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diff --git a/29502-h/29502-h.htm b/29502-h/29502-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34f1264 --- /dev/null +++ b/29502-h/29502-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6463 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Little Masterpieces of Science, + Explorers, Edited by George Iles. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1.25em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + p.hang {text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em;} + + h1,h4,h5 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + + h1 {page-break-before: always; } + + h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + h3 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + +div.trans-note {border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; + margin: 3em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: center; + background: #def; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + .tdh {text-align: left; font-size: 120%;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { position: absolute; + left: 2%; + font-size: 65%; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .noteb {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + font-size: smaller; font-weight: bold; + text-align: left;} + + .bbox {border: solid 2px; width: 80%; margin: auto;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .totoc {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: 75%; text-align: right;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; font-size: 90%;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Little Masterpieces of Science: Explorers, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Little Masterpieces of Science: Explorers + +Author: Various + +Editor: George Iles + +Release Date: July 24, 2009 [EBook #29502] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPLORERS *** + + + + +Produced by Sigal Alon, Marcia Brooks, Fox in the Stars +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>LITTLE MASTERPIECES OF SCIENCE</h1> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;"> +<img src="images/il004.png" width="303" height="500" alt="Christopher Columbus." title="Christopher Columbus." /> +<span class="caption">Christopher Columbus.</span> +</div> +<br /><br /> + +<div class="bbox"> +<h1>Little Masterpieces<br /> +of Science</h1> + +<h2>Edited by George Iles</h2> +</div> +<div class="bbox"> +<br /> +<br /> +<h1>EXPLORERS</h1> +<br /> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Authors"> +<tr><td align='left'>Christopher Columbus</td><td align='left'>Charles Wilkes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lewis and Clarke</td><td align='left'>Clarence King</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Zebulon M. Pike</td><td align='left'>John Wesley Powell</td></tr> +</table></div> +<br /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/il005.png" width="125" height="116" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" /> +</div> + +</div> +<div class="bbox"> +<h5>NEW YORK</h5> +<h4>DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY</h4> +<h5>1902</h5> +</div> +<br /><br /> + +<div class="center"> +Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page & Co.<br /> +Copyright, 1891, by Justin Winsor<br /> +Copyright, 1871, by Oliver Wendell Holmes<br /> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Peace hath her victories<br /></span> +<span class="i0">No less renown'd than war.”<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p>The love of adventure, the expectation of the +unexpected, have ever prompted men stout of +heart, and ready of resource, to brave the perils +of wilderness and sea that they might set their +feet where man never trod before. The world +owes much to the explorers who have faced hostile +savages, stood in jeopardy from the cobra +and the lion, the foes as deadly which lurk in the +brook which quenches thirst. A traveller like +Clarke takes his life in his hands. He breaks +a path which leads he knows not whither: it may +bring him to a shore whence he has no ship +to sail from; it may end in an abyss he cannot +bridge. The thickets rend and sting him, poison +may colour a tempting grain or berry, frost may +deaden his energies and lull him to the sleep that +knows no waking. He has but little aid from +science: beyond food and medicine he carries +little more than a watch, a compass, a rifle, +and a cartridge belt. Beyond all instruments +and weapons are his skill, agility, gumption, +diplomacy. And these resources in no mean +measure are shared by the man for whom he +prepares the way, the immigrant, who, in the +early days of settlement, requires a constancy +even higher than the explorer's own. It is one +thing to traverse a wilderness under the excitement +of hourly adventure; it is another thing to +stay there for a lifetime and convert it to a home.</p> + +<p>The race of American explorers is not extinct. +Major Powell is with us to-day, hale and hearty +still. Peary, in the prime of his powers, is as +capital an example of courage and resource as +ever threw themselves upon the riddle of the +frozen north. Beyond the Arctic and Antarctic +circles little remains unknown on earth. When +at last every rood of ground and knot of sea is +mapped and charted, whither shall the explorer +direct his steps? He cannot repeat the conquests +of Lewis and Clarke, Pike and Peary, +but he need not on that account fold his hands +so long as a brave heart and a quick wit are +wanted in the world.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"><span class="smcap">George Iles</span></p> + + +<hr /> +<a name="toc" id="toc"></a> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents" width="80%"> +<colgroup> + <col width="90%" /> + <col width="10%" /> +</colgroup> +<tr> +<td class="tdh">WINSOR, JUSTIN</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><a href="#COLUMBUS_DISCOVERS_AMERICA"><b><span class="smcap">Columbus Discovers America</span></b></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="hang">Embarks at Palos, August 3, 1492. A mishap befalls the +<i>Pinta</i>. Sees the Peak of Teneriffe in eruption. Arrives at +the Canaries. Falsifies his reckoning to conceal from his crew +the length of the voyage. On September 13th his compass points +to the true north, a fact without precedent. Next day a water +wagtail is seen, betokening an approach to land. Two pelicans +alight on board, with the same significance. These promises +fail, and the crew becomes disheartened and discontented. On +October 11th Columbus sees a light, presumably on shore: four +hours later, next day, land is descried and named by Columbus +San Salvador. Discussion as to where this place is: the +balance of probability inclines to Watling's Island.</p></td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdh">LEWIS AND CLARKE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><a href="#LEWIS_AND_CLARKE_REACH_THE"><b><span class="smcap">Arrival at the Pacific Ocean</span>, 1805</b></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="hang">Descent of the last rapid of the Columbia River, November 2. A +feast of wappatoo root. Meet unfriendly Indians. Observe Mount +St. Helen, of Vancouver, about ninety miles off. The country +fertile and delightful, abounding with game. The ocean suddenly +appears. Rough weather and its effects. Friendly Indians bring +food. Rain ruins merchandise, clothing and food. Thievish +Indians are withstood. The journey comes successfully to an +end.</p></td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdh">PIKE, ZEBULON M.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><a href="#THE_SOURCES_OF_THE_MISSISSIPPI"><b><span class="smcap">The Sources of the Mississippi, 1806</span></b></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="hang">Meets friendly Indians and whites. A serious fire. Deep snow +inflicts severe hardship. A trackless journey ends in safety +and a hospitable welcome. Provisions exorbitant in price. A +march on snowshoes. Sleds of native pattern are made. Delay +through water on the ice. Bitter cold and the curse of solitude. +A dismal swamp. Unfriendly Indians and the purchasing power +of whiskey. The main source of the Mississippi comes into +view. Disabled by excessive exertion. Hoists the flag. Visits +of Indian chiefs.</p></td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdh">WILKES, CHARLES</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><a href="#MANILA_IN_1842"><b><span class="smcap">Manila in 1842</span></b></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="hang">Character of the city Spanish and Oriental: numerous canals. A +strange and motley population, the artisans for the most part +Chinese. Malays and Chinese live apart. Much evidence of +volcanic activity in the Philippines. Natural resources +abundant. Primitive tools cause much waste of labour. The +buffalo as a draught animal. Rice the staple diet: defective +mode of culture. Hemp, its growth and manufacture. Crops of +coffee, sugar and cotton. The ravages of locusts. Geography of +the country and the diverse elements of its population. Its +army of about 6,000. Frequent rebellions among the troops and +tribes. Iron rule of the Government. The market-place a scene +of unending interest. Excellent poultry. The environs of +Manila delightful.</p></td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdh">KING, CLARENCE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><a href="#THE_ASCENT_OF_MOUNT_TYNDALL"><b><span class="smcap">The Ascent of Mount Tyndall</span></b></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="hang">An eight hours' climb over ridges of granite and snow. “Shall +we ascend Mount Tyndall?” “Why not?” At first Professor +Brewer believes the attempt madness, but yields consent at +last. The climb begins and steadily increases in difficulty. A +gulf of 5,000 feet in depth. A night's lodging in a granite +crevice. Rocks of many tons strike near. The galling pain +of heavy burdens. A profound chasm is crossed on a rope. +Exhilaration of utmost peril. A small bush ensures salvation. +A welcome stretch of trees and flowers. A spire, all but +perpendicular, of rock and ice is surmounted, and at last is +reached the crest of Mount Tyndall.</p></td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdh">POWELL, JOHN WESLEY</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><a href="#THE_GRAND_CANON_OF_THE"><b><span class="smcap">The Grand Cañon of the Colorado Is Explored</span></b></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p class="hang">Embarkation under cliffs 4,000 feet high. A swift run ends in +a descent of eighty feet in one-third of a mile. Breakers +render a boat unmanageable. Walls more than a mile high. The +baffling waters capsize a boat. Relics of ancient dwelling-places. +Rations destroyed by wet. Clothing lost and blankets scarce. +Grand views not fully enjoyed. A wild run through ten miles +of rapids. In places the rocks so cut by water that it is +impossible to see overhead. Great amphitheatres, half-dome +shaped. Mammoth springs of lime-laden waters. An ancient +lava-bed channelled out. Stolen squashes provide a feast. +Difficulties thicken: is it wise to go on? Three of the party +say no, the remainder proceed. All but lost in a whirlpool. +Emergence from the Grand Cañon in safety and joy.</p></td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1>EXPLORERS</h1> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">Top</a></span> +<h2><a name="COLUMBUS_DISCOVERS_AMERICA" id="COLUMBUS_DISCOVERS_AMERICA"></a>COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA</h2> + +<h3>Justin Winsor</h3> + +<div class="noteb"><p>[Part of Chapter IX., “The Final Agreement and the +First Voyage” from “Christopher Columbus and How He +Received and Imparted the Spirit of Discovery,” copyright +by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York, 1892.]</p></div> + + +<p>So, everything being ready, on the 3rd of +August, 1492, a half-hour before sunrise, he unmoored +his little fleet in the stream, and, spreading +his sails, the vessels passed out of the little +river roadstead of Palos, gazed after, perhaps, +in the increasing light, as the little crafts reached +the ocean, by the friar of Rabida, from its distant +promontory of rock.</p> + +<p>The day was Friday, and the advocates of +Columbus's canonization have not failed to see +a purpose in its choice as the day of our Redemption, +and as that of the deliverance of the Holy +Sepulchre by Geoffrey de Bouillon, and of the +rendition of Granada, with the fall of the Moslem +power in Spain. We must resort to the books of +such advocates, if we would enliven the picture +with a multitude of rites and devotional feelings +that they gather in the meshes of the story of +the departure. They supply to the embarkation +a variety of detail that their holy purposes readily +imagine, and place Columbus at last on his poop, +with the standard of the Cross, the image of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +Saviour nailed to the holy wood, waving in the +early breeze that heralded the day. The embellishments +may be pleasing, but they are not +of the strictest authenticity.</p> + +<p>In order that his performance of an embassy +to the princes of the East might be duly chronicled, +Columbus determined, as his journal says, +to keep an account of the voyage by the west, +“by which course,” he says, “unto the present +time, we do not know, <i>for certain</i>, that any one +has passed.” It was his purpose to write down, +as he proceeded, everything he saw and all that +he did, and to make a chart of his discoveries, +and to show the directions of his track.</p> + +<p>Nothing occurred during those early August +days to mar his run to the Canaries, except the +apprehension which he felt that an accident, +happening to the rudder of the <i>Pinta</i>,—a steering +gear now for some time in use, in place of the +old lateral blades,—was a trick of two men, her +owners, Gomez Rascon and Christopher Quintero, +to impede a voyage in which they had no heart. +The Admiral knew the disposition of these men +well enough not to be surprised at the mishap, +but he tried to feel secure in the prompt energy +of Pinzon, who commanded the <i>Pinta</i>.</p> + +<p>As he passed (August 24-25, 1492) the peak +of Teneriffe, it was the time of an eruption, +of which he makes bare mention in his +journal. It is to the corresponding passage of +the <i>Historie</i>, [written by his son, Fernando,] +that we owe the somewhat sensational stories<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +of the terrors of the sailors, some of whom certainly +must long have been accustomed to like +displays in the volcanoes of the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>At the Gran Canarie the <i>Nina</i> was left to have +her lateen sails changed to square ones; and the +<i>Pinta</i>, it being found impossible to find a better +vessel to take her place, was also left to be overhauled +for her leaks, and to have her rudder +again repaired, while Columbus visited Gomera, +another of the islands. The fleet was reunited +at Gomera on September 2. Here he fell in +with some residents of the Ferro, the westermost +of the group, who repeated the old stories of land +occasionally seen from its heights, lying towards +the setting sun. Having taken on board wood, +water, and provisions, Columbus finally sailed +from Gomera on the morning of Thursday, +September 6. He seems to have soon spoken +a vessel from Ferro, and from this he learned +that three Portuguese caravels were lying in +wait for him in the neighbourhood of that island, +with a purpose, as he thought, of visiting in some +way upon him, for having gone over to the +interests of Spain, the indignation of the Portuguese +king. He escaped encountering them.</p> + +<p>Up to Sunday, September 9, they had experienced +so much calm weather, that their progress +had been slow. This tediousness soon +raised an apprehension in the mind of Columbus +that the voyage might prove too long for the +constancy of his men. He accordingly determined +to falsify his reckoning. This deceit was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +a large confession of his own timidity in dealing +with his crew, and it marked the beginning of a +long struggle with deceived and mutinous subordinates, +which forms so large a part of the +record of his subsequent career.</p> + +<p>The result of Monday's sail, which he knew to +be sixty leagues, he noted as forty-eight, so that +the distance from home might appear less than +it was. He continued to practise this deceit.</p> + +<p>The distances given by Columbus are those of +dead reckoning beyond any question. Lieutenant +Murdock, of the United States Navy, who +has commented on this voyage, makes his league +the equivalent of three modern nautical miles, +and his mile about three-quarters of our present +estimate for that distance. Navarrete says that +Columbus reckoned in Italian miles, which are a +quarter less than Spanish miles. The Admiral +had expected to make land after sailing about +seven hundred leagues from Ferro; and in ordering +his vessels in case of separation to proceed +westward, he warned them when they sailed +that distance to come to the wind at night, and +only to proceed by day.</p> + +<p>The log as at present understood in navigation +had not yet been devised. Columbus depended +in judging of his distance on the eye alone, basing +his calculations on the passage of objects or +bubbles past the ship, while the running out of +his hour glasses afforded the multiple for long +distances.</p> + +<p>On Thursday, the 13th of September, he notes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +that the ships were encountering adverse currents. +He was now three degrees west of Flores, and the +needle of the compass pointed as it had never +been observed before, directly to the true north. +His observation of this fact marks a significant +point in the history of navigation. The polarity +of the magnet, an ancient possession of the +Chinese, had been known perhaps for three +hundred years, when this new spirit of discovery +awoke in the fifteenth century. The Indian +Ocean and its traditions were to impart, perhaps +through the Arabs, perhaps through the returning +Crusaders, a knowledge of the magnet to the +dwellers on the shores of the Mediterranean, and +to the hardier mariners who had pushed beyond +the pillars of Hercules, so that the new route to +that same Indian Ocean was made possible in +the fifteenth century. The way was prepared +for it gradually. The Catalans from the port of +Barcelona pushed out into the great Sea of Darkness +under the direction of their needles, as early +at least as the twelfth century. The pilots of +Genoa and Venice, the hardy Majorcans and the +adventurous Moors, were followers of almost +equal temerity.</p> + +<p>A knowledge of the variation of the needle +came more slowly to be known to the mariners +of the Mediterranean. It had been observed by +Peregrini as early as 1269, but that knowledge +of it which rendered it greatly serviceable in +voyages does not seem to be plainly indicated +in any of the charts of these transition centuries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +till we find it laid down on the maps of Andrea +Bianco in 1436.</p> + +<p>It was no new thing then when Columbus, as he +sailed westward, marked the variation, proceeding +from the northeast more and more westerly; +but it was a revelation when he came to a position +where the magnetic north and the north star +stood in conjunction, as they did on this 13th of +September, 1492. As he still moved westerly +the magnetic line was found to move farther and +farther away from the pole as it had before the +13th approached it. To an observer of Columbus's +quick perceptions, there was a ready guess +to possess his mind. This inference was that +this line of no variation was a meridian line, and +that divergence from it east and west might have +a regularity which would be found to furnish +a method of ascertaining longitude far easier +and surer than tables or water clocks. We know +that four years later he tried to sail his ship on +observations of this kind. The same idea seems +to have occurred to Sebastian Cabot, when a +little afterwards he approached and passed in a +higher latitude, what he supposed to be the +meridian of no variation. Humboldt is inclined +to believe that the possibility of such a method +of ascertaining longitude was that uncommunicable +secret, which Sebastian Cabot many years +later hinted at on his death-bed.</p> + +<p>The claim was made near a century later by +Livio Sanuto in his <i>Geographia</i>, published at +Venice, in 1588, that Sebastian Cabot had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +the first to observe this variation, and had explained +it to Edward VI., and that he had on a +chart placed the line of no variation at a point +one hundred and ten miles west of the island of +Flores in the Azores.</p> + +<p>These observations of Columbus and Cabot +were not wholly accepted during the sixteenth +century. Robert Hues, in 1592, a hundred +years later, tells us that Medina, the Spanish +grand pilot, was not disinclined to believe that +mariners saw more in it than really existed and +that they found it a convenient way to excuse +their own blunders. Nonius was credited with +saying that it simply meant that worn-out magnets +were used, which had lost their power to +point correctly to the pole. Others had contended +that it was through insufficient application +of the loadstone to the iron that it was so +devious in its work.</p> + +<p>What was thought possible by the early +navigators possessed the minds of all seamen in +varying experiments for two centuries and a half. +Though not reaching such satisfactory results +as were hoped for, the expectation did not prove +so chimerical as was sometimes imagined when +it was discovered that the lines of variation were +neither parallel, nor straight, nor constant. The +line of no variation which Columbus found near +the Azores had moved westward with erratic +inclinations, until to-day it is not far from a +straight line from Carolina to Guinea. Science, +beginning with its crude efforts at the hands of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +Alonzo de Santa Cruz, in 1530, has so mapped +the surface of the globe with observations of its +multifarious freaks of variation, and the changes +are so slow, that a magnetic chart is not a bad +guide to-day for ascertaining the longitude in +any latitude for a few years neighbouring to the +date of its records. So science has come around +in some measure to the dreams of Columbus and +Cabot.</p> + +<p>But this was not the only development which +came from this ominous day in the mid-Atlantic +in that September of 1492. The fancy of Columbus +was easily excited, and notions of a change +of climate, and even aberration of the stars were +easily imagined by him amid the strange phenomena +of that untracked waste.</p> + +<p>While Columbus was suspecting that the north +star was somewhat wilfully shifting from the +magnetic pole, now to a distance of 5° and then +of 10°, the calculations of modern astronomers +have gauged the polar distance existing in 1492 +at 3° 28´, as against the 1° 20´ of to-day. The +confusion of Columbus was very like his confounding +an old world with a new, inasmuch as +he supposed it was the pole star and not the +needle which was shifting.</p> + +<p>He argued from what he saw, or what he +thought he saw, that the line of no variation +marked the beginning of a protuberance of the +earth, up which he ascended as he sailed westerly, +and that this was the reason of the cooler weather +which he experienced. He never got over some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +notions of this kind, and he believed he found confirmation +of them in his later voyages.</p> + +<p>Even as early as the reign of Edward III. of +England, Nicholas of Lynn, a voyager to the +northern seas, is thought to have definitely fixed +the magnetic pole in the Arctic regions, transmitting +his views to Cnoyen, the master of the +later Mercator, in respect to the four circumpolar +islands, which in the sixteenth century made so +constant a surrounding of the north pole.</p> + +<p>The next day (September 14), after these magnetic +observations, a water wagtail was seen +from the <i>Nina</i>,—a bird which Columbus thought +unaccustomed to fly over twenty-five leagues +from land, and the ships were now, according to +their reckoning, not far from two hundred leagues +from the Canaries. On Saturday they saw a +distant bolt of fire fall into the sea. On Sunday, +they had a drizzling rain, followed by pleasant +weather, which reminded Columbus of the nightingales, +gladdening the climate of Andalusia in +April. They found around the ships much green +floatage of weeds, which led them to think some +islands must be near. Navarrete thinks there +was some truth in this, inasmuch as the charts +of the early part of this century represent breakers +as having been seen in 1802, near the spot where +Columbus can be computed to have been at this +time. Columbus was in fact within that extensive +<i>prairie</i> of floating seaweed which is known +as the Sargasso Sea, whose principal longitudinal +axis is found in modern times to lie along the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +parallel of 41° 30´, and the best calculations +which can be made from the rather uncertain +data of Columbus's journal seem to point to +about the same position.</p> + +<p>There is nothing in all these accounts, as we +have them abridged by La Casas, to indicate any +great surprise, and certainly nothing of the overwhelming +fear which, the <i>Historie</i> tells us, the +sailors experienced when they found their ships +among these floating masses of weeds, raising +apprehension of a perpetual entanglement in +their swashing folds.