerly and continued it till the night of September 25. + +Columbus at this time conferred with Pinzon, as to a chart which they +carried, which showed some islands, near where they now supposed the +ships to be. That they had not seen land, they believed was either due +to currents which had carried them too far north, or else their +reckoning was not correct. At sunset Pinzon hailed the Admiral, and said +he saw land, claiming the reward. The two crews were confident that such +was the case, and under the lead of their commanders they all kneeled +and repeated the _Gloria in Excelsis_. The land appeared to lie +southwest, and everybody saw the apparition. Columbus changed the +fleet's course to reach it; and as the vessels went on, in the smooth +sea, the men had the heart, under their expectation, to bathe in its +amber glories. On Wednesday, they were undeceived, and found that the +clouds had played them a trick. On the 27th their course lay more +directly west. So they went on, and still remarked upon all the birds +they saw and weed-drift which they pierced. Some of the fowl they +thought to be such as were common at the Cape Verde Islands, and were +not supposed to go far to sea. On the 30th of September, they still +observed the needles of their compasses to vary, but the journal records +that it was the pole star which moved, and not the needle. On October 1, +Columbus says they were 707 leagues from Ferro; but he had made his crew +believe they were only 584. As they went on, little new for the next few +days is recorded in the journal; but on October 3, they thought they saw +among the weeds something like fruits. By the 6th, Pinzon began to urge +a southwesterly course, in order to find the islands, which the signs +seemed to indicate in that direction. Still the Admiral would not swerve +from his purpose, and kept his course westerly. On Sunday the _Nina_ +fired a bombard and hoisted a flag as a signal that she saw land, but it +proved a delusion. Observing towards evening a flock of birds flying to +the southwest, the Admiral yielded to Pinzon's belief, and shifted his +course to follow the birds. He records as a further reason for it that +it was by following the flights of birds that the Portuguese had been so +successful in discovering islands in other seas. + +Columbus now found himself two hundred miles and more farther than the +three thousand miles west of Spain, where he supposed Cipango to lie, +and he was 25-1/2 deg. north of the equator, according to his astrolabe. The +true distance of Cipango or Japan was sixty-eight hundred miles still +farther, or beyond both North America and the Pacific. How much beyond +that island, in its supposed geographical position, Columbus expected to +find the Asiatic main we can only conjecture from the restorations which +modern scholars have made of Toscanelli's map, which makes the island +about 10 deg. east of Asia, and from Behaim's globe, which makes it 20 deg.. It +should be borne in mind that the knowledge of its position came from +Marco Polo, and he does not distinctly say how far it was from the +Asiatic coast. In a general way, as to these distances from Spain to +China, Toscanelli and Behaim agreed, and there is no reason to believe +that the views of Columbus were in any noteworthy degree different. + +In the trial years afterward, when the Fiscal contested the rights of +Diego Colon, it was put in evidence by one Vallejo, a seaman, that +Pinzon was induced to urge the direction to be changed to the southwest, +because he had in the preceding evening observed a flight of parrots in +that direction, which could have only been seeking land. It was the main +purpose of the evidence in this part of the trial to show that Pinzon +had all along forced Columbus forward against his will. + +How pregnant this change of course in the vessels of Columbus was has +not escaped the observation of Humboldt and many others. A day or two +further on his westerly way, and the Gulf Stream would, perhaps, +insensibly have borne the little fleet up the Atlantic coast of the +future United States, so that the banner of Castile might have been +planted at Carolina. + +On the 7th of October, Columbus was pretty nearly in latitude 25 deg. +50',--that of one of the Bahama Islands. Just where he was by longitude +there is much more doubt, probably between 65 deg. and 66 deg.. On the next day +the land birds flying along the course of the ships seemed to confirm +their hopes. On the 10th the journal records that the men began to lose +patience; but the Admiral reassured them by reminding them of the +profits in store for them, and of the folly of seeking to return when +they had already gone so far. + +It is possible that, in this entry, Columbus conceals the story which +came out later in the recital of Oviedo, with more detail than in the +_Historie_ and Las Casas, that the rebellion of his crew was threatening +enough to oblige him to promise to turn back if land was not discovered +in three days. Most commentators, however, are inclined to think that +this story of a mutinous revolt was merely engrafted from hearsay or +other source by Oviedo upon the more genuine recital, and that the +conspiracy to throw the Admiral into the sea has no substantial basis in +contemporary report. Irving, who has a dramatic tendency throughout his +whole account of the voyage to heighten his recital with touches of the +imagination, nevertheless allows this, and thinks that Oviedo was +misled by listening to a pilot, who was a personal enemy of the Admiral. + +The elucidations of the voyage which were drawn out in the famous suit +of Diego with the Crown in 1513 and 1515, afford no ground for any +belief in this story of the mutiny and the concession of Columbus to it. + +It is not, however, difficult to conceive the recurrent fears of his men +and the incessant anxiety of Columbus to quiet them. From what Peter +Martyr tells us,--and he may have got it directly from Columbus's +lips,--the task was not an easy one to preserve subordination and to +instil confidence. He represents that Columbus was forced to resort in +turn to argument, persuasion and enticements, and to picture the +misfortunes of the royal displeasure. + +The next day, notwithstanding a heavier sea than they had before +encountered, certain signs sufficed to lift them out of their +despondency. These were floating logs, or pieces of wood, one of them +apparently carved by hand, bits of cane, a green rush, a stalk of rose +berries and other drifting tokens. + +Their southwesterly course had now brought them down to about the +twenty-fourth parallel, when after sunset on the 11th they shifted their +course to due west, while the crew of the Admiral's ship united, with +more fervour than usual, in the _Salve Regina_. At about ten o'clock +Columbus, peering into the night, thought he saw--if we may believe +him--a moving light, and pointing out the direction to Pero Gutierrez, +this companion saw it too; but another, Rodrigo Sanchez, situated +apparently on another part of the vessel, was not able to see it. It was +not brought to the attention of any others. The Admiral says that the +light seemed to be moving up and down, and he claimed to have got other +glimpses of its glimmer at a later moment. He ordered the _Salve_ to be +chanted, and directed a vigilant watch to be set on the forecastle. To +sharpen their vision he promised a silken jacket, beside the income of +ten thousand maravedis which the King and Queen had offered to the +fortunate man who should first descry the coveted land. + +This light has been the occasion of such comment, and nothing will ever, +it is likely, be settled about it, further than that the Admiral, with +an inconsiderate rivalry of a common sailor, who later saw the actual +land, and with an ungenerous assurance, ill-befitting a commander, +pocketed a reward which belonged to another. If Oviedo, with his +prejudices, is to be believed, Columbus was not even the first who +claimed to have seen this dubious light. There is a common story that +the poor sailor, who was defrauded, later turned Mohammedan and went to +live among that juster people. There is a sort of retributive justice in +the fact that the pension of the Crown was made a charge upon the +shambles of Seville, and thence Columbus received it till he died. + +Whether the light is to be considered a reality or a fiction will depend +much on the theory each may hold regarding the position of the landfall. +When Columbus claimed to have discovered it, he was twelve or fourteen +leagues away from the island, where four hours later land was +indubitably found. Was the light on a canoe? Was it on some small, +outlying island, as has been suggested? Was it a torch carried from hut +to hut, as Herrera avers? Was it on either of the other vessels? Was it +on the low island on which, the next morning he landed? There was no +elevation on that island sufficient to show even a strong light at a +distance of ten leagues. Was it a fancy or a deceit? No one can say. It +is very difficult for Navarrete, and even for Irving, to rest satisfied +with what after all may have been only an illusion of a fevered mind, +making a record of the incident in the excitement of a wonderful hour, +when his intelligence was not as circumspect as it might have been. + +Four hours after the light was seen, at two o'clock in the morning, when +the moon, near its third quarter, was in the east, the _Pinta_, keeping +ahead, one of her sailors, Rodrigo de Triane descried the land two +leagues away, and a gun communicated the joyful intelligence to the +other ships. The fleet took in sail, and each vessel, under backed +canvas, was pointed to the wind. Thus they waited for daybreak. It was a +proud moment of painful suspense for Columbus; and brimming hopes, +perhaps fears of disappointment, must have accompanied that hour of +wavering enchantment. It was Friday, October 12, of the old chronology, +and the little fleet had been thirty-three days on its way from the +Canaries, and we must add ten days more to complete the period since +they left Palos. The land before them was seen, as the day dawned, to be +a small island, "called in the Indian tongue" Guanahani. Some naked +natives were descried. The Admiral and the commanders of the other +vessels prepared to land. Columbus took the royal standard and the +others each a banner of the green cross, which bore the initials of the +sovereign with a cross between, a crown surmounting every letter. Thus, +with the emblems of their power, and accompanied by Rodrigo de Escoveda +and Rodrigo Sanchez and some seamen, the boat rowed to the shore. They +immediately took formal possession of the land, and the notary recorded +it. + +The words of the prayer usually given as uttered by Columbus on taking +possession of San Salvador, when he named the island, cannot be traced +farther back than a collection of _Tablas Chronologicas_, got together +at Valencia in 1689, by a Jesuit father, Claudio Clemente. Harrisse +finds no authority for the statement of the French canonizers that +Columbus established a form of prayer which was long in vogue, for such +occupations of new lands. + +Las Casas, from whom we have the best account of the ceremonies of the +landing, does not mention it; but we find pictured in his pages the +grave impressiveness of the hour; the form of Columbus, with a crimson +robe over his armour, central and grand; and the humbleness of his +followers in their contrition for the hours of their faint-heartedness. + +Columbus now enters in his journal his impressions of the island and its +inhabitants. He says of the land that it bore green trees, was watered +by many streams, and produced divers fruits. In another place he speaks +of the island as flat, without lofty eminence, surrounded by reefs, with +a lake in the interior. + +The courses and distances of his sailing both before and on leaving the +island, as well as this description, are the best means we have of +identifying the spot of this portentous landfall. The early maps may +help in a subsidiary way, but with little precision. + +There is just enough uncertainty and contradiction respecting the data +and arguments applied in the solution of this question, to render it +probable that men will never quite agree which of the Bahamas it was +upon which these startled and exultant Europeans first stepped. Though +Las Casas reports the journal of Columbus unabridged for a period after +the landfall, he unfortunately condenses it for some time previous. +There is apparently no chance of finding geographical conditions that in +every respect will agree with this record of Columbus, and we must +content ourselves with what offers the fewest disagreements. An obvious +method, if we could depend on Columbus's dead reckoning, would be to see +for what island the actual distance from the Canaries would be nearest +to his computed run; but currents and errors of the eye necessarily +throw this sort of computation out of the question, and Captain G. A. +Fox, who has tried it, finds that Cat Island is three hundred and +seventeen, the Grand Turk six hundred and twenty-four nautical miles, +and the other supposable points at intermediate distances out of the way +as compared with his computation of the distance run by Columbus, three +thousand four hundred and fifty-eight of such miles. + +The reader will remember the Bahama group as a range of islands, islets, +and rocks, said to be some three thousand in number, running southeast +from a point part way up the Florida coast, and approaching at the other +end the coast of Hispaniola. In the latitude of the lower point of +Florida, and five degrees east of it, is the island of San Salvador or +Cat Island, which is the most northerly of those claimed to have been +the landfall of Columbus. Proceeding down the group, we encounter +Watling's, Samana, Acklin (with the Plana Cays), Mariguana, and the +Grand Turk,--all of which have their advocates. The three methods of +identification which have been followed are, first, by plotting the +outward track; second, by plotting the track between the landfall and +Cuba, both forward and backward; third, by applying the descriptions, +particularly Columbus's, of the island first seen. In this last test, +Harrisse prefers to apply the description of Las Casas, which is +borrowed in part from that of the _Historie_, and he reconciles +Columbus's apparent discrepancy when he says in one place that the +island was "pretty large," and in another "small," by supposing that he +may have applied these opposite terms, the lesser to the Plana Cays, as +first seen, and the other to the Crooked Group, or Acklin Island, lying +just westerly, on which he may have landed. Harrisse is the only one who +makes this identification; and he finds some confirmation in later maps, +which show thereabout an island, Triango or Triangulo, a name said by +Las Casas to have been applied to Guanahani at a later day. There is no +known map earlier than 1540 bearing this alternative name of Triango. + +San Salvador seems to have been the island selected by the earliest of +modern inquirers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and it has +had the support of Irving and Humboldt in later times. Captain Alexander +Slidell Mackenzie of the United States navy worked out the problem for +Irving. It is much larger than any of the other islands, and could +hardly have been called by Columbus in any alternative way a "small" +island, while it does not answer Columbus's description of being level, +having on it an eminence of four hundred feet, and no interior lagoon, +as his Guanahani demands. The French canonizers stand by the old +traditions, and find it meet to say that "the English Protestants not +finding the name of San Salvador fine enough have substituted for it +that of Cat, and in their hydrographical atlases the Island of the Holy +Saviour is nobly called Cat Island." + +The weight of modern testimony seems to favour Watling's Island, and it +so far answers Columbus's description that about one-third of its +interior is water, corresponding to his "large lagoon." Munoz first +suggested it in 1793; but the arguments in its favour were first spread +out by Captain Becher of the royal navy in 1856, and he seems to have +induced Oscar Peschel in 1858 to adopt the same views in his history of +the range of modern discovery. Major, the map custodian of the British +Museum, who had previously followed Navarrete in favouring the Grand +Turk, again addressed himself to the problem in 1870, and fell into line +with the adherents of Watling's. No other considerable advocacy of this +island, if we except the testimony of Gerard Stein in 1883, in a book on +voyages of discovery, appeared till Lieutenant J. B. Murdoch, an officer +of the American navy, made a very careful examination of the subject in +the _Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute_ in 1884, which is +accepted by Charles A. Schott in the _Bulletin of the United States +Coast Survey_. Murdoch was the first to plot in a backward way the track +between Guanahani and Cuba, and he finds more points of resemblance in +Columbus's description with Watling's than with any other. The latest +adherent is the eminent geographer, Clements R. Markham, in the bulletin +of the Italian Geographical Society in 1889. Perhaps no cartographical +argument has been so effective as that of Major in comparing modern +charts with the map of Herrera, in which the latter lays Guanahani down. + +An elaborate attempt to identity Samana as the landfall was made by the +late Captain Gustavus Vasa Fox, in an appendix to the _Report of the +United States Coast Survey_ for 1880. Varnhagen, in 1864, selected +Mariguana, and defended his choice in a paper. This island fails to +satisfy the physical conditions in being without interior water. Such a +qualification, however, belongs to the Grand Turk Island, which was +advocated first by Navarrete in 1826, whose views have since been +supported by George Gibbs, and for a while by Major. + +It is rather curious to note that Caleb Cushing, who undertook to +examine this question in the _North American Review_, under the guidance +of Navarrete's theory, tried the same backward method which has been +later applied to the problem, but with quite different results from +those reached by more recent investigators. He says, "By setting out +from Nipe which is the point where Columbus struck Cuba and proceeding +in a retrograde direction along his course, we may surely trace his +path, and shall be convinced that Guanahani is no other than Turk's +Island." + +[Illustration: THE LANDFALL OF COLUMBUS, 1492. [After Ruge.] + +_Key:_ + -- -- according to Munoz and Becher. ---- Irving and Humboldt. + -+-+ Varnhagen --.--. Navarrete. +] + + + + +LEWIS AND CLARKE REACH THE PACIFIC OCEAN + + [In 1804-6 Captains Lewis and Clarke, by order of the + Government of the United States, commanded an expedition to + the sources of the Missouri, thence across the Rocky + Mountains and down the River Columbia to the Pacific Ocean. + Chapter IV., which follows, is taken from the second volume + of the History of the Expedition, published by Harper & + Brothers, New York, 1842. The matter of the original journal + is indicated by inverted commas, and where portions of it + embracing minute and uninteresting particulars, have been + omitted, the leading facts have been briefly stated by the + editor, Archibald McVickar, in his own words, so that the + connection of the narrative is preserved unbroken and nothing + of importance is lost to the reader. The History of the + Expedition, edited, with notes by Elliott Coues, was + published in 1893 in four volumes by Francis P. Harper, New + York. This edition surpasses every other in its excellence: + it has passed out of print, but may be found in many public + libraries. In 1901 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, published + "Lewis and Clark," by Wm. R. Lighton: within one hundred and + fifty-nine small pages the story of the famous expedition is + admirably condensed. Good portraits of Lewis and Clark form + the frontispiece.] + + +"_November 2, 1805._ We now examined the rapid below more particularly, +and the danger appearing to be too great for the loaded canoes, all +those who could not swim were sent with the baggage by land. The canoes +then passed safely down and were reloaded. At the foot of the rapid we +took a meridian altitude and found our latitude to be 59 deg. 45' 45"." + +This rapid forms the last of the descents of the Columbia; and +immediately below it the river widens, and tidewater commences. Shortly +after starting they passed an island three miles in length and to which, +from that plant being seen on it in great abundance, they gave the name +of Strawberry Island. Directly beyond were three small islands, and in +the meadow to the right, at some distance from the hills in the +background was a single perpendicular rock, which they judged to be no +less than eight hundred feet high and four hundred yards at the base, +which they called Beacon Rock. A little farther on they found the river +a mile in breadth, and double this breadth four miles beyond. After +making twenty-nine miles from the foot of the Great Shoot, they halted +for the night at a point where the river was two and a half miles wide. +The character of the country they had passed through during the day was +very different from that they had lately been accustomed to, the hills +being thickly covered with timber, chiefly of the pine species. The tide +rose at their encampment about nine inches, and they saw great numbers +of water-fowl, such as swan, geese, ducks of various kinds, gulls, etc. + +The next day, _November 3d_, they set off in company with some Indians +who had joined them the evening before. At the distance of three miles +they passed a river on the left, to which, from the quantity of sand it +bears along with it, they gave the name of Quicksand River. So great, +indeed, was the quantity it had discharged into the Columbia, that the +river was compressed to the width of half a mile, and the whole force of +the current thrown against the right shore. Opposite this was a large +creek, which they called Seal River. The mountain which they had +supposed to be the Mount Hood of Vancouver, now bore S. 85 deg. E., about +forty-seven miles distant. About three miles farther on they passed the +lower mouth of Quicksand River, opposite to which was another large +creek, and near it the head of an island three miles and a half in +extent; and half a mile beyond it was another island, which they called +Diamond Island, opposite to which they encamped, having made but +thirteen miles' distance. Here they met with some Indians ascending the +river, who stated that they had seen three vessels at its mouth. + +"Below Quicksand River," says the Journal, "the country is low, rich, +and thickly wooded on each side of the Columbia; the islands have less +timber, and on them are numerous ponds, near which were vast quantities +of fowl, such as swan, geese, brant, cranes, storks, white-gulls, +cormorants, and plover. The river is wide and contains a great number of +sea-otters. In the evening the hunters brought in game for a sumptuous +supper." + +In continuing their descent the next day, they found Diamond Island to +be six miles in length and three broad; and near its termination were +two other islands. "Just below the last of these," proceeds the +narrative, "we landed on the left bank of the river, at a village of +twenty-five houses, all of which were thatched with straw, and built of +bark except one, which was about fifty feet long and constructed of +boards, in the form of those higher up the river, from which it +differed, however, in being completely above ground, and covered with +broad, split boards. This village contained about two hundred men of the +Skilloot nation, who seemed well provided with canoes, of which there +were at least fifty-two, and some of them very large, drawn up in front +of the village. On landing, we found an Indian from above, who had left +us this morning, and who now invited us into a lodge of which he +appeared to be part owner. Here he treated us with a root, round in +shape and about the size of a small Irish potato, which they call +_wappatoo_: it is the common arrow-head or _sagittifolia_ so much +cultivated by the Chinese, and, when roasted in the embers till it +becomes soft, has an agreeable taste, and is a very good substitute for +bread. After purchasing some of this root we resumed our journey, and at +seven miles' distance came to the head of a large island near the left +bank. On the right shore was a fine open prairie for about a mile, back +of which the country rises, and is well supplied with timber, such as +white oak, pine of different kinds, wild crab, and several species of +undergrowth, while along the borders of the river there were only a few +cottonwood and ash trees. In this prairie were also signs of deer and +elk. + +"When we landed for dinner a number of Indians came down, for the +purpose, as we supposed, of paying us a friendly visit, as they had put +on their finest dresses. In addition to their usual covering, they had +scarlet and blue blankets, sailor's jackets and trowsers, shirts, and +hats. They had all of them either war-axes, spears, and bows and arrows, +or muskets and pistols, with tin powder-flasks. We smoked with them, and +endeavoured to show them every attention, but soon found them very +assuming and disagreeable companions. While we were eating, they stole +the pipe with which they were smoking, and a great coat of one of the +men. We immediately searched them all, and found the coat stuffed under +the root of a tree near where they were sitting; but the pipe we could +not recover. Finding us discontented with them, and determined not to +suffer any imposition, they showed their displeasure in the only way +they dared, by returning in ill humour to their village. We then +proceeded, and soon met two canoes, with twelve men of the same Skilloot +nation, who were on their way from below. The larger of the canoes was +ornamented with the figures of a bear in the bow and a man in the stern, +both nearly as large as life, both made of painted wood, and very neatly +fastened to the boat. In the same canoe were two Indians gaudily +dressed, and with round hats. This circumstance induced us to give the +name of Image Canoe to the large island, the lower end of which we were +now passing, at the distance of nine miles from its head. We had seen +two smaller islands to the right, and three more near its lower +extremity." ... "The river was now about a mile and a half in width, +with a gentle current, and the bottoms extensive and low, but not +subject to be overflowed. Three miles below Image Canoe Island we came +to four large houses on the left side; here we had a full view of the +mountain which we had first seen from the Muscleshell Rapid on the 19th +of October, and which we now found to be, in fact, the Mount St. Helen +of Vancouver. It bore north 25 deg. east, about ninety miles distant, rose +in the form of a sugar loaf to a very great height, and was covered with +snow. A mile lower we passed a single house on the left, and another on +the right. The Indians had now learned so much of us that their +curiosity was without any mixture of fear, and their visits became very +frequent and troublesome. We therefore continued on till after night, in +hopes of getting rid of them; but, after passing a village on each side, +which, on account of the lateness of the hour, we could only see +indistinctly, we found there was no escaping from their importunities. +We accordingly landed at the distance of seven miles below Image Canoe +Island, and encamped near a single house on the right, having made +during the day twenty-nine miles. + +"The Skilloots that we passed to-day speak a language somewhat different +from that of the Echeloots or Chilluckittequaws near the long narrows. +Their dress, however, is similar, except that the Skilloots possess more +articles procured