</p> + +<p>The next day (September 17) the currents +became favourable, and the weeds still floated +about them. The variation of the needle now +became so great that the seamen were dismayed, +as the journal says, and the observation being +repeated Columbus practised another deceit +and made it appear that there had been really +no variation, but only a shifting of the polar star! +The weeds were now judged to be river weeds, +and a live crab was found among them,—a sure +sign of near land, as Columbus believed, or +affected to believe. They killed a tunny and +saw others. They again observed a water wagtail, +“which does not sleep at sea.” Each ship +pushed on for the advance, for it was thought +the goal was near. The next day the <i>Pinta</i> shot +ahead and saw great flocks of birds towards the +west. Columbus conceived that the sea was growing, +fresher. Heavy clouds hung on the northern +horizon, a sure sign of land, it was supposed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the next day two pelicans came on board, +and Columbus records that these birds are not +accustomed to go twenty leagues from land. +So he sounded with a line of two hundred fathoms +to be sure he was not approaching land; but no +bottom was found. A drizzling rain also betokened +land, which they could not stop to find, +but would search for on their return, as the journal +says. The pilots now compared their reckonings. +Columbus said they were 400 leagues, +while the <i>Pinta's</i> record showed 420, and the +<i>Nina's</i> 440.</p> + +<p>On September 20 other pelicans came on board; +and the ships were again among the weeds. +Columbus was determined to ascertain if these +indicated shoal water and sounded, but could +not reach bottom. The men caught a bird with +feet like a gull; but they were convinced it was +a river bird. Then singing land birds, as was +fancied, hovered about as it darkened, but they +disappeared before morning. Then a pelican +was observed flying to the southwest, and as +“these birds sleep on shore, and go to sea in the +morning,” the men encouraged themselves with +the belief that they could not be far from land. +The next day a whale could be but another +indication of land; and the weeds covered the sea +all about. On Saturday, they steered west by +northwest, and got clear of the weeds. This +change of course so far to the north, which had +begun on the previous day, was occasioned by a +head wind, and Columbus says he welcomed it,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +because it had the effect of convincing the sailors +that westerly winds to return by were not impossible. +On Sunday (September 23), they +found the wind still varying; but they made +more westering than before,—weeds, crabs, and +birds still about them. Now there was +smooth water, which again depressed the seamen; +then the sea arose, mysteriously, for there +was no wind to cause it. They still kept their +course westerly and continued it till the night of +September 25.</p> + +<p>Columbus at this time conferred with Pinzon, +as to a chart which they carried, which showed +some islands, near where they now supposed the +ships to be. That they had not seen land, they +believed was either due to currents which had +carried them too far north, or else their reckoning +was not correct. At sunset Pinzon hailed the +Admiral, and said he saw land, claiming the +reward. The two crews were confident that such +was the case, and under the lead of their commanders +they all kneeled and repeated the +<i>Gloria in Excelsis</i>. The land appeared to lie +southwest, and everybody saw the apparition. +Columbus changed the fleet's course to reach it; +and as the vessels went on, in the smooth sea, +the men had the heart, under their expectation, +to bathe in its amber glories. On Wednesday, +they were undeceived, and found that the clouds +had played them a trick. On the 27th their +course lay more directly west. So they went on, +and still remarked upon all the birds they saw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +and weed-drift which they pierced. Some of the +fowl they thought to be such as were common +at the Cape Verde Islands, and were not supposed +to go far to sea. On the 30th of September, they +still observed the needles of their compasses to +vary, but the journal records that it was the pole +star which moved, and not the needle. On +October 1, Columbus says they were 707 leagues +from Ferro; but he had made his crew believe +they were only 584. As they went on, little +new for the next few days is recorded in the +journal; but on October 3, they thought they +saw among the weeds something like fruits. +By the 6th, Pinzon began to urge a southwesterly +course, in order to find the islands, which the +signs seemed to indicate in that direction. Still +the Admiral would not swerve from his purpose, +and kept his course westerly. On Sunday the +<i>Nina</i> fired a bombard and hoisted a flag as a +signal that she saw land, but it proved a delusion. +Observing towards evening a flock of birds flying +to the southwest, the Admiral yielded to Pinzon's +belief, and shifted his course to follow the +birds. He records as a further reason for it that +it was by following the flights of birds that the +Portuguese had been so successful in discovering +islands in other seas.</p> + +<p>Columbus now found himself two hundred +miles and more farther than the three thousand +miles west of Spain, where he supposed Cipango +to lie, and he was 25½° north of the equator, +according to his astrolabe. The true distance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +of Cipango or Japan was sixty-eight hundred +miles still farther, or beyond both North America +and the Pacific. How much beyond that island, +in its supposed geographical position, Columbus +expected to find the Asiatic main we can only +conjecture from the restorations which modern +scholars have made of Toscanelli's map, which +makes the island about 10° east of Asia, +and from Behaim's globe, which makes it 20°. +It should be borne in mind that the knowledge +of its position came from Marco Polo, and he does +not distinctly say how far it was from the Asiatic +coast. In a general way, as to these distances +from Spain to China, Toscanelli and Behaim +agreed, and there is no reason to believe that the +views of Columbus were in any noteworthy +degree different.</p> + +<p>In the trial years afterward, when the Fiscal +contested the rights of Diego Colon, it was put +in evidence by one Vallejo, a seaman, that Pinzon +was induced to urge the direction to be +changed to the southwest, because he had in the +preceding evening observed a flight of parrots +in that direction, which could have only been +seeking land. It was the main purpose of the +evidence in this part of the trial to show that +Pinzon had all along forced Columbus forward +against his will.</p> + +<p>How pregnant this change of course in the +vessels of Columbus was has not escaped the +observation of Humboldt and many others. +A day or two further on his westerly way, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +the Gulf Stream would, perhaps, insensibly have +borne the little fleet up the Atlantic coast of the +future United States, so that the banner of Castile +might have been planted at Carolina.</p> + +<p>On the 7th of October, Columbus was pretty +nearly in latitude 25° 50´,—that of one of the +Bahama Islands. Just where he was by longitude +there is much more doubt, probably between +65° and 66°. On the next day the land +birds flying along the course of the ships seemed +to confirm their hopes. On the 10th the journal +records that the men began to lose patience; but +the Admiral reassured them by reminding them +of the profits in store for them, and of the folly +of seeking to return when they had already gone +so far.</p> + +<p>It is possible that, in this entry, Columbus +conceals the story which came out later in the +recital of Oviedo, with more detail than in the +<i>Historie</i> and Las Casas, that the rebellion of his +crew was threatening enough to oblige him to +promise to turn back if land was not discovered +in three days. Most commentators, however, +are inclined to think that this story of a mutinous +revolt was merely engrafted from hearsay or +other source by Oviedo upon the more genuine +recital, and that the conspiracy to throw the +Admiral into the sea has no substantial basis in +contemporary report. Irving, who has a dramatic +tendency throughout his whole account +of the voyage to heighten his recital with touches +of the imagination, nevertheless allows this, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +thinks that Oviedo was misled by listening to a +pilot, who was a personal enemy of the Admiral.</p> + +<p>The elucidations of the voyage which were +drawn out in the famous suit of Diego with the +Crown in 1513 and 1515, afford no ground for +any belief in this story of the mutiny and the +concession of Columbus to it.</p> + +<p>It is not, however, difficult to conceive the +recurrent fears of his men and the incessant +anxiety of Columbus to quiet them. From +what Peter Martyr tells us,—and he may have +got it directly from Columbus's lips,—the task +was not an easy one to preserve subordination +and to instil confidence. He represents that +Columbus was forced to resort in turn to argument, +persuasion and enticements, and to picture +the misfortunes of the royal displeasure.</p> + +<p>The next day, notwithstanding a heavier sea +than they had before encountered, certain signs +sufficed to lift them out of their despondency. +These were floating logs, or pieces of wood, one +of them apparently carved by hand, bits of cane, +a green rush, a stalk of rose berries and other +drifting tokens.</p> + +<p>Their southwesterly course had now brought +them down to about the twenty-fourth parallel, +when after sunset on the 11th they shifted +their course to due west, while the crew of the +Admiral's ship united, with more fervour than +usual, in the <i>Salve Regina</i>. At about ten o'clock +Columbus, peering into the night, thought he +saw—if we may believe him—a moving light,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +and pointing out the direction to Pero Gutierrez, +this companion saw it too; but another, Rodrigo +Sanchez, situated apparently on another part +of the vessel, was not able to see it. It was not +brought to the attention of any others. The +Admiral says that the light seemed to be moving +up and down, and he claimed to have got +other glimpses of its glimmer at a later moment. +He ordered the <i>Salve</i> to be chanted, and directed +a vigilant watch to be set on the forecastle. +To sharpen their vision he promised a silken +jacket, beside the income of ten thousand +maravedis which the King and Queen had +offered to the fortunate man who should first +descry the coveted land.</p> + +<p>This light has been the occasion of such comment, +and nothing will ever, it is likely, be settled +about it, further than that the Admiral, with +an inconsiderate rivalry of a common sailor, +who later saw the actual land, and with an +ungenerous assurance, ill-befitting a commander, +pocketed a reward which belonged to another. +If Oviedo, with his prejudices, is to be believed, +Columbus was not even the first who claimed +to have seen this dubious light. There is a common +story that the poor sailor, who was defrauded, +later turned Mohammedan and went +to live among that juster people. There is a +sort of retributive justice in the fact that the +pension of the Crown was made a charge upon +the shambles of Seville, and thence Columbus +received it till he died.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> + +<p>Whether the light is to be considered a reality +or a fiction will depend much on the theory +each may hold regarding the position of the +landfall. When Columbus claimed to have discovered +it, he was twelve or fourteen leagues +away from the island, where four hours later +land was indubitably found. Was the light +on a canoe? Was it on some small, outlying +island, as has been suggested? Was it a torch +carried from hut to hut, as Herrera avers? +Was it on either of the other vessels? Was it +on the low island on which, the next morning +he landed? There was no elevation on that +island sufficient to show even a strong light +at a distance of ten leagues. Was it a fancy +or a deceit? No one can say. It is very difficult +for Navarrete, and even for Irving, to rest satisfied +with what after all may have been only +an illusion of a fevered mind, making a record +of the incident in the excitement of a wonderful +hour, when his intelligence was not as circumspect +as it might have been.</p> + +<p>Four hours after the light was seen, at two +o'clock in the morning, when the moon, near its +third quarter, was in the east, the <i>Pinta</i>, keeping +ahead, one of her sailors, Rodrigo de Triane +descried the land two leagues away, and a gun +communicated the joyful intelligence to the +other ships. The fleet took in sail, and each +vessel, under backed canvas, was pointed to the +wind. Thus they waited for daybreak. It was +a proud moment of painful suspense for Columbus;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +and brimming hopes, perhaps fears of disappointment, +must have accompanied that hour +of wavering enchantment. It was Friday, +October 12, of the old chronology, and the +little fleet had been thirty-three days on its +way from the Canaries, and we must add ten +days more to complete the period since they +left Palos. The land before them was seen, as +the day dawned, to be a small island, “called +in the Indian tongue” Guanahani. Some naked +natives were descried. The Admiral and the +commanders of the other vessels prepared to +land. Columbus took the royal standard and +the others each a banner of the green cross, +which bore the initials of the sovereign with a +cross between, a crown surmounting every +letter. Thus, with the emblems of their power, +and accompanied by Rodrigo de Escoveda and +Rodrigo Sanchez and some seamen, the boat +rowed to the shore. They immediately took +formal possession of the land, and the notary +recorded it.</p> + +<p>The words of the prayer usually given as +uttered by Columbus on taking possession of +San Salvador, when he named the island, cannot +be traced farther back than a collection +of <i>Tablas Chronologicas</i>, got together at Valencia +in 1689, by a Jesuit father, Claudio Clemente. +Harrisse finds no authority for the statement +of the French canonizers that Columbus established +a form of prayer which was long in +vogue, for such occupations of new lands.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> + +<p>Las Casas, from whom we have the best account +of the ceremonies of the landing, does +not mention it; but we find pictured in his +pages the grave impressiveness of the hour; +the form of Columbus, with a crimson robe +over his armour, central and grand; and the +humbleness of his followers in their contrition +for the hours of their faint-heartedness.</p> + +<p>Columbus now enters in his journal his impressions +of the island and its inhabitants. +He says of the land that it bore green trees, was +watered by many streams, and produced divers +fruits. In another place he speaks of the island +as flat, without lofty eminence, surrounded by +reefs, with a lake in the interior.</p> + +<p>The courses and distances of his sailing both +before and on leaving the island, as well as +this description, are the best means we have of +identifying the spot of this portentous landfall. +The early maps may help in a subsidiary way, +but with little precision.</p> + +<p>There is just enough uncertainty and contradiction +respecting the data and arguments +applied in the solution of this question, to render +it probable that men will never quite agree +which of the Bahamas it was upon which these +startled and exultant Europeans first stepped. +Though Las Casas reports the journal of Columbus +unabridged for a period after the landfall, +he unfortunately condenses it for some time +previous. There is apparently no chance of +finding geographical conditions that in every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +respect will agree with this record of Columbus, +and we must content ourselves with what offers +the fewest disagreements. An obvious method, +if we could depend on Columbus's dead reckoning, +would be to see for what island the actual +distance from the Canaries would be nearest +to his computed run; but currents and errors +of the eye necessarily throw this sort of computation +out of the question, and Captain G. +A. Fox, who has tried it, finds that Cat Island +is three hundred and seventeen, the Grand Turk +six hundred and twenty-four nautical miles, and +the other supposable points at intermediate distances +out of the way as compared with his +computation of the distance run by Columbus, +three thousand four hundred and fifty-eight of +such miles.</p> + +<p>The reader will remember the Bahama group +as a range of islands, islets, and rocks, said to be +some three thousand in number, running southeast +from a point part way up the Florida +coast, and approaching at the other end the +coast of Hispaniola. In the latitude of the lower +point of Florida, and five degrees east of it, is +the island of San Salvador or Cat Island, which +is the most northerly of those claimed to have +been the landfall of Columbus. Proceeding +down the group, we encounter Watling's, Samana, +Acklin (with the Plana Cays), Mariguana, +and the Grand Turk,—all of which have their +advocates. The three methods of identification +which have been followed are, first, by plotting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +the outward track; second, by plotting the +track between the landfall and Cuba, both +forward and backward; third, by applying the +descriptions, particularly Columbus's, of the +island first seen. In this last test, Harrisse prefers +to apply the description of Las Casas, +which is borrowed in part from that of the +<i>Historie</i>, and he reconciles Columbus's apparent +discrepancy when he says in one place that the +island was “pretty large,” and in another +“small,” by supposing that he may have applied +these opposite terms, the lesser to the Plana +Cays, as first seen, and the other to the Crooked +Group, or Acklin Island, lying just westerly, +on which he may have landed. Harrisse is the +only one who makes this identification; and +he finds some confirmation in later maps, +which show thereabout an island, Triango or +Triangulo, a name said by Las Casas to have +been applied to Guanahani at a later day. +There is no known map earlier than 1540 +bearing this alternative name of Triango.</p> + +<p>San Salvador seems to have been the island +selected by the earliest of modern inquirers in +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and +it has had the support of Irving and Humboldt +in later times. Captain Alexander Slidell +Mackenzie of the United States navy worked +out the problem for Irving. It is much larger +than any of the other islands, and could hardly +have been called by Columbus in any alternative +way a “small” island, while it does not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +answer Columbus's description of being level, +having on it an eminence of four hundred feet, +and no interior lagoon, as his Guanahani demands. +The French canonizers stand by the +old traditions, and find it meet to say that “the +English Protestants not finding the name of +San Salvador fine enough have substituted for +it that of Cat, and in their hydrographical +atlases the Island of the Holy Saviour is nobly +called Cat Island.”</p> + +<p>The weight of modern testimony seems to +favour Watling's Island, and it so far answers +Columbus's description that about one-third of +its interior is water, corresponding to his “large +lagoon.” Muñoz first suggested it in 1793; but +the arguments in its favour were first spread out +by Captain Becher of the royal navy in 1856, +and he seems to have induced Oscar Peschel +in 1858 to adopt the same views in his history +of the range of modern discovery. Major, the +map custodian of the British Museum, who had +previously followed Navarrete in favouring the +Grand Turk, again addressed himself to the +problem in 1870, and fell into line with the +adherents of Watling's. No other considerable +advocacy of this island, if we except the testimony +of Gerard Stein in 1883, in a book on +voyages of discovery, appeared till Lieutenant +J. B. Murdoch, an officer of the American +navy, made a very careful examination of the +subject in the <i>Proceedings of the United States +Naval Institute</i> in 1884, which is accepted by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +Charles A. Schott in the <i>Bulletin of the United +States Coast Survey</i>. Murdoch was the first to +plot in a backward way the track between +Guanahani and Cuba, and he finds more points +of resemblance in Columbus's description with +Watling's than with any other. The latest +adherent is the eminent geographer, Clements +R. Markham, in the bulletin of the Italian +Geographical Society in 1889. Perhaps no +cartographical argument has been so effective +as that of Major in comparing modern charts +with the map of Herrera, in which the latter +lays Guanahani down.</p> + +<p>An elaborate attempt to identity Samana as +the landfall was made by the late Captain +Gustavus Vasa Fox, in an appendix to the +<i>Report of the United States Coast Survey</i> for +1880. Varnhagen, in 1864, selected Mariguana, +and defended his choice in a paper. This island +fails to satisfy the physical conditions in being +without interior water. Such a qualification, +however, belongs to the Grand Turk Island, +which was advocated first by Navarrete in +1826, whose views have since been supported +by George Gibbs, and for a while by Major.</p> + +<p>It is rather curious to note that Caleb Cushing, +who undertook to examine this question +in the <i>North American Review</i>, under the guidance +of Navarrete's theory, tried the same +backward method which has been later applied +to the problem, but with quite different results +from those reached by more recent investigators.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +He says, “By setting out from Nipe +which is the point where Columbus struck +Cuba and proceeding in a retrograde direction +along his course, we may surely trace his path, +and shall be convinced that Guanahani is no +other than Turk's Island.”</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><a href="images/il040.png"> +<img src="images/il040_t.jpg" alt="THE LANDFALL OF COLUMBUS, 1492." title="THE LANDFALL OF COLUMBUS, 1492." /></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">THE LANDFALL OF COLUMBUS, 1492. [After Ruge.]</span></div> +<br /> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" style="font-size: 70%" cellspacing="0" summary="THE LANDFALL OF COLUMBUS, 1492."> +<tr> + <td><i>Key:</i></td> + <td align='left'>— —</td> + <td align='left'>according to Muñoz and Becher.</td> + <td align='left'>——</td> + <td align='left'>Irving and Humboldt.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td align='left'>—+—+</td> + <td align='left'>Varnhagen</td> + <td align='left'>—.—.</td> + <td align='left'>Navarrete.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + + + +<h2><a name="LEWIS_AND_CLARKE_REACH_THE" id="LEWIS_AND_CLARKE_REACH_THE"></a>LEWIS AND CLARKE REACH THE<br /> +PACIFIC OCEAN</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">Top</a></span> + +<div class="noteb"><p>[In 1804-6 Captains Lewis and Clarke, by order of the +Government of the United States, commanded an expedition +to the sources of the Missouri, thence across the Rocky +Mountains and down the River Columbia to the Pacific +Ocean. Chapter IV., which follows, is taken from the second +volume of the History of the Expedition, published by +Harper & Brothers, New York, 1842. The matter of the +original journal is indicated by inverted commas, and where +portions of it embracing minute and uninteresting particulars, +have been omitted, the leading facts have been +briefly stated by the editor, Archibald McVickar, in his own +words, so that the connection of the narrative is preserved +unbroken and nothing of importance is lost to the reader. +The History of the Expedition, edited, with notes by Elliott +Coues, was published in 1893 in four volumes by Francis +P. Harper, New York. This edition surpasses every other +in its excellence: it has passed out of print, but may be found +in many public libraries. In 1901 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +Boston, published “Lewis and Clark,” by Wm. R. Lighton: +within one hundred and fifty-nine small pages the story of +the famous expedition is admirably condensed. Good portraits +of Lewis and Clark form the frontispiece.]</p></div> + + +<p>“<i>November 2, 1805.</i> We now examined the +rapid below more particularly, and the danger +appearing to be too great for the loaded canoes, +all those who could not swim were sent with +the baggage by land. The canoes then passed +safely down and were reloaded. At the foot of +the rapid we took a meridian altitude and found +our latitude to be 59° 45´ 45".”<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> + +<p>This rapid forms the last of the descents of +the Columbia; and immediately below it the +river widens, and tidewater commences. Shortly +after starting they passed an island three miles +in length and to which, from that plant being +seen on it in great abundance, they gave the +name of Strawberry Island. Directly beyond +were three small islands, and in the meadow +to the right, at some distance from the hills +in the background was a single perpendicular +rock, which they judged to be no less than +eight hundred feet high and four hundred +yards at the base, which they called Beacon +Rock. A little farther on they found the river +a mile in breadth, and double this breadth four +miles beyond. After making twenty-nine miles +from the foot of the Great Shoot, they halted +for the night at a point where the river was +two and a half miles wide. The character of the +country they had passed through during the +day was very different from that they had +lately been accustomed to, the hills being thickly +covered with timber, chiefly of the pine species. +The tide rose at their encampment about nine +inches, and they saw great numbers of water-fowl, +such as swan, geese, ducks of various +kinds, gulls, etc.