from the white traders; and there is this farther +difference between them, that the Skilloots, both males and females, +have the head flattened. Their principal food is fish, _wappatoo_ roots, +and some elk and deer, in killing which, with arrows they seem to be +very expert; for during the short time we remained at the village three +deer were brought in. We also observed there a tame _blaireau_ +[badger]." + +"As soon as we landed we were visited by two canoes loaded with Indians, +from whom we purchased a few roots. The grounds along the river +continued low and rich, and among the shrubs were large quantities of +vines resembling the raspberry. On the right the low grounds were +terminated at the distance of five miles by a range of high hills +covered with tall timber, and running southeast and northwest. The game, +as usual, was very abundant; and, among other birds, we observed some +white geese, with a part of their wings black." + +Early the next morning they resumed their voyage, passing several +islands in the course of the day, the river alternately widening and +contracting, and the hills sometimes retiring from, and at others +approaching, its banks. They stopped for the night at the distance of +thirty-two miles from their last encampment. "Before landing," proceeds +the Journal, "we met two canoes, the largest of which had at the bow the +image of a bear, and that of a man on the stern: there were twenty-six +Indians on board, but they proceeded upwards, and we were left, for the +first time since we reached the waters of the Columbia, without any of +the natives with us during the night. Besides other game, we killed a +grouse much larger than the common kind, and observed along the shore a +number of striped snakes. The river is here deep, and about a mile and a +half in width. Here, too, the ridge of low mountains, running northwest +and southeast, crosses the river and forms the western boundary of the +plain through which we had just passed. This great plain or valley +begins above the mouth of Quicksand River, and is about sixty miles long +in a straight line, while on the right and left it extends to a great +distance; it is a fertile and delightful country, shaded by thick groves +of tall timber, and watered by small ponds on both sides of the river. +The soil is rich and capable of any species of culture; but in the +present condition of the Indians, its chief production is the _wappatoo_ +root, which grows spontaneously and exclusively in this region. +Sheltered as it is on both sides, the temperature is much milder than +that of the surrounding country; for even at this season of the year we +observed but very little appearance of frost. It is inhabited by +numerous tribes of Indians, who either reside in it permanently, or +visits its waters in quest of fish and _wappatoo_ roots. We gave it the +name of the Columbia Valley." + +"_November 6._ The morning was cool and rainy. We proceeded at an early +hour between high hills on both sides of the river, till at the distance +of four miles we came to two tents of Indians in a small plain on the +left, where the hills on the right recede a few miles, and a long, +narrow inland stretches along the right shore. Behind this island is the +mouth of a large river, a hundred and fifty yards wide, called by the +Indians Coweliske. We halted on the island for dinner, but the redwood +and green briers were so interwoven with the pine, alder, ash, a species +of beech, and other trees, that the woods formed a thicket which our +hunters could not penetrate. Below the mouth of the Coweliske a very +remarkable knob rises from the water's edge to the height of eighty +feet, being two hundred paces round the base; and as it is in a low part +of the island, and at some distance from the high grounds, its +appearance is very singular. On setting out after dinner we overtook two +canoes going down to trade. One of the Indians, who spoke a few words of +English, mentioned that the principal person who traded with them was a +Mr. Haley; and he showed us a bow of iron and several other things, +which he said he had given him. Nine miles below Coweliske River is a +creek on the same side; and between them three smaller islands, one on +the left shore, the other about the middle of the river, and a third +near, the lower end of the long, narrow island, and opposite a high +cliff of black rocks on the left, sixteen miles from our last night's +encampment. Here we were overtaken by some Indians from the two tents we +had passed in the morning, from whom we purchased _wappatoo_ roots, +salmon, trout, and two beaver-skins, for which last we gave five small +fish-hooks." + +Here the mountains which had been high and rugged on the left, retired +from the river, as had the hills on the right, since leaving the +Coweliske, and a beautiful plain was spread out before them. They met +with several islands on their way, and having at the distance of five +miles come to the termination of the plain, they proceeded for eight +miles through a hilly country, and encamped for the night after having +made twenty-nine miles. + +"_November 7._ The morning," proceeds the narrative, "was rainy, and the +fog so thick that we could not see across the river. We observed, +however, opposite to our camp, the upper point of an island, between +which and the steep hills on the right we proceeded for five miles. +Three miles lower was the beginning of an island, separated from the +right shore by a narrow channel: down this we proceeded under the +direction of some Indians whom we had just met going up the river, and +who returned in order to show us their village. It consisted of four +houses only, situated on this channel, behind several marshy islands +formed by two small creeks. On our arrival they gave us some fish, and +we afterwards purchased _wappatoo_ roots, fish, three dogs, and two +otter-skins, for which we gave fish-hooks chiefly, that being an article +which they are very anxious to obtain. + +"These people seemed to be of a different nation from those we had just +passed: they were low in stature, ill-shaped, and all had their heads +flattened. They called themselves Wahkiacum, and their language differed +from that of the tribes above, with whom they trade for _wappatoo_ +roots. The houses, too, were built in a different style, being raised +entirely above ground, with the eaves about five feet high, and the door +at the corner. Near the end opposite to the door was a single fireplace, +round which were the beds, raised four feet from the floor of earth; +over the fire were hung fresh fish, and when dried they are stowed away +with the _wappatoo_ roots under the beds. The dress of the men was like +that of the people above; but the women were clad in a peculiar manner, +the robe not reaching lower than the hip, and the body being covered in +cold weather by a sort of corset of fur, curiously plaited, and +reaching from the arms to the hip: added to this was a sort of +petticoat, or, rather, tissue of white cedar bark, bruised or broken +into small strands and woven into a girdle by several cords of the same +material. Being tied round the middle, these strands hang down as low as +the knee in front and to the middle of the leg behind: sometimes the +tissue consists of strings of silk-grass, twisted and knotted at the +end. + +"After remaining with them about an hour, we proceeded down the channel +with an Indian dressed in a sailor's jacket for our pilot; and, on +reaching the main channel, were visited by some Indians, who have a +temporary residence on a marshy island, Tenasillihee, in the middle of +the river, where there are great numbers of water-fowl. Here the +mountainous country again approaches the river on the left, and a higher +saddle mountain is perceived towards the southwest. At a distance of +twenty miles from our camp we halted at a village of Wahkiacums, +consisting of seven ill-looking houses, built in the same form with +those above, and situated at the foot of the high hills on the right, +behind two small marshy islands. We merely stopped to purchase some food +and two beaver skins, and then proceeded. Opposite to these islands the +hills on the left retire, and the river widens into a kind of bay, +crowded with low islands, subject to be overflowed occasionally by the +tide. We had not gone far from this village when, the fog suddenly +clearing away, we were at last presented with a glorious sight of the +ocean--that ocean, the object of all our labours, the reward of all our +anxieties. This animating sight exhilarated the spirits of all the +party, who were still more delighted on hearing the distant roar of the +breakers. We went on with great cheerfulness along the high mountainous +country which bordered the right bank: the shore, however, was so bold +and rocky that we could not, until a distance of fourteen miles from the +last village, find any spot fit for an encampment. Having made during +the day thirty-four miles, we now spread our mats on the ground, and +passed the night in the rain. Here we were joined by our small canoe, +which had been separated from us during the fog this morning. Two +Indians from the last village also accompanied us to the camp; but +having detected them in stealing a knife, they were sent off. + +"_November 8._ It rained this morning; and, having changed our clothing, +which had been wet by yesterday's rain, we set out at nine o'clock. +Immediately opposite our camp was a pillar rock, at the distance of a +mile in the river, about twenty feet in diameter and fifty in height, +and towards the southwest some high mountains, one of which was covered +with snow at the top. We proceeded past several low islands in the bend +or bay of the river to the left, which were here five or six miles +wide. On the right side we passed an old village, and then, at the +distance of three miles, entered an inlet or niche, about six miles +across, and making a deep bend of nearly five miles into the hills on +the right shore, where it receives the waters of several creeks. We +coasted along this inlet, which, from its little depth, we called +Shallow Bay, and at the bottom of it stopped to dine, near the remains +of an old village, from which, however, we kept at a cautious distance, +as, like all these places, it was occupied by a plentiful stock of +fleas. At this place we observed a number of fowl, among which we killed +a goose and two ducks exactly resembling in appearance and flavour the +canvas-back duck of the Susquehanna. After dinner we took advantage of +the returning tide to go about three miles to a point on the right, +eight miles distant from our camp; but here the water ran so high and +washed about our canoe so much that several of the men became seasick. +It was therefore judged imprudent to proceed in the present state of the +weather, and we landed at the point. Our situation here was extremely +uncomfortable: the high hills jutted in so closely that there was not +room for us to lie level, nor to secure our baggage from the tide, and +the water of the river was too salty to be used; but the waves +increasing so much that we could not move from the spot with safety, we +fixed ourselves on the beach left by the ebb-tide, and, raising the +baggage on poles, passed a disagreeable night, the rain during the day +having wet us completely, as, indeed, we had been for some time past. + +"_November 9._ Fortunately, the tide did not rise as high as our camp +during the night; but, being accompanied by high winds from the south, +the canoes, which we could not place beyond its reach, were filled with +water and saved with much difficulty: our position was exceedingly +disagreeable; but, as it was impossible to move from it, we waited for a +change of weather. It rained, however, during the whole day, and at two +o'clock in the afternoon the flood-tide came in, accompanied by a high +wind from the south, which at about four o'clock shifted to the +southwest, and blew almost a gale directly from the sea. Immense waves +now broke over the place where we were and large trees, some of them +five or six feet through, which had been lodged on the point, drifted +over our camp, so that the utmost vigilance of every man could scarcely +save the canoes from being crushed to pieces. We remained in the water +and were drenched with rain during the rest of the day, our only +sustenance being some dried fish and the rain water which we caught. +Yet, though wet and cold, and some of then sick from using salt water, +the men were cheerful and full of anxiety to see more of the ocean. The +rain continued all night and the following morning. + +"_November 10_, the wind lulling and the waves not being so high, we +loaded our canoes and proceeded. The mountains on the right are here +high, covered with timber, chiefly pine, and descend with a bold and +rocky shore to the water. We went through a deep niche and several +inlets on the right, while on the opposite side was a large bay, above +which the hills are close on the river. At the distance of ten miles the +wind rose from the northwest, and the waves became so high that we were +forced to return two miles for a place where we could unload with +safety. Here we landed at the mouth of a small run, and, having placed +our baggage on a pile of drifted logs, waited until low water. The river +then appearing more calm, we started again; but, after going a mile, +found the waters too turbulent for our canoes, and were obliged to put +to shore. Here we landed the baggage, and, having placed it on a rock +above the reach of the tide, encamped on some drift logs, which formed +the only place where we could lie, the hills rising steep over our heads +to the height of five hundred feet. All our baggage, as well as +ourselves, was thoroughly wet with rain, which did not cease during the +day; it continued, indeed, violently through the night, in the course of +which the tide reached the logs on which we lay, and set them afloat. + +"_November 11._ The wind was still high from the southwest, and drove +the waves against the shore with great fury; the rain, too, fell in +torrents, and not only drenched us to the skin, but loosened the stones +on the hillsides, so that they came rolling down upon us. In this +comfortless condition we remained all day, wet and cold, and with +nothing but dried fish to satisfy our hunger; the canoes at the mercy of +the waves at one place, the baggage in another, and the men scattered on +floating logs, or sheltering themselves in the crevices of the rocks and +hillsides. A hunter was despatched in the hope of finding some game; but +the hills were so steep, and so covered with undergrowth and fallen +timber, that he could not proceed, and was forced to return. About +twelve o'clock we were visited by five Indians in a canoe. They came +from the opposite side of the river, above where we were, and their +language much resembled that of the Wahkiacums: they calling themselves +Cathlamahs. In person they were small, ill-made, and badly clothed; +though one of them had on a sailor's jacket and pantaloons, which, as he +explained by signs, he had received from the whites below the point. We +purchased from them thirteen red charr, a fish which we found very +excellent. After some time they went on board their boat and crossed the +river, which is here five miles wide, through a very heavy sea. + +"_November 12._ About three o'clock a tremendous gale of wind arose, +accompanied with lightning, thunder, and hail; at six it lightened up +for a short time, but a violent rain soon began and lasted through the +day. During the storm one of our boats, secured by being sunk with great +quantities of stone, got loose, but, drifting against a rock, was +recovered without having received much injury. Our situation now became +much more dangerous, for the waves were driven with fury against the +rocks and trees, which till now had afforded us refuge: we therefore +took advantage of the low tide, and moved about half a mile round a +point to a small brook, which we had not observed before on account of +the thick bushes and driftwood which concealed its mouth. Here we were +more safe, but still cold and wet; our clothes and bedding rotten as +well as wet, our baggage at a distance, and the canoes, our only means +of escape from this place, at the mercy of the waves. Still, we +continued to enjoy good health, and even had the luxury of feasting on +some salmon and three salmon trout which we caught in the brook. Three +of the men attempted to go round a point in our small Indian canoe, but +the high waves rendered her quite unmanageable, these boats requiring +the seamanship of the natives to make them live in so rough a sea. + +"_November 13._ During the night we had short intervals of fair weather, +but it began to rain in the morning and continued through the day. In +order to obtain a view of the country below, Captain Clarke followed the +course of the brook, and with much fatigue, and after walking three +miles, ascended the first spur of the mountains. The whole lower country +he found covered with almost impenetrable thickets of small pine, with +which is mixed a species of plant resembling arrow-wood, twelve or +fifteen feet high, with thorny stems, almost interwoven with each other, +and scattered among the fern and fallen timber: there is also a red +berry, somewhat like the Solomon's seal, which is called by the natives +_solme_, and used as an article of diet. This thick growth rendered +travelling almost impossible, and it was rendered still more fatiguing +by the abruptness of the mountain, which was so steep as to oblige him +to draw himself up by means of the bushes. The timber on the hills is +chiefly of a large, tall species of pine, many of the trees eight or ten +feet in diameter at the stump, and rising sometimes more than one +hundred feet in height. The hail which fell two nights before was still +to be seen on the mountains; there was no game, and no marks of any, +except some old tracks of elk. The cloudy weather prevented his seeing +to any distance, and he therefore returned to camp and sent three men in +an Indian canoe to try if they could double the point and find some +safer harbour for our boats. At every flood-tide the sea broke in great +swells against the rocks and drifted the trees against our +establishment, so as to render it very insecure. + +"_November 14._ It had rained without intermission during the night and +continued to through the day; the wind, too, was very high, and one of +our canoes much injured by being driven against the rocks. Five Indians +from below came to us in a canoe, and three of them landed, and informed +us that they had seen the men sent down yesterday. Fortunately, at this +moment one of the men arrived, and told us that these very Indians had +stolen his gig and basket; we therefore ordered the two women, who +remained in the canoe, to restore them; but this they refused to do till +we threatened to shoot them, when they gave back the articles, and we +commanded them to leave us. They were of the Wahkiacum nation. The man +now informed us that they had gone round the point as far as the high +sea would suffer them in the canoe, and then landed; that in the night +he had separated from his companions, who had proceeded farther down; +and that, at no great distance from where we were, was a beautiful sand +beach and a good harbour. Captain Lewis determined to examine more +minutely the lower part of the bay, and, embarking in one of the large +canoes, was put on shore at the point, whence he proceeded by land with +four men, and the canoe returned nearly filled with water. + +"_November 15._ It continued raining all night, but in the morning the +weather became calm and fair. We began, therefore, to prepare for +setting out; but before we were ready a high wind sprang up from the +southeast, and obliged us to remain. The sun shone until one o'clock, +and we were thus enabled to dry our bedding and examine our baggage. The +rain, which had continued for the last ten days without any interval of +more than two hours, had completely wet all our merchandise, spoiled +some of our fish, destroyed the robes, and rotted nearly one-half of our +few remaining articles of clothing, particularly the leather dresses. +About three o'clock the wind fell, and we instantly loaded the canoes, +and left the miserable spot to which we had been confined the last six +days. On turning the point we came to the sand beach, through which runs +a small stream from the hills, at the mouth of which was an ancient +village of thirty-six houses, without any inhabitants at the time except +fleas. Here we met Shannon, who had been sent back to us by Captain +Lewis. The day Shannon left us in the canoe, he and Willard proceeded on +till they met a party of twenty Indians, who, not having heard of us, +did not know who they were; but they behaved with great civility--so +great, indeed, and seemed so anxious that our men should accompany them +towards the sea, that their suspicions were aroused, and they declined +going. The Indians, however, would not leave them; and the men, becoming +confirmed in their suspicions, and fearful, if they went into the woods +to sleep, that they would be cut to pieces in the night, thought it best +to remain with the Indians: they therefore made a fire, and after +talking with them to a late hour, laid down with their rifles under +their heads. When they awoke they found that the Indians had stolen and +concealed their arms; and having demanded them in vain, Shannon seized a +club, and was about assaulting one of the Indians whom he suspected to +be the thief, when another of them began to load his fowling-piece with +the intention of shooting him. He therefore stopped, and explained to +them by signs, that if they did not give up the guns, a large party +would come down the river before the sun rose to a certain height, and +put every one of them to death. Fortunately, Captain Lewis and his party +appeared at this very time, and the terrified Indians immediately +brought the guns, and five of them came in with Shannon. To these men we +declared that, if ever any of their nation stole anything from us, he +would be instantly shot. They resided to the north of this place, and +spoke a language different from that of the people higher up the river. +It was now apparent that the sea was at all times too rough for us to +proceed farther down the bay by water: we therefore landed, and, having +chosen the best spot we could, made our camp of boards from the old +village. We were now comfortably situated; and, being visited by four +Wahkiacums with _wappatoo_ roots, were enabled to make an agreeable +addition to our food. + +"_November 16._ The morning was clear and pleasant. We therefore put out +all our baggage to dry, and sent several of our party to hunt. Our camp +was in full view of the ocean, on the bay laid down by Vancouver, which +we distinguished by the name of Haley's Bay, from a trader who visits +the Indians here, and is a great favourite among them. The meridian +altitude of this day gave 46 deg. 19' 11.7" as our latitude. The wind was +strong from the southwest, and the waves were very high, yet the Indians +were passing up and down the bay in canoes, and several of them encamped +near us. We smoked with them, but, after our recent experience of their +thievish disposition, treated them with caution...." + +"The hunters brought in two deer, a crane, some geese and ducks, and +several brant, three of which were white, except a part of the wing, +which was black, and they were much larger than the gray brant. + +"_November 17._ A fair, cool morning, and easterly wind. The tide rises +at this place eight feet six inches. + +"About one o'clock Captain Lewis returned, after having coasted down +Haley's Bay to Cape Disappointment, and some distance to the north, +along the seacoast. He was followed by several Chinnooks, among whom +were the principal chief and his family. They made us a present of a +boiled root very much like the common licorice in taste and size, called +_culwhamo_; and in return we gave them articles of double its value. We +now learned, however, the danger of accepting anything from them, since +nothing given in payment, even though ten times more valuable, would +satisfy them. We were chiefly occupied in hunting, and were able to +procure three deer, four brant, and two ducks; and also saw some signs +of elk. Captain Clarke now prepared for an excursion down the bay, and +accordingly started. + +"_November 18_, at daylight, accompanied by eleven men, he proceeded +along the beach one mile to a point of rocks about forty feet high, +where the hills retired, leaving a wide beach and a number of ponds +covered with water-fowl, between which and the mountain there was a +narrow bottom covered with alder and small balsam trees. Seven miles +from the rocks was the entrance from the creek, or rather drain from the +pond and hills, where was a cabin of Chinnooks. The cabin contained some +children and four women. They were taken across the creek in a canoe by +two squaws, to each of whom they gave a fish-hook, and then, coasting +along the bay, passed at two miles the low bluff of a small hill, below +which were, the ruins of some old huts, and close to it the remains of a +whale. The country was low, open, and marshy, interspersed with some +high pine and with a thick undergrowth. Five miles from the creek, they +came to a stream, forty yards wide at low water, which they called +Chinnook River. The hills up this river and towards the bay were not +high, but very thickly covered with large pine of several species." + +Proceeding along the shore, they came to a deep bend, appearing to +afford a good harbour, and here the natives told them that European +vessels usually anchored. About two miles farther on they reached Cape +Disappointment, "an elevated circular knob," says the Journal, "rising +with a steep ascent one hundred and fifty or one hundred and sixty feet +above the water, formed like the whole shore of the bay, as well as of +the seacoast, and covered with thick timber on the inner side, but open +and grassy on the exposure next the sea. From this cape a high point of +land bears south 20 deg. west, about twenty-five miles distant. In the range +between these two eminences is the opposite point of the bay, a very low +ground, which has been variously called Cape Rond by Le Perouse, and +Point Adams by Vancouver. The water, for a great distance off the mouth +of the river, appears very shallow, and within the mouth, nearest to +Point Adams, is a large sand-bar, almost covered at high tide...." + +"_November 19._ In the evening it began to rain, and continued until +eleven o'clock. Two hunters were sent out in the morning to kill +something for breakfast, and the rest of the party, after drying their +blankets, soon followed. At three miles they overtook the hunters, and +breakfasted on a small deer which they had been fortunate enough to +kill. This, like all those that we saw on the coast, was much darker +than our common deer. Their bodies, too, are deeper, their legs +shorter, and their eyes larger. The branches of the horns are similar, +but the upper part of the tail is black, from the root to the end, and +they do not leap, but jump like a sheep frightened. + +"Continuing along five miles farther, they reached a point of high land, +below which a sandy point extended in a direction north 19 deg. west to +another high point twenty miles distant. To this they gave the name of +Point Lewis. They proceeded four miles farther along the sandy beach to +a small pine tree, on which Captain Clarke marked his name, with the +year and day, and then set out to return to the camp, where they arrived +the following day, having met a large party of Chinnooks coming from it. + +"_November 21._ The morning was cloudy, and from noon till night it +rained. The wind, too, was high from the southeast, and the sea so rough +that the water reached our camp. Most of the Chinnooks returned home, +but we were visited in the course of the day by people of different +bands in the neighbourhood, among whom were the Chiltz, a nation +residing on the seacoast near Point Lewis, and the Clatsops, who live +immediately opposite, on the south side of the Columbia. A chief from +the grand rapid also came to see us, and we gave him a medal. To each of +our visitors we made a present of a small piece of riband, and purchased +some cranberries, and some articles of their manufacture, such as mats +and household furniture, for all of which we paid high prices." + + + + +THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI + +BRIGADIER-GENERAL ZEBULON M. PIKE + + [During the years 1805, 1806, and 1807 Brigadier-General Pike + commanded, by order of the Government of the United States, + an expedition to the sources of the Mississippi, through the + western part of Louisiana, to the sources of the Arkansas, + Kansas, La Platte and Pierre Juan rivers. The extracts which + follow are taken from his narrative published in + Philadelphia, 1810. An excellent edition, edited with copious + notes by Elliott Coues, was published in three volumes by + Francis P. Harper, New York, 1895.] + + +_January 1, 1806._ Passed six very elegant bark canoes on the bank of +the river, which had been laid up by the Chipeways; also a camp which we +had conceived to have been evacuated about ten days. My interpreter came +after me in a great hurry, conjuring me not to go so far ahead, and +assured me that the Chipeways, encountering me without an interpreter, +party, or flag, would certainly kill me. But, notwithstanding this, I +went on several miles farther than usual, in order to make any +discoveries that were to be made; conceiving the savages not so +barbarous or ferocious as to fire on two men (I had one with me) who +were apparently coming into their country, trusting to their generosity; +and knowing, that if we met only two or three we were equal to them, I +having my gun and pistols and he his buckshot. Made some extra presents +for New Year's day. + +_January 2._ Fine, warm day. Discovered fresh signs of Indians. Just as +we were encamping at night, my sentinel informed us that some Indians +were coming at full speed upon our trail or track. I ordered my men to +stand by their guns carefully. They were immediately at my camp, and +saluted the flag by a discharge of three pieces, when four Chipeways, +one Englishman, and a Frenchman of the North West Company presented +themselves. They informed us that some women having discovered our trail +gave the alarm, and not knowing but it was their enemies had departed to +make a discovery. They had heard of us, and revered our flag. Mr. Grant, +the Englishman, had only arrived the day before from Lake de Sable, from +which he marched in one day and a half. I presented the Indians with +half a deer, which they received thankfully, for they had discovered our +fires some days ago, and believing them to be Sioux fires, they dared +not leave their camp. They returned home, but Mr. Grant remained all +night. + +_January 3._ My party marched early, but I returned with Mr. Grant to +his establishment on the Red Cedar Lake, having one corporal with +me.... After explaining to a Chipeway warrior, called Curly Head, the +object of my voyage, and receiving his answer that he would remain +tranquil until my return, we ate a good breakfast for the country, +departed and overtook my sleds just at dusk. Killed one porcupine. +Distance sixteen miles. + +_January 4._ We made twenty-eight points in the river; broad, good +bottom, and of the usual timber. In the night I was awakened by the cry +of the sentinel, calling repeatedly to the men; at length he +vociferated, "Will you let the lieutenant be burned to death?" This +immediately aroused me; at first I seized my arms, but looking round, I +saw my tents in flames. The men flew to my assistance, and we tore them +down, but not until they were entirely ruined. This, with the loss of my +leggins, moccasins, and socks, which I had hung up to dry, was no +trivial misfortune in such a country and on such a voyage. But I had +reason to thank God that the powder, three small casks of which I had in +my tent, did not take fire; if it had, I must certainly have lost all my +baggage, if not my life. + +_January 5._ Mr. Grant promised to overtake me yesterday, but has not +yet arrived. I conceived it would be necessary to attend his motions +with careful observation. Distance twenty-seven miles. + +_January 6._ Bradley and myself walked up thirty-one points in hopes to +discover Lake de Sable; but finding a near cut of twenty yards for ten +miles, and being fearful the sleds would miss it, we returned +twenty-three points before we found our camp. They had made only eight +points. Met two Frenchmen of the North West Company with about one +hundred and eighty pounds on each of their backs, with rackets +[snowshoes] on; they informed me that Mr. Grant had gone on with the +Frenchmen. Snow fell all day, and was three feet deep. Spent a miserable +night. + +_January 7._ Made but eleven miles, and was then obliged to send ahead +and make fires every three miles; notwithstanding which, the cold was so +intense that some of the men had their noses, others their fingers, and +others their toes, frozen, before they felt the cold sensibly. Very +severe day's march. + +_January 8._ Conceiving I was at no great distance from Sandy Lake, I +left my sleds and with Corporal Bradley took my departure for that +place, intending to send him back the same evening. We walked on very +briskly until near night, when we met a young Indian, one of those who +had visited my camp near Red Cedar Lake. I endeavoured to explain to him +that it was my wish to go to Lake de Sable that evening. He returned +with me until we came to a trail that led across the woods; this he +signified was a near course. I went this course with him, and shortly +after found myself at a Chipeway encampment, to which I believed the +friendly savage had enticed me with the expectation that I would tarry +all night, knowing that it was too late for us to make the lake in good +season. But upon our refusing to stay, he put us in the right road. We +arrived at the place where the track left the Mississippi at dusk, when +we traversed about two leagues of a wilderness without any very great +difficulty, and at length struck the shore of Lake de Sable, over a +branch of which lay our course. The snow having covered the trail made +by the Frenchmen who had passed before us with the rackets, I was +fearful of losing ourselves on the lake; the consequences of which can +only be conceived by those who have been exposed on a lake or naked +plain, in a dreary night of January, in latitude 47 deg., and the +thermometer below zero. Thinking that we could observe the bank of the +other shore, we kept a straight course, and some time after discovered +lights, and on our arrival were not a little surprised to find a large +stockade. The gate being open, we entered and proceeded to the quarters +of Mr. Grant, where we were treated with the utmost hospitality. + +_January 9._ Sent away the corporal early, in order that our men should +receive assurances of our safety and success. He carried with him, a +small keg of spirits, a present from Mr. Grant. The establishment of +this place was formed twelve years since by the North West Company, and +was formerly under the charge of Mr. Charles Brusky. It has attained at +present such regularity as to permit the superintendent to live +tolerably comfortably. They have horses they procure from Red River from +the Indians; they raise plenty of potatoes, catch pike, suckers, +pickerel, and white fish in abundance. They have also beaver, deer, and +moose; but the provision they chiefly depend upon is wild oats, of +which they purchase great quantities from the savages, giving at the +rate of about one dollar and a half a bushel. But flour, pork, and salt +are almost interdicted to persons not principals in the trade. Flour +sells at half a dollar, salt at a dollar, pork at eighty cents, sugar at +fifty cents, and tea at four dollars and a half a pound. The sugar is +obtained from the Indians, and is made from the maple tree. + +_January 10._ Mr. Grant accompanied me to the Mississippi, to mark the +place for my boats to leave the river. This was the first time I marched +on rackets [snowshoes]. I took the course of the Lake River, from its +mouth to the lake. Mr. Grant fell through the ice with his rackets on, +and could not have got out without assistance. + +_January 11._ Remained all day within quarters. + +_January 12._ Went out and met my men about sixteen miles. A tree had +fallen on one of them and hurt him very much, which induced me to +dismiss a sled and put the loading on the others. + +_January 13._ After encountering much difficulty we arrived at the +establishment of the North West Company on Lake de Sable a little before +night. The ice being very bad on the Lake River, owing to the many +springs and marshes, one sled fell through. My men had an excellent room +furnished them, and were presented with potatoes and spirits. Mr. Grant +had gone to an Indian lodge to receive his credits. + +_January 14._ Crossed the lake to the north side, that I might take an +observation; found the latitude 46 deg. 9' 20" N. Surveyed that part of the +lake. Mr. Grant returned from the Indian lodges. His party brought a +quantity of furs and eleven beaver carcasses. + +_January 15._ Mr. Grant and myself made the tour of the lake with two +men whom I had for attendants. Found it to be much larger than could be +imagined at a view. My men sawed stocks for the sleds, which I found it +necessary to construct after the manner of the country. On our march, +met an Indian coming into the fort; his countenance expressed no little +astonishment when I told him who I was and whence I came, for the people +of this country acknowledge that the savages hold the Americans in +greater veneration than any other white people. They say of us, when +alluding to warlike achievements, that "we are neither Frenchmen nor +Englishmen, but white Indians." + +_January 16._ Laid down Lake de Sable. A young Indian whom I had engaged +to go as a guide to Lake Sang Sue arrived from the woods. + +_January 17._ Employed in making sleds after the manner of the country. +They are made of a single plank turned up at one end like a fiddle head, +and the baggage is lashed on in bags and sacks. Two other Indians +arrived from the woods. Engaged in writing. + +_January 18._ Busy in preparing my baggage for my departure for Leech +Lake and Reading. + +_January 19._ Employed as yesterday. Two men of the North West Company +arrived from the Fond du Lac Superior with letters; one of which was +from their establishment in Athapuscow, and had been since last May on +the route. While at this post I ate roasted beavers, dressed in every +respect as a pig is usually dressed with us; it was excellent. I could +not discern the least taste of Des Bois. I also ate boiled moose's head, +which when well boiled I consider equal to the tail of the beaver; in +taste and substance they are much alike. + +_January 20._ The men, with their sleds, took their departure about two +o'clock. Shortly after I followed them. We encamped at the portage +between the Mississippi and Leech Lake River. Snow fell in the night. + +_January 21._ Snowed in the morning, but crossed about 9 o'clock. I had +gone on a few points when I was overtaken by Mr. Grant, who informed me +that the sleds could not get along in consequence of water being on the +ice; he sent his men forward; we returned and met the sleds, which had +scarcely advanced one mile. We unloaded them, sent eight men back to the +post, with whatever might be denominated extra articles, but in the +hurry sent my salt and ink. Mr. Grant encamped with me and marched early +in the morning. + +_January 22._ Made a pretty good day's journey. My Indian came up about +noon. Distance twenty miles. + +_January 23._ Marched about eighteen miles. Forgot my thermometer, +having hung it on a tree. Sent Boley back five miles for it. My young +Indian and myself killed eight partridges; took him to live with me. + +_January 24._ At our encampment this night Mr. Grant had encamped on the +night of the same day he left me; it was three days' march for us. It +was late before the men came up. + +_January 25._ Travelled almost all day through the lands and found them +much better than usual. Boley lost the Sioux pipe-stem which I had +carried along for the purpose of making peace with the Chipeways; I sent +him back for it; he did not return until eleven o'clock at night. It was +very warm; thawing all day. Distance forty-four points. + +_January 26._ I left my party in order to proceed to a house, or lodge, +of Mr. Grant's on the Mississippi, where he was to tarry until I +overtook him. Took with me an Indian, Boley, and some trifling +provision; the Indian and myself marched so fast that we left Boley on +the route, about eight miles from the lodge. Met Mr. Grant's men, on +their return to Lake de Sable, having evacuated the house this morning, +and Mr. Grant having marched for Leech Lake. The Indian and I arrived +before sundown. Passed the night very uncomfortably, having nothing to +eat, not much wood, nor any blankets. The Indian slept sound. I cursed +his insensibility, being obliged to content myself over a few coals all +night. Boley did not arrive. In the night the Indian mentioned something +about his son. + +_January 27._ My Indian rose early, mended his moccasins, then expressed +by signs something about his son and the Englishmen we met yesterday. +Conceiving that he wished to send some message to his family, I suffered +him to depart. After his departure I felt the curse of solitude, +although he was truly no company. Boley arrived about ten o'clock. He +said that he had followed us until some time in the night, when, +believing that he could overtake us, he stopped and made a fire, but +having no axe to cut wood he was near freezing. He met the Indians, who +made him signs to go on. I spent the day in putting my gun in order, and +mended my moccasins. Provided plenty of wood, still found it cold, with +but one blanket. + +_January 28._ Left our encampment at a good hour; unable to find any +trail, passed through one of the most dismal cypress swamps I ever saw +and struck the Mississippi at a small lake. Observed Mr. Grant's tracks +going through it; found his mark of a cut-off (agreed on between us); +took it, and proceeded very well until we came to a small lake, where +the trail was entirely hid, but after some search on the other side, +found it, when we passed through a dismal swamp, on the other side of +which we found a large lake, at which I was entirely at a loss, no +trail to be seen. Struck for a point about three miles off, where we +found a Chipeway lodge of one man and five children, and one old woman. +They received us with every mark that distinguished their barbarity, +such as setting their dogs on us, trying to thrust their hands into our +pockets, and so on, but we convinced them that we were not afraid, and +let them know that we were Chewockomen (Americans), when they used us +more civilly. After we had arranged a camp as well as possible I went +into the lodge; they presented me with a plate of dried meat. I ordered +Miller to bring about two gills of liquor, which made us all good +friends. The old squaw gave me more meat, and offered me tobacco, which, +not using, I did not take. I gave her an order upon my corporal for one +knife and half a carrot of tobacco. Heaven clothes the lilies and feeds +the raven, and the same Almighty Providence protects and preserves these +creatures. After I had gone out to my fire, the old man came out and +proposed to trade beaver skins for whiskey; meeting with a refusal he +left me; when presently the old woman came out with a beaver skin, she +also being refused, he again returned to the charge with a quantity of +dried meat (this or any other I should have been glad to have had) when +I gave him a peremptory refusal; then all further application ceased. It +really appeared that with one quart of whiskey I might have bought all +they were possessed of. Night remarkably cold, was obliged to sit up +nearly the whole of it. Suffered much with cold and from want of sleep. + +_January 31._ Took my clothes into the Indian's lodge to dress, and was +received very coolly, but by giving him a dram (unasked), and his wife a +little salt, I received from them directions for my route. Passed the +lake or morass, and opened on meadows (through which the Mississippi +winds its course) of nearly fifteen miles in length. Took a straight +course through them to the head, when I found we had missed the river; +made a turn of about two miles and regained it. Passed a fork which I +supposed to be Lake Winipie, making the course northwest; the branch we +took was on Leech Lake branch, course southwest and west. Passed a very +large meadow or prairie, course west, the Mississippi only fifteen yards +wide. Encamped about one mile below the traverse of the meadow. Saw a +very large animal, which from its leaps I supposed to be a panther; but +if so, it was twice as large as those on the lower Mississippi. He +evinced some disposition to approach. I lay down (Miller being in the +rear) in order to entice him to come near, but he would not. The night +remarkably cold. Some spirits, which I had in a small keg, congealed to +the consistency of honey. + +_February 1._ Left our camp pretty early. Passed a continuous train of +prairie, and arrived at Lake Sang Sue at half-past two o'clock. I will +not attempt to describe my feelings on the accomplishment of my voyage, +for this is the main source of the Mississippi. The Lake Winipie branch +is navigable from thence to Red Cedar Lake for the distance of five +leagues, which is the extremity of the navigation. Crossed the lake +twelve miles to the establishment of the North West Company, where we +arrived about three o'clock; found all the gates locked, but upon +knocking were admitted and received with marked attention and +hospitality by Mr. Hugh McGillis. Had a good dish of coffee, biscuit, +butter and cheese for supper. + +_February 2._ Remained all day within doors. In the evening sent an +invitation to Mr. Anderson, who was an agent of Dickson, and also for +some young Indians at his house, to come over and breakfast in the +morning. + +_February 3._ Spent the day in reading Volney's "Egypt," proposing some +queries to Mr. Anderson, and preparing my young men to return with a +supply of provisions to my party. + +_February 4._ Miller departed this morning. Mr. Anderson returned to his +quarters. My legs and ankles were so much swelled that I was not able to +wear my own clothes, and was obliged to borrow some from Mr. McGillis. + +_February 5._ One of Mr. McGillis's clerks had been sent to some Indian +lodges, and expected to return in four days, but had now been absent +nine. Mr. Grant was despatched, in order to find out what had become of +him. + +_February 6._ My men arrived at the fort about four o'clock. Mr. +McGillis asked if I had any objection to his hoisting their flag in +compliment to ours. I made none, as I had not yet explained to him my +ideas. In making a traverse of the lake some of my men had their ears, +some their noses, and others their chins frozen. + +_February 7._ Remained within doors, my limbs being still very much +swelled. Addressed a letter to Mr. McGillis on the subject of the North +West Company's trade in this quarter. + +_February 8._ Took the latitude and found it to be 47 deg. 16' 13". Shot +with our rifles. + +_February 9._ M. McGillis and myself paid a visit to Mr. Anderson, an +agent of Mr. Dickson, of the lower Mississippi, who resided at the west +end of the lake. Found him eligibly situated as to trade, but his houses +bad. I rode in a cariole, for one person, constructed in the following +manner: Boards planed smooth, turned up in front about two feet, coming +to a point; about two and a half feet wide behind, on which is fixed a +box covered with dressed skins painted; this box is open at the top, but +covered in front about two-thirds of the length. The horse is fastened +between the shafts. The rider wraps himself up in a buffalo robe, sits +flat down, having a cushion to lean his back against. Thus accoutred +with a fur cap, and so on, he may bid defiance to the wind and weather. +Upon our return we found that some of the Indians had already returned +from the hunting camps; also Monsieur Roussand, the gentleman supposed +to have been killed by the Indians. His arrival with Mr. Grant diffused +a general satisfaction through the fort. + +_February 10._ Hoisted the American flag in the fort. Reading +"Shenstone," etc. + +_February 11._ The Sweet, Buck, Burnt, and others arrived, all chiefs of +note, but the former in particular, a venerable old man. From him I +learned that the Sioux occupied this ground when, to use his own phrase, +"He was made a man and began to hunt; that they occupied it the year +that the French missionaries were killed at the river Pacagama." The +Indians flocked in. + +_February 12._ Bradley and myself with Mr. McGillis' and two of his men +left Leech Lake at 10 o'clock, and arrived at the house of Red Cedar +Lake at sunset, a distance of thirty miles. My ankles were very much +swelled, and I was very lame. From the entrance of the Mississippi to +the strait is called six miles, a southwest course. Thence to the south +end, south thirty, east four miles. The bay at the entrance extends +nearly east and west six miles. About two and a half from the north side +to a large point. This, may be called the upper source of the +Mississippi, being fifteen miles above little Lake Winipie, and the +extent of canoe navigation only two leagues to some of the Hudson's Bay +waters. + + + + +MANILA IN 1842 + +LIEUTENANT CHARLES WILKES + + [During 1838-42 Lieutenant Wilkes commanded an exploring + expedition which was the first ever despatched for scientific + research by the United States. The instructions given by + Congress to the Commander said:--"The expedition is not for + conquest, but discovery. Its objects are all peaceful; they + are to extend the empire of commerce and science; to diminish + the hazards of the ocean, and point out to future navigators + a course by which they may avoid dangers and find safety." + The narrative of the expedition was published in five volumes + in Philadelphia, 1845. The extracts which follow are from + Vol. V., chapter VIII. From 1844 to 1874 the Government of + the United States published twenty-eight volumes reciting in + detail the scientific results of the expedition.] + + +At daylight, on the 13th of January, 1842, we were again under way, with +a light air, and at nine o'clock reached the roadstead, where we +anchored in six fathoms of water, with good holding ground. + +A number of vessels were lying in the roads, among which were several +Americans loading with hemp. There was also a large English East +Indiaman, manned by Lascars, whose noise rendered her more like a +floating Bedlam than anything else to which I can liken it. + +The view of the city and country around Manila partakes both of a +Spanish and an Oriental character. The sombre and heavy-looking +churches with their awkward towers; the long lines of batteries mounted +with heavy cannon; the massive houses, with ranges of balconies; and the +light and airy cottages, elevated on posts, situated in the luxuriant +groves of tropical trees,--all excite desire to become better acquainted +with the country. + +Manila is situated on an extensive plain, gradually swelling into +distant hills, beyond which, again, mountains rise in the background, to +the height of several thousand feet. The latter are apparently clothed +with vegetation to their summits. The city is in strong contrast to this +luxuriant scenery, bearing evident marks of decay, particularly in the +churches, whose steeples and tile roofs have a dilapidated look. The +site of the city does not appear to have been well chosen, it having +apparently been selected entirely for the convenience of commerce, and +the communication that the outlet of the lake affords for the batteaux +[freight boats] that transport the produce from the shores of the Laguna +de Bay to the city. + +There are many arms or branches to this stream, which have been +converted into canals; and almost any part of Manila may now be reached +in a banca [small passage boat]. + +The canal is generally filled with coasting vessels, batteaux from the +lake, and lighters for the discharge of the vessels lying in the roads. +The bay of Manila is safe, excepting during the change of the monsoons, +when it is subject to the typhoons of the China seas, within whose +range it lies. These blow at times with much force, and cause great +damage. Foreign vessels have, however, kept this anchorage, and rode out +these storms in safety; but native as well as Spanish vessels seek at +these times the port of Cavite, about three leagues to the southwest, at +the entrance of the bay, which is perfectly secure. Here the government +dockyard is situated, and this harbour is consequently the resort of the +few gunboats and galleys that are stationed here. + +The entrance to the canal or river Pasig is three hundred feet wide, and +is enclosed between two well-constructed piers, which extend for some +distance into the bay. On the end of one of these is the light-house, +and on the other a guard-house. The walls of these piers are about four +feet above ordinary high water, and include the natural channel of the +river, whose current sets out with some force, particularly when the ebb +is making in the bay. + +The suburbs, or Binondo quarter, contain more inhabitants than the city +itself, and is the commercial town. They have all the stir and life +incident to a large population actively engaged in trade, and in this +respect the contrast with the city proper is great. + +The city of Manila is built in the form of a large segment of a circle, +having the chord of the segment on the river: the whole is strongly +fortified with walls and ditches. The houses are substantially built +after the fashion of the mother country. Within the walls are the +governor's palace, custom-house, treasury, admiralty, several churches, +convents, and charitable institutions, a university, and the barracks +for the troops; it also contain some public squares, on one of which is +a bronze statute of Charles IV. + +The city is properly deemed the court residence of these islands; and +all those attached to the government, or who wish to be considered as of +the higher circle, reside here; but foreigners are not permitted to do +so. The houses in the city are generally of stone, plastered, and white +or yellow washed on the outside. They are only two stories high, and in +consequence cover a large space, being built around a patio or +courtyard. + +The ground floors are occupied as storehouses, stables, and for porters' +lodges. The second story is devoted to the dining halls and sleeping +apartments, kitchens, bath-rooms, etc. The bed-rooms have the windows +down to the floor, opening on wide balconies, with blinds or shutters. +These blinds are constructed with sliding frames, having small squares +of two inches filled in with a thin semi-transparent shell, a species of +Placuna; the fronts of some of the houses have a large number of these +small lights, where the females of the family may enjoy themselves +unperceived. + +After entering the canal, we very soon found ourselves among a motley +and strange population. On landing, the attention is drawn to the vast +number of small stalls and shops with which the streets are lined on +each side, and to the crowds of people passing to and fro, all intent +upon their several occupations. The artisans in Manila are almost wholly +Chinese; and all trades are local, so that in each quarter of the +Binondo suburb the privilege of exclusive occupancy is claimed by some +particular kinds of shops. In passing up the Escolta (which is the +longest and main street in this