</p> + +<p>The next day, <i>November 3d</i>, they set off in +company with some Indians who had joined +them the evening before. At the distance of +three miles they passed a river on the left, to +which, from the quantity of sand it bears along<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +with it, they gave the name of Quicksand +River. So great, indeed, was the quantity it +had discharged into the Columbia, that the +river was compressed to the width of half a +mile, and the whole force of the current thrown +against the right shore. Opposite this was a +large creek, which they called Seal River. The +mountain which they had supposed to be the +Mount Hood of Vancouver, now bore S. 85° +E., about forty-seven miles distant. About +three miles farther on they passed the lower +mouth of Quicksand River, opposite to which +was another large creek, and near it the head +of an island three miles and a half in extent; +and half a mile beyond it was another island, +which they called Diamond Island, opposite +to which they encamped, having made but thirteen +miles' distance. Here they met with some +Indians ascending the river, who stated that they +had seen three vessels at its mouth.</p> + +<p>“Below Quicksand River,” says the Journal, +“the country is low, rich, and thickly wooded +on each side of the Columbia; the islands have +less timber, and on them are numerous ponds, +near which were vast quantities of fowl, such +as swan, geese, brant, cranes, storks, white-gulls, +cormorants, and plover. The river is +wide and contains a great number of sea-otters. +In the evening the hunters brought in +game for a sumptuous supper.”</p> + +<p>In continuing their descent the next day, +they found Diamond Island to be six miles in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +length and three broad; and near its termination +were two other islands. “Just below the +last of these,” proceeds the narrative, “we +landed on the left bank of the river, at a village +of twenty-five houses, all of which were thatched +with straw, and built of bark except one, which +was about fifty feet long and constructed of +boards, in the form of those higher up the river, +from which it differed, however, in being completely +above ground, and covered with broad, +split boards. This village contained about two +hundred men of the Skilloot nation, who seemed +well provided with canoes, of which there were +at least fifty-two, and some of them very large, +drawn up in front of the village. On landing, +we found an Indian from above, who had left +us this morning, and who now invited us +into a lodge of which he appeared to be part +owner. Here he treated us with a root, round +in shape and about the size of a small Irish +potato, which they call <i>wappatoo</i>: it is the common +arrow-head or <i>sagittifolia</i> so much cultivated +by the Chinese, and, when roasted in the +embers till it becomes soft, has an agreeable +taste, and is a very good substitute for bread. +After purchasing some of this root we resumed +our journey, and at seven miles' distance came +to the head of a large island near the left bank. +On the right shore was a fine open prairie for +about a mile, back of which the country rises, +and is well supplied with timber, such as white +oak, pine of different kinds, wild crab, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +several species of undergrowth, while along the +borders of the river there were only a few +cottonwood and ash trees. In this prairie were +also signs of deer and elk.</p> + +<p>“When we landed for dinner a number of +Indians came down, for the purpose, as we supposed, +of paying us a friendly visit, as they +had put on their finest dresses. In addition to +their usual covering, they had scarlet and blue +blankets, sailor's jackets and trowsers, shirts, +and hats. They had all of them either war-axes, +spears, and bows and arrows, or muskets +and pistols, with tin powder-flasks. We smoked +with them, and endeavoured to show them +every attention, but soon found them very +assuming and disagreeable companions. While +we were eating, they stole the pipe with which +they were smoking, and a great coat of one of +the men. We immediately searched them all, +and found the coat stuffed under the root of a +tree near where they were sitting; but the pipe +we could not recover. Finding us discontented +with them, and determined not to suffer any +imposition, they showed their displeasure in the +only way they dared, by returning in ill humour +to their village. We then proceeded, and soon +met two canoes, with twelve men of the same +Skilloot nation, who were on their way from +below. The larger of the canoes was ornamented +with the figures of a bear in the bow and a man +in the stern, both nearly as large as life, both +made of painted wood, and very neatly fastened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +to the boat. In the same canoe were two Indians +gaudily dressed, and with round hats. This +circumstance induced us to give the name of +Image Canoe to the large island, the lower end +of which we were now passing, at the distance +of nine miles from its head. We had seen two +smaller islands to the right, and three more +near its lower extremity.” ... “The river +was now about a mile and a half in width, with +a gentle current, and the bottoms extensive and +low, but not subject to be overflowed. Three +miles below Image Canoe Island we came to +four large houses on the left side; here we had +a full view of the mountain which we had first +seen from the Muscleshell Rapid on the 19th +of October, and which we now found to be, +in fact, the Mount St. Helen of Vancouver. It +bore north 25° east, about ninety miles distant, +rose in the form of a sugar loaf to a very great +height, and was covered with snow. A mile +lower we passed a single house on the left, +and another on the right. The Indians had +now learned so much of us that their curiosity +was without any mixture of fear, and their +visits became very frequent and troublesome. +We therefore continued on till after night, in +hopes of getting rid of them; but, after passing +a village on each side, which, on account of the +lateness of the hour, we could only see indistinctly, +we found there was no escaping from +their importunities. We accordingly landed at +the distance of seven miles below Image Canoe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +Island, and encamped near a single house on +the right, having made during the day twenty-nine +miles.</p> + +<p>“The Skilloots that we passed to-day speak +a language somewhat different from that of +the Echeloots or Chilluckittequaws near the long +narrows. Their dress, however, is similar, except +that the Skilloots possess more articles +procured from the white traders; and there is +this farther difference between them, that the +Skilloots, both males and females, have the +head flattened. Their principal food is fish, +<i>wappatoo</i> roots, and some elk and deer, in killing +which, with arrows they seem to be very +expert; for during the short time we remained +at the village three deer were brought in. We +also observed there a tame <i>blaireau</i> [badger].”</p> + +<p>“As soon as we landed we were visited by +two canoes loaded with Indians, from whom +we purchased a few roots. The grounds along +the river continued low and rich, and among +the shrubs were large quantities of vines resembling +the raspberry. On the right the low grounds +were terminated at the distance of five miles +by a range of high hills covered with tall timber, +and running southeast and northwest. +The game, as usual, was very abundant; and, +among other birds, we observed some white +geese, with a part of their wings black.”</p> + +<p>Early the next morning they resumed their +voyage, passing several islands in the course +of the day, the river alternately widening and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +contracting, and the hills sometimes retiring +from, and at others approaching, its banks. +They stopped for the night at the distance of +thirty-two miles from their last encampment. +“Before landing,” proceeds the Journal, “we +met two canoes, the largest of which had at +the bow the image of a bear, and that of a man +on the stern: there were twenty-six Indians +on board, but they proceeded upwards, and +we were left, for the first time since we reached +the waters of the Columbia, without any of the +natives with us during the night. Besides other +game, we killed a grouse much larger than the +common kind, and observed along the shore +a number of striped snakes. The river is here +deep, and about a mile and a half in width. +Here, too, the ridge of low mountains, running +northwest and southeast, crosses the river and +forms the western boundary of the plain through +which we had just passed. This great plain or +valley begins above the mouth of Quicksand +River, and is about sixty miles long in a straight +line, while on the right and left it extends to +a great distance; it is a fertile and delightful +country, shaded by thick groves of tall timber, +and watered by small ponds on both sides of +the river. The soil is rich and capable of any +species of culture; but in the present condition +of the Indians, its chief production is the <i>wappatoo</i> +root, which grows spontaneously and exclusively +in this region. Sheltered as it is on +both sides, the temperature is much milder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +than that of the surrounding country; for even +at this season of the year we observed but very +little appearance of frost. It is inhabited by +numerous tribes of Indians, who either reside +in it permanently, or visits its waters in quest +of fish and <i>wappatoo</i> roots. We gave it the +name of the Columbia Valley.”</p> + +<p>“<i>November 6.</i> The morning was cool and +rainy. We proceeded at an early hour between +high hills on both sides of the river, till at the +distance of four miles we came to two tents +of Indians in a small plain on the left, where +the hills on the right recede a few miles, and a +long, narrow inland stretches along the right +shore. Behind this island is the mouth of a +large river, a hundred and fifty yards wide, +called by the Indians Coweliske. We halted +on the island for dinner, but the redwood and +green briers were so interwoven with the pine, +alder, ash, a species of beech, and other trees, +that the woods formed a thicket which our +hunters could not penetrate. Below the mouth +of the Coweliske a very remarkable knob rises +from the water's edge to the height of eighty +feet, being two hundred paces round the base; +and as it is in a low part of the island, and at +some distance from the high grounds, its appearance +is very singular. On setting out after +dinner we overtook two canoes going down to +trade. One of the Indians, who spoke a few +words of English, mentioned that the principal +person who traded with them was a Mr. Haley;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +and he showed us a bow of iron and several +other things, which he said he had given him. +Nine miles below Coweliske River is a creek +on the same side; and between them three +smaller islands, one on the left shore, the other +about the middle of the river, and a third near, +the lower end of the long, narrow island, and +opposite a high cliff of black rocks on the left, +sixteen miles from our last night's encampment. +Here we were overtaken by some Indians +from the two tents we had passed in the morning, +from whom we purchased <i>wappatoo</i> roots, +salmon, trout, and two beaver-skins, for which +last we gave five small fish-hooks.”</p> + +<p>Here the mountains which had been high +and rugged on the left, retired from the river, +as had the hills on the right, since leaving the +Coweliske, and a beautiful plain was spread +out before them. They met with several islands +on their way, and having at the distance of +five miles come to the termination of the plain, +they proceeded for eight miles through a hilly +country, and encamped for the night after +having made twenty-nine miles.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 7.</i> The morning,” proceeds the +narrative, “was rainy, and the fog so thick +that we could not see across the river. We +observed, however, opposite to our camp, +the upper point of an island, between which +and the steep hills on the right we proceeded +for five miles. Three miles lower was the beginning +of an island, separated from the right<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +shore by a narrow channel: down this we proceeded +under the direction of some Indians +whom we had just met going up the river, +and who returned in order to show us their +village. It consisted of four houses only, situated +on this channel, behind several marshy islands +formed by two small creeks. On our arrival +they gave us some fish, and we afterwards +purchased <i>wappatoo</i> roots, fish, three dogs, and +two otter-skins, for which we gave fish-hooks +chiefly, that being an article which they are +very anxious to obtain.</p> + +<p>“These people seemed to be of a different +nation from those we had just passed: they +were low in stature, ill-shaped, and all had +their heads flattened. They called themselves +Wahkiacum, and their language differed from +that of the tribes above, with whom they trade +for <i>wappatoo</i> roots. The houses, too, were built +in a different style, being raised entirely above +ground, with the eaves about five feet high, +and the door at the corner. Near the end opposite +to the door was a single fireplace, round +which were the beds, raised four feet from the +floor of earth; over the fire were hung fresh fish, +and when dried they are stowed away with the +<i>wappatoo</i> roots under the beds. The dress of +the men was like that of the people above; but +the women were clad in a peculiar manner, +the robe not reaching lower than the hip, and +the body being covered in cold weather by a +sort of corset of fur, curiously plaited, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +reaching from the arms to the hip: added to +this was a sort of petticoat, or, rather, tissue +of white cedar bark, bruised or broken into +small strands and woven into a girdle by several +cords of the same material. Being tied +round the middle, these strands hang down +as low as the knee in front and to the middle +of the leg behind: sometimes the tissue consists +of strings of silk-grass, twisted and knotted +at the end.</p> + +<p>“After remaining with them about an hour, +we proceeded down the channel with an Indian +dressed in a sailor's jacket for our pilot; and, +on reaching the main channel, were visited by +some Indians, who have a temporary residence +on a marshy island, Tenasillihee, in the middle +of the river, where there are great numbers of +water-fowl. Here the mountainous country +again approaches the river on the left, and a +higher saddle mountain is perceived towards +the southwest. At a distance of twenty miles +from our camp we halted at a village of Wahkiacums, +consisting of seven ill-looking houses, +built in the same form with those above, and +situated at the foot of the high hills on the right, +behind two small marshy islands. We merely +stopped to purchase some food and two beaver +skins, and then proceeded. Opposite to these +islands the hills on the left retire, and the river +widens into a kind of bay, crowded with low +islands, subject to be overflowed occasionally +by the tide. We had not gone far from this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +village when, the fog suddenly clearing away, +we were at last presented with a glorious sight +of the ocean—that ocean, the object of all our +labours, the reward of all our anxieties. This +animating sight exhilarated the spirits of all +the party, who were still more delighted on +hearing the distant roar of the breakers. We +went on with great cheerfulness along the high +mountainous country which bordered the right +bank: the shore, however, was so bold and +rocky that we could not, until a distance of +fourteen miles from the last village, find any +spot fit for an encampment. Having made +during the day thirty-four miles, we now spread +our mats on the ground, and passed the night +in the rain. Here we were joined by our small +canoe, which had been separated from us +during the fog this morning. Two Indians +from the last village also accompanied us to +the camp; but having detected them in stealing +a knife, they were sent off.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 8.</i> It rained this morning; and, +having changed our clothing, which had been +wet by yesterday's rain, we set out at nine +o'clock. Immediately opposite our camp was a +pillar rock, at the distance of a mile in the river, +about twenty feet in diameter and fifty in +height, and towards the southwest some high +mountains, one of which was covered with snow +at the top. We proceeded past several low +islands in the bend or bay of the river to the +left, which were here five or six miles wide.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +On the right side we passed an old village, +and then, at the distance of three miles, entered +an inlet or niche, about six miles across, and +making a deep bend of nearly five miles into the +hills on the right shore, where it receives the +waters of several creeks. We coasted along this +inlet, which, from its little depth, we called +Shallow Bay, and at the bottom of it stopped +to dine, near the remains of an old village, +from which, however, we kept at a cautious +distance, as, like all these places, it was occupied +by a plentiful stock of fleas. At this place we +observed a number of fowl, among which we +killed a goose and two ducks exactly resembling +in appearance and flavour the canvas-back +duck of the Susquehanna. After dinner we took +advantage of the returning tide to go about +three miles to a point on the right, eight miles +distant from our camp; but here the water +ran so high and washed about our canoe so much +that several of the men became seasick. It was +therefore judged imprudent to proceed in the +present state of the weather, and we landed at +the point. Our situation here was extremely +uncomfortable: the high hills jutted in so closely +that there was not room for us to lie level, +nor to secure our baggage from the tide, and +the water of the river was too salty to be used; +but the waves increasing so much that we could +not move from the spot with safety, we fixed +ourselves on the beach left by the ebb-tide, +and, raising the baggage on poles, passed a disagreeable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +night, the rain during the day having +wet us completely, as, indeed, we had been for +some time past.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 9.</i> Fortunately, the tide did +not rise as high as our camp during the night; +but, being accompanied by high winds from +the south, the canoes, which we could not place +beyond its reach, were filled with water and +saved with much difficulty: our position was +exceedingly disagreeable; but, as it was impossible +to move from it, we waited for a change +of weather. It rained, however, during the +whole day, and at two o'clock in the afternoon +the flood-tide came in, accompanied by a high +wind from the south, which at about four +o'clock shifted to the southwest, and blew +almost a gale directly from the sea. Immense +waves now broke over the place where we were +and large trees, some of them five or six feet +through, which had been lodged on the point, +drifted over our camp, so that the utmost +vigilance of every man could scarcely save the +canoes from being crushed to pieces. We remained +in the water and were drenched with +rain during the rest of the day, our only sustenance +being some dried fish and the rain water +which we caught. Yet, though wet and cold, +and some of then sick from using salt water, +the men were cheerful and full of anxiety to +see more of the ocean. The rain continued all +night and the following morning.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 10</i>, the wind lulling and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +waves not being so high, we loaded our canoes +and proceeded. The mountains on the right are +here high, covered with timber, chiefly pine, +and descend with a bold and rocky shore to +the water. We went through a deep niche +and several inlets on the right, while on the +opposite side was a large bay, above which the +hills are close on the river. At the distance of +ten miles the wind rose from the northwest, +and the waves became so high that we were +forced to return two miles for a place where +we could unload with safety. Here we landed +at the mouth of a small run, and, having placed +our baggage on a pile of drifted logs, waited +until low water. The river then appearing +more calm, we started again; but, after going a +mile, found the waters too turbulent for our +canoes, and were obliged to put to shore. Here +we landed the baggage, and, having placed it on +a rock above the reach of the tide, encamped +on some drift logs, which formed the only place +where we could lie, the hills rising steep over +our heads to the height of five hundred feet. +All our baggage, as well as ourselves, was thoroughly +wet with rain, which did not cease +during the day; it continued, indeed, violently +through the night, in the course of +which the tide reached the logs on which we +lay, and set them afloat.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 11.</i> The wind was still high +from the southwest, and drove the waves against +the shore with great fury; the rain, too, fell in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +torrents, and not only drenched us to the skin, +but loosened the stones on the hillsides, so +that they came rolling down upon us. In this +comfortless condition we remained all day, wet +and cold, and with nothing but dried fish to +satisfy our hunger; the canoes at the mercy of +the waves at one place, the baggage in another, +and the men scattered on floating logs, or sheltering +themselves in the crevices of the rocks and +hillsides. A hunter was despatched in the hope +of finding some game; but the hills were so +steep, and so covered with undergrowth and +fallen timber, that he could not proceed, and +was forced to return. About twelve o'clock +we were visited by five Indians in a canoe. +They came from the opposite side of the river, +above where we were, and their language much +resembled that of the Wahkiacums: they calling +themselves Cathlamahs. In person they were +small, ill-made, and badly clothed; though +one of them had on a sailor's jacket and pantaloons, +which, as he explained by signs, he had +received from the whites below the point. We +purchased from them thirteen red charr, a fish +which we found very excellent. After some +time they went on board their boat and crossed +the river, which is here five miles wide, through +a very heavy sea.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 12.</i> About three o'clock a tremendous +gale of wind arose, accompanied with +lightning, thunder, and hail; at six it lightened +up for a short time, but a violent rain soon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +began and lasted through the day. During the +storm one of our boats, secured by being sunk +with great quantities of stone, got loose, but, +drifting against a rock, was recovered without +having received much injury. Our situation +now became much more dangerous, for the +waves were driven with fury against the rocks +and trees, which till now had afforded us refuge: +we therefore took advantage of the low tide, +and moved about half a mile round a point +to a small brook, which we had not observed +before on account of the thick bushes and driftwood +which concealed its mouth. Here we +were more safe, but still cold and wet; our +clothes and bedding rotten as well as wet, our +baggage at a distance, and the canoes, our +only means of escape from this place, at the +mercy of the waves. Still, we continued to enjoy +good health, and even had the luxury of feasting +on some salmon and three salmon trout which +we caught in the brook. Three of the men +attempted to go round a point in our small +Indian canoe, but the high waves rendered +her quite unmanageable, these boats requiring +the seamanship of the natives to make them +live in so rough a sea.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 13.</i> During the night we had +short intervals of fair weather, but it began to +rain in the morning and continued through the +day. In order to obtain a view of the country +below, Captain Clarke followed the course of +the brook, and with much fatigue, and after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +walking three miles, ascended the first spur +of the mountains. The whole lower country +he found covered with almost impenetrable +thickets of small pine, with which is mixed a +species of plant resembling arrow-wood, twelve +or fifteen feet high, with thorny stems, almost +interwoven with each other, and scattered +among the fern and fallen timber: there is also +a red berry, somewhat like the Solomon's seal, +which is called by the natives <i>solme</i>, and used +as an article of diet. This thick growth rendered +travelling almost impossible, and it was rendered +still more fatiguing by the abruptness of +the mountain, which was so steep as to oblige +him to draw himself up by means of the bushes. +The timber on the hills is chiefly of a large, +tall species of pine, many of the trees eight or +ten feet in diameter at the stump, and rising +sometimes more than one hundred feet in height. +The hail which fell two nights before was still +to be seen on the mountains; there was no +game, and no marks of any, except some old +tracks of elk. The cloudy weather prevented +his seeing to any distance, and he therefore +returned to camp and sent three men in an +Indian canoe to try if they could double the +point and find some safer harbour for our +boats. At every flood-tide the sea broke in +great swells against the rocks and drifted the +trees against our establishment, so as to render +it very insecure.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 14.</i> It had rained without intermission<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +during the night and continued to +through the day; the wind, too, was very high, +and one of our canoes much injured by being +driven against the rocks. Five Indians from +below came to us in a canoe, and three of them +landed, and informed us that they had seen the +men sent down yesterday. Fortunately, at this +moment one of the men arrived, and told us +that these very Indians had stolen his gig and +basket; we therefore ordered the two women, +who remained in the canoe, to restore them; +but this they refused to do till we threatened +to shoot them, when they gave back the articles, +and we commanded them to leave us. They +were of the Wahkiacum nation. The man now +informed us that they had gone round the +point as far as the high sea would suffer them +in the canoe, and then landed; that in the night +he had separated from his companions, who +had proceeded farther down; and that, at no +great distance from where we were, was a +beautiful sand beach and a good harbour. +Captain Lewis determined to examine more +minutely the lower part of the bay, and, embarking +in one of the large canoes, was put on +shore at the point, whence he proceeded by +land with four men, and the canoe returned +nearly filled with water.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 15.</i> It continued raining all +night, but in the morning the weather became +calm and fair. We began, therefore, to prepare +for setting out; but before we were ready a high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +wind sprang up from the southeast, and obliged +us to remain. The sun shone until one o'clock, +and we were thus enabled to dry our bedding and +examine our baggage. The rain, which had continued +for the last ten days without any interval +of more than two hours, had completely wet all +our merchandise, spoiled some of our fish, destroyed +the robes, and rotted nearly one-half of +our few remaining articles of clothing, particularly +the leather dresses. About three o'clock +the wind fell, and we instantly loaded the canoes, +and left the miserable spot to which we had been +confined the last six days. On turning the +point we came to the sand beach, through which +runs a small stream from the hills, at the mouth +of which was an ancient village of thirty-six +houses, without any inhabitants at the time except +fleas. Here we met Shannon, who had been +sent back to us by Captain Lewis. The day +Shannon left us in the canoe, he and Willard proceeded +on till they met a party of twenty Indians, +who, not having heard of us, did not know who +they were; but they behaved with great civility—so +great, indeed, and seemed so anxious that +our men should accompany them towards the +sea, that their suspicions were aroused, and they +declined going. The Indians, however, would +not leave them; and the men, becoming confirmed +in their suspicions, and fearful, if they +went into the woods to sleep, that they would +be cut to pieces in the night, thought it best to +remain with the Indians: they therefore made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +a fire, and after talking with them to a late hour, +laid down with their rifles under their heads. +When they awoke they found that the Indians +had stolen and concealed their arms; and having +demanded them in vain, Shannon seized a club, +and was about assaulting one of the Indians +whom he suspected to be the thief, when another +of them began to load his fowling-piece with the +intention of shooting him. He therefore stopped, +and explained to them by signs, that if they +did not give up the guns, a large party would +come down the river before the sun rose to a certain +height, and put every one of them to death. +Fortunately, Captain Lewis and his party appeared +at this very time, and the terrified Indians +immediately brought the guns, and five of them +came in with Shannon. To these men we declared +that, if ever any of their nation stole anything +from us, he would be instantly shot. They +resided to the north of this place, and spoke a +language different from that of the people higher +up the river. It was now apparent that the +sea was at all times too rough for us to proceed +farther down the bay by water: we therefore +landed, and, having chosen the best spot we +could, made our camp of boards from the old +village. We were now comfortably situated; +and, being visited by four Wahkiacums with +<i>wappatoo</i> roots, were enabled to make an agreeable +addition to our food.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 16.</i> The morning was clear and +pleasant. We therefore put out all our baggage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +to dry, and sent several of our party to hunt. +Our camp was in full view of the ocean, on the +bay laid down by Vancouver, which we distinguished +by the name of Haley's Bay, from a +trader who visits the Indians here, and is a great +favourite among them. The meridian altitude +of this day gave 46° 19´ 11.7” as our latitude. +The wind was strong from the southwest, and +the waves were very high, yet the Indians were +passing up and down the bay in canoes, and +several of them encamped near us. We smoked +with them, but, after our recent experience of +their thievish disposition, treated them with +caution....”</p> + +<p>“The hunters brought in two deer, a crane, +some geese and ducks, and several brant, three +of which were white, except a part of the wing, +which was black, and they were much larger than +the gray brant.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 17.</i> A fair, cool morning, and +easterly wind. The tide rises at this place eight +feet six inches.</p> + +<p>“About one o'clock Captain Lewis returned, +after having coasted down Haley's Bay to Cape +Disappointment, and some distance to the north, +along the seacoast. He was followed by several +Chinnooks, among whom were the principal chief +and his family. They made us a present of a +boiled root very much like the common licorice +in taste and size, called <i>culwhamo</i>; and in return +we gave them articles of double its value. We +now learned, however, the danger of accepting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +anything from them, since nothing given in payment, +even though ten times more valuable, +would satisfy them. We were chiefly occupied +in hunting, and were able to procure three deer, +four brant, and two ducks; and also saw some +signs of elk. Captain Clarke now prepared for +an excursion down the bay, and accordingly +started.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 18</i>, at daylight, accompanied by +eleven men, he proceeded along the beach +one mile to a point of rocks about forty feet +high, where the hills retired, leaving a wide beach +and a number of ponds covered with water-fowl, +between which and the mountain there was a +narrow bottom covered with alder and small balsam +trees. Seven miles from the rocks was the +entrance from the creek, or rather drain from the +pond and hills, where was a cabin of Chinnooks. +The cabin contained some children and four +women. They were taken across the creek in a +canoe by two squaws, to each of whom they gave +a fish-hook, and then, coasting along the bay, +passed at two miles the low bluff of a small hill, +below which were, the ruins of some old huts, and +close to it the remains of a whale. The country +was low, open, and marshy, interspersed with +some high pine and with a thick undergrowth. +Five miles from the creek, they came to a stream, +forty yards wide at low water, which they called +Chinnook River. The hills up this river and +towards the bay were not high, but very thickly +covered with large pine of several species.”<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<p>Proceeding along the shore, they came to a +deep bend, appearing to afford a good harbour, +and here the natives told them that European +vessels usually anchored. About two miles +farther on they reached Cape Disappointment, +“an elevated circular knob,” says the Journal, +“rising with a steep ascent one hundred and fifty +or one hundred and sixty feet above the water, +formed like the whole shore of the bay, as well +as of the seacoast, and covered with thick timber +on the inner side, but open and grassy on the exposure +next the sea. From this cape a high +point of land bears south 20° west, about twenty-five +miles distant. In the range between these +two eminences is the opposite point of the bay, +a very low ground, which has been variously +called Cape Rond by Le Perouse, and Point +Adams by Vancouver. The water, for a great +distance off the mouth of the river, appears very +shallow, and within the mouth, nearest to Point +Adams, is a large sand-bar, almost covered at +high tide....”</p> + +<p>“<i>November 19.</i> In the evening it began to +rain, and continued until eleven o'clock. Two +hunters were sent out in the morning to kill something +for breakfast, and the rest of the party, +after drying their blankets, soon followed. At +three miles they overtook the hunters, and breakfasted +on a small deer which they had been fortunate +enough to kill. This, like all those that we +saw on the coast, was much darker than our common +deer. Their bodies, too, are deeper, their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +legs shorter, and their eyes larger. The branches +of the horns are similar, but the upper part of the +tail is black, from the root to the end, and they +do not leap, but jump like a sheep frightened.</p> + +<p>“Continuing along five miles farther, they +reached a point of high land, below which a sandy +point extended in a direction north 19° west to +another high point twenty miles distant. To this +they gave the name of Point Lewis. They proceeded +four miles farther along the sandy beach +to a small pine tree, on which Captain Clarke +marked his name, with the year and day, and +then set out to return to the camp, where they +arrived the following day, having met a large +party of Chinnooks coming from it.</p> + +<p>“<i>November 21.</i> The morning was cloudy, +and from noon till night it rained. The wind, +too, was high from the southeast, and the sea so +rough that the water reached our camp. Most +of the Chinnooks returned home, but we were +visited in the course of the day by people of +different bands in the neighbourhood, among +whom were the Chiltz, a nation residing on +the seacoast near Point Lewis, and the Clatsops, +who live immediately opposite, on the south +side of the Columbia. A chief from the grand +rapid also came to see us, and we gave him a +medal. To each of our visitors we made a present +of a small piece of riband, and purchased +some cranberries, and some articles of their +manufacture, such as mats and household furniture, +for all of which we paid high prices.”</p> + + + +<h2><a name="THE_SOURCES_OF_THE_MISSISSIPPI" id="THE_SOURCES_OF_THE_MISSISSIPPI"></a>THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> +<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">Top</a></span> +<h3><span class="smcap">Brigadier-General Zebulon M. Pike</span></h3> + +<div class="noteb"><p>[During the years 1805, 1806, and 1807 Brigadier-General +Pike commanded, by order of the Government of the United +States, an expedition to the sources of the Mississippi, through +the western part of Louisiana, to the sources of the Arkansas, +Kansas, La Platte and Pierre Juan rivers. The extracts which +follow are taken from his narrative published in Philadelphia, +1810. An excellent edition, edited with copious notes by +Elliott Coues, was published in three volumes by Francis P. +Harper, New York, 1895.]</p></div> + + +<p><i>January 1, 1806.</i> Passed six very elegant +bark canoes on the bank of the river, which had +been laid up by the Chipeways; also a camp +which we had conceived to have been evacuated +about ten days. My interpreter came after me +in a great hurry, conjuring me not to go so far +ahead, and assured me that the Chipeways, +encountering me without an interpreter, party, or +flag, would certainly kill me. But, notwithstanding +this, I went on several miles farther +than usual, in order to make any discoveries +that were to be made; conceiving the savages +not so barbarous or ferocious as to fire on two +men (I had one with me) who were apparently +coming into their country, trusting to their +generosity; and knowing, that if we met only +two or three we were equal to them, I having my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +gun and pistols and he his buckshot. Made +some extra presents for New Year's day.</p> + +<p><i>January 2.</i> Fine, warm day. Discovered +fresh signs of Indians. Just as we were encamping +at night, my sentinel informed us that some +Indians were coming at full speed upon our trail +or track. I ordered my men to stand by their +guns carefully. They were immediately at my +camp, and saluted the flag by a discharge of three +pieces, when four Chipeways, one Englishman, +and a Frenchman of the North West Company +presented themselves. They informed us that +some women having discovered our trail gave +the alarm, and not knowing but it was their +enemies had departed to make a discovery. +They had heard of us, and revered our flag. Mr. +Grant, the Englishman, had only arrived the +day before from Lake de Sable, from which he +marched in one day and a half. I presented +the Indians with half a deer, which they received +thankfully, for they had discovered our fires +some days ago, and believing them to be Sioux +fires, they dared not leave their camp. They +returned home, but Mr. Grant remained all +night.</p> + +<p><i>January 3.</i> My party marched early, but I +returned with Mr. Grant to his establishment on +the Red Cedar Lake, having one corporal with +me. ... After explaining to a Chipeway +warrior, called Curly Head, the object of my +voyage, and receiving his answer that he would +remain tranquil until my return, we ate a good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +breakfast for the country, departed and overtook +my sleds just at dusk. Killed one porcupine. +Distance sixteen miles.</p> + +<p><i>January 4.</i> We made twenty-eight points +in the river; broad, good bottom, and of the usual +timber. In the night I was awakened by the +cry of the sentinel, calling repeatedly to the men; +at length he vociferated, “Will you let the lieutenant +be burned to death?” This immediately +aroused me; at first I seized my arms, but looking +round, I saw my tents in flames. The men flew +to my assistance, and we tore them down, but +not until they were entirely ruined. This, with +the loss of my leggins, moccasins, and socks, +which I had hung up to dry, was no trivial misfortune +in such a country and on such a voyage. +But I had reason to thank God that the powder, +three small casks of which I had in my tent, did +not take fire; if it had, I must certainly have lost +all my baggage, if not my life.</p> + +<p><i>January 5.</i> Mr. Grant promised to overtake +me yesterday, but has not yet arrived. I conceived +it would be necessary to attend his motions +with careful observation. Distance twenty-seven +miles.</p> + +<p><i>January 6.</i> Bradley and myself walked up +thirty-one points in hopes to discover Lake de +Sable; but finding a near cut of twenty yards for +ten miles, and being fearful the sleds would miss +it, we returned twenty-three points before we +found our camp. They had made only eight +points. Met two Frenchmen of the North West<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +Company with about one hundred and eighty +pounds on each of their backs, with rackets [snowshoes] +on; they informed me that Mr. Grant had +gone on with the Frenchmen. Snow fell all day, +and was three feet deep. Spent a miserable +night.</p> + +<p><i>January 7.</i> Made but eleven miles, and was +then obliged to send ahead and make fires every +three miles; notwithstanding which, the cold was +so intense that some of the men had their noses, +others their fingers, and others their toes, frozen, +before they felt the cold sensibly. Very severe +day's march.</p> + +<p><i>January 8.</i> Conceiving I was at no great +distance from Sandy Lake, I left my sleds and +with Corporal Bradley took my departure for +that place, intending to send him back the same +evening. We walked on very briskly until +near night, when we met a young Indian, one of +those who had visited my camp near Red Cedar +Lake. I endeavoured to explain to him that it +was my wish to go to Lake de Sable that evening. +He returned with me until we came to a trail +that led across the woods; this he signified was +a near course. I went this course with him, and +shortly after found myself at a Chipeway encampment, +to which I believed the friendly savage +had enticed me with the expectation that I would +tarry all night, knowing that it was too late for +us to make the lake in good season. But upon +our refusing to stay, he put us in the right road. +We arrived at the place where the track left the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +Mississippi at dusk, when we traversed about +two leagues of a wilderness without any very +great difficulty, and at length struck the shore +of Lake de Sable, over a branch of which lay our +course. The snow having covered the trail made +by the Frenchmen who had passed before us with +the rackets, I was fearful of losing ourselves on +the lake; the consequences of which can only be +conceived by those who have been exposed on a +lake or naked plain, in a dreary night of January, +in latitude 47°, and the thermometer below zero. +Thinking that we could observe the bank of the +other shore, we kept a straight course, and some +time after discovered lights, and on our arrival +were not a little surprised to find a large stockade. +The gate being open, we entered and proceeded +to the quarters of Mr. Grant, where we were +treated with the utmost hospitality.</p> + +<p><i>January 9.</i> Sent away the corporal early, +in order that our men should receive assurances +of our safety and success. He carried with him, +a small keg of spirits, a present from Mr. Grant. +The establishment of this place was formed +twelve years since by the North West Company, +and was formerly under the charge of Mr. Charles +Brusky. It has attained at present such regularity +as to permit the superintendent to live +tolerably comfortably. They have horses they +procure from Red River from the Indians; they +raise plenty of potatoes, catch pike, suckers, +pickerel, and white fish in abundance. They +have also beaver, deer, and moose; but the provision<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +they chiefly depend upon is wild oats, of +which they purchase great quantities from the +savages, giving at the rate of about one dollar +and a half a bushel. But flour, pork, and salt are +almost interdicted to persons not principals in +the trade. Flour sells at half a dollar, salt at a +dollar, pork at eighty cents, sugar at fifty cents, +and tea at four dollars and a half a pound. The +sugar is obtained from the Indians, and is made +from the maple tree.</p> + +<p><i>January 10.</i> Mr. Grant accompanied me to +the Mississippi, to mark the place for my boats +to leave the river. This was the first time I +marched on rackets [snowshoes]. I took the +course of the Lake River, from its mouth to the +lake. Mr. Grant fell through the ice with his +rackets on, and could not have got out without +assistance.</p> + +<p><i>January 11.</i> Remained all day within quarters.</p> + +<p><i>January 12.</i> Went out and met my men +about sixteen miles. A tree had fallen on one of +them and hurt him very much, which induced me +to dismiss a sled and put the loading on the +others.</p> + +<p><i>January 13.</i> After encountering much difficulty +we arrived at the establishment of the +North West Company on Lake de Sable a little +before night. The ice being very bad on the +Lake River, owing to the many springs and +marshes, one sled fell through. My men had an +excellent room furnished them, and were presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +with potatoes and spirits. Mr. Grant +had gone to an Indian lodge to receive his credits.</p> + +<p><i>January 14.</i> Crossed the lake to the north +side, that I might take an observation; found the +latitude 46° 9´ 20” N. Surveyed that part of +the lake. Mr. Grant returned from the Indian +lodges. His party brought a quantity of furs +and eleven beaver carcasses.</p> + +<p><i>January 15.</i> Mr. Grant and myself made +the tour of the lake with two men whom I had +for attendants. Found it to be much larger +than could be imagined at a view. My men +sawed stocks for the sleds, which I found it +necessary to construct after the manner of the +country. On our march, met an Indian coming +into the fort; his countenance expressed no little +astonishment when I told him who I was and +whence I came, for the people of this country +acknowledge that the savages hold the Americans +in greater veneration than any other white +people. They say of us, when alluding to warlike +achievements, that “we are neither Frenchmen +nor Englishmen, but white Indians.”</p> + +<p><i>January 16.</i> Laid down Lake de Sable. +A young Indian whom I had engaged to go as a +guide to Lake Sang Sue arrived from the woods.</p> + +<p><i>January 17.</i> Employed in making sleds +after the manner of the country. They are made +of a single plank turned up at one end like a +fiddle head, and the baggage is lashed on in bags +and sacks. Two other Indians arrived from the +woods. Engaged in writing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>January 18.</i> Busy in preparing my baggage +for my departure for Leech Lake and Reading.</p> + +<p><i>January 19.</i> Employed as yesterday. Two +men of the North West Company arrived from +the Fond du Lac Superior with letters; one of +which was from their establishment in Athapuscow, +and had been since last May on the route. +While at this post I ate roasted beavers, dressed +in every respect as a pig is usually dressed with +us; it was excellent. I could not discern the +least taste of Des Bois. I also ate boiled moose's +head, which when well boiled I consider equal +to the tail of the beaver; in taste and substance +they are much alike.</p> + +<p><i>January 20.</i> The men, with their sleds, +took their departure about two o'clock. Shortly +after I followed them. We encamped at the +portage between the Mississippi and Leech Lake +River. Snow fell in the night.</p> + +<p><i>January 21.</i> Snowed in the morning, but +crossed about 9 o'clock. I had gone on a few +points when I was overtaken by Mr. Grant, who +informed me that the sleds could not get along +in consequence of water being on the ice; he sent +his men forward; we returned and met the sleds, +which had scarcely advanced one mile. We unloaded +them, sent eight men back to the post, +with whatever might be denominated extra +articles, but in the hurry sent my salt and ink. +Mr. Grant encamped with me and marched early +in the morning.</p> + +<p><i>January 22.</i> Made a pretty good day's journey.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +My Indian came up about noon. Distance +twenty miles.</p> + +<p><i>January 23.</i> Marched about eighteen miles. +Forgot my thermometer, having hung it on a +tree. Sent Boley back five miles for it. My +young Indian and myself killed eight partridges; +took him to live with me.</p> + +<p><i>January 24.</i> At our encampment this night +Mr. Grant had encamped on the night of the same +day he left me; it was three days' march for us. +It was late before the men came up.</p> + +<p><i>January 25.</i> Travelled almost all day +through the lands and found them much better +than usual. Boley lost the Sioux pipe-stem +which I had carried along for the purpose of +making peace with the Chipeways; I sent him +back for it; he did not return until eleven o'clock +at night. It was very warm; thawing all day. +Distance forty-four points.</p> + +<p><i>January 26.</i> I left my party in order to +proceed to a house, or lodge, of Mr. Grant's on the +Mississippi, where he was to tarry until I overtook +him. Took with me an Indian, Boley, +and some trifling provision; the Indian and myself +marched so fast that we left Boley on the +route, about eight miles from the lodge. Met +Mr. Grant's men, on their return to Lake de +Sable, having evacuated the house this morning, +and Mr. Grant having marched for Leech Lake. +The Indian and I arrived before sundown. +Passed the night very uncomfortably, having +nothing to eat, not much wood, nor any blankets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +The Indian slept sound. I cursed his insensibility, +being obliged to content myself over a +few coals all night. Boley did not arrive. In +the night the Indian mentioned something about +his son.</p> + +<p><i>January 27.</i> My Indian rose early, mended +his moccasins, then expressed by signs something +about his son and the Englishmen we met +yesterday. Conceiving that he wished to send +some message to his family, I suffered him to +depart. After his departure I felt the curse of +solitude, although he was truly no company. +Boley arrived about ten o'clock. He said that +he had followed us until some time in the night, +when, believing that he could overtake us, he +stopped and made a fire, but having no axe to +cut wood he was near freezing. He met the +Indians, who made him signs to go on. I spent +the day in putting my gun in order, and mended +my moccasins. Provided plenty of wood, still +found it cold, with but one blanket.</p> + +<p><i>January 28.