district), the cabinet-makers, seen +busily at work in their shops, are first met with; next to these come +the tinkers and blacksmiths; then the shoemakers, clothiers, +fishmongers, haberdashers, etc. These are flanked by outdoor +occupations; and in each quarter are numerous cooks frying cakes, +stewing, etc., in movable kitchens; while here and there are to be seen +betel-nut sellers, either moving about to obtain customers, or taking a +stand in some great thoroughfare. The moving throng, composed of +carriers, waiters, messengers, etc., pass quietly and without any noise: +they are generally seen with the Chinese umbrella, painted of many +colours, screening themselves from the sun. The whole population wear +slippers, and move along with a slip-shod gait. + +The Chinese are apparently far more numerous than the Malays, and the +two races differ as much in character as in appearance: one is all +activity, while the other is disposed to avoid all exertion. They +preserve their distinctive character throughout, mixing but very little +with each other, and are removed as far as possible in their civilities; +the former, from their industry and perseverance, have almost +monopolized all the lucrative employments among the lower orders, +excepting the selling of fish and betel-nut, and articles manufactured +in the provinces.... + +Of all her foreign possessions, the Philippines have cost Spain the +least blood and labour. The honour of their discovery belongs to +Magalhaens, whose name is associated with the straits at the southern +extremity of the American continent, but which has no memorial in these +islands. Now that the glory which he gained by being the first to +penetrate from the Atlantic to the Pacific has been in some measure +obliterated by the disuse of those straits by navigators, it would seem +due to his memory that some spot among these islands should be set apart +to commemorate the name of him who made them known to Europe. This would +be but common justice to the discoverer of a region which has been a +source of so much honour and profit to the Spanish nation, who opened +the vast expanse of the Pacific to the fleets of Europe, and who died +fighting to secure the benefits of his enterprise to his king and +country. + +Few portions of the globe seem to be so much the seat of internal fires, +or to exhibit the effects of volcanic action so strongly as the +Philippines. During our visit, it was not known that any of the +volcanoes were in action; but many of them were smoking, particularly +that in the district of Albay, called Isaroc. Its latest eruption was in +the year 1839; but this did little damage compared with that of 1814, +which covered several villages, and the country for a great distance +around, with ashes. This mountain is situated to the southeast of Manila +one hundred and fifty miles, and is said to be a perfect cone, with a +crater at its apex. + +It does not appear that the islands are much affected by earthquakes, +although some have occasionally occurred that have done damage to the +churches at Manila. + +The coal found in the Philippines is deemed of value; it has a strong +resemblance to the bituminous coal of our own country, possesses a +bright lustre, and appears very free from all woody texture when +fractured. It is found associated with sandstone, which contains many +fossils. Lead and copper are reported as being very abundant; gypsum and +limestone occur in some districts. From this it will be seen that these +islands have everything in the mineral way to constitute them desirable +possessions. + +With such mineral resources and a soil capable of producing the most +varied vegetation of the tropics, a liberal policy is all that the +country lacks. The products of the Philippine Islands consist of sugar, +coffee, hemp, indigo, rice, tortoise-shell, hides, ebony, saffron-wood, +sulphur, cotton, cordage, silk, pepper, cocoa, wax, and many other +articles. In their agricultural operations the people are industrious, +although much labour is lost by the use of defective implements. The +plow, of a very simple construction, has been adopted from the Chinese; +it has no coulter, the share is flat, and being turned partly to one +side, answers, in a certain degree the purpose of a mould-board. This +rude implement is sufficient for the rich soils, where the tillage +depends chiefly upon the harrow, in constructing which a thorny species +of bamboo is used. The harrow is formed of five or six pieces of this +material, on which the thorns are left, firmly fastened together. It +answers its purpose well, and is seldom out of order. A wrought-iron +harrow, that was introduced by the Jesuits, is used for clearing the +ground more effectually, and more particularly for the purpose of +extirpating a troublesome grass, that is known by the name of cogon (a +species of Andropogon), of which it is very difficult to rid the fields. +The bolo or long-knife, a basket, a hoe, complete the implements, and +answer all the purposes of our spades, etc. + +The buffalo was used until within a few years exclusively in their +agricultural operations, and they have lately taken to the use of the +ox; but horses are never used. The buffalo, from the slowness of his +motions, and his exceeding restlessness under the heat of the climate, +is ill adapted to agricultural labour; but the natives are very partial +to them, notwithstanding they occasion them much labour and trouble in +bathing them during the great heat. This is absolutely necessary, or the +animal becomes so fretful as to be unfit for use. If it were not for +this, the buffalo would, notwithstanding his slow pace, be most +effective in agricultural operations; he requires little food, and that +of the coarsest kind; his strength surpasses that of the stoutest ox, +and he is admirably adapted for the rice or paddy fields. They are very +docile when used by the natives, and even children can manage them; but +it said they have a great antipathy to the whites and all strangers. The +usual mode of guiding them is by a small cord attached to the cartilage +of the nose. The yoke rests on the neck before the shoulders, and is of +simple construction. To this is attached whatever it may be necessary to +draw, either by traces, shafts, or other fastenings. Frequently these +animals may be seen with large bundles of bamboo lashed to them on each +side. Buffaloes are to be met with on the lake with no more than their +noses and eyes out of the water, and are not visible until they are +approached within a few feet, when they cause alarm to the passengers by +raising their large forms close to the boat. It is said that they resort +to the lake to feed on a favourite grass that grows on its bottom in +shallow water, and which they dive for. Their flesh is not eaten, +except that of the young ones, for it is tough and tasteless. The milk +is nutritious, and of a character between that of the goat and cow. + +Rice is, perhaps, of their agricultural products, the article upon which +the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands most depend for food and +profit; of this they have several different varieties, which the natives +distinguish by their size and the shape of the grain: the birnambang, +lamuyo, malagequit, bontot-cabayo, dumali, quinanda, bolohan, and tangi. +The three first are aquatic, the five latter upland varieties. They each +have their peculiar uses. The dumali is the early variety; it ripens in +three months from planting, from which circumstance it derives its name; +it is raised exclusively on the uplands. Although much esteemed, it is +not extensively cultivated, as the birds and insects destroy a large +part of the crop. + +The malagequit is very much prized, and used for making sweet and fancy +dishes; it becomes exceedingly glutinous, for which reason it is used in +making whitewash, which it is said to cause to become of a brilliant +white, and to withstand the weather. This variety is not, however, +believed to be wholesome. There is also a variety of this last species +which is used as food for horses, and supposed to be a remedy and +preventive against worms. + +The rice grounds or fields are laid out in squares, and surrounded by +embankments, to retain the water of the rains or streams. After the +rains have fallen in sufficient quantities to saturate the ground, a +seed-bed is generally planted in one corner of the field, in which the +rice is sown broadcast, about the month of June. The heavy rains take +place in August, when the fields are ploughed, and are soon filled with +water. The young plants are about this time taken from the seed-bed, +their tops and roots trimmed, and then planted in the field by making +holes in the ground with the fingers and placing four or five sprouts in +each of them; in this tedious labor the poor women are employed, whilst +the males are lounging in their houses or in the shade of the trees. + +The harvest for the aquatic rice begins in December. It is reaped with +small sickles, peculiar to the country, called yatap; to the back of +these a small stick is fastened, by which they are held, and the stalk +is forced upon it and cut. The spikes of rice are cut with this +implement, one by one. In this operation, men, women and children, all +take part. + +The upland rice requires much more care and labour in its cultivation. +The land must be ploughed three or four times, and all the turf and +lumps well broken up by the harrow. + +During its growth it requires to be weeded two or three times, to keep +the weeds from choking the crop. The seed is sown broadcast in May. This +kind of rice is harvested in November, and to collect the crop is still +more tedious than in the other case, for it is always gathered earlier +and never reaped, in consequence of the grain not adhering to the ear. +If it were gathered in any other way, the loss by transportation on the +backs of buffaloes and horses, without any covering to the sheaf, would +be so great as to dissipate a great portion of the crop. + +After the rice is harvested, there are different modes of treating it. +Some of the proprietors take it home, where it is thrown into heaps, and +left until it is desirable to separate it from the straw, when it is +trodden out by men and women with their bare feet. For this operation +they usually receive a fifth part of the rice. + +Others stack it in a wet and green state, which subjects it to heat, +from which cause the grain contracts a dark colour and an unpleasant +taste and smell. The natives, however, impute these defects to the +wetness of the season. + +The crop of both the low and upland rice is usually from thirty to fifty +for one: this on old land; but on that which is newly cleared, or which +has never been cultivated, the yield is far beyond this. In some soils +of the latter description, it is said that for a chupa (seven cubic +inches) planted the yield has been a caban. The former is the +two-hundred-and-eighth part of the latter. This is not the only +advantage gained in planting rice lands, but the saving of labour is +equally great; for all that is required is to make a hole with the +fingers and place three or four grains in it. The upland rice requires +but little water, and is never irrigated. + +The cultivator in the Philippine Islands is always enabled to secure +plenty of manure; for vegetation is so luxuriant that by pulling the +weeds and laying them with earth a good stock is quickly obtained with +which to cover his fields. Thus, although the growth is so rank as to +cause him labour, yet in this hot climate its decay is equally rapid, +which tends to make his labours more successful. + +Among the important productions of these islands, I have mentioned hemp, +although the article called Manila hemp must not be understood to be +derived from the plant which produces the common hemp (_Canabis_), being +obtained from a species of plantain (_Musa textilis_), called in the +Philippines "abaca." This is a native of these islands, and was formerly +believed to be found only on Mindanao; but this is not the case, for it +is cultivated on the south part of Luzon and all the islands south of +it. It grows on high ground, in rich soil, and is propagated by seeds. +It resembles the other plants of the tribe of plantains, but its fruit +is much smaller, although edible. The fibre is derived from the stem, +and the plant attains the height of fifteen or twenty feet. The usual +mode of preparing the hemp is to cut off the stem near the ground, +before the time or just when the fruit is ripe. The stem is then eight +or ten feet long below the leaves, where it is again cut. The outer +coating of the herbaceous stem is then stripped off, until the fibres or +cellular parts are seen, when it undergoes the process of rotting, and +after being well dried in houses and sheds, is prepared for market by +assorting it, a task which is performed by the women and children. That +which is intended for cloth is soaked for an hour or two in weak +lime-water prepared from sea-shells, again dried, and put up in bundles. +From all the districts in which it grows, it is sent to Manila, which is +the only port whence it can legally be exported. It arrives in large +bundles, and is packed there by means of a screw-press in compact bales, +for shipping, secured by rattan, each weighing two piculs. [A picul is +about 140 pounds.] + +The best Manila hemp ought to be white, dry, and of a long and fine +fibre. This is known at Manila by the name of lupis; the second quality +they call bandala. + +That which is brought to the United States is principally manufactured +in or near Boston, and is the cordage known as "white rope." The cordage +manufactured at Manila is, however, very superior to the rope made with +us, although the hemp is of the inferior kind. A large quantity is also +manufactured into mats. + +In the opinion of our botanist, it is not probable that the plant could +be introduced with success into our country, for in the Philippines it +is not found north of latitude 14 deg. N. + +The coffee-plant is well adapted to these islands. A few plants were +introduced into the gardens of Manila about fifty years ago, since which +time it has been spread all over the island, as is supposed, by the +civet-cats, which, after swallowing the seeds, carry them to a distance +before they are voided. + +The coffee of commerce is obtained here from the wild plant, and is of +an excellent quality. Upwards of three thousand five hundred piculs are +now exported, of which one-sixth goes to the United States. + +The sugar-cane thrives well here. It is planted after the French +fashion, by sticking the piece diagonally into the ground. Some, finding +the cane has suffered in times of drought, have adopted other modes. It +comes to perfection in a year, and they seldom have two crops from the +same piece of land, unless the season is very favourable. + +There are many kinds of cane cultivated, but that grown in the valley of +Pampanga is thought to be the best. It is a small, red variety, from +four to five feet high, and not thicker than the thumb. The manufacture +of the sugar is rudely conducted; and the whole business, I was told, +was in the hands of a few capitalists, who, by making advances, secure +the whole crop from those who are employed to bring it to market. It is +generally brought in moulds of the usual conical shape, called pilones, +which are delivered to the purchaser from November to June, and contain +each about one hundred and fifty pounds. On their receipt they are +placed in large storehouses, where the familiar operation of claying is +performed. The estimate for the quantity of sugar from these pilones +after this process is about one hundred pounds; it depends upon the care +taken in the process. + +Of cotton they raise a considerable quantity, and principally of the +yellow nankeen. In the province of Ylocos it is cultivated most +extensively. The mode of cleaning it of its seed is very rude, by means +of a hand-mill, and the expense of cleaning a picul (one hundred and +forty pounds) is from five to seven dollars. There have, as far as I +have understood, been no endeavours to introduce any cotton-gins from +our country. + +It will be merely necessary to give the prices at which labourers are +paid to show how the compensation is in comparison with that in our +country. In the vicinity of Manila, twelve and a half cents per day is +the usual wages; this in the provinces falls to six and nine cents. A +man with two buffaloes is paid about thirty cents. The amount of labour +performed by the latter in a day would be the ploughing of a soane, +about two-tenths of an acre. The most profitable way of employing +labourers is by the task, when, it is said, the natives work well, and +are industrious. + +The manner in which the sugar and other produce is brought to market at +Manila is peculiar, and deserves to be mentioned. In some of the +villages the chief men unite to build a vessel, generally a pirogue, in +which they embark their produce, under the conduct of a few persons, who +go to navigate it, and dispose of the cargo. In due time they make their +voyage, and when the accounts are settled, the returns are distributed +to each according to his share. Festivities are then held, the saints +thanked for their kindness, and blessings invoked for another year. +After this is over, the vessel is taken carefully to pieces, and +distributed among the owners, to be preserved for the next season. + +The profits in the crops, according to estimates, vary from sixty to one +hundred per cent.; but it was thought, as a general average, that this +was, notwithstanding the great productiveness of the soil, far beyond +the usual profits accruing from agricultural operations. In some +provinces this estimate would hold good, and probably be exceeded. + +Indigo would probably be a lucrative crop, for that raised here is said +to be of a quality equal to the best, and the crop is not subject to so +many uncertainties as in India: the capital and attention required in +vats, etc., prevent it from being raised in any quantities. Among the +productions, the bamboo and rattan ought to claim a particular notice +from their great utility: they enter into almost everything. Of the +former their houses are built, including frames, floors, sides, and +roof; fences are made of the same material, as well as every article of +general household use, including baskets for oil and water. The rattan +is a general substitute for ropes of all descriptions, and the two +combined are used in constructing rafts for crossing ferries. + +The crops frequently suffer from the ravages of the locusts, which sweep +all before them. Fortunately for the poorer classes, their attacks take +place after the rice has been harvested; but the cane is sometimes +entirely cut off. The authorities of Manila, in the vain hope of +stopping their devastations, employ persons to gather them and throw +them into the sea. I understood on one occasion they had spent eighty +thousand dollars in this way, but all to little purpose. It is said that +the crops rarely suffer from droughts, but on the contrary the rains are +thought to fall too often and to flood the rice fields; these, however, +yield a novel crop, and are very advantageous to the poor, viz.: a great +quantity of fish, which are called dalag, and are a species of Blunnius; +they are so plentiful that they are caught with baskets; these fish +weigh from a half to two pounds, and some are said to be eighteen inches +long; but this is not all; they are said, after a deep inundation, to +be found even in the vaults of churches. + +The Philippines are divided into thirty-one provinces, sixteen of which +are on the island of Luzon, and the remainder comprise the other islands +of the group and the Ladrones. + +The population of the whole group is above three millions, including all +tribes of natives, mestizoes, and whites. The latter-named class are but +few in number, not exceeding three thousand. The mestizoes were supposed +to be about fifteen or twenty thousand; they are distinguished as +Spanish and Indian mestizoes. The Chinese have of late years increased +to a large number, and it is said that there are forty thousand of them +in and around Manila alone. One-half of the whole population belongs to +Luzon. The island next to it in number of inhabitants is Panay, which +contains about three hundred and thirty thousand. Then come Zebu, +Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, and Negros, varying from the above numbers down +to fifty thousand. The population is increasing, and it is thought that +it doubles itself in seventy years. This rate of increase appears +probable, from a comparison of the present population with the estimate +made at the beginning of the present century, which shows a growth in +forty years of about one million four hundred thousand. + +The native population is composed of a number of distinct tribes, the +principal of which in Luzon are Pangarihan, Ylocos, Cagayan, Tagala, +and Pampangan. + +The Irogotes, who dwell in the mountains, are the only natives who have +not been subjected by the Spaniards. The other tribes have become +identified with their rulers in religion, and it is thought that by this +circumstance alone has Spain been able to maintain the ascendency, with +so small a number, over such a numerous, intelligent, and energetic race +as they are represented to be. This is, however, more easily accounted +for, from the Spaniards fostering and keeping alive the jealousy and +hatred that existed at the time of the discovery between the different +tribes. + +It seems almost incredible that Spain should have so long persisted in +the policy of allowing no more than one galleon to pass annually between +her colonies, and equally so that the nations of Europe should have been +so long deceived in regard to the riches and wealth that Spain was +monopolizing in the Philippines. The capture of Manila, in 1762, by the +English, first gave a clear idea of the value of this remote and +little-known appendage of the empire. + +The Philippines, considered in their capacity for commerce, are +certainly among the most favoured portions of the globe, and there is +but one circumstance that tends in the least degree to lessen their +apparent advantage; this is the prevalence of typhoons in the China +seas, which are occasionally felt with force to the north of latitude +10 deg. N. South of that parallel they have never been known to prevail, and +seldom so far; but from their unfailing occurrence yearly in some part +of the China seas, they are looked for with more or less dread, and +cause each season a temporary interruption in all the trade that passes +along the coast of these islands. + +The army is now composed entirely of native troops, who number about six +thousand men, and the regiments are never suffered to serve in the +provinces in which they are recruited, but those from the north are sent +to the south, and vice versa. There they are employed to keep a +continual watch on each other; and, speaking different dialects, they +never become identified. + +They are, indeed, never allowed to remain long enough in one region to +imbibe any feelings in unison with those of its inhabitants. The +hostility is so great among the regiments that mutinies have occurred, +and contests arisen which have produced even bloodshed, which it was +entirely out of the power of the officers to prevent. In cases of this +kind, summary punishment is resorted to. + +Although the Spaniards, as far as is known abroad, live in peace and +quiet, this is far from being the case; for rebellion and revolts among +the troops and tribes are not unfrequent in the provinces. During the +time of our visit one of these took place, but it was impossible to +learn anything concerning it that could be relied upon, for all +conversation respecting such occurrences is interdicted by the +government. The difficulty to which I refer was said to have originated +from the preaching of a fanatic priest, who inflamed them to such a +degree that they overthrew the troops and became temporarily masters of +the country. Prompt measures were immediately taken, and orders issued +to give the rebels no quarter; the regiments most hostile to those in +the revolt were ordered to the spot; they spared no one; the priest and +his companions were taken, put to death, and according to report, in a +manner so cruel as to be a disgrace to the records of the nineteenth +century. Although I should hope the accounts I heard of these +transactions were incorrect, yet the detestation these acts were held in +would give some colour to the statements. + +The few gazettes that are published at Manila are entirely under the +control of the government; and a resident of that city must make up his +mind to remain in ignorance of the things that are passing around him, +or believe just what the authorities will allow to be told, whether +truth or falsehood. The government of the Philippines is emphatically an +iron rule; how long can it continue so is doubtful. + +The natives of the Philippines are industrious. They manufacture an +amount of goods sufficient to supply their own wants, particularly from +Panay and Ylocos. These, for the most part, consist of cotton and silks, +and a peculiar article called pina. The latter is manufactured from a +species of Bromelia (pine-apple), and comes principally from the island +of Panay. The finest kinds of pina are exceedingly beautiful and surpass +any other material in its evenness and beauty of texture. Its colour is +yellowish, and the embroidery is fully equal to the material. It is much +sought after by all strangers, and considered as one of the curiosities +of this group. Various reports have been stated of the mode of its +manufacture, and among others that it was woven under water, which I +found, upon inquiry, to be quite erroneous. The web of the pina is so +fine that they are obliged to prevent all currents of air from passing +through the rooms where it is manufactured, for which purpose there are +gauze screens in the windows. After the article is brought to Manila, it +is then embroidered by girls; this last operation adds greatly to its +value. + +The market is a never-failing place of amusement to a foreigner; for +there a crowd of the common people is always to be seen, and their mode +of conducting business may be observed. The canals here afford great +facilities for bringing vegetables and produce to market in a fresh +state. The vegetables are chiefly brought from the shores of the Laguna +de Bay, through the river Pasig. The meat appeared inferior, and as in +all Spanish places the art of butchering is not understood. The +poultry, however, surpasses that of any other place I have seen, +particularly in ducks, the breeding of which is pursued to a great +extent. Establishments for breeding these birds are here carried on in a +systematic manner, and are a great curiosity. They consist of many small +enclosures, each about twenty feet by forty or fifty, made of bamboo, +which are placed on the bank of the river, and partly covered with +water. In one corner of the enclosure is a small house, where the eggs +are hatched by artificial heat, produced by rice-chaff in a state of +fermentation. It is not uncommon to see six or eight hundred ducklings +all of the same age. There are several hundreds of these enclosures, and +the number of ducks of all ages may be computed at millions. The manner +in which they are schooled to take exercise, and to go in and out of the +water, and to return to their house, almost exceeds belief. The keepers +or tenders are of the Tagala tribe, who live near the enclosures, and +have them at all times under their eye. The old birds are not suffered +to approach the young, and all of one age are kept together. They are +fed upon rice and a small species of shell-fish that is found in the +river and is peculiar to it. From the extent of these establishments we +inferred that ducks were the favourite article of food at Manila, and +the consumption of them must