</i> Left our encampment at a +good hour; unable to find any trail, passed +through one of the most dismal cypress swamps +I ever saw and struck the Mississippi at a small +lake. Observed Mr. Grant's tracks going through +it; found his mark of a cut-off (agreed on between +us); took it, and proceeded very well until we +came to a small lake, where the trail was entirely +hid, but after some search on the other side, +found it, when we passed through a dismal +swamp, on the other side of which we found a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +large lake, at which I was entirely at a loss, no +trail to be seen. Struck for a point about three +miles off, where we found a Chipeway lodge of +one man and five children, and one old woman. +They received us with every mark that distinguished +their barbarity, such as setting their +dogs on us, trying to thrust their hands into our +pockets, and so on, but we convinced them that +we were not afraid, and let them know that we +were Chewockomen (Americans), when they +used us more civilly. After we had arranged a +camp as well as possible I went into the lodge; +they presented me with a plate of dried meat. +I ordered Miller to bring about two gills of liquor, +which made us all good friends. The old squaw +gave me more meat, and offered me tobacco, +which, not using, I did not take. I gave her an +order upon my corporal for one knife and half a +carrot of tobacco. Heaven clothes the lilies +and feeds the raven, and the same Almighty +Providence protects and preserves these creatures. +After I had gone out to my fire, the old +man came out and proposed to trade beaver +skins for whiskey; meeting with a refusal he left +me; when presently the old woman came out +with a beaver skin, she also being refused, he +again returned to the charge with a quantity of +dried meat (this or any other I should have been +glad to have had) when I gave him a peremptory +refusal; then all further application ceased. It +really appeared that with one quart of whiskey +I might have bought all they were possessed of.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +Night remarkably cold, was obliged to sit up +nearly the whole of it. Suffered much with +cold and from want of sleep.</p> + +<p><i>January 31.</i> Took my clothes into the Indian's +lodge to dress, and was received very +coolly, but by giving him a dram (unasked), +and his wife a little salt, I received from them +directions for my route. Passed the lake or +morass, and opened on meadows (through +which the Mississippi winds its course) of nearly +fifteen miles in length. Took a straight course +through them to the head, when I found we +had missed the river; made a turn of about two +miles and regained it. Passed a fork which I +supposed to be Lake Winipie, making the +course northwest; the branch we took was on +Leech Lake branch, course southwest and +west. Passed a very large meadow or prairie, +course west, the Mississippi only fifteen yards +wide. Encamped about one mile below the +traverse of the meadow. Saw a very large animal, +which from its leaps I supposed to be a +panther; but if so, it was twice as large as those +on the lower Mississippi. He evinced some disposition +to approach. I lay down (Miller being +in the rear) in order to entice him to come near, +but he would not. The night remarkably cold. +Some spirits, which I had in a small keg, congealed +to the consistency of honey.</p> + +<p><i>February 1.</i> Left our camp pretty early. +Passed a continuous train of prairie, and arrived +at Lake Sang Sue at half-past two o'clock.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +I will not attempt to describe my feelings on +the accomplishment of my voyage, for this is +the main source of the Mississippi. The Lake +Winipie branch is navigable from thence to +Red Cedar Lake for the distance of five leagues, +which is the extremity of the navigation. Crossed +the lake twelve miles to the establishment of +the North West Company, where we arrived +about three o'clock; found all the gates locked, +but upon knocking were admitted and received +with marked attention and hospitality by Mr. +Hugh McGillis. Had a good dish of coffee, +biscuit, butter and cheese for supper.</p> + +<p><i>February 2.</i> Remained all day within doors. +In the evening sent an invitation to Mr. Anderson, +who was an agent of Dickson, and also for +some young Indians at his house, to come over +and breakfast in the morning.</p> + +<p><i>February 3.</i> Spent the day in reading +Volney's “Egypt,” proposing some queries to +Mr. Anderson, and preparing my young men to +return with a supply of provisions to my party.</p> + +<p><i>February 4.</i> Miller departed this morning. +Mr. Anderson returned to his quarters. My +legs and ankles were so much swelled that I +was not able to wear my own clothes, and was +obliged to borrow some from Mr. McGillis.</p> + +<p><i>February 5.</i> One of Mr. McGillis's clerks +had been sent to some Indian lodges, and expected +to return in four days, but had now +been absent nine. Mr. Grant was despatched, +in order to find out what had become of him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>February 6.</i> My men arrived at the fort +about four o'clock. Mr. McGillis asked if I had +any objection to his hoisting their flag in compliment +to ours. I made none, as I had not +yet explained to him my ideas. In making a +traverse of the lake some of my men had their +ears, some their noses, and others their chins +frozen.</p> + +<p><i>February 7.</i> Remained within doors, my +limbs being still very much swelled. Addressed +a letter to Mr. McGillis on the subject of the +North West Company's trade in this quarter.</p> + +<p><i>February 8.</i> Took the latitude and found +it to be 47° 16´ 13". Shot with our rifles.</p> + +<p><i>February 9.</i> M. McGillis and myself paid +a visit to Mr. Anderson, an agent of Mr. Dickson, +of the lower Mississippi, who resided at the +west end of the lake. Found him eligibly situated +as to trade, but his houses bad. I rode in +a cariole, for one person, constructed in the +following manner: Boards planed smooth, +turned up in front about two feet, coming to a +point; about two and a half feet wide behind, +on which is fixed a box covered with dressed +skins painted; this box is open at the top, but +covered in front about two-thirds of the length. +The horse is fastened between the shafts. The +rider wraps himself up in a buffalo robe, sits +flat down, having a cushion to lean his back +against. Thus accoutred with a fur cap, and +so on, he may bid defiance to the wind and +weather. Upon our return we found that some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +of the Indians had already returned from the +hunting camps; also Monsieur Roussand, the +gentleman supposed to have been killed by +the Indians. His arrival with Mr. Grant diffused +a general satisfaction through the fort.</p> + +<p><i>February 10.</i> Hoisted the American flag +in the fort. Reading “Shenstone,” etc.</p> + +<p><i>February 11.</i> The Sweet, Buck, Burnt, +and others arrived, all chiefs of note, but the +former in particular, a venerable old man. +From him I learned that the Sioux occupied +this ground when, to use his own phrase, “He +was made a man and began to hunt; that they +occupied it the year that the French missionaries +were killed at the river Pacagama.” The +Indians flocked in.</p> + +<p><i>February 12.</i> Bradley and myself with +Mr. McGillis' and two of his men left Leech +Lake at 10 o'clock, and arrived at the house of +Red Cedar Lake at sunset, a distance of thirty +miles. My ankles were very much swelled, +and I was very lame. From the entrance of the +Mississippi to the strait is called six miles, a +southwest course. Thence to the south end, +south thirty, east four miles. The bay at the +entrance extends nearly east and west six miles. +About two and a half from the north side to +a large point. This, may be called the upper +source of the Mississippi, being fifteen miles +above little Lake Winipie, and the extent of +canoe navigation only two leagues to some of +the Hudson's Bay waters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="MANILA_IN_1842" id="MANILA_IN_1842"></a>MANILA IN 1842</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> +<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">Top</a></span> +<h3><span class="smcap">Lieutenant Charles Wilkes</span></h3> + +<div class="noteb"><p>[During 1838-42 Lieutenant Wilkes commanded an exploring +expedition which was the first ever despatched for scientific +research by the United States. The instructions given +by Congress to the Commander said:—“The expedition is +not for conquest, but discovery. Its objects are all peaceful; +they are to extend the empire of commerce and science; to +diminish the hazards of the ocean, and point out to future +navigators a course by which they may avoid dangers and +find safety.” The narrative of the expedition was published +in five volumes in Philadelphia, 1845. The extracts +which follow are from Vol. V., chapter VIII. From 1844 +to 1874 the Government of the United States published +twenty-eight volumes reciting in detail the scientific results +of the expedition.]</p></div> + + +<p>At daylight, on the 13th of January, 1842, +we were again under way, with a light air, and +at nine o'clock reached the roadstead, where +we anchored in six fathoms of water, with good +holding ground.</p> + +<p>A number of vessels were lying in the roads, +among which were several Americans loading +with hemp. There was also a large English +East Indiaman, manned by Lascars, whose noise +rendered her more like a floating Bedlam than +anything else to which I can liken it.</p> + +<p>The view of the city and country around +Manila partakes both of a Spanish and an Oriental +character. The sombre and heavy-looking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +churches with their awkward towers; the long +lines of batteries mounted with heavy cannon; +the massive houses, with ranges of balconies; +and the light and airy cottages, elevated on posts, +situated in the luxuriant groves of tropical trees,—all +excite desire to become better acquainted +with the country.</p> + +<p>Manila is situated on an extensive plain, +gradually swelling into distant hills, beyond +which, again, mountains rise in the background, +to the height of several thousand feet. The +latter are apparently clothed with vegetation +to their summits. The city is in strong contrast +to this luxuriant scenery, bearing evident marks +of decay, particularly in the churches, whose +steeples and tile roofs have a dilapidated look. +The site of the city does not appear to have +been well chosen, it having apparently been +selected entirely for the convenience of commerce, +and the communication that the outlet +of the lake affords for the batteaux [freight +boats] that transport the produce from the +shores of the Laguna de Bay to the city.</p> + +<p>There are many arms or branches to this +stream, which have been converted into canals; +and almost any part of Manila may now be +reached in a banca [small passage boat].</p> + +<p>The canal is generally filled with coasting +vessels, batteaux from the lake, and lighters for +the discharge of the vessels lying in the roads. +The bay of Manila is safe, excepting during the +change of the monsoons, when it is subject to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +the typhoons of the China seas, within whose +range it lies. These blow at times with much +force, and cause great damage. Foreign vessels +have, however, kept this anchorage, and rode +out these storms in safety; but native as well +as Spanish vessels seek at these times the port +of Cavite, about three leagues to the southwest, +at the entrance of the bay, which is perfectly +secure. Here the government dockyard is situated, +and this harbour is consequently the +resort of the few gunboats and galleys that are +stationed here.</p> + +<p>The entrance to the canal or river Pasig is +three hundred feet wide, and is enclosed between +two well-constructed piers, which extend for +some distance into the bay. On the end of one +of these is the light-house, and on the other a +guard-house. The walls of these piers are about +four feet above ordinary high water, and include +the natural channel of the river, whose +current sets out with some force, particularly +when the ebb is making in the bay.</p> + +<p>The suburbs, or Binondo quarter, contain +more inhabitants than the city itself, and is +the commercial town. They have all the stir +and life incident to a large population actively +engaged in trade, and in this respect the contrast +with the city proper is great.</p> + +<p>The city of Manila is built in the form of a +large segment of a circle, having the chord of +the segment on the river: the whole is strongly +fortified with walls and ditches. The houses are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +substantially built after the fashion of the +mother country. Within the walls are the +governor's palace, custom-house, treasury, admiralty, +several churches, convents, and charitable +institutions, a university, and the barracks +for the troops; it also contain some public +squares, on one of which is a bronze statute of +Charles IV.</p> + +<p>The city is properly deemed the court residence +of these islands; and all those attached +to the government, or who wish to be considered +as of the higher circle, reside here; but +foreigners are not permitted to do so. The +houses in the city are generally of stone, plastered, +and white or yellow washed on the outside. +They are only two stories high, and in consequence +cover a large space, being built around +a patio or courtyard.</p> + +<p>The ground floors are occupied as storehouses, +stables, and for porters' lodges. The second story +is devoted to the dining halls and sleeping +apartments, kitchens, bath-rooms, etc. The +bed-rooms have the windows down to the floor, +opening on wide balconies, with blinds or shutters. +These blinds are constructed with sliding +frames, having small squares of two inches +filled in with a thin semi-transparent shell, a +species of Placuna; the fronts of some of the +houses have a large number of these small lights, +where the females of the family may enjoy +themselves unperceived.</p> + +<p>After entering the canal, we very soon found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +ourselves among a motley and strange population. +On landing, the attention is drawn to +the vast number of small stalls and shops with +which the streets are lined on each side, and +to the crowds of people passing to and fro, all +intent upon their several occupations. The +artisans in Manila are almost wholly Chinese; +and all trades are local, so that in each +quarter of the Binondo suburb the privilege +of exclusive occupancy is claimed by some +particular kinds of shops. In passing up the +Escolta (which is the longest and main street +in this district), the cabinet-makers, seen busily +at work in their shops, are first met with; +next to these come the tinkers and blacksmiths; +then the shoemakers, clothiers, fishmongers, +haberdashers, etc. These are flanked by outdoor +occupations; and in each quarter are numerous +cooks frying cakes, stewing, etc., in movable +kitchens; while here and there are to be +seen betel-nut sellers, either moving about to +obtain customers, or taking a stand in some +great thoroughfare. The moving throng, composed +of carriers, waiters, messengers, etc., +pass quietly and without any noise: they are +generally seen with the Chinese umbrella, +painted of many colours, screening themselves +from the sun. The whole population wear +slippers, and move along with a slip-shod gait.</p> + +<p>The Chinese are apparently far more numerous +than the Malays, and the two races differ +as much in character as in appearance: one is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +all activity, while the other is disposed to avoid +all exertion. They preserve their distinctive +character throughout, mixing but very little +with each other, and are removed as far as +possible in their civilities; the former, from +their industry and perseverance, have almost +monopolized all the lucrative employments +among the lower orders, excepting the selling +of fish and betel-nut, and articles manufactured +in the provinces....</p> + +<p>Of all her foreign possessions, the Philippines +have cost Spain the least blood and labour. +The honour of their discovery belongs to Magalhaens, +whose name is associated with the straits +at the southern extremity of the American +continent, but which has no memorial in these +islands. Now that the glory which he gained +by being the first to penetrate from the Atlantic +to the Pacific has been in some measure obliterated +by the disuse of those straits by navigators, +it would seem due to his memory that +some spot among these islands should be set +apart to commemorate the name of him who +made them known to Europe. This would be +but common justice to the discoverer of a +region which has been a source of so much +honour and profit to the Spanish nation, who +opened the vast expanse of the Pacific to the fleets +of Europe, and who died fighting to secure the +benefits of his enterprise to his king and country.</p> + +<p>Few portions of the globe seem to be so +much the seat of internal fires, or to exhibit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +the effects of volcanic action so strongly as the +Philippines. During our visit, it was not known +that any of the volcanoes were in action; but +many of them were smoking, particularly that +in the district of Albay, called Isaroc. Its latest +eruption was in the year 1839; but this did little +damage compared with that of 1814, which +covered several villages, and the country for a +great distance around, with ashes. This mountain +is situated to the southeast of Manila one +hundred and fifty miles, and is said to be a +perfect cone, with a crater at its apex.</p> + +<p>It does not appear that the islands are much +affected by earthquakes, although some have +occasionally occurred that have done damage +to the churches at Manila.</p> + +<p>The coal found in the Philippines is deemed +of value; it has a strong resemblance to the +bituminous coal of our own country, possesses +a bright lustre, and appears very free from all +woody texture when fractured. It is found +associated with sandstone, which contains many +fossils. Lead and copper are reported as being +very abundant; gypsum and limestone occur +in some districts. From this it will be seen that +these islands have everything in the mineral +way to constitute them desirable possessions.</p> + +<p>With such mineral resources and a soil capable +of producing the most varied vegetation +of the tropics, a liberal policy is all that the +country lacks. The products of the Philippine +Islands consist of sugar, coffee, hemp, indigo,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +rice, tortoise-shell, hides, ebony, saffron-wood, +sulphur, cotton, cordage, silk, pepper, cocoa, +wax, and many other articles. In their agricultural +operations the people are industrious, +although much labour is lost by the use of defective +implements. The plow, of a very simple +construction, has been adopted from the Chinese; +it has no coulter, the share is flat, and being +turned partly to one side, answers, in a certain +degree the purpose of a mould-board. This rude +implement is sufficient for the rich soils, where +the tillage depends chiefly upon the harrow, +in constructing which a thorny species of +bamboo is used. The harrow is formed of five +or six pieces of this material, on which the thorns +are left, firmly fastened together. It answers +its purpose well, and is seldom out of order. +A wrought-iron harrow, that was introduced +by the Jesuits, is used for clearing the ground +more effectually, and more particularly for the +purpose of extirpating a troublesome grass, +that is known by the name of cogon (a species +of Andropogon), of which it is very difficult +to rid the fields. The bolo or long-knife, a basket, +a hoe, complete the implements, and answer +all the purposes of our spades, etc.</p> + +<p>The buffalo was used until within a few years +exclusively in their agricultural operations, and +they have lately taken to the use of the ox; +but horses are never used. The buffalo, from +the slowness of his motions, and his exceeding +restlessness under the heat of the climate, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +ill adapted to agricultural labour; but the natives +are very partial to them, notwithstanding they +occasion them much labour and trouble in +bathing them during the great heat. This is +absolutely necessary, or the animal becomes so +fretful as to be unfit for use. If it were not for +this, the buffalo would, notwithstanding his +slow pace, be most effective in agricultural +operations; he requires little food, and that of +the coarsest kind; his strength surpasses that of +the stoutest ox, and he is admirably adapted +for the rice or paddy fields. They are very docile +when used by the natives, and even children +can manage them; but it said they have a great +antipathy to the whites and all strangers. The +usual mode of guiding them is by a small cord +attached to the cartilage of the nose. The yoke +rests on the neck before the shoulders, and is +of simple construction. To this is attached +whatever it may be necessary to draw, either +by traces, shafts, or other fastenings. Frequently +these animals may be seen with large +bundles of bamboo lashed to them on each side. +Buffaloes are to be met with on the lake with +no more than their noses and eyes out of the +water, and are not visible until they are approached +within a few feet, when they cause +alarm to the passengers by raising their large +forms close to the boat. It is said that they +resort to the lake to feed on a favourite grass +that grows on its bottom in shallow water, +and which they dive for. Their flesh is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +eaten, except that of the young ones, for it is +tough and tasteless. The milk is nutritious, +and of a character between that of the goat and +cow.</p> + +<p>Rice is, perhaps, of their agricultural products, +the article upon which the inhabitants +of the Philippine Islands most depend for food +and profit; of this they have several different +varieties, which the natives distinguish by their +size and the shape of the grain: the birnambang, +lamuyo, malagequit, bontot-cabayo, dumali, +quinanda, bolohan, and tangi. The three first +are aquatic, the five latter upland varieties. +They each have their peculiar uses. The dumali +is the early variety; it ripens in three months +from planting, from which circumstance it +derives its name; it is raised exclusively on the +uplands. Although much esteemed, it is not +extensively cultivated, as the birds and insects +destroy a large part of the crop.</p> + +<p>The malagequit is very much prized, and +used for making sweet and fancy dishes; it +becomes exceedingly glutinous, for which reason +it is used in making whitewash, which it is said +to cause to become of a brilliant white, and to +withstand the weather. This variety is not, +however, believed to be wholesome. There is +also a variety of this last species which is used +as food for horses, and supposed to be a remedy +and preventive against worms.</p> + +<p>The rice grounds or fields are laid out in +squares, and surrounded by embankments, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +retain the water of the rains or streams. After +the rains have fallen in sufficient quantities to +saturate the ground, a seed-bed is generally +planted in one corner of the field, in which the +rice is sown broadcast, about the month of +June. The heavy rains take place in August, +when the fields are ploughed, and are soon filled +with water. The young plants are about this +time taken from the seed-bed, their tops and +roots trimmed, and then planted in the field +by making holes in the ground with the fingers +and placing four or five sprouts in each of them; +in this tedious labor the poor women are employed, +whilst the males are lounging in their +houses or in the shade of the trees.</p> + +<p>The harvest for the aquatic rice begins in +December. It is reaped with small sickles, +peculiar to the country, called yatap; to the +back of these a small stick is fastened, by which +they are held, and the stalk is forced upon it +and cut. The spikes of rice are cut with this +implement, one by one. In this operation, men, +women and children, all take part.</p> + +<p>The upland rice requires much more care and +labour in its cultivation. The land must be +ploughed three or four times, and all the turf and +lumps well broken up by the harrow.</p> + +<p>During its growth it requires to be weeded +two or three times, to keep the weeds from choking +the crop. The seed is sown broadcast in +May. This kind of rice is harvested in November, +and to collect the crop is still more tedious than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +in the other case, for it is always gathered earlier +and never reaped, in consequence of the grain +not adhering to the ear. If it were gathered +in any other way, the loss by transportation +on the backs of buffaloes and horses, without +any covering to the sheaf, would be so great +as to dissipate a great portion of the crop.</p> + +<p>After the rice is harvested, there are different +modes of treating it. Some of the proprietors +take it home, where it is thrown into heaps, +and left until it is desirable to separate it from +the straw, when it is trodden out by men and +women with their bare feet. For this operation +they usually receive a fifth part of the +rice.</p> + +<p>Others stack it in a wet and green state, +which subjects it to heat, from which cause +the grain contracts a dark colour and an unpleasant +taste and smell. The natives, however, +impute these defects to the wetness of the +season.</p> + +<p>The crop of both the low and upland rice is +usually from thirty to fifty for one: this on old +land; but on that which is newly cleared, or +which has never been cultivated, the yield is +far beyond this. In some soils of the latter +description, it is said that for a chupa (seven +cubic inches) planted the yield has been a +caban. The former is the two-hundred-and-eighth +part of the latter. This is not the only +advantage gained in planting rice lands, but +the saving of labour is equally great; for all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +that is required is to make a hole with the fingers +and place three or four grains in it. The upland +rice requires but little water, and is never irrigated.