be immense. The markets are well supplied +with chickens, pigeons, young partridges, which are brought in alive, +and turkeys. Among strange articles that we saw for sale were cakes of +coagulated blood. The markets are well stocked with a variety of fish, +taken both in the Laguna and bay of Manila, affording a supply of both +the fresh and salt water species, and many smaller kinds that are dried +and smoked. Vegetables are in great plenty, and consist of pumpkins, +lettuce, onions, radishes, very long squashes, etc.; of fruits they have +melons, chicos, durians, marbolas, and oranges. + +Fish are caught in weirs, by the hook, or in seines. The former are +constructed of bamboo stakes, in the shallow water of the lake, at the +point where it flows through the river Pasig. In the bay, and at the +mouth of the river, the fish are taken in nets, suspended by the four +corners from hoops attached to a crane, by which they are lowered into +the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts, and are +called saraboas. + +The usual passage-boat is termed banca, and is made of a single trunk. +These are very much used by the inhabitants. They have a sort of awning +to protect the passenger from the rays of the sun; and being light are +easily rowed about, although they are exceedingly uncomfortable to sit +in, from the lowness of the seats, and liable to overset if the weight +is not placed near the bottom. The out-rigger has in all probability +been dispensed with, owing to the impediment it offered to the +navigation of their canals; these canals offer great facilities for the +transportation of burdens; the banks of almost all of them are faced +with granite. Where the streets cross them, there are substantial stone +bridges, which are generally of no more than one arch, so as not to +impede the navigation. The barges used for the transportation of produce +resemble our canal-boats, and have sliding roofs to protect them from +the rain. + +Water for the supply of vessels is brought off in large earthen jars. It +is obtained from the river, and if care is not taken, the water will be +impure; it ought to be filled beyond the city. Our supply was obtained +five or six miles up the river by a lighter, in which were placed a +number of water-casks. It proved excellent. + +The country around Manila, though no more than an extended plain for +some miles, is one of great interest and beauty, and affords many +agreeable rides on the roads to Santa Anna and Maraquino. Most of the +country-seats are situated on the river Pasig; they may indeed be called +palaces, from their extent and appearance. They are built upon a grand +scale, and after the Italian style, with terraces, supported by strong +abutments, decked with vases of plants. The grounds are ornamented with +the luxuriant, lofty, and graceful trees of the tropics; these are +tolerably well kept. Here and there fine large stone churches, with +their towers and steeples, are to be seen, the whole giving the +impression of a wealthy nobility and a happy and flourishing peasantry. + + + + +THE ASCENT OF MOUNT TYNDALL. + +CLARENCE KING. + + [In 1864 Professor Josiah Dwight Whitney, State Geologist of + California, sent a band of five explorers for a summer's + campaign in the high Sierras. Clarence King was assistant + geologist of the party; he recounted their researches and + adventures in "Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada," + published in 1871 by J. R. Osgood & Co., Boston; three years + later the same firm issued an enlarged edition with maps. + "The Ascent of Mount Tyndall," the third chapter of the book, + is one of the most thrilling stories of adventure ever + written. Clarence King suggested and organized the United + States Geological Survey, and was its director 1878-81. He + died in 1901.] + + +Morning dawned brightly upon our bivouac among a cluster of dark firs in +the mountain corridor, opened by an ancient glacier of King's River in +the heart of the Sierras. It dawned a trifle sooner than we could have +wished, but Professor Brewer and Hoffman had breakfasted before sunrise, +and were off with barometer and theodolite upon their shoulders, +proposing to ascend our amphitheatre to its head and climb a great +pyramidal peak which swelled up against the eastern sky, closing the +view in that direction. + +We, who remained in camp, spent the day in overhauling campaign +materials and preparing for a grand assault upon the summits. For a +couple of hours we could descry our friends through the field-glasses, +their minute black forms moving slowly on among piles of giant debris; +now and then lost, again coming into view, and at last disappearing +altogether. + +It was twilight of evening and almost eight o'clock when they came back +to camp, Brewer leading the way, Hoffman following; and as they sat down +by our fire without uttering a word we read upon their faces terrible +fatigue. + +So we hastened to give them supper of coffee and soup, bread and +venison, which resulted, after a time, in our getting in return the +story of the day. + +For eight whole hours they had worked up over granite and snow, mounting +ridge after ridge, till the summit was made about two o'clock. + +These snowy crests bounding our view at the eastward we had all along +taken to be the summits of the Sierra, and Brewer had supposed himself +to be climbing a dominant peak, from which he might look eastward over +Owen's Valley and out upon leagues of desert. Instead of this a vast +wall of mountains, lifted still higher than his peak, rose beyond a +tremendous canon which lay like a trough between the two parallel ranks +of peaks. Hoffman showed us on his sketch-book the profile of this new +range, and I instantly recognized the peaks which I had seen from +Mariposa, whose great white pile had led me to believe them the highest +points of California. + +For a couple of months my friends had made me the target of plenty of +pleasant banter about my "highest land," which they lost faith in as we +climbed from Thomas's Mill,--I too becoming a trifle anxious about it; +but now the truth had burst upon Brewer and Hoffman they could not find +words to describe the terribleness and grandeur of the deep canon, nor +for picturing those huge crags towering in line at the east. Their peak, +as indicated by the barometer, was in the region of 13,400 feet, and a +level across to the farther range showed its crests to be at least 1,500 +feet higher. They had spent hours upon the summit scanning the eastern +horizon, and ranging downward into the labyrinth of gulfs below, and had +come at last with reluctance to the belief that to cross this gorge and +ascend the eastern wall of peaks was utterly impossible. + +Brewer and Hoffman were old climbers, and their verdict of impossible +opposed me as I lay awake thinking about it; but early next morning I +had made up my mind, and, taking Cotter aside, I asked him in an easy +manner whether he would like to penetrate the Unknown Land with me at +the risk of our necks, provided Brewer should consent. In frank, +courageous tone he answered after his usual mode, "Why not?" Stout of +limb, stronger yet in heart, of iron endurance, and a quiet, unexcited +temperament, and, better yet, deeply devoted to me, I felt that Cotter +was the one comrade I would choose to face death with, for I believed +there was in his manhood no room for fear or shirk. + +It was a trying moment for Brewer when we found him and volunteered to +attempt a campaign for the top of California, because he felt a certain +fatherly responsibility over our youth, a natural desire that we should +not deposit our triturated remains in some undiscoverable hole among the +feldspathic granites; but, like a true disciple of science, this was at +last overbalanced by his intense desire to know more of the unexplored +region. He freely confessed that he believed the plan madness, and +Hoffman, too, told us we might as well attempt to get on a cloud as to +try the peak. + +As Brewer gradually yielded his consent, I saw by his conversation that +there was a possibility of success; so we spent the rest of the day in +making preparations. + +Our walking shoes were in excellent condition, the hobnails firm and +new. We laid out a barometer, a compass, a pocket-level, a set of wet +and dry thermometers, note-books, with bread, cooked beans, and venison +enough to last a week, rolled them all in blankets, making two +knapsack-shaped packs strapped firmly together with loops for the arms, +which, by Brewer's estimate, weighed forty pounds apiece. + +Gardner declared he would accompany us to the summit of the first range +to look over into the gulf we were to cross, and at last Brewer and +Hoffman also concluded to go up with us. + +Quite too early for our profit we all betook ourselves to bed, vainly +hoping to get a long refreshing sleep from which we should rise ready +for our tramp. + +Never a man welcomed those first gray streaks in the east gladder than I +did, unless it may be Cotter, who has in later years confessed that he +did not go to sleep that night. Long before sunrise we had done our +breakfast and were under way, Hoffman kindly bearing my pack, and Brewer +Cotter's. + +Our way led due east up the amphitheatre and toward Mount Brewer, as we +had named the great pyramidal peak. + +Awhile after leaving camp, slant sunlight streamed in among gilded +pinnacles along the slope of Mount Brewer, touching here and there, in +broad dashes of yellow, the gray walls, which rose sweeping up on either +side like the sides of a ship. + +Our way along the valley's middle ascended over a number of huge steps, +rounded and abrupt, at whose bases were pools of transparent snow-water +edged with rude piles of erratic glacier blocks, scattered companies of +alpine firs, of red bark and having cypress-like darkness of foliage, +with fields of snow under sheltering cliffs, and bits of softest velvet +meadow clouded with minute blue and white flowers. + +As we climbed, the gorge grew narrow and sharp, both sides wilder; and +the spurs which projected from them, nearly overhanging the middle of +the valley, towered above us with more and more severe sculpture. We +frequently crossed deep fields of snow, and at last reached the level +of the highest pines, where long slopes of debris swept down from either +cliff, meeting in the middle. Over and among these immense blocks, often +twenty and thirty feet high, we were obliged to climb, hearing far below +us the subterranean gurgle of streams. + +Interlocking spurs nearly closed the gorge behind us; our last view was +out a granite gateway formed of two nearly vertical precipices, +sharp-edged, jutting buttress-like, and plunging down into a field of +angular boulders which fill the valley bottom. + +The eye ranged out from this open gateway overlooking the great King's +Canon with its moraine-terraced walls, the domes of granite upon Big +Meadows, and the undulating stretch of forest which descends to the +plain. + +The gorge turning southward, we rounded a sort of mountain promontory, +which, closing the view behind us, shut us up in the bottom of a perfect +basin. In front lay a placid lake reflecting the intense black-blue of +the sky. Granite, stained with purple and red, sank into it upon one +side, and a broad spotless field of snow came down to its margin on the +other. + +From a pile of large granite blocks, forty or fifty feet up above the +lake margin, we could look down fully a hundred feet through the +transparent water to where boulders and pebbles were strewn upon the +stone bottom. We had now reached the base of Mount Brewer and were +skirting its southern spurs in a wide open corridor surrounded in all +directions by lofty granite crags from two to four thousand feet high; +above the limits of vegetation, rocks, lakes of deep heavenly blue, and +white trackless snows were grouped closely about us. Two sounds, a sharp +little cry of martens and occasional heavy crashes of falling rock, +saluted us. + +Climbing became exceedingly difficult, light air--for we had already +reached 12,500 feet--beginning to tell on our lungs to such an extent +that my friend, who had taken turns with me in carrying my pack, was +unable to do so any longer, and I adjusted it to my own shoulders for +the rest of the day. + +After four hours of slow laborious work we made the base of the debris +slope which rose about a thousand feet to a saddle pass in the western +mountain wall, that range upon which Mount Brewer is so prominent a +point. We were nearly an hour in toiling up this slope over an uncertain +footing which gave way at almost every step. At last, when almost at the +top, we paused to take breath, and then all walked out upon the crest, +laid off our packs, and sat down together upon the summit of the ridge, +and for a few minutes not a word was spoken. + +The Sierras are here two parallel summit ranges. We were upon the crest +of the western range, and looked down into a gulf 5,000 feet deep, +sinking from our feet in abrupt cliffs nearly or quite 2,000 feet, whose +base plunged into a broad field of snow lying steep and smooth for a +great distance, but broken near its foot by craggy steps often a +thousand feet high. + +Vague blue haze obscured the lost depths, hiding details, giving a +bottomless distance out of which, like the breath of wind, floated up a +faint treble, vibrating upon the senses, yet never clearly heard. + +Rising on the other side, cliff above cliff, precipice piled upon +precipice, rock over rock, up against sky, towered the most gigantic +mountain-wall in America, culminating in a noble pile of gothic-finished +granite and enamel-like snow. How grand and inviting looked its white +form, its untrodden, unknown crest, so high and pure in the clear strong +blue! I looked at it as one contemplating the purpose of his life; and +for just one moment I would have rather liked to dodge that purpose, or +to have waited, or to have found some excellent reason why I might not +go; but all this quickly vanished, leaving a cheerful resolve to go +ahead. + +From the two opposing mountain-walls singular, thin, knife-blade ridges +of stone jutted out, dividing the sides of the gulf into a series of +amphitheatres, each one a labyrinth of ice and rock. Piercing thick beds +of snow, sprang up knobs and straight isolated spires of rock, mere +obelisks curiously carved by frost, their rigid slender forms casting a +blue, sharp shadow upon the snow. Embosomed in depressions of ice, or +resting on broken ledges, were azure lakes, deeper in tone than the +sky, which at this altitude, even at midday, has a violet duskiness. + +To the south, not more than eight miles, a wall of peaks stood across +the gulf, dividing the King's, which flowed north at our feet, from the +Kern River, that flowed down the trough in the opposite direction. + +I did not wonder that Brewer and Hoffman pronounced our undertaking +impossible; but when I looked at Cotter there was such complete bravery +in his eye that I asked him if he were ready to start. His old answer, +"Why not?," left the initiative with me; so I told Professor Brewer that +we would bid him good-bye. Our friends helped us on with our packs in +silence, and as we shook hands there was not a dry eye in the party. +Before he let go of my hand Professor Brewer asked me for my plan, and I +had to own that I had but one, which was to reach the highest peak in +the range. + +After looking in every direction I was obliged to confess that I saw as +yet no practicable way. We bade them a "good-bye," receiving their "God +bless you" in return, and started southward along the range to look for +some possible cliff to descend. Brewer, Gardner, and Hoffman turned +north to push upward to the summit of Mount Brewer, and complete their +observations. We saw them whenever we halted, until at last, on the very +summit, their microscopic forms were for the last time visible. With +very great difficulty we climbed a peak which surmounted our wall just +to the south of the pass, and, looking over the eastern brink, found +that the precipice was still sheer and unbroken. In one place, where the +snow lay against it to the very top, we went to its edge and +contemplated the slide. About three thousand feet of unbroken white, at +a fearfully steep angle, lay below us. We threw a stone over it and +watched it bound until it was lost in the distance; after fearful leaps +we could only detect it by the flashings of snow where it struck, and as +these were in some instances three hundred feet apart, we decided not to +launch our own valuable bodies, and the still more precious barometer, +after it. + +There seemed but one possible way to reach our goal; that was to make +our way along the summit of the cross ridge which projected between the +two ranges. This divide sprang out from our Mount Brewer wall, about +four miles to the south of us. To reach it we must climb up and down +over the indented edge of the Mount Brewer wall. In attempting to do +this we had a rather lively time scaling a sharp granite needle, where +we found our course completely stopped by precipices four and five +hundred feet in height. Ahead of us the summit continued to be broken +into fantastic pinnacles, leaving us no hope of making our way along it; +so we sought the most broken part of the eastern descent, and began to +climb down. The heavy knapsacks, besides wearing our shoulders gradually +into a black-and-blue state, overbalanced us terribly, and kept us in +constant danger of pitching headlong. At last, taking them off, Cotter +climbed down until he found a resting-place upon a cleft of rock, then I +lowered them to him with our lasso, afterwards descending cautiously to +his side, taking my turn in pioneering downward, receiving the freight +of knapsacks as before. In this manner we consumed more that half the +afternoon in descending a thousand feet of broken, precipitous slope; +and it was almost sunset when we found ourselves upon fields of level +snow which lay white and thick over the whole interior slope of the +amphitheatre. The gorge below us seemed utterly impassable. At our backs +the Mount Brewer wall either rose in sheer cliffs or in broken, rugged +stairway, such as had offered us our descent. From this cruel dilemma +the cross divide furnished the only hope, and the sole chance of scaling +that was at its junction with the Mount Brewer wall. Toward this point +we directed our course, marching wearily over stretches of dense frozen +snow, and regions of debris, reaching about sunset the last alcove of +the amphitheatre, just at the foot of the Mount Brewer wall. It was +evidently impossible for us to attempt to climb it that evening, and we +looked about the desolate recesses for a sheltered camping-spot. A high +granite wall surrounded us upon three sides, recurring to the southward +in long elliptical curves; no part of the summit being less than 2,000 +feet above us, the higher crags not infrequently reaching 3,000 feet. A +single field of snow swept around the base of the rock, and covered the +whole amphitheatre, except where a few spikes and rounded masses of +granite rose through it, and where two frozen lakes, with their blue +ice-disks, broke the monotonous surface. Through the white snow-gate of +our amphitheatre, as through a frame, we looked eastward upon the summit +group; not a tree, not a vestige of vegetation in sight,--sky, snow, and +granite the only elements in this wild picture. + +After searching for a shelter we at last found a granite crevice near +the margin of one of the frozen lakes,--a sort of shelf just large +enough for Cotter and me,--where we hastened to make our bed, having +first filled the canteen from a small stream that trickled over the ice, +knowing that in a few moments the rapid chill would freeze it. We ate +our supper of cold venison and bread, and whittled from the sides of the +wooden barometer case shaving enough to warm water for a cup of +miserably tepid tea, and then, packing our provisions and instruments +away at the head of the shelf, rolled ourselves in our blankets and lay +down to enjoy the view. + +After such fatiguing exercises the mind has an almost abnormal +clearness: whether this is wholly from within, or due to the intensely +vitalizing mountain air, I am not sure; probably both contribute to the +state of exaltation in which all alpine climbers find themselves. The +solid granite gave me a luxurious repose, and I lay on the edge of our +little rock niche and watched the strange yet brilliant scene. + +All the snow of our recess lay in the shadow of the high granite wall to +the west, but the Kern divide which curved around us from the southeast +was in full light; its broken sky-line, battlemented and adorned with +innumerable rough-hewn spires and pinnacles, was a mass of glowing +orange intensely defined against the deep violet sky. At the open end of +our horseshoe amphitheatre, to the east, its floor of snow rounded over +in a smooth brink, overhanging precipices which sank 2,000 feet into the +King's Canon. Across the gulf rose the whole procession of summit peaks, +their lower half rooted in a deep sombre shadow cast by the western +wall, the heights bathed in a warm purple haze, in which the irregular +marbling of snow burned with a pure crimson light. A few fleecy clouds, +dyed fiery orange, drifted slowly eastward across the narrow zone of sky +which stretched from summit to summit like a roof. At times the sound of +waterfalls, faint and mingled with echoes, floated up through the still +air. The snow near by lay in cold ghastly shade, warmed here and there +in strange flashes by light reflected downward from drifting clouds. The +sombre waste about us; the deep violet vault overhead; those far +summits, glowing with reflected rose; the deep impenetrable gloom which +filled the gorge, and slowly and with vapour-like stealth climbed the +mountain wall, extinguishing the red light, combined to produce an +effect which may not be described; nor can I more than hint at the +contrast between the brilliancy of the scene under full light, and the +cold, death-like repose which followed when the wan cliffs and pallid +snow were all overshadowed with ghostly gray. + +A sudden chill enveloped us. Stars in a moment crowded through the dark +heaven, flashing with a frosty splendour. The snow congealed, the brooks +ceased to flow, and, under the powerful sudden leverage of frost, +immense blocks were dislodged all along the mountain summits and came +thundering down the slopes, booming upon the ice, dashing wildly upon +rocks. Under the lee of our shelf we felt quite safe, but neither Cotter +nor I could help being startled, and jumping just a little, as these +missiles, weighing often many tons, struck the ledge over our heads and +whizzed down the gorge, their stroke resounding fainter and fainter, +until at last only a confused echo reached us. + +The thermometer at nine o'clock marked twenty degrees above zero. We set +the "minimum" and rolled ourselves together for the night. The longer I +lay the less I liked that shelf of granite; it grew hard in time, and +cold also, my bones seeming to approach actual contact with the chilled +rock; moreover, I found that even so vigorous a circulation as mine was +not enough to warm up the ledge to anything like a comfortable +temperature. A single thickness of blanket is a better mattress than +none, but the larger crystals of orthoclase, protruding plentifully, +punched my back and caused me to revolve on a horizontal axis with +precision and accuracy. How I loved Cotter! how I hugged him and got +warm, while our backs gradually petrified, till we whirled over and +thawed them out together! The slant of that bed was diagonal and +excessive; down it we slid till the ice chilled us awake, and we crawled +back and chocked ourselves up with bits of granite inserted under my +ribs and shoulders. In this pleasant position we got dozing again, and +there stole over me a most comfortable ease. The granite softened +perceptibly. I was delightfully warm and sank into an industrious +slumber which lasted with great soundness until four, when we arose and +ate our breakfast of frozen venison. + +The thermometer stood at two above zero; everything was frozen tight +except the canteen, which we had prudently kept between us all night. +Stars still blazed brightly, and the moon, hidden from us by western +cliffs, shone in pale reflection upon the rocky heights to the east, +which rose, dimly white, up from the impenetrable shadows of the canon. +Silence,--cold, ghastly dimness, in which loomed huge forms,--the biting +frostiness of the air, wrought upon our feelings as we shouldered our +packs and started with slow pace to climb up the "divide." + +Soon, to our dismay, we found the straps had so chafed our shoulders +that the weight gave us great pain, and obliged us to pad them with our +handkerchiefs and extra socks, which remedy did not wholly relieve us +from the constant wearing pain of the heavy load. + +Directing our steps southward toward a niche in the wall which bounded +us only half a mile distant, we travelled over a continuous snow-field +frozen so densely as scarcely to yield at all to our tread, at the same +time compressing enough to make that crisp frosty sound which we all +used to enjoy even before we knew from the books that it had something +to do with the severe name of regelation. + +As we advanced, the snow sloped more and more steeply up toward the +crags, till by and by it became quite dangerous, causing us to cut steps +with Cotter's large bowie-knife,--a slow, tedious operation, requiring +patience of a pretty permanent kind. In this way we spent a quiet social +hour or so. The sun had not yet reached us, being shut out by the high +amphitheatre wall; but its cheerful light reflected downward from a +number of higher crags, filling the recess with the brightness of day, +and putting out of existence those shadows which so sombrely darkened +the earlier hours. To look back when we stopped to rest was to realize +our danger,--that smooth, swift slope of ice carrying the eye down a +thousand feet to the margin of a frozen mirror of ice; ribs and needles +of rocks piercing up through the snow, so closely grouped that, had we +fallen, a miracle only might have saved us from being dashed. This led +to rather deeper steps, and greater care that our burdens should be +held more nearly over the centre of gravity, and a pleasant relief when +we got to the top of the snow and sat down on a block of granite to +breathe and look up in search of a way up the thousand-foot cliff of +broken surface, among the lines of fracture and the galleries winding +along the face. + +It would have disheartened us to gaze up the hard sheer front of +precipices, and search among splintered projections, crevices, shelves, +and snow patches for an inviting route, had we not been animated by a +faith that the mountains could not defy us. + +Choosing what looked like the least impossible way, we started; but, +finding it unsafe to work with packs on, resumed the yesterday's +plan,--Cotter taking the lead, climbing about fifty feet ahead, and +hoisting up the knapsacks and barometer as I tied them to the end of the +lasso. Constantly closing up in hopeless difficulty before us, the way +opened again and again to our gymnastics, till we stood together on a +mere shelf, not more than two feet wide, which led diagonally up the +smooth cliff. Edging along in careful steps, our backs flattened upon +the granite, we moved slowly to a broad platform, where we stopped for +breath. + +There was no foothold above us. Looking down over the course we had +come, it seemed, and I really believe it was, an impossible descent for +one can climb upward with safety where he cannot downward. To turn back +was to give up in defeat; and, we sat at least half an hour, suggesting +all possible routes to the summit, accepting none, and feeling +disheartened. About thirty feet directly over our heads was another +shelf, which, if we could reach, seemed to offer at least a temporary +way upward. On its edge were two or three spikes of granite; whether +firmly connected with the cliff, or merely blocks of debris, we could +not tell from below. I said to Cotter, I thought of but one possible +plan: it was to lasso one of these blocks, and to climb, sailor-fashion, +hand over hand, up the rope. In the lasso I had perfect confidence, for +I had seen more than one Spanish bull throw his whole weight against it +without parting a strand. The shelf was so narrow that throwing the coil +of rope was a very difficult undertaking. I tried three times, and +Cotter spent five minutes vainly whirling the loop up at the granite +spikes. At last I made a lucky throw, and it tightened upon one of the +smaller protuberances. I drew the noose close, and very gradually threw +my hundred and fifty pounds upon the rope; then Cotter joined me, and, +for a moment, we both hung our united weight upon it. Whether the rock +moved slightly or whether the lasso stretched a little we were unable to +decide; but the trial must be made, and I began to climb slowly. The +smooth precipice-face against which my body swung offered no foothold, +and the whole climb had therefore to be done by the arms, an effort +requiring all one's determination. When about half way up I was obliged +to rest, and, curling my feet in the rope, managed to relieve my arms +for a moment. In this position I could not resist the fascinating +temptation of a survey downward. + +Straight down, nearly a thousand feet below, at the foot of the rocks, +began the snow, whose steep, roof-like slope, exaggerated into an almost +vertical angle, curved down in a long white field, broken far away by +rocks and polished, round lakes of ice. + +Cotter looked up cheerfully and asked how I was making it; to which I +answered that I had plenty of wind left. At that moment, when hanging +between heaven and earth, it was a deep satisfaction to look down at the +wide gulf of desolation beneath, and up to unknown dangers ahead, and +feel my nerves cool and unshaken. + +A few pulls hand over hand brought me to the edge of the shelf, when, +throwing my arm around the granite spike. I swung my body upon the shelf +and lay down to rest, shouting to Cotter that I was all right, and that +the prospects upward were capital. After a few moments' breathing I +looked over the brink and directed my comrade to tie the barometer to +the lower end of the lasso, which he did, and that precious instrument +was hoisted to my station, and the lasso sent down twice for knapsacks, +after which Cotter came up the rope in his very muscular way without +once stopping to rest. We took our loads in our hands, swinging the +barometer over my shoulder, and climbed up a shelf which led in a +zig-zag direction upward and to the south, bringing us out at last upon +the thin blade of a ridge which connected a short distance above the +summit. It was formed of huge blocks, shattered, and ready, at a touch, +to fall. + +So narrow and sharp was the upper slope, that we dared not walk, but got +astride, and worked slowly along with our hands, pushing the knapsacks +in advance, now and then holding our breath when loose masses rocked +under our weight. + +Once upon the summit, a grand view burst upon us. Hastening to step upon +the crest of the divide, which was never more than ten feet wide, +frequently sharpened to a mere blade, we looked down upon the other +side, and were astonished to find we had ascended the gentler slope, and +that the rocks fell from our feet in almost vertical precipices for a +thousand feet or more. A glance along the summit toward the highest +group showed us that any advance in that direction was impossible, for +the thin ridge was gashed down in notches three or four hundred feet +deep, forming a procession of pillars, obelisks, and blocks piled upon +each other, and looking terribly insecure. + +We then deposited our knapsacks in a safe place, and, finding that it +was already noon, determined to rest a little while and take a lunch at +over 13,000 feet above the sea. + +West of us stretched the Mount Brewer wall with its succession of +smooth precipices and amphitheatre ridges. To the north the great gorge +of the King's River yawned down 5,000 feet. To the south, the valley of +the Kern, opening in the opposite direction, was broader, less deep, but +more filled with broken masses of granite. Clustered about the foot of +the divide were a dozen alpine lakes; the higher ones blue sheets of +ice, the lowest completely melted. Still lower in the depths of the two +canons we could see groups of forest trees; but they were so dim and so +distant as never to relieve the prevalent masses of rock and snow. Our +divide cast its shadow for a mile down King's Canon in dark-blue profile +upon the broad sheets of sunny snow, from whose brightness the hard +splintered cliffs caught reflections and wore an aspect of joy. +Thousands of rills poured from the melting snow, filling the air with a +musical tinkle as of many accordant bells. The Kern Valley opened below +us with its smooth oval outline, the work of extinct glaciers, whose +form and extent were evident from worn cliff surface and rounded wall; +snow-fields, relics of the former _neve_ [glacier snow] hung in white +tapestries around its ancient birthplace; and, as far as we could see, +the broad, corrugated valley, for a breadth of fully ten miles, shone +with burnishings wherever its granite surface was not covered with +lakelets or thickets of alpine vegetation. + +Through a deep cut in the Mount Brewer wall we gained our first view to +the westward, and saw in the distance the wall of the South King's +Canon, and the granite point which Cotter and I had climbed a fortnight +before. But for the haze we might have seen the plain; for above its +farther limit were several points of the Coast Ranges, isolated like +islands in the sea. + +The view was so grand, the mountain colours so brilliant, immense +snow-fields and blue alpine lakes so charming, that we almost forgot we +were ever to move, and it was only after a swift hour of this delight +that we began to consider our future course. + +The King's Canon, which headed against our wall, seemed +untraversable,--no human being could climb along the divide; we had then +but one hope of reaching the peak, and our greatest difficulty lay at +the start. If we could climb down to the Kern side of the divide, and +succeed in reaching the base of the precipices which fell from our feet, +it really looked as if we might travel without difficulty among the +rocks to the other side of the Kern Valley, and make our attempt upon +the southward flank of the great peak. One look at the sublime white +giant decided us. We looked down over the precipice, and at first could +see no method of descent. Then we went back and looked at the road we +had come up, to see if that were not possibly as bad; but the broken +surface of the rocks was evidently much better climbing-ground than +anything ahead of us. Cotter, with danger, edged his way along the wall +to the east, and I to the west, to see if there might not be some +favourable point; but we both returned with the belief that the +precipice in front of us was as passable as any of it. Down it we must. + +After lying on our faces, looking over the brink ten or twenty minutes, +I suggested that by lowering ourselves on the rope we might climb from +crevice to crevice; but we saw no shelf large enough for ourselves and +the knapsacks too. However, we were not going to give it up without a +trial; and I made the rope fast around my breast and, looping the noose +over a firm point of rock, let myself slide gradually down to a notch +forty feet below. There was only room beside me for Cotter, so I had him +send down the knapsacks first. I then tied these together by the straps +with my silk handkerchiefs, and hung them as far to the left as I could +reach without losing my balance, looping the handkerchiefs over a point +of rock. Cotter then slid down the rope, and, with considerable +difficulty, we whipped the noose off its resting-place above, and cut +off our connection with the upper world. + +"We're in for it now, King," remarked my comrade, as he looked aloft, +and then down; but our blood was up, and danger added only an +exhilarating thrill to the nerves. + +The shelf was hardly more than two feet wide, and the granite so smooth +that we could find no place to fasten the lasso for the next descent; so +I determined to try the climb with only as little aid as possible. Tying +it round my breast again, I gave the other end into Cotter's hands, and +he, bracing his back against the cliff, found for himself as firm a +foothold as he could, and promised to give me all the help in his power. +I made up my mind to bear no weight unless it was absolutely necessary; +and for the first ten feet I found cracks and protuberances enough to +support me, making every square inch of surface do friction duty, and +hugging myself against the rocks as tightly as I could. When within +about eight feet of the next shelf, I twisted myself round upon the +face, hanging by two rough blocks of protruding feldspar, and looked +vainly for some further hand-hold; but the rock, besides being perfectly +smooth, overhung slightly, and my legs dangled in the air. I saw that +the next cleft was over three feet broad, and I thought, possibly, I +might, by a quick slide, reach it in safety without endangering Cotter. +I shouted to him to be very careful and let go in case I fell, loosened +my hold upon the rope, and slid quickly down. My shoulder struck against +the rock and threw me out of balance; for an instant I reeled over upon +the verge, in danger of falling, but, in the excitement, I thrust out my +hand and seized a small alpine gooseberry bush, the first piece of +vegetation we had seen. Its roots were so firmly fixed in the crevice +that it held my weight and saved me. + +I could no longer see Cotter, but I talked to him, and heard the two +knapsacks come bumping along until they slid over the eaves above me, +and swung down to my station, when I seized the lasso's end and braced +myself as well as possible, intending, if he slipped, to haul in slack +and help him as best I might. As he came slowly down from crack to +crack, I heard his hobnailed shoes grating on the granite; presently +they appeared dangling from the eaves above my head. I had gathered in +the rope until it was taut, and then hurriedly told him to drop. He +hesitated a moment and let go. Before he struck the rock I had him by +the shoulder, and whirled him down upon his side, thus preventing his +rolling overboard, which friendly action he took quite coolly. + +The third descent was not a difficult one, nor the fourth; but when we +had climbed down about two hundred and fifty feet the rocks were so +glacially polished and water-worn that it seemed impossible to get any +farther. To our right was a crack penetrating the rock perhaps a foot +deep, widening at the surface to three or four inches, which proved to +be the only possible ladder. As the chances seemed rather desperate, we +concluded to tie ourselves together, in order to share a common fate; +and with a slack of thirty feet between us, and our knapsacks upon our +backs, we climbed into the crevice, and began descending with our faces +to the cliff. This had to be done with unusual caution, for the foothold +was about as good as none, and our fingers slipped annoyingly on the +smooth stone; besides the knapsacks and instruments kept a steady +backward pull, tending to overbalance us. But we took pains to descend +one at a time, and rest wherever the niches gave our feet a safe +support. In this way we got down about eighty feet of smooth, nearly +vertical wall, reaching the top of a rude granite stairway, which led to +the snow; and here we sat down to rest, and found to our astonishment +that we had been three hours from the summit. + +After breathing a half-minute we continued down, jumping from rock to +rock, and, having by practice become very expert in balancing ourselves, +sprang on, never resting long enough to lose equilibrium, and in this +manner made a quick descent over rugged debris to the crest of a +snow-field, which, for seven or eight hundred feet more, swept down in a +smooth, even slope, of very high angle, to the borders of a frozen lake. + +Without untying the lasso which bound us together, we sprang upon the +snow with a shout, and slid down splendidly, turning now and then a +somersault, and shooting out like cannon-balls almost to the middle of +the frozen lake; I upon my back, and Cotter feet first, in a swimming +position. The ice cracked in all directions. It was only a thin, +transparent film, through which we could see deep into the lake. Untying +ourselves, we hurried ashore in different directions, lest our combined +weight should be too great a strain upon any point. + +With curiosity and wonder we scanned every shelf and niche of the last +descent. It seemed quite impossible that we could have come down there, +and now it actually was beyond human power to get back again. But what +cared we? "Sufficient unto the day"--We were bound for that still +distant, though gradually nearing, summit; and we had come from a cold +shadowed cliff into deliciously warm sunshine, and were jolly, shouting, +singing songs, and calling out the companionship of a hundred echoes. +Six miles away, with no grave danger, no great difficulty, between us, +lay the base of our grand mountain. Upon its skirts we saw a little +grove of pines, an ideal bivouac, and toward this we bent our course. + +After the continued climbing of the day, walking was a delicious rest, +and forward we pressed with considerable speed, our hobnails giving us +firm footing on the glittering glacial surface. Every fluting of the +great valley was in itself a considerable canon, into which we +descended, climbing down the scored rocks, and swinging from block to +block, until we reached the level of the pines. Here, sheltered among +loose rocks, began to appear little fields of alpine grass, pale yet +sunny, soft under our feet, fragrantly jewelled with flowers of fairy +delicacy, holding up amid thickly clustered blades chalices of turquoise +and amethyst, white stars, and fiery little globes of red. Lakelets, +small but innumerable, were held in glacial basins, the scorings and +grooves of that old dragon's track ornamenting their smooth bottoms. + +One of these, a sheet of pure beryl hue, gave us as much pleasure from +its lovely transparency, and because we lay down in the necklace of +grass about it and smelled flowers, while tired muscles relaxed upon +warm beds of verdure, and the pain in our burdened shoulders went away, +leaving us delightfully comfortable. + +After the stern grandeur of granite and ice, and with the peaks and +walls still in view, it was relief to find ourselves again in the region +of life. I never felt for trees and flowers such a sense of intimate +relationship and sympathy. When we had no longer excuse for resting, I +invented the palpable subterfuge of measuring the altitude of the spot, +since the few clumps of low, wide-boughed pines near by were the highest +living trees. So we lay longer with less and less will to rise, and when +resolution called us to our feet the getting up was sorely like Rip Van +Winkle's in the third act. + +The deep glacial canon-flutings across which our march then lay proved +to be great consumers of time; indeed it was sunset when we reached the +eastern ascent, and began to toil up through scattered pines, and over +trains of moraine [glacial] rocks, toward the great peak. Stars were +already flashing brilliantly in the sky, and the low glowing arch in the +west had almost vanished when we reached the upper trees, and threw down +our knapsacks to camp. The forest grew on a sort of plateau-shelf with a +precipitous front to the west,--a level surface which stretched +eastward and back to the foot of our mountain, whose lower spurs +reached within a mile of camp. Within the shelter lay a huge fallen log, +like all these alpine woods one mass of resin, which flared up when we +applied a match, illuminating the whole grove. By contrast with the +darkness outside, we seemed to be in a vast, many-pillared hall. The +stream close by afforded water for our blessed teapot; venison frizzled +with mild, appetizing sound upon the ends of pine sticks; matchless +beans allowed themselves to become seductively crisp upon our tin +plates. That supper seemed to me then the quintessence of gastronomy, +and I am sure Cotter and I must have said some very good after-dinner +things, though I long ago forgot them all. Within the ring of warmth, on +elastic beds of pine-needles, we curled up, and fell swiftly into a +sound sleep. + +I woke up once in the night to look at my watch, and observed that the +sky was overcast with a thin film of cirrus cloud to which the reflected +moonlight lent the appearance of a glimmering tint, stretched from +mountain to mountain over canons filled with impenetrable darkness, only +the vaguely-lighted peaks and white snow-fields distinctly seen. I +closed my eyes and slept soundly until Cotter awoke me at half-past +three, when we arose, breakfasted by the light of our fire, which still +blazed brilliantly, and, leaving our knapsacks, started for the mountain +with only instruments, canteens, and luncheon. + +In the indistinct moonlight climbing was very difficult at first, for +we had to thread our way along a plain which was literally covered with +glacier boulders, and the innumerable brooks which we crossed were +frozen solid. However, our march brought us to the base of the great +mountain, which, rising high against the east, shut out the coming +daylight, and kept us in profound shadow. From base to summit rose a +series of broken crags, lifting themselves from a general slope of +debris. Toward the left the angle seemed to be rather gentler, and the +surface less ragged; and we hoped, by a long detour round the base, to +make an easy climb up this gentler surface. So we toiled on for an hour +over the rocks, reaching at last the bottom of the north slope. Here our +work began in good earnest. The blocks were of enormous size, and in +every stage of unstable equilibrium, frequently rolling over as we +jumped upon them, making it necessary for us to take a second leap and +land where we best could. To our relief we soon surmounted the largest +blocks, reaching a smaller size, which served us as a sort of stairway. + +The advancing daylight revealed to us a very long, comparatively even +snow-slope, whose surface was pierced by many knobs and granite heads, +giving it the aspect of a nice-roofing fastened on with bolts of stone. +It stretched in far perspective to the summit, where already the rose of +sunrise reflected gloriously, kindling a fresh enthusiasm within us. + +Immense boulders were partly imbedded in the ice just above us, whose +constant melting left them trembling on the edge of a fall. It +communicated no very pleasant sensation to see above you these immense +missiles hanging by a mere band, and knowing that, as soon as the sun +rose, you would be exposed to a constant cannonade. + +The east side of the peak, which we could now partially see, was too +precipitous to think of climbing. The slope toward our camp was too much +broken into pinnacles and crags to offer us any hope, or to divert us +from the single way, dead ahead, up slopes of ice and among fragments of +granite. The sun rose upon us while we were climbing the lower part of +this snow, and in less than half an hour, melting began to liberate huge +blocks, which thundered down past us, gathering and growing into small +avalanches below. + +We did not dare climb one above another, according to our ordinary mode, +but kept about an equal level, a hundred feet apart, lest, dislodging +the blocks, one should hurl them down upon the other. + +We climbed alternately up smooth faces of granite, clinging simply by +the cracks and protruding crystals of feldspar, and then hewed steps up +fearfully steep slopes of ice, zigzagging to the right and left to avoid +the flying boulders. When midway up this slope we reached a place where +the granite rose in perfectly smooth bluffs on either side of a +gorge,--a narrow cut, or walled way, leading up to the flat summit of +the cliff. This we scaled by cutting ice steps, only to find ourselves +fronted again by a still higher wall. Ice sloped from its front at too +steep an angle for us to follow, but had melted in contact with it, +leaving a space three feet wide between the ice and the rock. We entered +this crevice and climbed along its bottom, with a wall of rock rising a +hundred feet above us on one side, and a thirty-foot face of ice on the +other, through which light of an intense cobalt-blue penetrated. + +Reaching the upper end, we had to cut our footsteps upon the ice again, +and, having braced our backs against the granite, climb up to the +surface. We were now in a dangerous position: to fall into the crevice +upon one side was to be wedged to death between rock and ice; to make a +slip was to be shot down five hundred feet, and then hurled over the +brink of a precipice. In the friendly seat which this wedge gave me, I +stopped to take wet and dry observations with the thermometer,--this +being an absolute preventive of a scare,--and to enjoy the view. + +The wall of our mountain sank abruptly to the left, opening for the +first time an outlook to the eastward. Deep--it seemed almost +vertically--beneath us we could see the blue waters of Owen's Lake, +10,000 feet below. The summit peaks to the north were piled up in +titanic confusion, their ridges overhanging the eastern slope with +terrible abruptness. Clustered upon the shelves and plateaus below were +several frozen lakes, and in all directions swept magnificent fields of +snow. The summit was now not over five hundred feet distant, and we +started on again with the exhilarating hope of success. But if Nature +had intended to secure the summit from all assailants, she could not +have planned her defences better; for the smooth granite wall which rose +above the snow-slope continued, apparently, quite round the peak, and we +looked in great anxiety to see if there was not one place where it might +be climbed. It was all blank except in one place; quite near us the snow +bridged across the crevice, and rose in a long point to the summit of +the wall,--a great icicle-column frozen in a niche of the bluff,--its +base about ten feet wide, narrowing to two feet at the top. We climbed +to the base of this spire of ice, and, with the utmost care, began to +cut our stairway. The material was an exceedingly compacted snow, +passing into clear ice as it neared the rock. We climbed the first half +of it with comparative ease; after that it was almost vertical, and so +thin that we did not dare to cut the footsteps deep enough to make them +absolutely safe. There was a constant dread lest out ladder should break +off, and we be thrown either down the snow-slope or into the bottom of +the crevasse. At last, in order to prevent myself from falling over +backwards, I was obliged to thrust my hand into the crack between the +ice and the wall, and the spire became so narrow that I could do this on +both sides; so that the climb was made as upon a tree, cutting mere +toe-holes and embracing the whole column of ice in my arms. At last I +reached the top, and, with the greatest caution, wormed my body over +the brink, and rolling out upon the smooth surface of the granite, +looked over and watched Cotter make his climb. He came up steadily, with +no sense of nervousness, until he got to the narrow part of the ice, and +here he stopped and looked up with a forlorn face to me; but as he +climbed up over the ledge the broad smile came back to his face, and he +asked me if it had occurred to me that we had, by and by, to go down +again. + +We had now an easy slope to the summit, and hurried up over rocks and +ice, reaching the crest at exactly twelve o'clock. I rang my hammer upon +the topmost rock; we grasped hands, and I reverently named the grand +peak MOUNT TYNDALL. + + + + +THE GRAND CANON OF THE COLORADO + +MAJOR JOHN WESLEY POWELL + + [In 1869-72 Major John Wesley Powell was the chief of a party + which explored the Colorado River of the West and its + tributaries. The chapter subjoined is from his official + report, published by the Government Printing Office, + Washington, 1875. The substance of that report, with much + additional matter of great interest, appears in "The Canons + of the Colorado," by Major Powell, published by Flood & + Vincent, Meadville, Pa., 1895, with superb illustrations. For + fourteen years, beginning with 1880, Major Powell was + director of the United States Geological Survey; since 1879 + he has been director of the United States Bureau of + Ethnology.] + + +_August 13, 1869._ We are now ready to start on our way down the Great +Unknown. Our boats, tied to a common stake, are chafing each other, as +they are tossed by the fretful river. They ride high and buoyant, for +their loads are lighter than we could desire. We have but a month's +rations remaining. The flour has been resifted through the mosquito net +sieve; the spoiled bacon has been dried, and the worst of it boiled; the +few pounds of dried apples have been spread in the sun, and reshrunken +to their normal bulk; the sugar has all melted, and gone on its way down +the river; but we have a large sack of coffee. The lightening of the +boats has this advantage: they will ride the waves better, and we shall +have but little to carry when we make a portage. + +We are three-quarters of a mile in the depths of the earth, and the +great river shrinks into insignificance, as it dashes its angry waves +against the walls and cliffs, that rise to the world above; they are but +puny ripples, and we but pigmies, running up and down the sands, or lost +among the boulders. + +We have an unknown distance yet to run; an unknown river yet to explore. +What falls there are, we know not; what rocks beset the channel, we know +not; what walls rise over the river, we know not. Ah, well! we may +conjecture many things. The men talk as cheerfully as ever; jests are +bandied out freely this morning; but to me the cheer is sombre and the +jests are ghastly. + +With some eagerness, and some anxiety, and some misgiving, we enter the +canon below, and are carried along by the swift water through walls +which rise from its very edge. They have the same structure as we +noticed yesterday--tiers of irregular shelves below, and, above these, +steep slopes to the foot of marble cliffs. We run six miles in a little +more than half an hour, and emerge into a more open portion of the +canon, where high hills and ledges of rock intervene between the river +and the distant walls. Just at the head of this open place the river +runs across a dike; that is, a fissure in the rocks, open to depths +below, has been filled with eruptive matter, and this, on cooling, was +harder than the rocks through which the crevice was made, and, when +these were washed away, the harder volcanic matter remained as a wall, +and the river has cut a gateway through it several hundred feet high, +and as many wide. As it crosses the wall, there is a fall below, and a +bad rapid, filled with boulders of trap; so we stop to make a portage. +Then on we go, gliding by hills and ledges, with distant walls in view; +sweeping past sharp angles of rock; stopping at a few points to examine +rapids, which we find can be run, until we have made another five miles, +when we land for dinner. + +Then we let down with lines, over a long rapid, and start again. Once +more the walls close in, and we find ourselves in a narrow gorge, the +water again filling the channel, and very swift. With great care and +constant watchfulness we proceed, making about four miles this +afternoon, and camp in a cave. + +_August 14._ At daybreak we walk down the bank of the river, on a little +sandy beach, to take a view of a new feature in the canon. Heretofore +hard rocks have given us bad