</p> + +<p>The cultivator in the Philippine Islands is +always enabled to secure plenty of manure; +for vegetation is so luxuriant that by pulling +the weeds and laying them with earth a good +stock is quickly obtained with which to cover +his fields. Thus, although the growth is so +rank as to cause him labour, yet in this hot +climate its decay is equally rapid, which tends +to make his labours more successful.</p> + +<p>Among the important productions of these +islands, I have mentioned hemp, although the +article called Manila hemp must not be understood +to be derived from the plant which produces +the common hemp (<i>Canabis</i>), being obtained +from a species of plantain (<i>Musa textilis</i>), +called in the Philippines “abaca.” This is a +native of these islands, and was formerly believed +to be found only on Mindanao; but this +is not the case, for it is cultivated on the south +part of Luzon and all the islands south of it. +It grows on high ground, in rich soil, and is +propagated by seeds. It resembles the other +plants of the tribe of plantains, but its fruit is +much smaller, although edible. The fibre is +derived from the stem, and the plant attains +the height of fifteen or twenty feet. The usual +mode of preparing the hemp is to cut off the +stem near the ground, before the time or just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +when the fruit is ripe. The stem is then eight +or ten feet long below the leaves, where it is +again cut. The outer coating of the herbaceous +stem is then stripped off, until the fibres or +cellular parts are seen, when it undergoes the +process of rotting, and after being well dried +in houses and sheds, is prepared for market +by assorting it, a task which is performed by +the women and children. That which is intended +for cloth is soaked for an hour or two +in weak lime-water prepared from sea-shells, +again dried, and put up in bundles. From all +the districts in which it grows, it is sent to Manila, +which is the only port whence it can legally +be exported. It arrives in large bundles, and +is packed there by means of a screw-press in +compact bales, for shipping, secured by rattan, +each weighing two piculs. [A picul is about +140 pounds.]</p> + +<p>The best Manila hemp ought to be white, dry, +and of a long and fine fibre. This is known at +Manila by the name of lupis; the second quality +they call bandala.</p> + +<p>That which is brought to the United States +is principally manufactured in or near Boston, +and is the cordage known as “white rope.” +The cordage manufactured at Manila is, however, +very superior to the rope made with us, +although the hemp is of the inferior kind. +A large quantity is also manufactured into +mats.</p> + +<p>In the opinion of our botanist, it is not probable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +that the plant could be introduced with +success into our country, for in the Philippines +it is not found north of latitude 14° N.</p> + +<p>The coffee-plant is well adapted to these +islands. A few plants were introduced into the +gardens of Manila about fifty years ago, since +which time it has been spread all over the island, +as is supposed, by the civet-cats, which, after +swallowing the seeds, carry them to a distance +before they are voided.</p> + +<p>The coffee of commerce is obtained here from +the wild plant, and is of an excellent quality. +Upwards of three thousand five hundred piculs +are now exported, of which one-sixth goes to +the United States.</p> + +<p>The sugar-cane thrives well here. It is planted +after the French fashion, by sticking the piece +diagonally into the ground. Some, finding the +cane has suffered in times of drought, have +adopted other modes. It comes to perfection +in a year, and they seldom have two crops +from the same piece of land, unless the season +is very favourable.</p> + +<p>There are many kinds of cane cultivated, +but that grown in the valley of Pampanga is +thought to be the best. It is a small, red variety, +from four to five feet high, and not thicker than +the thumb. The manufacture of the sugar is +rudely conducted; and the whole business, I +was told, was in the hands of a few capitalists, +who, by making advances, secure the whole +crop from those who are employed to bring it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +to market. It is generally brought in moulds of +the usual conical shape, called pilones, which are +delivered to the purchaser from November to +June, and contain each about one hundred and +fifty pounds. On their receipt they are placed +in large storehouses, where the familiar operation +of claying is performed. The estimate +for the quantity of sugar from these pilones +after this process is about one hundred +pounds; it depends upon the care taken in the +process.</p> + +<p>Of cotton they raise a considerable quantity, +and principally of the yellow nankeen. In the +province of Ylocos it is cultivated most extensively. +The mode of cleaning it of its seed +is very rude, by means of a hand-mill, and the +expense of cleaning a picul (one hundred and +forty pounds) is from five to seven dollars. +There have, as far as I have understood, been +no endeavours to introduce any cotton-gins +from our country.</p> + +<p>It will be merely necessary to give the prices +at which labourers are paid to show how the +compensation is in comparison with that in +our country. In the vicinity of Manila, twelve +and a half cents per day is the usual wages; +this in the provinces falls to six and nine cents. +A man with two buffaloes is paid about thirty +cents. The amount of labour performed by the +latter in a day would be the ploughing of a +soane, about two-tenths of an acre. The most +profitable way of employing labourers is by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +task, when, it is said, the natives work well, +and are industrious.</p> + +<p>The manner in which the sugar and other +produce is brought to market at Manila is peculiar, +and deserves to be mentioned. In some +of the villages the chief men unite to build a +vessel, generally a pirogue, in which they embark +their produce, under the conduct of a +few persons, who go to navigate it, and dispose +of the cargo. In due time they make their +voyage, and when the accounts are settled, +the returns are distributed to each according +to his share. Festivities are then held, the +saints thanked for their kindness, and blessings +invoked for another year. After this is over, the +vessel is taken carefully to pieces, and distributed +among the owners, to be preserved for the +next season.</p> + +<p>The profits in the crops, according to estimates, +vary from sixty to one hundred per cent.; +but it was thought, as a general average, that +this was, notwithstanding the great productiveness +of the soil, far beyond the usual profits +accruing from agricultural operations. In some +provinces this estimate would hold good, and +probably be exceeded.</p> + +<p>Indigo would probably be a lucrative crop, +for that raised here is said to be of a quality +equal to the best, and the crop is not subject +to so many uncertainties as in India: the capital +and attention required in vats, etc., prevent it +from being raised in any quantities. Among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +the productions, the bamboo and rattan ought +to claim a particular notice from their great +utility: they enter into almost everything. Of +the former their houses are built, including +frames, floors, sides, and roof; fences are made +of the same material, as well as every article +of general household use, including baskets for +oil and water. The rattan is a general substitute +for ropes of all descriptions, and the two combined +are used in constructing rafts for crossing +ferries.</p> + +<p>The crops frequently suffer from the ravages +of the locusts, which sweep all before them. +Fortunately for the poorer classes, their attacks +take place after the rice has been harvested; +but the cane is sometimes entirely cut off. +The authorities of Manila, in the vain hope of +stopping their devastations, employ persons to +gather them and throw them into the sea. I +understood on one occasion they had spent +eighty thousand dollars in this way, but all to +little purpose. It is said that the crops rarely +suffer from droughts, but on the contrary the +rains are thought to fall too often and to flood +the rice fields; these, however, yield a novel +crop, and are very advantageous to the poor, +viz.: a great quantity of fish, which are called +dalag, and are a species of Blunnius; they are +so plentiful that they are caught with baskets; +these fish weigh from a half to two pounds, and +some are said to be eighteen inches long; but +this is not all; they are said, after a deep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +inundation, to be found even in the vaults of +churches.</p> + +<p>The Philippines are divided into thirty-one +provinces, sixteen of which are on the island +of Luzon, and the remainder comprise the +other islands of the group and the Ladrones.</p> + +<p>The population of the whole group is above +three millions, including all tribes of natives, +mestizoes, and whites. The latter-named class +are but few in number, not exceeding three +thousand. The mestizoes were supposed to be +about fifteen or twenty thousand; they are +distinguished as Spanish and Indian mestizoes. +The Chinese have of late years increased to a +large number, and it is said that there are forty +thousand of them in and around Manila alone. +One-half of the whole population belongs to +Luzon. The island next to it in number of inhabitants +is Panay, which contains about three +hundred and thirty thousand. Then come +Zebu, Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, and Negros, +varying from the above numbers down to fifty +thousand. The population is increasing, and +it is thought that it doubles itself in seventy +years. This rate of increase appears probable, +from a comparison of the present population +with the estimate made at the beginning of the +present century, which shows a growth in +forty years of about one million four hundred +thousand.</p> + +<p>The native population is composed of a number +of distinct tribes, the principal of which in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +Luzon are Pangarihan, Ylocos, Cagayan, Tagala, +and Pampangan.</p> + +<p>The Irogotes, who dwell in the mountains, +are the only natives who have not been subjected +by the Spaniards. The other tribes have +become identified with their rulers in religion, +and it is thought that by this circumstance +alone has Spain been able to maintain the +ascendency, with so small a number, over such +a numerous, intelligent, and energetic race as +they are represented to be. This is, however, +more easily accounted for, from the Spaniards +fostering and keeping alive the jealousy and +hatred that existed at the time of the discovery +between the different tribes.</p> + +<p>It seems almost incredible that Spain should +have so long persisted in the policy of allowing +no more than one galleon to pass annually +between her colonies, and equally so that the +nations of Europe should have been so long +deceived in regard to the riches and wealth +that Spain was monopolizing in the Philippines. +The capture of Manila, in 1762, by the English, +first gave a clear idea of the value of this remote +and little-known appendage of the empire.</p> + +<p>The Philippines, considered in their capacity +for commerce, are certainly among the most +favoured portions of the globe, and there is +but one circumstance that tends in the least +degree to lessen their apparent advantage; this +is the prevalence of typhoons in the China +seas, which are occasionally felt with force to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +the north of latitude 10° N. South of that +parallel they have never been known to prevail, +and seldom so far; but from their unfailing +occurrence yearly in some part of the China +seas, they are looked for with more or less dread, +and cause each season a temporary interruption +in all the trade that passes along the coast of +these islands.</p> + +<p>The army is now composed entirely of native +troops, who number about six thousand men, +and the regiments are never suffered to serve +in the provinces in which they are recruited, +but those from the north are sent to the south, +and vice versa. There they are employed to +keep a continual watch on each other; and, +speaking different dialects, they never become +identified.</p> + +<p>They are, indeed, never allowed to remain +long enough in one region to imbibe any feelings +in unison with those of its inhabitants. +The hostility is so great among the regiments +that mutinies have occurred, and contests +arisen which have produced even bloodshed, +which it was entirely out of the power of the +officers to prevent. In cases of this kind, summary +punishment is resorted to.</p> + +<p>Although the Spaniards, as far as is known +abroad, live in peace and quiet, this is far from +being the case; for rebellion and revolts among +the troops and tribes are not unfrequent in +the provinces. During the time of our visit +one of these took place, but it was impossible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +to learn anything concerning it that could be +relied upon, for all conversation respecting +such occurrences is interdicted by the government. +The difficulty to which I refer was said +to have originated from the preaching of a +fanatic priest, who inflamed them to such a +degree that they overthrew the troops and +became temporarily masters of the country. +Prompt measures were immediately taken, +and orders issued to give the rebels no quarter; +the regiments most hostile to those in the revolt +were ordered to the spot; they spared no one; +the priest and his companions were taken, +put to death, and according to report, in a +manner so cruel as to be a disgrace to the records +of the nineteenth century. Although I should +hope the accounts I heard of these transactions +were incorrect, yet the detestation these acts +were held in would give some colour to the +statements.</p> + +<p>The few gazettes that are published at Manila +are entirely under the control of the government; +and a resident of that city must make +up his mind to remain in ignorance of the things +that are passing around him, or believe just +what the authorities will allow to be told, +whether truth or falsehood. The government +of the Philippines is emphatically an iron rule; +how long can it continue so is doubtful.</p> + +<p>The natives of the Philippines are industrious. +They manufacture an amount of goods sufficient +to supply their own wants, particularly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +from Panay and Ylocos. These, for the most +part, consist of cotton and silks, and a peculiar +article called pina. The latter is manufactured +from a species of Bromelia (pine-apple), and +comes principally from the island of Panay. +The finest kinds of pina are exceedingly beautiful +and surpass any other material in its evenness +and beauty of texture. Its colour is yellowish, +and the embroidery is fully equal to the material. +It is much sought after by all strangers, and +considered as one of the curiosities of this group. +Various reports have been stated of the +mode of its manufacture, and among others +that it was woven under water, which I found, +upon inquiry, to be quite erroneous. The web +of the pina is so fine that they are obliged to +prevent all currents of air from passing through +the rooms where it is manufactured, for which +purpose there are gauze screens in the windows. +After the article is brought to Manila, it is then +embroidered by girls; this last operation adds +greatly to its value.</p> + +<p>The market is a never-failing place of amusement +to a foreigner; for there a crowd of the +common people is always to be seen, and their +mode of conducting business may be observed. +The canals here afford great facilities for bringing +vegetables and produce to market in a fresh +state. The vegetables are chiefly brought +from the shores of the Laguna de Bay, through +the river Pasig. The meat appeared inferior, +and as in all Spanish places the art of butchering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +is not understood. The poultry, however, +surpasses that of any other place I have seen, +particularly in ducks, the breeding of which is +pursued to a great extent. Establishments for +breeding these birds are here carried on in a +systematic manner, and are a great curiosity. +They consist of many small enclosures, each +about twenty feet by forty or fifty, made of +bamboo, which are placed on the bank of the +river, and partly covered with water. In one +corner of the enclosure is a small house, where +the eggs are hatched by artificial heat, produced +by rice-chaff in a state of fermentation. It is +not uncommon to see six or eight hundred +ducklings all of the same age. There are several +hundreds of these enclosures, and the number +of ducks of all ages may be computed at millions. +The manner in which they are schooled to take +exercise, and to go in and out of the water, +and to return to their house, almost exceeds +belief. The keepers or tenders are of the Tagala +tribe, who live near the enclosures, and have +them at all times under their eye. The old +birds are not suffered to approach the young, +and all of one age are kept together. They are +fed upon rice and a small species of shell-fish +that is found in the river and is peculiar to it. +From the extent of these establishments we +inferred that ducks were the favourite article +of food at Manila, and the consumption of them +must be immense. The markets are well supplied +with chickens, pigeons, young partridges, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +are brought in alive, and turkeys. Among +strange articles that we saw for sale were cakes +of coagulated blood. The markets are well +stocked with a variety of fish, taken both in the +Laguna and bay of Manila, affording a supply +of both the fresh and salt water species, and +many smaller kinds that are dried and smoked. +Vegetables are in great plenty, and consist of +pumpkins, lettuce, onions, radishes, very long +squashes, etc.; of fruits they have melons, +chicos, durians, marbolas, and oranges.</p> + +<p>Fish are caught in weirs, by the hook, or in +seines. The former are constructed of bamboo +stakes, in the shallow water of the lake, at the +point where it flows through the river Pasig. In +the bay, and at the mouth of the river, the fish are +taken in nets, suspended by the four corners from +hoops attached to a crane, by which they are +lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are +little better than rafts, and are called saraboas.</p> + +<p>The usual passage-boat is termed banca, +and is made of a single trunk. These are very +much used by the inhabitants. They have a +sort of awning to protect the passenger from +the rays of the sun; and being light are easily +rowed about, although they are exceedingly +uncomfortable to sit in, from the lowness of +the seats, and liable to overset if the weight is +not placed near the bottom. The out-rigger has +in all probability been dispensed with, owing +to the impediment it offered to the navigation +of their canals; these canals offer great facilities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +for the transportation of burdens; the banks of +almost all of them are faced with granite. +Where the streets cross them, there are substantial +stone bridges, which are generally of +no more than one arch, so as not to impede the +navigation. The barges used for the transportation +of produce resemble our canal-boats, and +have sliding roofs to protect them from the rain.</p> + +<p>Water for the supply of vessels is brought +off in large earthen jars. It is obtained from the +river, and if care is not taken, the water will be +impure; it ought to be filled beyond the city. +Our supply was obtained five or six miles up +the river by a lighter, in which were placed +a number of water-casks. It proved excellent.</p> + +<p>The country around Manila, though no more +than an extended plain for some miles, is one +of great interest and beauty, and affords many +agreeable rides on the roads to Santa Anna +and Maraquino. Most of the country-seats are +situated on the river Pasig; they may indeed +be called palaces, from their extent and appearance. +They are built upon a grand scale, and +after the Italian style, with terraces, supported +by strong abutments, decked with vases of +plants. The grounds are ornamented with the +luxuriant, lofty, and graceful trees of the tropics; +these are tolerably well kept. Here and there +fine large stone churches, with their towers and +steeples, are to be seen, the whole giving the +impression of a wealthy nobility and a happy +and flourishing peasantry.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="THE_ASCENT_OF_MOUNT_TYNDALL" id="THE_ASCENT_OF_MOUNT_TYNDALL"></a>THE ASCENT OF MOUNT TYNDALL.</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">Top</a></span> +<h3><span class="smcap">Clarence King.</span></h3> + +<div class="noteb"><p>[In 1864 Professor Josiah Dwight Whitney, State Geologist +of California, sent a band of five explorers for a summer's +campaign in the high Sierras. Clarence King was assistant +geologist of the party; he recounted their researches and adventures +in “Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada,” published +in 1871 by J. R. Osgood & Co., Boston; three years later +the same firm issued an enlarged edition with maps. “The +Ascent of Mount Tyndall,” the third chapter of the book, +is one of the most thrilling stories of adventure ever written. +Clarence King suggested and organized the United States +Geological Survey, and was its director 1878-81. He died +in 1901.]</p></div> + + +<p>Morning dawned brightly upon our bivouac +among a cluster of dark firs in the mountain corridor, +opened by an ancient glacier of King's +River in the heart of the Sierras. It dawned a +trifle sooner than we could have wished, but Professor +Brewer and Hoffman had breakfasted +before sunrise, and were off with barometer and +theodolite upon their shoulders, proposing to +ascend our amphitheatre to its head and climb a +great pyramidal peak which swelled up against +the eastern sky, closing the view in that direction.</p> + +<p>We, who remained in camp, spent the day in +overhauling campaign materials and preparing +for a grand assault upon the summits. For a +couple of hours we could descry our friends +through the field-glasses, their minute black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +forms moving slowly on among piles of giant +débris; now and then lost, again coming into +view, and at last disappearing altogether.</p> + +<p>It was twilight of evening and almost eight +o'clock when they came back to camp, Brewer +leading the way, Hoffman following; and as they +sat down by our fire without uttering a word we +read upon their faces terrible fatigue.</p> + +<p>So we hastened to give them supper of coffee +and soup, bread and venison, which resulted, +after a time, in our getting in return the story +of the day.</p> + +<p>For eight whole hours they had worked up +over granite and snow, mounting ridge after +ridge, till the summit was made about two +o'clock.</p> + +<p>These snowy crests bounding our view at the +eastward we had all along taken to be the summits +of the Sierra, and Brewer had supposed himself +to be climbing a dominant peak, from which +he might look eastward over Owen's Valley and +out upon leagues of desert. Instead of this a +vast wall of mountains, lifted still higher than his +peak, rose beyond a tremendous cañon which lay +like a trough between the two parallel ranks of +peaks. Hoffman showed us on his sketch-book +the profile of this new range, and I instantly +recognized the peaks which I had seen from +Mariposa, whose great white pile had led me to +believe them the highest points of California.</p> + +<p>For a couple of months my friends had made +me the target of plenty of pleasant banter about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +my “highest land,” which they lost faith in as +we climbed from Thomas's Mill,—I too becoming +a trifle anxious about it; but now the truth had +burst upon Brewer and Hoffman they could not +find words to describe the terribleness and grandeur +of the deep cañon, nor for picturing those +huge crags towering in line at the east. Their +peak, as indicated by the barometer, was in the +region of 13,400 feet, and a level across to the +farther range showed its crests to be at least +1,500 feet higher. They had spent hours upon +the summit scanning the eastern horizon, and +ranging downward into the labyrinth of gulfs +below, and had come at last with reluctance to +the belief that to cross this gorge and ascend the +eastern wall of peaks was utterly impossible.</p> + +<p>Brewer and Hoffman were old climbers, and +their verdict of impossible opposed me as I +lay awake thinking about it; but early next +morning I had made up my mind, and, taking +Cotter aside, I asked him in an easy manner +whether he would like to penetrate the Unknown +Land with me at the risk of our necks, provided +Brewer should consent. In frank, courageous +tone he answered after his usual mode, “Why +not?” Stout of limb, stronger yet in heart, of +iron endurance, and a quiet, unexcited temperament, +and, better yet, deeply devoted to me, I +felt that Cotter was the one comrade I would +choose to face death with, for I believed +there was in his manhood no room for fear or +shirk.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was a trying moment for Brewer when we +found him and volunteered to attempt a campaign +for the top of California, because he felt a +certain fatherly responsibility over our youth, +a natural desire that we should not deposit our +triturated remains in some undiscoverable hole +among the feldspathic granites; but, like a true +disciple of science, this was at last overbalanced +by his intense desire to know more of the unexplored +region. He freely confessed that he +believed the plan madness, and Hoffman, too, +told us we might as well attempt to get on a +cloud as to try the peak.