river; soft rocks, smooth water; and a +series of rocks harder than any we have experienced sets in. The river +enters the granite![1] + +We can see but a little way into the granite gorge, but it looks +threatening. + +After breakfast we enter on the waves. At the very introduction, it +inspires awe. The canon is narrower than we have ever before seen it; +the water is swifter; there are but few broken rocks in the channel; but +the walls are set, on either side, with pinnacles and crags; and sharp, +angular buttresses, bristling with wind and wave-polished spires, extend +far out into the river. + +Ledges of rock jut into the stream, their tops just below the surface, +sometimes rising few or many feet above; and island ledges, and island +pinnacles, and island towers break the swift course of the stream into +chutes, and eddies, and whirlpools. We soon reach a place where a creek +comes in from the left, and just below the channel is choked with +boulders, which have washed down this lateral canon and formed a dam, +over which there is a fall of thirty or forty feet; but on the boulders +we can get foothold, and we make a portage. + +Three more such dams are found. Over one we make a portage; at the other +two we find chutes, through which we can run. + +As we proceed, the granite rises higher, until nearly a thousand feet of +the lower part of the walls are composed of this rock. + +About eleven o'clock we hear a great roar ahead, and approach it very +cautiously. The sound grows louder and louder as we run, and at last we +find ourselves above a long, broken fall, with ledges and pinnacles of +rock obstructing the river. There is a descent of, perhaps, seventy-five +or eighty feet in a third of a mile, and the rushing waters break into +great waves on the rocks, and lash themselves into a mad, white, foam. +We can land just above, but there is no foothold on either side by which +we can make a portage. It is nearly a thousand feet to the top of the +granite, so it will be impossible to carry our boats around, though we +can climb to the summit up a side gulch, and, passing along a mile or +two, can descend to the river. This we find on examination; but such a +portage would be impracticable for us, and we must run the rapid, or +abandon the river. There is no hesitation. We step into our boats, push +off, and away we go, first on smooth but swift water, then we strike a +glassy wave, and ride to its top, down again into the trough, up again +on a higher wave, and down and up on waves higher and still higher, +until we strike one just as it curls back, and a breaker rolls over our +little boat. Still, on we speed, shooting past projecting rocks, till +the little boat is caught in a whirlpool, and spun around several times. +At last we pull out again into the stream, and now the other boats have +passed us. The open compartment of the _Emma Dean_ is filled with water, +and every breaker rolls over us. Hurled back from a rock, now on this +side, now on that, we are carried into an eddy, in which we struggle for +a few minutes, and are then out again, the breakers still rolling over +us. Our boat is unmanageable, but she cannot sink, and we drift down +another hundred yards, through breakers; how, we scarcely know. We find +the other boats have turned into an eddy at the foot of the fall, and +are waiting to catch us as we come, for the men have seen that our boat +is swamped. They push out as we come near, and pull us in against the +wall. We bail our boat, and on we go again. + +The walls, now, are more than a mile in height--a vertical distance +difficult to appreciate. Stand on the south steps of the Treasury +Building, in Washington, and look down Pennsylvania Avenue to the +Capitol Park, and measure this distance overhead, and imagine cliffs to +extend to that altitude, and you will understand what I mean; or, stand +at Canal Street, in New York, and look up Broadway to Grace Church, and +you have about the distance; or, stand at Lake Street Bridge in Chicago, +and look down to the Central Depot, and you have it again. + +A thousand feet of this is up through granite crags, then steep slopes +and perpendicular cliffs rise, one above another, to the summit. The +gorge is black and narrow below, red and gray and flaring above, with +crags and angular projections on the walls, which, cut in many places by +side canons, seem to be a vast wilderness of rocks. Down in these grand, +gloomy depths we glide, ever listening, for the mad waters keep up their +roar; ever watching, ever peering ahead, for the narrow canon is +winding, and the river is closed in so that we can see but a few +hundred yards, and what there may be below we know not; but we listen +for falls, and watch for rocks, or stop now and then, in the bay of a +recess, to admire the gigantic scenery. And ever, as we go, there is +some new pinnacle or tower, some crag or peak, some distant view of the +upper plateau, some strange-shaped rock, or some deep, narrow side +canon. Then we come to another broken fall, which appears more difficult +than the one we ran this morning. + +A small creek comes in on the right, and the first fall of the water is +over boulders, which have been carried down by this lateral stream. We +land at its mouth, and stop for an hour or two to examine the fall. It +seems possible to let down with lines, at least a part of the way, from +point to point, along the right-hand wall. So we make a portage over the +first rocks, and find footing on some boulders below. Then we let down +one of the boats to the end of her line, when she reaches a corner of +the projecting rock, to which one of the men clings, and steadies her, +while I examine an eddy below. I think we can pass the other boats down +by us, and catch them in the eddy. This is soon done and the men in the +boats in the eddy pull us to their side. On the shore of this little +eddy there is about two feet of gravel beach above the water. Standing +on this beach, some of the men take the line of the little boat and let +it drift down against another projecting angle. Here is a little shelf, +on which a man from my boat climbs, and a shorter line is passed to him, +and he fastens the boat to the side of the cliff. Then the second one +is let down, bringing the line of the third. When the second boat is +tied up, the two men standing on the beach above spring into the last +boat, which is pulled up alongside of ours. Then we let down the boats, +for twenty-five or thirty yards, by walking along the shelf, landing +them again in the mouth of a side canon. Just below this there is +another pile of boulders, over which we make another portage. From the +foot of these rocks we can climb to another shelf, forty or fifty feet +above the water. + +On this beach we camp for the night. We find a few sticks, which have +lodged in the rocks. It is raining hard, and we have no shelter, but +kindle a fire and have our supper. We sit on the rocks all night, +wrapped in our ponchos, getting what sleep we can. + +_August 15._ This morning we find we can let down for three or four +hundred yards, and it is managed in this way: We pass along the wall by +climbing from projecting point to point, sometimes near the water's +edge, at other places fifty or sixty feet above, and hold the boat with +a line, while two men remain aboard, and prevent her from being dashed +against the rocks, and keep the line from getting caught in the wall. In +two hours we have brought them all down, as far as it is possible, in +this way. A few yards below, the river strikes with great violence +against a projecting rock, and our boats are pulled up in a little bay +above. We must now manage to pull out of this, and clear the point +below. The little boat is held by the bow obliquely up the stream. We +jump in, and pull out only a few strokes, and sweep clear of the +dangerous rock. The other boats follow in the same manner, and the rapid +is passed. + +It is not easy to describe the labour of such navigation. We must +prevent the waves from dashing the boats against the cliffs. Sometimes, +where the river is swift, we must put a bight of rope about a rock, to +prevent her being snatched from us by a wave; but where the plunge is +too great, or the chute too swift, we must let her leap, and catch her +below, or the undertow will drag her under the falling water, and she +sinks. Where we wish to run her out a little way from shore, through a +channel between rocks, we first throw in little sticks of driftwood, and +watch their course, to see where we must steer, so that she will pass +the channel in safety. And so we hold, and let go, and pull, and lift, +and ward, among rocks, around rocks, and over rocks. + +And now we go on through this solemn, mysterious way. The river is very +deep, the canon very narrow, and still obstructed, so that there is no +steady flow of the stream; but the waters wheel, and roll, and boil, and +we are scarcely able to determine where we can go. Now, the boat is +carried to the right, perhaps close to the wall; again, she is shot into +the stream, and perhaps is dragged over to the other side, where, caught +in a whirlpool, she spins about. We can neither land nor run as we +please. The boats are entirely unmanageable; no order in their running +can be preserved; now one, now another, is ahead, each crew labouring +for its own preservation. In such a place we come to another rapid. Two +of the boats run it perforce. One succeeds in landing, but there is no +foothold by which to make a portage, and she is pushed out again into +the stream. The next minute a great reflex wave fills the open +compartment; she is water-logged, and drifts unmanageable. Breaker after +breaker roll over her, and one capsizes her. The men are thrown out; but +they cling to the boat, and she drifts down some distance, alongside of +us, and we are able to catch her. She is soon bailed out, and the men +are aboard once more; but the oars are lost, so a pair from the _Emma +Dean_ is spared. Then for two miles we find smooth water. + +Clouds are playing in the canon to-day. Sometimes they roll down in +great masses, filling the gorge with gloom; sometimes they hang above, +from wall to wall, and cover the canon with a roof of impending storm; +and we can peer long distances up and down this canon corridor, with its +cloud roof overhead, its walls of black granite, and its river bright +with the sheen of broken waters. Then, a gust of wind sweeps down a side +gulch, and, making a rift in the clouds, reveals the blue heavens, and a +stream of sunlight pours in. Then, the clouds drift away into the +distance, and hang around crags, and peaks, and pinnacles, and towers, +and walls, and cover them with a mantle that lifts from time to time, +and sets them all in sharp relief. Then, baby clouds creep out of side +canons, glide around points, and creep back again into more distant +gorges. Then, clouds, set in strata across the canon, with intervening +vista views, to cliffs and rocks beyond. The clouds are children of the +heavens, and when they play among the rocks they lift them to the region +above. + +It rains! Rapidly little rills are formed above, and these soon grow +into brooks, and the brooks grow into creeks, and tumble over the walls +in innumerable cascades, adding their wild music to the roar of the +river. When the rain ceases, the rills, brooks, and creeks run dry. The +waters that fall during a rain on these steep rocks are gathered at once +into the river; they could scarcely be poured in more suddenly if some +vast spout ran from the clouds to the stream itself. When a storm bursts +over the canon a side gulch is dangerous, for a sudden flood may come, +and the inpouring water will raise the river, so as to hide the rocks +before your eyes. + +Early in the afternoon we discover a stream, entering from the north, a +clear, beautiful creek, coming down through a gorgeous red canon. We +land, and camp on a sand beach, above its mouth, under a great, +overspreading tree, with willow-shaped leaves. + +_August 16._ We must dry our rations again to-day, and make oars. + +The Colorado is never a clear stream, but for the past three or four +days it has been raining much of the time, and the floods, which are +poured over the walls, have brought down great quantities of mud, making +it exceedingly turbid now. The little affluent, which we have discovered +here, is a clear, beautiful creek, or river, as it would be termed in +this Western country, where streams are not abundant. We have named one +stream, away above, in honour of the great chief of the "Bad Angels," +and, as this is in beautiful contrast to that, we conclude to name it +"Bright Angel." + +Early in the morning, the whole party starts up to explore the Bright +Angel River, with the special purpose of seeking timber, from which to +make oars. A couple of miles above, we find a large pine log, which has +been floated down from the plateau, probably from an altitude of more +than 6,000 feet, but not many miles back. On its way, it must have +passed over many cataracts and falls, for it bears scars in evidence of +the rough usage it has received. The men roll it on skids, and the work +of sawing oars is commenced. + +This stream heads away back, under a line of abrupt cliffs, that +terminates the plateau, and tumbles down more than 4,000 feet in the +first mile or two of its course; then runs through a deep, narrow canon, +until it reaches the river. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Mu-av Canon, a side gorge] + +Late in the afternoon I return, and go up a little gulch, just above +this creek, and about two hundred yards from camp, and discover the +ruins of two or three old houses, which were originally of stone, laid +in mortar. Only the foundations are left, but irregular blocks, of which +the houses were constructed, lie scattered about. In one room I find an +old mealing stone, deeply worn, as if it had been much used. A great +deal of pottery is strewn around, and old trails, which in some places +are deeply worn into the rocks, are seen. + +It is ever a source of wonder to us why these ancient people sought such +inaccessible places for their homes. They were, doubtless, an +agricultural race, but there are no lands here of any considerable +extent that they could have cultivated. To the west of Oraiby, one of +the towns in the "Province of Tusayan," in Northern Arizona, the +inhabitants have actually built little terraces along the face of the +cliff, where a spring gushes out, and thus made their sites for gardens. +It is possible that the ancient inhabitants of this place made their +agricultural lands in the same way. But why should they seek such spots? +Surely, the country was not so crowded with population as to demand the +utilization of so barren a region. The only solution of the problem +suggested is this: We know that, for a century or two after the +settlement of Mexico, many expeditions were sent into the country, now +comprised in Arizona and New Mexico, for the purpose of bringing the +town-building people under the dominion of the Spanish Government. Many +of their villages were destroyed, and the inhabitants fled to regions at +that time unknown; and there are traditions among the people who +inhabit the _pueblos_ that still remain that the canons were these +unknown lands. Maybe these buildings were erected at that time; sure it +is that they have a much more modern appearance than the ruins scattered +over Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. Those old Spanish +conquerors had a monstrous greed for gold, and a wonderful lust for +saving souls. Treasures they must have if not on earth, why, then, in +heaven; and when they failed to find heathen temples bedecked with +silver, they propitiated Heaven by seizing the heathen themselves. There +is yet extant a copy of a record, made by a heathen artist, to express +his conception of the demands of the conquerors. In one part of the +picture we have a lake, and near by stands a priest pouring water on the +head of a native. On the other side, a poor Indian has a cord about his +throat. Lines run from these two groups to a central figure, a man with +beard and full Spanish panoply. The interpretation of the +picture-writing is this: "Be baptized, as this saved heathen; or be +hanged, as that damned heathen." Doubtless, some of these people +preferred a third alternative, and, rather than be baptized or hanged, +they chose to be imprisoned within these canon walls. + +_August 17._ Our rations are still spoiling; the bacon is so badly +injured that we are compelled to throw it away. By accident, this +morning, the saleratus is lost overboard. We have now only musty flour +sufficient for ten days, a few dried apples, but plenty of coffee. We +must make all haste possible. If we meet with difficulties, as we have +done in the canon above, we may be compelled to give up the expedition, +and try to reach the Mormon settlements to the north. Our hopes are that +the worst places are passed, but our barometers are all so much injured +as to be useless, so we have lost our reckoning in altitude, and know +not how much descent the river has yet to make. + +The stream is still wild and rapid, and rolls through a narrow channel. +We make but slow progress, often landing against a wall, and climbing +around some point, where we can see the river below. Although very +anxious to advance, we are determined to run with great caution, lest, +by another accident, we lose all our supplies. How precious that little +flour has become! We divide it among the boats, and carefully store it +away, so that it can be lost only by the loss of the boat itself. + +We make ten miles and a half, and camp among the rocks on the right. We +have had rain, from time to time, all day, and have been thoroughly +drenched and chilled; but between showers the sun shines with great +power, and the mercury in our thermometers stands at 115 deg., so that we +have rapid changes from great extremes, which are very disagreeable. It +is especially cold in the rain to-night. The little canvas we have is +rotten and useless; the rubber ponchos, with which we started from Green +River City, have all been lost; more than half the party is without +hats, and not one of us has an entire suit of clothes, and we have not a +blanket apiece. So we gather driftwood, and build a fire; but after +supper the rain, coming down in torrents, extinguishes it, and we sit up +all night on the rocks, shivering, and are more exhausted by the night's +discomfort than by the day's toil. + +_August 18._ The day is employed in making portages, and we advance but +two miles on our journey. Still it rains. + +While the men are at work making portages, I climb up the granite to its +summit, and go away back over the rust-coloured sandstones and +greenish-yellow shales to the foot of the marble wall. I climb so high +that the men and boats are lost in the black depths below, and the +dashing river is a rippling brook; and still there is more canon above +than below. All about me are interesting geological records. The book is +open, and I can read as I run. All about me are grand views, for the +clouds are playing again in the gorges. But somehow I think of the nine +days' rations, and the bad river, and the lesson of the rocks, and the +glory of the scene is but half seen. + +I push on to an angle, where I hope to get a view of the country beyond, +to see, if possible, what the prospect may be of our soon running +through this plateau, or, at least, of meeting with some geological +change that will let us out of the granite; but, arriving at the point, +I can see below only a labyrinth of deep gorges. + +_August 19._ Rain again this morning. Still we are in our granite +prison, and the time is occupied until noon in making a long, bad +portage. + +After dinner, in running a rapid, the pioneer boat is upset by a wave. +We are some distance in advance of the larger boats, the river is rough +and swift, and we are unable to land, but cling to the boat, and are +carried down stream over another rapid. The men in the boats above see +our trouble, but they are caught in whirlpools, and are spinning about +in eddies, and it seems a long time before they come to our relief. At +last they do come; our boat is turned right side up, bailed out; the +oars, which fortunately have floated along in company with us, are +gathered up, and on we go, without even landing. + +Soon after the accident the clouds break away, and we have sunshine +again. + +Soon we find a little beach, with just room enough to land. Here we +camp, but there is no wood. Across the river, and a little way above, we +see some driftwood lodged in the rocks. So we bring two boatloads over, +build a huge fire, and spread everything to dry. It is the first +cheerful night we have had for a week; a warm, drying fire in the midst +of the camp and a few bright stars in our patch of heavens overhead. + +_August 20._ The characteristics of the canon change this morning. The +river is broader, the walls more sloping, and composed of black slates, +that stand on edge. These nearly vertical slates are washed out in +places--that is, the softer beds are washed out between the harder, +which are left standing. In this way curious little alcoves are formed, +in which are quiet bays of water, but on a much smaller scale than the +great bays and buttresses of Marble Canon. + +The river is still rapid, and we stop to let down with lines several +times, but make greater progress as we run ten miles. We camp on the +right bank. Here, on a terrace of trap, we discover another group of +ruins. There was evidently quite a village on this rock. Again we find +mealing stones, and much broken pottery, and up in a little natural +shelf in the rock, back of the ruins, we find a globular basket, that +would hold perhaps a third of a bushel. It is badly broken, and, as I +attempt to take it up, it falls to pieces. There are many beautiful +flint-chips, as if this had been the home of an old arrow-maker. + +_August 21._ We start early this morning, cheered by the prospect of a +fine day, and encouraged, also, by the good run made yesterday. A +quarter of a mile below camp the river turns abruptly to the left, and +between camp and that point is very swift, running down in a long, +broken chute, and piling up against the foot of the cliff, where it +turns to the left. We try to pull across, so as to go down on the other +side, but the waters are swift, and it seems impossible for us to escape +the rock below; but, in pulling across, the bow of the boat is turned to +the farther shore, so that we are swept broadside down, and are +prevented, by the rebounding waters, from striking against the wall. +There we toss about for a few seconds in these billows, and are carried +past the danger. Below, the river turns again to the right, the canon is +very narrow, and we see in advance but a short distance. The water, too, +is very swift, and there is no landing-place. From around this curve +there comes a mad roar, and down we are earned, with a dizzying +velocity, to the head of another rapid. On either side, high over our +heads, there are overhanging granite walls, and the sharp bends cut off +our view, so that a few minutes will carry us into unknown waters. Away +we go, on one long winding chute. I stand on deck, supporting myself +with a strap, fastened on either side to the gunwale, and the boat +glides rapidly, where the water is smooth, or, striking a wave, she +leaps and bounds like a thing of life, and we have a wild, exhilarating +ride for ten miles, which we make in less than an hour. The excitement +is so great that we forget the danger, until we hear the roar of a great +fall below; then we back on our oars, and are carried slowly towards its +head, and succeed in landing just above, and find that we have to make +another portage. At this we are engaged until some time after dinner. + +Just here we run out of the granite! + +Ten miles in less than half a day, and limestone walls below. Good cheer +returns; we forget the storms, and the gloom, and cloud-covered canons, +and the black granite, and the raging river, and push our boats from +shore in great glee. + +Though we are out of the granite, the river is still swift, and we wheel +about a point again to the right, and turn, so as to head back in the +direction from which we come, and see the granite again, with its narrow +gorge and black crags; but we meet with no more great falls or rapids. +Still, we run cautiously, and stop, from time to time, to examine some +places which look bad. Yet, we make ten miles this afternoon; twenty +miles, in all, to-day. + +_August 22._ We come to rapids again, this morning, and are occupied +several hours in passing them, letting the boats down, from rock to +rock, with lines, for nearly half a mile, and then have to make a long +portage. While the men are engaged in this, I climb the wall on the +northeast, to a height of about 2,500 feet, where I can obtain a good +view of a long stretch of canon below. Its course is to the southwest. +The walls seem to rise very abruptly, for 2,500 or 3,000 feet, and then +there is a gently sloping terrace, on each side, for two or three miles, +and again we find cliffs, 1,500 or 2,000 feet high. From the brink of +these the plateau stretches back to the north and south, for a long +distance. Away down the canon, on the right wall, I can see a group of +mountains, some of which appear to stand on the brink of the canon. The +effect of the terrace is to give the appearance of a narrow, winding +valley, with high walls on either side, and a deep, dark, meandering +gorge down its middle. It is impossible, from this point of view, to +determine whether we have granite at the bottom or not; but, from +geological considerations, I conclude that we shall have marble walls +below. + +After my return to the boats, we run another mile and camp for the +night. + +We have made but little over seven miles to-day, and a part of our flour +has been soaked in the river again. + +_August 23._ Our way to-day is again through marble walls. Now and then +we pass, for a short distance, through patches of granite, like hills +thrust up into the limestone. At one of these places we have to make +another portage, and, taking advantage of the delay, I go up a little +stream to the north, wading it all the way, sometimes having to take a +plunge in to my neck; in other places being compelled to swim across +little basins that have been excavated at the foot of the falls. Along +its course are many cascades and springs, gushing out from the rocks on +either side. Sometimes a cottonwood tree grows over the water. I come to +one beautiful fall, of more than a hundred and fifty feet, and climb +around it to the right, on the broken rocks. Still going up, I find the +canon narrowing very much, being but fifteen or twenty feet wide; yet +the walls rise on either side many hundreds of feet, perhaps thousands; +I can hardly tell. + +In some places the stream has not excavated its channel down vertically +through the rocks, but has cut obliquely, so that one wall overhangs the +other. In other places it is cut vertically above and obliquely below, +or obliquely above and vertically below, so that it is impossible to see +out overhead. But I can go no farther. The time which I estimated it +would take to make the portage has almost expired, and I start back on a +round trot, wading in the creek where I must, and plunging through +basins, and find the men waiting for me, and away we go on the river. + +Just after dinner we pass a stream on the right, which leaps into the +Colorado by a direct fall of more than a hundred feet, forming a +beautiful cascade. There is a bed of very hard rock above, thirty or +forty feet in thickness, and much softer beds below. The hard beds above +project many yards beyond the softer, which are washed out, forming a +deep cave behind the fall, and the stream pours through a crevice above +into a deep pool below. Around on the rocks, in the cave-like chamber, +are set beautiful ferns, with delicate fronds and enamelled stalks. The +little frondlets have their points turned down, to form spore cases. It +has very much the appearance of the maiden's hair fern, but is much +larger. This delicate foliage covers the rocks all about the fountain, +and gives the chamber great beauty. But we have little time to spend in +admiration, so on we go. + +We make fine progress this afternoon, carried along by a swift river, +and shoot over the rapids, finding no serious obstructions. + +The canon walls, for 2,500 or 3,000 feet, are very regular, rising +almost perpendicularly, but here and there set with narrow steps, and +occasionally we can see away above the broad terrace, to distant cliffs. + +We camp to-night in a marble cave, and find, on looking at our +reckoning, we have run twenty-two miles. + +_August 24._ The canon is wider to-day. The walls rise to a vertical +height of nearly 3,000 feet. In many places the river runs under a +cliff, in great curves, forming amphitheatres, half-dome shaped. + +Though the river is rapid, we meet with no serious obstructions, and run +twenty miles. It is curious how anxious we are to make-up our reckoning +every time we stop, now that our diet is confined to plenty of coffee, +very little spoiled flour, and very few dried apples. It has come to be +a race for a dinner. Still, we make such fine progress, all hands are in +good cheer, but not a moment of daylight is lost. + +_August 25._ We make twelve miles this morning, when we come to +monuments of lava, standing in the river; low rocks mostly, but some of +them shafts more than a hundred feet high. Going on down, three or four +miles, we find them increasing in number. Great quantities of cooled +lava and many cinder cones are seen on either side; and then we come to +an abrupt cataract. Just over the fall, on the right wall, a cinder +cone, or extinct volcano, with a well-defined crater, stands on the very +brink of the canon. This, doubtless, is the one we saw two or three +days ago. From this volcano vast floods of lava have been poured into +the river, and a stream of the molten rock has run up the canon, three +or four miles, and down, we know not how far. Just where it poured over +the canon wall is the fall. The whole north side, as far as we can see, +is lined with the black basalt, and high up on the opposite wall are +patches of the same material, resting on the benches, and filling old +alcoves and caves, giving to the wall a spotted appearance. + +The rocks are broken in two, along a line which here crosses the river, +and the beds, which we have seen coming down the canon for the last +thirty miles, have dropped eight hundred feet, on the lower side of the +line, forming what geologists call a fault. The volcanic cone stands +directly over the fissure thus formed. On the side of the river +opposite, mammoth springs burst out of this crevice, one or two hundred +feet above the river, pouring in a stream quite equal in volume to the +Colorado Chiquito. + +This stream seems to be loaded with carbonate of lime, and the water, +evaporating, leaves an incrustation on the rocks; and this process has +been continued for a long time, for extensive deposits are noticed, in +which are basins, with bubbling springs. The water is salty. + +We have to make a portage here, which is completed in about three hours, +and on we go. + +We have no difficulty as we float along, and I am able to observe the +wonderful phenomena connected with this flood of lava. The canon was +doubtless filled to a height of twelve or fifteen hundred feet, perhaps +by more than one flood. This would dam the water back; and in cutting +through this great lava bed, a new channel has been formed, sometimes on +one side, sometimes on the other. The cooled lava, being of firmer +texture than the rocks of which the walls are composed, remains in some +places; in others a narrow channel has been cut, leaving a line of +basalt on either side. It is possible that the lava cooled faster on the +sides against the walls, and that the centre ran out; but of this we can +only conjecture. There are other places, where almost the whole of the +lava is gone, patches of it only being seen where it has caught on the +walls. As we float down, we can see that it ran out into side canons. In +some places this basalt has a fine, columnar structure, often in +concentric prisms, and masses of these concentric columns have +coalesced. In some places, where the flow occurred, the canon was +probably at about the same depth as it is now, for we can see where the +basalt has rolled out on the sands, and, what seems curious to me, the +sands are not melted or metamorphosed to any appreciable extent. In +places the bed of the river is of sandstone or limestone, in other +places of lava, showing that it has all been cut out again where the +sandstones and limestones appear; but there is a little yet left where +the bed is of lava. + +What a conflict of water and fire there must have been here! Just +imagine a river of molten rock, running down into a river of melted +snow. What a seething and boiling of the waters; what clouds of steam +rolled into the heavens! + +Thirty-five miles to-day. Hurrah! + +_August 26._ The canon walls are steadily becoming higher as we advance. +They are still bold, and nearly vertical up to the terrace. We still see +evidence of the eruption discovered yesterday, but the thickness of the +basalt is decreasing, as we go down the stream; yet it has been +reinforced at points by streams that have come from volcanoes standing +on the terrace above, but which we cannot see from the river below. + +Since we left the Colorado Chiquito, we have seen no evidences that the +tribe of Indians inhabiting the plateaus on either side ever come down +to the river; but about eleven o'clock to-day we discover an Indian +garden, at the foot of the wall on the right, just where a little +stream, with a narrow flood plain, comes down through a side canon. +Along the valley, the Indians have planted corn, using the water which +burst out in springs at the foot of the cliff for irrigation. The corn +is looking quite well, but is not sufficiently advanced to give us +roasting ears; but there are some nice green squashes. We carry ten or a +dozen of these on board our boats, and hurriedly leave, not willing to +be caught in the robbery, yet excusing ourselves by pleading our great +want. We run down a short distance to where we feel certain no Indians +can follow; and what a kettle of squash sauce we make! True, we have no +salt with which to season it, but it makes a fine addition to our +unleavened bread and coffee. Never was fruit so sweet as those stolen +squashes. After dinner we push on again, making fine time, finding many +rapids, but none so bad that we cannot run them with safety, and when we +stop, just at dusk, and foot up our reckoning, we find that; we have run +thirty-five miles again. + +What a supper we make; unleavened bread, green squash sauce, and strong +coffee. We have been for a few days on half-rations, but we have no +stint of roast squash. + +A few days like this, and we are out of prison. + +_August 27._ This morning the river takes a more southerly direction. +The dip of the rocks is to the north, and we are rapidly running into +lower formations. Unless our course changes, we shall very soon run +again into the granite. This gives us some anxiety. Now and then the +river turns to the west, and excites hopes that are soon destroyed by +another turn to the south. About nine o'clock we come to the dreaded +rock. It is with no little misgiving that we see the river enter those +black, hard walls. At its very entrance we have to make a portage; then +we have to let down with lines past some ugly rocks. Then we run a mile +or two farther, and then the rapids below can be seen. + +About eleven o'clock we come to a place where it seems much worse than +any we have yet met in all its course. A little creek comes down from +the left. We land first on the right, and clamber up over the granite +pinnacles for a mile or two, but can see no way by which we can let +down, and to run it would be sure destruction. After dinner we cross to +examine it on the left. High above the river we can walk along on the +top of the granite, which is broken off at the edge, and set with crags +and pinnacles, so that it is very difficult to get a view of the river +at all. In my eagerness to reach a point where I can see the roaring +fall below, I go too far on the wall, and can neither advance nor +retreat. I stand with one foot on a little projecting rock, and cling +with my hand fixed in a little crevice. Finding I am caught here, +suspended four hundred feet above the river, into which I should fall if +my footing fails, I call for help. The men come, and pass me a line, but +I cannot let go of the rock long enough to take hold of it. Then they +bring two or three of the largest oars. All this takes time which seems +very precious to me; but at last they arrive. The blade of one of the +oars is pushed into a little crevice in the rock beyond me, in such a +manner that they can hold me pressed against the wall. Then another is +fixed in such a way that I can step on it, and thus I am extricated. + +Still another hour is spent in examining the river from this side, but +no good view of it is obtained, so now we return to the side that was +first examined, and the afternoon is spent in clambering among the crags +and pinnacles, and carefully scanning the river again. We find that the +lateral streams have washed boulders into the river, so as to form a dam +over which the water makes a broken fall of eighteen or twenty feet; +then there is a rapid, beset with rocks, for two or three hundred yards, +while, on the other side, points of the wall project into the river. +Then there is a second fall below; how great, we cannot tell. Then there +is a rapid, filled with huge rocks, for one or two hundred yards. At the +bottom of it, from the right wall, a great rock projects quite half-way +across the river. It has a sloping surface extending upstream, and the +water, coming down with all the momentum gained in the falls and rapids +above, rolls up this inclined plane many feet and tumbles over to the +left. I decide that it is possible to let down over the first fall, then +run near the right cliff to a point just above the second, where we can +pull out into a little chute, and, having run over that in safety, we +must pull with all our power across the stream, to avoid the great rock +below. On my return to the boat, I announce to the men that we are to +run it in the morning. Then we cross the river, and go down into camp +for the night on some rocks, in the mouth of the little side canon. + +After supper Captain Howland asks to have a talk with me. We walk up the +little creek a short distance, and I soon find that his object is to +remonstrate against my determination to proceed. He thinks that we had +better abandon the river here. Talking with him, I learn that his +brother, William Dunn, and himself have determined to go no farther in +the boats. So we return to camp. Nothing is said to the other men. + +For the last two days our course has not been plotted. I sit down and do +this now, for the purpose of finding where we are by dead reckoning. It +is a clear night, and I take out the sextant to make observations for +latitude, and find that the astronomic determination agrees very nearly +with that of the plot--quite as closely as might be expected, from a +meridian observation on a planet. In a direct line, we must be about +forty-five miles from the mouth of the Rio Virgen. If we can reach that +point, we know that there are settlements up that river about twenty +miles. This forty-five miles, in a direct line, will probably be eighty +or ninety in the meandering line of the river. But then we know that +there is comparatively open country for many miles about the mouth of +the Virgen, which is our point of destination. + +As soon as I determine all this, I spread my plot on the sand, and wake +Howland, who is sleeping down by the river, and show him where I suppose +we are, and where several Mormon settlements are situated. + +We have another short talk about the morrow, and he lies down again; but +for me there is no sleep. All night long I pace up and down a little +path, on a few yards of sand beach, along by the river. Is it wise to go +on? I go to the boats again, to look at our rations. I feel satisfied +that we can get over the danger immediately before us; what there may be +below I know not. From our outlook yesterday, on the cliffs, the canon +seemed to make another great bend to the south, and this, from our +experience heretofore, means more and higher granite walls. I am not +sure that we can climb out of the canon here, and, when at the top of +the wall, I know enough of the country to be certain that it is a desert +of rock and sand, between this and the nearest Mormon town, which, on +the most direct line, must be seventy-five miles away. True, the late +rains have been favourable to us, should we go out, for the +probabilities are that we shall find water still standing in holes, and, +at one time, I almost conclude to leave the river. But for years I have +been contemplating this trip. To leave the exploration unfinished, to +say that there is a part of the canon which I cannot explore, having +already almost accomplished it, is more than I am willing to +acknowledge, and I determine to go on. + +I wake my brother and tell him of Howland's determination, and he +promises to stay with me; then I call up Hawkins, the cook, and he makes +a like promise; then Sumner, and Bradley, and Hall, and they all agree +to go on. + +_August 28._ At last daybreak comes, and we have breakfast, without a +word being said about the future. The meal is as solemn as a funeral. +After breakfast I ask the three men if they still think it best to leave +us. The elder Howland thinks it is, and Dunn agrees with him. The +younger Howland tries to persuade them to go on with the party, failing +in which, he decides to go with his brother. + +Then we cross the river. The small boat is very much disabled, and +unseaworthy. With the loss of hands, consequent on the departure of the +three men, we shall not be able to run all of the boats, so I decide to +leave my _Emma Dean_. + +Two rifles and a shotgun are given to the men who are going out. I ask +them to help themselves to the rations, and take what they think to be a +fair share. This they refuse to do, saying they have no fear but what +they can get something to eat; but Billy, the cook, has a pan of +biscuits prepared for dinner, and these he leaves on a rock. + +Before starting, we take our barometers, fossils, the minerals, and some +ammunition from the boat and leave them on the rocks. We are going over +this place as light as possible. The three men help us lift our boats +over a rock twenty-five or thirty feet high, and let them down again +over the first fall, and now we are all ready to start. + +The last thing before leaving, I write a letter to my wife, and give it +to Howland. Sumner gives him his watch, directing that it be sent to his +sister, should he not be heard from again. The records of the expedition +have been kept in duplicate. One set of these is given to Howland, and +now we are ready. For the last, time, they entreat us not to go on, and +tell us that it is madness to set out in this place; that we can never +get safely through it; and, further, that the river turns again to the +south into the granite, and a few miles of such rapids and falls will +exhaust our entire stock of rations, and then it will be too late to +climb out. Some tears are shed; it is a rather solemn parting; each +party thinks the other is taking the dangerous course. + +My old boat left, I go on board of the _Maid of the Canon_. The three +men climb a crag, that overhangs the river, to watch us off. The _Maid +of the Canon_ pushes out. We glide rapidly along the foot of the wall, +just grazing one great rock, then pull out a little into the chute of +the second fall, and plunge over it. The open compartment is filled when +we strike the first wave below, but we cut through it, and then the men +pull with all their power toward the left wall, and swing clear of the +dangerous rock below all right. We are scarcely a minute in running it, +and find that, although it looked bad from above, we have passed many +places that were worse. + +The other boat follows with more difficulty. We land at the first +practicable point below and fire our guns as a signal to the men above +that we have come over in safety. Here we remain a couple of hours, +hoping that they will take the smaller boat and follow us. We are behind +a curve in the canon, and cannot see up to where we left them, and so we +wait until their coming seems hopeless, and push on. + +And now we have a succession of rapids and falls until noon, all of +which we run in safety. Just after dinner we come to another bad place. +A little stream comes in from the left, and below there is a fall, and +still below another fall. Above, the river tumbles down, over and among +the rocks, in whirlpools and great waves, and the waters are lashed into +mad, white foam. We run along the left, above this, and soon see that we +cannot get down on this side, but it seems possible to let down on the +other. We pull up stream again for two or three hundred yards and cross. +Now there is a bed of basalt on this northern side of the canon with a +bold escarpment, that seems to be a hundred feet high. We can climb it, +and walk along its summit to a point where we are just at the head of +the fall. Here the basalt is broken down again, so it seems to us, and I +direct the men to take a line to the top of the cliff, and let the boats +down along the wall. One man remains in the boat, to keep her clear of +the rocks, and prevent her line from being caught on the projecting +angles. I climb the cliff, and pass along to a point just over the fall, +and descend by broken rocks, and find that the break of the fall is +above the break of the wall, so that we cannot land; and that still +below the river is very bad, find that there is no possibility of a +portage. Without waiting further to examine and determine what shall be +done, I hasten back to the top of the cliff, to stop the boats from +coming down. When I arrive I find the men have let one of them down to +the head of the fall. She is in swift water, and they are not able to +pull her back; nor are they able to go on with the line, as it is not +long enough to reach the higher part of the cliff, which is just before +them; so they take a bight around a crag. I send two men back for the +other line. The boat is in very swift water, and Bradley is standing in +the open compartment, holding out his oar to prevent her from striking +against the foot of the cliff. Now she shoots out into the stream, and +up as far as the line will permit, and then, wheeling, drives headlong +against the rock, then out and back again, now straining on the line, +now striking against the rock. As soon as the second line is brought, we +pass it down to him; but his attention is all taken up with his own +situation, and he does not see that we are passing the line to him. I +stand on a projecting rock, waving my hat to gain his attention, for my +voice is drowned by the roaring of the falls. Just at this moment, I see +him take his knife from its sheath, and step forward to cut the line. He +has evidently decided that it is better to go over with the boat as it +is, than to wait for her to be broken to pieces. As he leans over, the +boat sheers again into the stream, the stem-post breaks away, and she is +loose. With perfect composure Bradley seizes the great scull oar, places +it in the stern rowlock, and pulls with all his power (and he is an +athlete) to turn the bow of the boat downstream, for he wishes to go bow +down, rather than to drift broadside on. One, two strokes he makes, and +a third just as she goes over, and the boat is fairly turned, and she +goes down almost beyond our sight, though we are more than a hundred +feet above the river. Then she comes up again, on a great wave, and down +and up, then around behind some great rocks, and is lost in the mad, +white foam below. We stand frozen with fear, for we see no boat. Bradley +is gone, so it seems. But now, away below, we see something coming out +of the waves. It is evidently a boat. A moment more, and we see Bradley +standing on deck, swinging his hat to show that he is all right. But he +is in a whirlpool. We have the stem post of his boat attached to the +line. How badly she may be disabled we know not. I direct Sumner and +Powell to pass along the cliff, and see if they can reach him from +below. Rhodes, Hall, and myself run to the other boat, jump aboard, push +out, and away we go over the falls. A wave rolls over us, and our boat +is unmanageable. Another great wave strikes us, the boat rolls over, and +tumbles and tosses, I know not how. All I know is that Bradley is +picking us up. We soon have all right again, and row to the cliff, and +wait until Sumner and Powell can come. After a difficult climb they +reach us. We run two or three miles farther, and turn again to the +northwest, continuing until night, when we have run out of the granite +once more. + +_August 29._ We start very early this morning. The river still +continues swift, but we have no serious difficulty, and at twelve +o'clock emerge from the Grand Canon of the Colorado. + +We are in a valley now, and low mountains are seen in the distance, +coming to the river below. We recognize this as the Grand Wash. + +A few years ago a party of Mormons set out from St. George, Utah, taking +with them a boat, and came down to the mouth of the Grand Wash, where +they divided, a portion of the party crossing the river to explore the +San Francisco Mountains. Three men--Hamblin, Miller, and Crosby--taking +the boat, went on down the river to Callville, landing a few miles below +the mouth of the Rio Virgen. We have their manuscript journal with us, +and so the stream is comparatively well known. + +To-night we camp on the left bank in a mesquit thicket. + +The relief from danger and the joy of success are great. When he who has +been chained by wounds to a hospital cot, until his canvas tent seems +like a dungeon cell, until the groans of those who lie about, tortured +with probe and knife, are piled up, a weight of horror on his ears that +he cannot throw off, cannot forget, and until the stench of festering +wounds and anaesthetic drugs has filled the air with its loathsome +burthen, at last goes into the open field, what a world he sees! How +beautiful the sky; how bright the sunshine; what "floods of delirious +music" pour from the throats of birds; how sweet the fragrance of earth +and tree, and blossom! The first hour of convalescent freedom seems rich +recompense for all--pain, gloom, terror. + +Something like this are the feelings we experience to-night. Ever before +us has been an unknown danger, heavier than immediate peril. Every +waking hour passed in the Grand Canon has been one of toil. We have +watched with deep solicitude the steady disappearance of our scant +supply of rations, and from time to time have seen the river snatch a +portion of the little left, while we were ahungered. And danger and toil +were endured in those gloomy depths, where ofttimes the clouds hid the +sky by day, and but a narrow zone of stars could be seen at night. Only +during the few hours of deep sleep, consequent on hard labour, has the +roar of the waters been hushed. Now the danger is over; now the toil has +ceased; now the gloom has disappeared; now the firmament is bounded only +by the horizon; and what a vast expanse of constellations can be seen! + +The river rolls by us in silent majesty; the quiet of the camp is sweet; +our joy is almost ecstasy. We sit till long after midnight, talking of +the Grand Canon, talking of home, but chiefly talking of the three men +who left us. Are they wandering in those depths, unable to find a way +out? are they searching over the desert lands above for water? or are +they nearing the settlements? + +_August 30._ We run two or three short, low canons to-day, and on +emerging from one, we discover a band of Indians in the valley below. +They see us, and scamper away in most eager haste, to hide among the +rocks. Although we land, and call for them to return, not an Indian can +be seen. + +Two or three miles farther down, in turning a short bend in the river, +we come upon another camp. So near are we before they can see us that I +can shout to them, and, being able to speak a little of their language, +I tell them we are friends; but they flee to the rocks, except a man, a +woman, and two children. We land, and talk with them. They are without +lodges, but have built little shelters of boughs, under which they +wallow in the sand. The man is dressed in a hat; the woman in a string +of beads only. At first they are evidently much terrified; but when I +talk to them in their own language, and tell them we are friends, and +inquire after people in the Mormon towns, they are soon reassured, and +beg for tobacco. Of this precious article we have none to spare. Sumner +looks around in the boat for something to give them, and finds a little +piece of coloured soap, which they receive as a valuable present, rather +as a thing of beauty than as a useful commodity, however. They are +either unwilling or unable to tell us anything about the Indians or +white people, and so we push off, for we must lose no time. + +We camp at noon under the right bank. And now, as we push out, we are +in great expectancy, for we hope every minute to discover the mouth of +the Rio Virgen. + +Soon one of the men exclaims: "Yonder's an Indian in the river." Looking +for a few minutes, we certainly do see two or three persons. The men +bend to their oars, and pull toward them. Approaching, we see that there +are three white men and an Indian hauling a seine, and then we discover +that it is just at the mouth of the long-sought river. + +As we come near, the men seem far less surprised to see us than we do to +see them. They evidently know who we are, and, on talking with them, +they tell us that we have been reported lost long ago, and that some +weeks before, a messenger had been sent from Salt Lake City, with +instructions for them to watch for any fragments or relics of our party +that might drift down the stream. + +Our new-found friends, Mr. Asa and his two sons, tell us that they are +pioneers of a town that is to be built on the bank. + +Eighteen or twenty miles up the valley of the Rio Virgen there are two +Mormon towns, St. Joseph and St. Thomas. To-night we despatch an Indian +to the last mentioned place, to bring any letters that may be there for +us. + +Our arrival here is very opportune. When we look over our store of +supplies, we find about ten pounds of flour, fifteen pounds of dried +apples, but seventy or eighty pounds of coffee. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Geologists would call these rocks metamorphic crystalline schists, +with dikes and beds of granite, but we will use the popular name for the +whole series--granite. + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +Obvious printer's errors, including punctuation have been silently +corrected. Hyphenated and accented words have been standardized. + +Page 18--"Peter Martyr tell us..." changed to "Peter +Martyr tells us..." + +Page 69--satisfacton changed to satisfaction. + +Page 99--oppossed changed to opposed. + +Page 101--nihgt changed to night. + +Page 127--connonade changed to cannonade. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Little Masterpieces of Science: +Explorers, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPLORERS *** + +***** This file should be named 29502.txt or 29502.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/5/0/29502/ + +Produced by Sigal Alon, Marcia Brooks, Fox in the Stars +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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