</p> + +<p>As Brewer gradually yielded his consent, I +saw by his conversation that there was a possibility +of success; so we spent the rest of the day +in making preparations.</p> + +<p>Our walking shoes were in excellent condition, +the hobnails firm and new. We laid out a barometer, +a compass, a pocket-level, a set of wet +and dry thermometers, note-books, with bread, +cooked beans, and venison enough to last a week, +rolled them all in blankets, making two knapsack-shaped +packs strapped firmly together with loops +for the arms, which, by Brewer's estimate, +weighed forty pounds apiece.</p> + +<p>Gardner declared he would accompany us to +the summit of the first range to look over into +the gulf we were to cross, and at last Brewer and +Hoffman also concluded to go up with us.</p> + +<p>Quite too early for our profit we all betook ourselves +to bed, vainly hoping to get a long refreshing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +sleep from which we should rise ready for our +tramp.</p> + +<p>Never a man welcomed those first gray streaks +in the east gladder than I did, unless it may be +Cotter, who has in later years confessed that he +did not go to sleep that night. Long before sunrise +we had done our breakfast and were under +way, Hoffman kindly bearing my pack, and +Brewer Cotter's.</p> + +<p>Our way led due east up the amphitheatre +and toward Mount Brewer, as we had named the +great pyramidal peak.</p> + +<p>Awhile after leaving camp, slant sunlight +streamed in among gilded pinnacles along the +slope of Mount Brewer, touching here and there, +in broad dashes of yellow, the gray walls, which +rose sweeping up on either side like the sides of +a ship.</p> + +<p>Our way along the valley's middle ascended +over a number of huge steps, rounded and abrupt, +at whose bases were pools of transparent snow-water +edged with rude piles of erratic glacier +blocks, scattered companies of alpine firs, of red +bark and having cypress-like darkness of foliage, +with fields of snow under sheltering cliffs, and +bits of softest velvet meadow clouded with +minute blue and white flowers.</p> + +<p>As we climbed, the gorge grew narrow and +sharp, both sides wilder; and the spurs which +projected from them, nearly overhanging the +middle of the valley, towered above us with more +and more severe sculpture. We frequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +crossed deep fields of snow, and at last reached +the level of the highest pines, where long slopes +of débris swept down from either cliff, meeting +in the middle. Over and among these immense +blocks, often twenty and thirty feet high, we +were obliged to climb, hearing far below us the +subterranean gurgle of streams.</p> + +<p>Interlocking spurs nearly closed the gorge +behind us; our last view was out a granite gateway +formed of two nearly vertical precipices, +sharp-edged, jutting buttress-like, and plunging +down into a field of angular boulders which fill +the valley bottom.</p> + +<p>The eye ranged out from this open gateway +overlooking the great King's Cañon with its +moraine-terraced walls, the domes of granite +upon Big Meadows, and the undulating stretch +of forest which descends to the plain.</p> + +<p>The gorge turning southward, we rounded a +sort of mountain promontory, which, closing +the view behind us, shut us up in the bottom of +a perfect basin. In front lay a placid lake reflecting +the intense black-blue of the sky. Granite, +stained with purple and red, sank into it upon +one side, and a broad spotless field of snow came +down to its margin on the other.</p> + +<p>From a pile of large granite blocks, forty or +fifty feet up above the lake margin, we could +look down fully a hundred feet through the transparent +water to where boulders and pebbles were +strewn upon the stone bottom. We had now +reached the base of Mount Brewer and were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +skirting its southern spurs in a wide open corridor +surrounded in all directions by lofty granite +crags from two to four thousand feet high; above +the limits of vegetation, rocks, lakes of deep +heavenly blue, and white trackless snows were +grouped closely about us. Two sounds, a sharp +little cry of martens and occasional heavy +crashes of falling rock, saluted us.</p> + +<p>Climbing became exceedingly difficult, light +air—for we had already reached 12,500 feet—beginning +to tell on our lungs to such an extent +that my friend, who had taken turns with me in +carrying my pack, was unable to do so any +longer, and I adjusted it to my own shoulders +for the rest of the day.</p> + +<p>After four hours of slow laborious work we +made the base of the débris slope which rose +about a thousand feet to a saddle pass in the +western mountain wall, that range upon which +Mount Brewer is so prominent a point. We +were nearly an hour in toiling up this slope over +an uncertain footing which gave way at almost +every step. At last, when almost at the top, +we paused to take breath, and then all walked +out upon the crest, laid off our packs, and sat +down together upon the summit of the ridge, and +for a few minutes not a word was spoken.</p> + +<p>The Sierras are here two parallel summit +ranges. We were upon the crest of the western +range, and looked down into a gulf 5,000 feet +deep, sinking from our feet in abrupt cliffs nearly +or quite 2,000 feet, whose base plunged into a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +broad field of snow lying steep and smooth for a +great distance, but broken near its foot by craggy +steps often a thousand feet high.</p> + +<p>Vague blue haze obscured the lost depths, +hiding details, giving a bottomless distance out +of which, like the breath of wind, floated up a +faint treble, vibrating upon the senses, yet +never clearly heard.</p> + +<p>Rising on the other side, cliff above cliff, precipice +piled upon precipice, rock over rock, up +against sky, towered the most gigantic mountain-wall +in America, culminating in a noble pile of +gothic-finished granite and enamel-like snow. +How grand and inviting looked its white form, +its untrodden, unknown crest, so high and pure +in the clear strong blue! I looked at it as one +contemplating the purpose of his life; and for +just one moment I would have rather liked to +dodge that purpose, or to have waited, or to have +found some excellent reason why I might not +go; but all this quickly vanished, leaving a cheerful +resolve to go ahead.</p> + +<p>From the two opposing mountain-walls singular, +thin, knife-blade ridges of stone jutted +out, dividing the sides of the gulf into a series of +amphitheatres, each one a labyrinth of ice and +rock. Piercing thick beds of snow, sprang up +knobs and straight isolated spires of rock, mere +obelisks curiously carved by frost, their rigid +slender forms casting a blue, sharp shadow upon +the snow. Embosomed in depressions of ice, or +resting on broken ledges, were azure lakes, deeper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +in tone than the sky, which at this altitude, even +at midday, has a violet duskiness.</p> + +<p>To the south, not more than eight miles, a wall +of peaks stood across the gulf, dividing the +King's, which flowed north at our feet, from the +Kern River, that flowed down the trough in the +opposite direction.</p> + +<p>I did not wonder that Brewer and Hoffman +pronounced our undertaking impossible; but +when I looked at Cotter there was such complete +bravery in his eye that I asked him if he were +ready to start. His old answer, “Why not?,” +left the initiative with me; so I told Professor +Brewer that we would bid him good-bye. Our +friends helped us on with our packs in silence, +and as we shook hands there was not a dry eye +in the party. Before he let go of my hand Professor +Brewer asked me for my plan, and I had +to own that I had but one, which was to reach +the highest peak in the range.</p> + +<p>After looking in every direction I was obliged +to confess that I saw as yet no practicable way. +We bade them a “good-bye,” receiving their +“God bless you” in return, and started southward +along the range to look for some possible +cliff to descend. Brewer, Gardner, and Hoffman +turned north to push upward to the summit of +Mount Brewer, and complete their observations. +We saw them whenever we halted, until at last, +on the very summit, their microscopic forms +were for the last time visible. With very great +difficulty we climbed a peak which surmounted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +our wall just to the south of the pass, and, looking +over the eastern brink, found that the precipice +was still sheer and unbroken. In one place, +where the snow lay against it to the very top, we +went to its edge and contemplated the slide. +About three thousand feet of unbroken white, at +a fearfully steep angle, lay below us. We threw +a stone over it and watched it bound until it +was lost in the distance; after fearful leaps we +could only detect it by the flashings of snow +where it struck, and as these were in some instances +three hundred feet apart, we decided not +to launch our own valuable bodies, and the still +more precious barometer, after it.</p> + +<p>There seemed but one possible way to reach +our goal; that was to make our way along the +summit of the cross ridge which projected between +the two ranges. This divide sprang out +from our Mount Brewer wall, about four miles +to the south of us. To reach it we must climb +up and down over the indented edge of the Mount +Brewer wall. In attempting to do this we had +a rather lively time scaling a sharp granite needle, +where we found our course completely stopped +by precipices four and five hundred feet in height. +Ahead of us the summit continued to be broken +into fantastic pinnacles, leaving us no hope of +making our way along it; so we sought the most +broken part of the eastern descent, and began +to climb down. The heavy knapsacks, besides +wearing our shoulders gradually into a black-and-blue +state, overbalanced us terribly, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +kept us in constant danger of pitching headlong. +At last, taking them off, Cotter climbed down +until he found a resting-place upon a cleft of +rock, then I lowered them to him with our lasso, +afterwards descending cautiously to his side, +taking my turn in pioneering downward, receiving +the freight of knapsacks as before. In this +manner we consumed more that half the afternoon +in descending a thousand feet of broken, +precipitous slope; and it was almost sunset when +we found ourselves upon fields of level snow +which lay white and thick over the whole interior +slope of the amphitheatre. The gorge below us +seemed utterly impassable. At our backs the +Mount Brewer wall either rose in sheer cliffs or +in broken, rugged stairway, such as had offered +us our descent. From this cruel dilemma the +cross divide furnished the only hope, and the +sole chance of scaling that was at its junction +with the Mount Brewer wall. Toward this +point we directed our course, marching wearily +over stretches of dense frozen snow, and regions +of débris, reaching about sunset the last alcove +of the amphitheatre, just at the foot of the Mount +Brewer wall. It was evidently impossible for +us to attempt to climb it that evening, and we +looked about the desolate recesses for a sheltered +camping-spot. A high granite wall surrounded +us upon three sides, recurring to the southward +in long elliptical curves; no part of the summit +being less than 2,000 feet above us, the higher +crags not infrequently reaching 3,000 feet. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +single field of snow swept around the base of the +rock, and covered the whole amphitheatre, except +where a few spikes and rounded masses of granite +rose through it, and where two frozen lakes, with +their blue ice-disks, broke the monotonous surface. +Through the white snow-gate of our +amphitheatre, as through a frame, we looked +eastward upon the summit group; not a tree, +not a vestige of vegetation in sight,—sky, snow, +and granite the only elements in this wild +picture.</p> + +<p>After searching for a shelter we at last found +a granite crevice near the margin of one of the +frozen lakes,—a sort of shelf just large enough +for Cotter and me,—where we hastened to make +our bed, having first filled the canteen from a +small stream that trickled over the ice, knowing +that in a few moments the rapid chill would +freeze it. We ate our supper of cold venison +and bread, and whittled from the sides of the +wooden barometer case shaving enough to warm +water for a cup of miserably tepid tea, and then, +packing our provisions and instruments away at +the head of the shelf, rolled ourselves in our +blankets and lay down to enjoy the view.</p> + +<p>After such fatiguing exercises the mind has +an almost abnormal clearness: whether this is +wholly from within, or due to the intensely vitalizing +mountain air, I am not sure; probably both +contribute to the state of exaltation in which all +alpine climbers find themselves. The solid +granite gave me a luxurious repose, and I lay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +on the edge of our little rock niche and watched +the strange yet brilliant scene.</p> + +<p>All the snow of our recess lay in the shadow of +the high granite wall to the west, but the Kern +divide which curved around us from the southeast +was in full light; its broken sky-line, battlemented +and adorned with innumerable rough-hewn +spires and pinnacles, was a mass of glowing +orange intensely defined against the deep violet +sky. At the open end of our horseshoe amphitheatre, +to the east, its floor of snow rounded over +in a smooth brink, overhanging precipices which +sank 2,000 feet into the King's Cañon. Across +the gulf rose the whole procession of summit +peaks, their lower half rooted in a deep sombre +shadow cast by the western wall, the heights +bathed in a warm purple haze, in which the +irregular marbling of snow burned with a pure +crimson light. A few fleecy clouds, dyed fiery +orange, drifted slowly eastward across the narrow +zone of sky which stretched from summit to +summit like a roof. At times the sound of waterfalls, +faint and mingled with echoes, floated up +through the still air. The snow near by lay in +cold ghastly shade, warmed here and there in +strange flashes by light reflected downward from +drifting clouds. The sombre waste about us; +the deep violet vault overhead; those far summits, +glowing with reflected rose; the deep impenetrable +gloom which filled the gorge, and +slowly and with vapour-like stealth climbed the +mountain wall, extinguishing the red light, combined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +to produce an effect which may not be +described; nor can I more than hint at the contrast +between the brilliancy of the scene under +full light, and the cold, death-like repose which +followed when the wan cliffs and pallid snow +were all overshadowed with ghostly gray.</p> + +<p>A sudden chill enveloped us. Stars in a moment +crowded through the dark heaven, flashing +with a frosty splendour. The snow congealed, +the brooks ceased to flow, and, under the powerful +sudden leverage of frost, immense blocks were +dislodged all along the mountain summits and +came thundering down the slopes, booming upon +the ice, dashing wildly upon rocks. Under the +lee of our shelf we felt quite safe, but neither +Cotter nor I could help being startled, and jumping +just a little, as these missiles, weighing often +many tons, struck the ledge over our heads and +whizzed down the gorge, their stroke resounding +fainter and fainter, until at last only a confused +echo reached us.</p> + +<p>The thermometer at nine o'clock marked +twenty degrees above zero. We set the “minimum” +and rolled ourselves together for the night. +The longer I lay the less I liked that shelf of +granite; it grew hard in time, and cold also, my +bones seeming to approach actual contact with +the chilled rock; moreover, I found that even so +vigorous a circulation as mine was not enough to +warm up the ledge to anything like a comfortable +temperature. A single thickness of blanket is a +better mattress than none, but the larger crystals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +of orthoclase, protruding plentifully, punched +my back and caused me to revolve on a horizontal +axis with precision and accuracy. How I +loved Cotter! how I hugged him and got warm, +while our backs gradually petrified, till we whirled +over and thawed them out together! The slant +of that bed was diagonal and excessive; down it +we slid till the ice chilled us awake, and we +crawled back and chocked ourselves up with bits +of granite inserted under my ribs and shoulders. +In this pleasant position we got dozing again, +and there stole over me a most comfortable ease. +The granite softened perceptibly. I was delightfully +warm and sank into an industrious +slumber which lasted with great soundness until +four, when we arose and ate our breakfast of +frozen venison.</p> + +<p>The thermometer stood at two above zero; +everything was frozen tight except the canteen, +which we had prudently kept between us all +night. Stars still blazed brightly, and the moon, +hidden from us by western cliffs, shone in pale +reflection upon the rocky heights to the east, +which rose, dimly white, up from the impenetrable +shadows of the cañon. Silence,—cold, +ghastly dimness, in which loomed huge forms,—the +biting frostiness of the air, wrought upon our +feelings as we shouldered our packs and started +with slow pace to climb up the “divide.”</p> + +<p>Soon, to our dismay, we found the straps had +so chafed our shoulders that the weight gave us +great pain, and obliged us to pad them with our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +handkerchiefs and extra socks, which remedy did +not wholly relieve us from the constant wearing +pain of the heavy load.</p> + +<p>Directing our steps southward toward a niche +in the wall which bounded us only half a mile +distant, we travelled over a continuous snow-field +frozen so densely as scarcely to yield at all +to our tread, at the same time compressing +enough to make that crisp frosty sound which +we all used to enjoy even before we knew from +the books that it had something to do with the +severe name of regelation.</p> + +<p>As we advanced, the snow sloped more and +more steeply up toward the crags, till by and by +it became quite dangerous, causing us to cut +steps with Cotter's large bowie-knife,—a slow, +tedious operation, requiring patience of a pretty +permanent kind. In this way we spent a quiet +social hour or so. The sun had not yet reached +us, being shut out by the high amphitheatre wall; +but its cheerful light reflected downward from +a number of higher crags, filling the recess with +the brightness of day, and putting out of existence +those shadows which so sombrely darkened +the earlier hours. To look back when we stopped +to rest was to realize our danger,—that smooth, +swift slope of ice carrying the eye down a thousand +feet to the margin of a frozen mirror of ice; +ribs and needles of rocks piercing up through the +snow, so closely grouped that, had we fallen, a +miracle only might have saved us from being +dashed. This led to rather deeper steps, and greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +care that our burdens should be held more +nearly over the centre of gravity, and a pleasant +relief when we got to the top of the snow and sat +down on a block of granite to breathe and look up +in search of a way up the thousand-foot cliff of +broken surface, among the lines of fracture and +the galleries winding along the face.</p> + +<p>It would have disheartened us to gaze up the +hard sheer front of precipices, and search among +splintered projections, crevices, shelves, and snow +patches for an inviting route, had we not been +animated by a faith that the mountains could +not defy us.</p> + +<p>Choosing what looked like the least impossible +way, we started; but, finding it unsafe to work +with packs on, resumed the yesterday's plan,—Cotter +taking the lead, climbing about fifty feet +ahead, and hoisting up the knapsacks and barometer +as I tied them to the end of the lasso. +Constantly closing up in hopeless difficulty before +us, the way opened again and again to our gymnastics, +till we stood together on a mere shelf, +not more than two feet wide, which led diagonally +up the smooth cliff. Edging along in careful +steps, our backs flattened upon the granite, we +moved slowly to a broad platform, where we +stopped for breath.</p> + +<p>There was no foothold above us. Looking +down over the course we had come, it seemed, +and I really believe it was, an impossible descent +for one can climb upward with safety where he +cannot downward. To turn back was to give<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +up in defeat; and, we sat at least half an hour, +suggesting all possible routes to the summit, +accepting none, and feeling disheartened. About +thirty feet directly over our heads was another +shelf, which, if we could reach, seemed to offer +at least a temporary way upward. On its edge +were two or three spikes of granite; whether +firmly connected with the cliff, or merely blocks +of débris, we could not tell from below. I said +to Cotter, I thought of but one possible plan: +it was to lasso one of these blocks, and to climb, +sailor-fashion, hand over hand, up the rope. +In the lasso I had perfect confidence, for I had +seen more than one Spanish bull throw his whole +weight against it without parting a strand. The +shelf was so narrow that throwing the coil of rope +was a very difficult undertaking. I tried three +times, and Cotter spent five minutes vainly whirling +the loop up at the granite spikes. At last I +made a lucky throw, and it tightened upon one +of the smaller protuberances. I drew the noose +close, and very gradually threw my hundred and +fifty pounds upon the rope; then Cotter joined +me, and, for a moment, we both hung our united +weight upon it. Whether the rock moved +slightly or whether the lasso stretched a little +we were unable to decide; but the trial must be +made, and I began to climb slowly. The smooth +precipice-face against which my body swung +offered no foothold, and the whole climb had +therefore to be done by the arms, an effort requiring +all one's determination. When about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +half way up I was obliged to rest, and, curling +my feet in the rope, managed to relieve my arms +for a moment. In this position I could not +resist the fascinating temptation of a survey +downward.</p> + +<p>Straight down, nearly a thousand feet below, +at the foot of the rocks, began the snow, whose +steep, roof-like slope, exaggerated into an almost +vertical angle, curved down in a long white field, +broken far away by rocks and polished, round +lakes of ice.</p> + +<p>Cotter looked up cheerfully and asked how +I was making it; to which I answered that I had +plenty of wind left. At that moment, when +hanging between heaven and earth, it was a +deep satisfaction to look down at the wide gulf of +desolation beneath, and up to unknown dangers +ahead, and feel my nerves cool and unshaken.</p> + +<p>A few pulls hand over hand brought me to +the edge of the shelf, when, throwing my arm +around the granite spike. I swung my body upon +the shelf and lay down to rest, shouting to Cotter +that I was all right, and that the prospects upward +were capital. After a few moments' +breathing I looked over the brink and directed +my comrade to tie the barometer to the lower +end of the lasso, which he did, and that precious +instrument was hoisted to my station, and the +lasso sent down twice for knapsacks, after which +Cotter came up the rope in his very muscular +way without once stopping to rest. We took +our loads in our hands, swinging the barometer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +over my shoulder, and climbed up a shelf which +led in a zig-zag direction upward and to the +south, bringing us out at last upon the thin blade +of a ridge which connected a short distance above +the summit. It was formed of huge blocks, +shattered, and ready, at a touch, to fall.</p> + +<p>So narrow and sharp was the upper slope, +that we dared not walk, but got astride, and +worked slowly along with our hands, pushing +the knapsacks in advance, now and then holding +our breath when loose masses rocked under our +weight.</p> + +<p>Once upon the summit, a grand view burst +upon us. Hastening to step upon the crest of +the divide, which was never more than ten feet +wide, frequently sharpened to a mere blade, we +looked down upon the other side, and were astonished +to find we had ascended the gentler +slope, and that the rocks fell from our feet in +almost vertical precipices for a thousand feet or +more. A glance along the summit toward the +highest group showed us that any advance in +that direction was impossible, for the thin ridge +was gashed down in notches three or four hundred +feet deep, forming a procession of pillars, obelisks, +and blocks piled upon each other, and looking +terribly insecure.</p> + +<p>We then deposited our knapsacks in a safe +place, and, finding that it was already noon, +determined to rest a little while and take a lunch +at over 13,000 feet above the sea.</p> + +<p>West of us stretched the Mount Brewer wall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +with its succession of smooth precipices and amphitheatre +ridges. To the north the great gorge +of the King's River yawned down 5,000 feet. To +the south, the valley of the Kern, opening in +the opposite direction, was broader, less deep, +but more filled with broken masses of granite. +Clustered about the foot of the divide were a +dozen alpine lakes; the higher ones blue sheets of +ice, the lowest completely melted. Still lower +in the depths of the two cañons we could see +groups of forest trees; but they were so dim and +so distant as never to relieve the prevalent +masses of rock and snow. Our divide cast its +shadow for a mile down King's Cañon in dark-blue +profile upon the broad sheets of sunny snow, +from whose brightness the hard splintered cliffs +caught reflections and wore an aspect of joy. +Thousands of rills poured from the melting snow, +filling the air with a musical tinkle as of many +accordant bells. The Kern Valley opened below +us with its smooth oval outline, the work of extinct +glaciers, whose form and extent were evident +from worn cliff surface and rounded wall; snow-fields, +relics of the former <i>neve</i> [glacier snow] +hung in white tapestries around its ancient birthplace; +and, as far as we could see, the broad, +corrugated valley, for a breadth of fully ten miles, +shone with burnishings wherever its granite surface +was not covered with lakelets or thickets of +alpine vegetation.</p> + +<p>Through a deep cut in the Mount Brewer wall +we gained our first view to the westward, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +saw in the distance the wall of the South King's +Cañon, and the granite point which Cotter and I +had climbed a fortnight before. But for the +haze we might have seen the plain; for above +its farther limit were several points of the Coast +Ranges, isolated like islands in the sea.</p> + +<p>The view was so grand, the mountain colours +so brilliant, immense snow-fields and blue alpine +lakes so charming, that we almost forgot we were +ever to move, and it was only after a swift hour +of this delight that we began to consider our +future course.</p> + +<p>The King's Cañon, which headed against our +wall, seemed untraversable,—no human being +could climb along the divide; we had then but +one hope of reaching the peak, and our greatest +difficulty lay at the start. If we could climb +down to the Kern side of the divide, and succeed +in reaching the base of the precipices which fell +from our feet, it really looked as if we might +travel without difficulty among the rocks to the +other side of the Kern Valley, and make our attempt +upon the southward flank of the great peak. +One look at the sublime white giant decided us. +We looked down over the precipice, and at first +could see no method of descent. Then we went +back and looked at the road we had come up, to +see if that were not possibly as bad; but the +broken surface of the rocks was evidently much +better climbing-ground than anything ahead of +us. Cotter, with danger, edged his way along the +wall to the east, and I to the west, to see if there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +might not be some favourable point; but we +both returned with the belief that the precipice +in front of us was as passable as any of it. Down +it we must.</p> + +<p>After lying on our faces, looking over the brink +ten or twenty minutes, I suggested that by lowering +ourselves on the rope we might climb from +crevice to crevice; but we saw no shelf large +enough for ourselves and the knapsacks too. +However, we were not going to give it up without +a trial; and I made the rope fast around my breast +and, looping the noose over a firm point of rock, +let myself slide gradually down to a notch forty +feet below. There was only room beside me for +Cotter, so I had him send down the knapsacks +first. I then tied these together by the straps +with my silk handkerchiefs, and hung them as far +to the left as I could reach without losing my +balance, looping the handkerchiefs over a point +of rock. Cotter then slid down the rope, and, +with considerable difficulty, we whipped the +noose off its resting-place above, and cut off our +connection with the upper world.</p> + +<p>“We're in for it now, King,” remarked my +comrade, as he looked aloft, and then down; but +our blood was up, and danger added only an +exhilarating thrill to the nerves.</p> + +<p>The shelf was hardly more than two feet wide, +and the granite so smooth that we could find no +place to fasten the lasso for the next descent; +so I determined to try the climb with only as +little aid as possible. Tying it round my breast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +again, I gave the other end into Cotter's hands, +and he, bracing his back against the cliff, found +for himself as firm a foothold as he could, and +promised to give me all the help in his power. +I made up my mind to bear no weight unless it +was absolutely necessary; and for the first ten +feet I found cracks and protuberances enough +to support me, making every square inch of surface +do friction duty, and hugging myself against +the rocks as tightly as I could. When within +about eight feet of the next shelf, I twisted myself +round upon the face, hanging by two rough +blocks of protruding feldspar, and looked vainly +for some further hand-hold; but the rock, besides +being perfectly smooth, overhung slightly, and +my legs dangled in the air. I saw that the next +cleft was over three feet broad, and I thought, +possibly, I might, by a quick slide, reach it in +safety without endangering Cotter. I shouted +to him to be very careful and let go in case I +fell, loosened my hold upon the rope, and slid +quickly down. My shoulder struck against the +rock and threw me out of balance; for an instant +I reeled over upon the verge, in danger of falling, +but, in the excitement, I thrust out my hand +and seized a small alpine gooseberry bush, the +first piece of vegetation we had seen. Its roots +were so firmly fixed in the crevice that it held +my weight and saved me.</p> + +<p>I could no longer see Cotter, but I talked to +him, and heard the two knapsacks come bumping +along until they slid over the eaves above me,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +and swung down to my station, when I seized the +lasso's end and braced myself as well as possible, +intending, if he slipped, to haul in slack and help +him as best I might. As he came slowly down +from crack to crack, I heard his hobnailed shoes +grating on the granite; presently they appeared +dangling from the eaves above my head. I had +gathered in the rope until it was taut, and then +hurriedly told him to drop. He hesitated a +moment and let go. Before he struck the rock +I had him by the shoulder, and whirled him +down upon his side, thus preventing his rolling +overboard, which friendly action he took quite +coolly.</p> + +<p>The third descent was not a difficult one, nor +the fourth; but when we had climbed down about +two hundred and fifty feet the rocks were so +glacially polished and water-worn that it seemed +impossible to get any farther. To our right was +a crack penetrating the rock perhaps a foot deep, +widening at the surface to three or four inches, +which proved to be the only possible ladder. +As the chances seemed rather desperate, we concluded +to tie ourselves together, in order to share +a common fate; and with a slack of thirty feet +between us, and our knapsacks upon our backs, +we climbed into the crevice, and began descending +with our faces to the cliff. This had to be +done with unusual caution, for the foothold was +about as good as none, and our fingers slipped +annoyingly on the smooth stone; besides the +knapsacks and instruments kept a steady backward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +pull, tending to overbalance us. But we +took pains to descend one at a time, and rest +wherever the niches gave our feet a safe support. +In this way we got down about eighty feet of +smooth, nearly vertical wall, reaching the top of +a rude granite stairway, which led to the snow; +and here we sat down to rest, and found to our +astonishment that we had been three hours from +the summit.</p> + +<p>After breathing a half-minute we continued +down, jumping from rock to rock, and, having +by practice become very expert in balancing ourselves, +sprang on, never resting long enough to +lose equilibrium, and in this manner made a +quick descent over rugged débris to the crest of +a snow-field, which, for seven or eight hundred +feet more, swept down in a smooth, even slope, +of very high angle, to the borders of a frozen +lake.</p> + +<p>Without untying the lasso which bound us +together, we sprang upon the snow with a shout, +and slid down splendidly, turning now and then +a somersault, and shooting out like cannon-balls +almost to the middle of the frozen lake; I upon +my back, and Cotter feet first, in a swimming +position. The ice cracked in all directions. It +was only a thin, transparent film, through which +we could see deep into the lake. Untying ourselves, +we hurried ashore in different directions, +lest our combined weight should be too great a +strain upon any point.</p> + +<p>With curiosity and wonder we scanned every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +shelf and niche of the last descent. It seemed +quite impossible that we could have come down +there, and now it actually was beyond human +power to get back again. But what cared we? +“Sufficient unto the day”—We were bound +for that still distant, though gradually nearing, +summit; and we had come from a cold shadowed +cliff into deliciously warm sunshine, and were +jolly, shouting, singing songs, and calling out the +companionship of a hundred echoes. Six miles +away, with no grave danger, no great difficulty, +between us, lay the base of our grand mountain. +Upon its skirts we saw a little grove of pines, an +ideal bivouac, and toward this we bent our course.</p> + +<p>After the continued climbing of the day, walking +was a delicious rest, and forward we pressed +with considerable speed, our hobnails giving us +firm footing on the glittering glacial surface. +Every fluting of the great valley was in itself a +considerable cañon, into which we descended, +climbing down the scored rocks, and swinging +from block to block, until we reached the level +of the pines. Here, sheltered among loose rocks, +began to appear little fields of alpine grass, pale +yet sunny, soft under our feet, fragrantly jewelled +with flowers of fairy delicacy, holding up amid +thickly clustered blades chalices of turquoise and +amethyst, white stars, and fiery little globes of +red. Lakelets, small but innumerable, were held +in glacial basins, the scorings and grooves of that +old dragon's track ornamenting their smooth +bottoms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p> + +<p>One of these, a sheet of pure beryl hue, gave +us as much pleasure from its lovely transparency, +and because we lay down in the necklace of grass +about it and smelled flowers, while tired muscles +relaxed upon warm beds of verdure, and the pain +in our burdened shoulders went away, leaving us +delightfully comfortable.</p> + +<p>After the stern grandeur of granite and ice, +and with the peaks and walls still in view, it was +relief to find ourselves again in the region of +life. I never felt for trees and flowers such a +sense of intimate relationship and sympathy. +When we had no longer excuse for resting, I +invented the palpable subterfuge of measuring +the altitude of the spot, since the few clumps of +low, wide-boughed pines near by were the highest +living trees. So we lay longer with less and +less will to rise, and when resolution called us to +our feet the getting up was sorely like Rip Van +Winkle's in the third act.</p> + +<p>The deep glacial cañon-flutings across which +our march then lay proved to be great consumers +of time; indeed it was sunset when we reached the +eastern ascent, and began to toil up through +scattered pines, and over trains of moraine +[glacial] rocks, toward the great peak. Stars were +already flashing brilliantly in the sky, and the +low glowing arch in the west had almost vanished +when we reached the upper trees, and threw +down our knapsacks to camp. The forest grew +on a sort of plateau-shelf with a precipitous front +to the west,—a level surface which stretched eastward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +and back to the foot of our mountain, +whose lower spurs reached within a mile of camp. +Within the shelter lay a huge fallen log, like all +these alpine woods one mass of resin, which flared +up when we applied a match, illuminating the +whole grove. By contrast with the darkness outside, +we seemed to be in a vast, many-pillared +hall. The stream close by afforded water for +our blessed teapot; venison frizzled with mild, +appetizing sound upon the ends of pine sticks; +matchless beans allowed themselves to become +seductively crisp upon our tin plates. That supper +seemed to me then the quintessence of gastronomy, +and I am sure Cotter and I must have +said some very good after-dinner things, though +I long ago forgot them all. Within the ring of +warmth, on elastic beds of pine-needles, we +curled up, and fell swiftly into a sound sleep.</p> + +<p>I woke up once in the night to look at my +watch, and observed that the sky was overcast +with a thin film of cirrus cloud to which the reflected +moonlight lent the appearance of a glimmering +tint, stretched from mountain to mountain +over cañons filled with impenetrable darkness, +only the vaguely-lighted peaks and white +snow-fields distinctly seen. I closed my eyes and +slept soundly until Cotter awoke me at half-past +three, when we arose, breakfasted by the light of +our fire, which still blazed brilliantly, and, leaving +our knapsacks, started for the mountain with +only instruments, canteens, and luncheon.</p> + +<p>In the indistinct moonlight climbing was very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +difficult at first, for we had to thread our way +along a plain which was literally covered with +glacier boulders, and the innumerable brooks +which we crossed were frozen solid. However, +our march brought us to the base of the great +mountain, which, rising high against the east, +shut out the coming daylight, and kept us in profound +shadow. From base to summit rose a +series of broken crags, lifting themselves from a +general slope of débris. Toward the left the +angle seemed to be rather gentler, and the surface +less ragged; and we hoped, by a long détour round +the base, to make an easy climb up this gentler +surface. So we toiled on for an hour over the +rocks, reaching at last the bottom of the north +slope. Here our work began in good earnest. +The blocks were of enormous size, and in every +stage of unstable equilibrium, frequently rolling +over as we jumped upon them, making it necessary +for us to take a second leap and land where +we best could. To our relief we soon surmounted +the largest blocks, reaching a smaller size, which +served us as a sort of stairway.</p> + +<p>The advancing daylight revealed to us a very +long, comparatively even snow-slope, whose surface +was pierced by many knobs and granite +heads, giving it the aspect of a nice-roofing fastened +on with bolts of stone. It stretched in far +perspective to the summit, where already the +rose of sunrise reflected gloriously, kindling a +fresh enthusiasm within us.</p> + +<p>Immense boulders were partly imbedded in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +ice just above us, whose constant melting left +them trembling on the edge of a fall. It communicated +no very pleasant sensation to see above +you these immense missiles hanging by a mere +band, and knowing that, as soon as the sun rose, +you would be exposed to a constant cannonade.</p> + +<p>The east side of the peak, which we could now +partially see, was too precipitous to think of +climbing. The slope toward our camp was too +much broken into pinnacles and crags to offer +us any hope, or to divert us from the single way, +dead ahead, up slopes of ice and among fragments +of granite. The sun rose upon us while we were +climbing the lower part of this snow, and in less +than half an hour, melting began to liberate huge +blocks, which thundered down past us, gathering +and growing into small avalanches below.</p> + +<p>We did not dare climb one above another, +according to our ordinary mode, but kept about +an equal level, a hundred feet apart, lest, dislodging +the blocks, one should hurl them down +upon the other.</p> + +<p>We climbed alternately up smooth faces of +granite, clinging simply by the cracks and protruding +crystals of feldspar, and then hewed steps +up fearfully steep slopes of ice, zigzagging to the +right and left to avoid the flying boulders. When +midway up this slope we reached a place where +the granite rose in perfectly smooth bluffs on +either side of a gorge,—a narrow cut, or walled +way, leading up to the flat summit of the cliff. +This we scaled by cutting ice steps, only to find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +ourselves fronted again by a still higher wall. Ice +sloped from its front at too steep an angle for us +to follow, but had melted in contact with it, leaving +a space three feet wide between the ice and +the rock. We entered this crevice and climbed +along its bottom, with a wall of rock rising a +hundred feet above us on one side, and a thirty-foot +face of ice on the other, through which light +of an intense cobalt-blue penetrated.</p> + +<p>Reaching the upper end, we had to cut our +footsteps upon the ice again, and, having braced +our backs against the granite, climb up to the surface. +We were now in a dangerous position: to +fall into the crevice upon one side was to be +wedged to death between rock and ice; to make +a slip was to be shot down five hundred feet, and +then hurled over the brink of a precipice. In the +friendly seat which this wedge gave me, I stopped +to take wet and dry observations with the thermometer,—this +being an absolute preventive of a +scare,—and to enjoy the view.</p> + +<p>The wall of our mountain sank abruptly to the +left, opening for the first time an outlook to the +eastward. Deep—it seemed almost vertically—beneath +us we could see the blue waters of Owen's +Lake, 10,000 feet below. The summit peaks to +the north were piled up in titanic confusion, +their ridges overhanging the eastern slope with +terrible abruptness. Clustered upon the shelves +and plateaus below were several frozen lakes, and +in all directions swept magnificent fields of snow. +The summit was now not over five hundred feet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +distant, and we started on again with the exhilarating +hope of success. But if Nature had intended +to secure the summit from all assailants, +she could not have planned her defences better; +for the smooth granite wall which rose above the +snow-slope continued, apparently, quite round +the peak, and we looked in great anxiety to see +if there was not one place where it might be +climbed. It was all blank except in one place; +quite near us the snow bridged across the crevice, +and rose in a long point to the summit of the wall,—a +great icicle-column frozen in a niche of the +bluff,—its base about ten feet wide, narrowing to +two feet at the top. We climbed to the base of +this spire of ice, and, with the utmost care, began +to cut our stairway. The material was an exceedingly +compacted snow, passing into clear ice +as it neared the rock. We climbed the first half +of it with comparative ease; after that it was +almost vertical, and so thin that we did not dare +to cut the footsteps deep enough to make them +absolutely safe. There was a constant dread +lest out ladder should break off, and we be +thrown either down the snow-slope or into the +bottom of the crevasse. At last, in order to prevent +myself from falling over backwards, I was +obliged to thrust my hand into the crack between +the ice and the wall, and the spire became so +narrow that I could do this on both sides; so that +the climb was made as upon a tree, cutting mere +toe-holes and embracing the whole column of ice +in my arms. At last I reached the top, and, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +the greatest caution, wormed my body over the +brink, and rolling out upon the smooth surface of +the granite, looked over and watched Cotter +make his climb. He came up steadily, with no +sense of nervousness, until he got to the narrow +part of the ice, and here he stopped and looked up +with a forlorn face to me; but as he climbed up +over the ledge the broad smile came back to his +face, and he asked me if it had occurred to me +that we had, by and by, to go down again.</p> + +<p>We had now an easy slope to the summit, and +hurried up over rocks and ice, reaching the crest +at exactly twelve o'clock. I rang my hammer +upon the topmost rock; we grasped hands, and I +reverently named the grand peak <span class="smcap">Mount Tyndall</span>.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="THE_GRAND_CANON_OF_THE" id="THE_GRAND_CANON_OF_THE"></a>THE GRAND CAÑON OF THE<br /> +COLORADO</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> +<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">Top</a></span> +<h3><span class="smcap">Major John Wesley Powell</span></h3> + +<div class="noteb"><p>[In 1869-72 Major John Wesley Powell was the chief of +a party which explored the Colorado River of the West and +its tributaries. The chapter subjoined is from his official +report, published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, +1875. The substance of that report, with much +additional matter of great interest, appears in “The Cañons +of the Colorado,” by Major Powell, published by Flood & +Vincent, Meadville, Pa., 1895, with superb illustrations. +For fourteen years, beginning with 1880, Major Powell was +director of the United States Geological Survey; since 1879 +he has been director of the United States Bureau of +Ethnology.]</p></div> + + +<p><i>August 13, 1869.</i> We are now ready to start +on our way down the Great Unknown. Our +boats, tied to a common stake, are chafing each +other, as they are tossed by the fretful river. +They ride high and buoyant, for their loads +are lighter than we could desire. We have +but a month's rations remaining. The flour +has been resifted through the mosquito net +sieve; the spoiled bacon has been dried, and +the worst of it boiled; the few pounds of dried +apples have been spread in the sun, and reshrunken +to their normal bulk; the sugar has +all melted, and gone on its way down the river; +but we have a large sack of coffee. The lightening +of the boats has this advantage: they will ride<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +the waves better, and we shall have but little +to carry when we make a portage.</p> + +<p>We are three-quarters of a mile in the depths +of the earth, and the great river shrinks into +insignificance, as it dashes its angry waves +against the walls and cliffs, that rise to the +world above; they are but puny ripples, and +we but pigmies, running up and down the sands, +or lost among the boulders.</p> + +<p>We have an unknown distance yet to run; +an unknown river yet to explore. What falls +there are, we know not; what rocks beset the +channel, we know not; what walls rise over +the river, we know not. Ah, well! we may +conjecture many things. The men talk as cheerfully +as ever; jests are bandied out freely this +morning; but to me the cheer is sombre and +the jests are ghastly.</p> + +<p>With some eagerness, and some anxiety, +and some misgiving, we enter the cañon below, +and are carried along by the swift water through +walls which rise from its very edge. They have +the same structure as we noticed yesterday—tiers +of irregular shelves below, and, above +these, steep slopes to the foot of marble cliffs. +We run six miles in a little more than half an +hour, and emerge into a more open portion +of the cañon, where high hills and ledges of +rock intervene between the river and the distant +walls. Just at the head of this open place +the river runs across a dike; that is, a fissure +in the rocks, open to depths below, has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +filled with eruptive matter, and this, on cooling, +was harder than the rocks through which the +crevice was made, and, when these were washed +away, the harder volcanic matter remained as +a wall, and the river has cut a gateway through +it several hundred feet high, and as many wide. +As it crosses the wall, there is a fall below, +and a bad rapid, filled with boulders of trap; +so we stop to make a portage. Then on we go, +gliding by hills and ledges, with distant walls +in view; sweeping past sharp angles of rock; +stopping at a few points to examine rapids, +which we find can be run, until we have +made another five miles, when we land for +dinner.</p> + +<p>Then we let down with lines, over a long +rapid, and start again. Once more the walls +close in, and we find ourselves in a narrow gorge, +the water again filling the channel, and very +swift. With great care and constant watchfulness +we proceed, making about four miles this +afternoon, and camp in a cave.</p> + +<p><i>August 14.</i> At daybreak we walk down the +bank of the river, on a little sandy beach, to take +a view of a new feature in the cañon. Heretofore +hard rocks have given us bad river; soft rocks, +smooth water; and a series of rocks harder than +any we have experienced sets in. The river +enters the granite!<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> + +<p>We can see but a little way into the granite +gorge, but it looks threatening.</p> + +<p>After breakfast we enter on the waves. At +the very introduction, it inspires awe. The +cañon is narrower than we have ever before seen +it; the water is swifter; there are but few broken +rocks in the channel; but the walls are set, on +either side, with pinnacles and crags; and sharp, +angular buttresses, bristling with wind and wave-polished +spires, extend far out into the river.</p> + +<p>Ledges of rock jut into the stream, their tops +just below the surface, sometimes rising few or +many feet above; and island ledges, and island +pinnacles, and island towers break the swift +course of the stream into chutes, and eddies, and +whirlpools. We soon reach a place where a creek +comes in from the left, and just below the channel +is choked with boulders, which have washed down +this lateral cañon and formed a dam, over which +there is a fall of thirty or forty feet; but on the +boulders we can get foothold, and we make a +portage.</p> + +<p>Three more such dams are found. Over one +we make a portage; at the other two we find +chutes, through which we can run.</p> + +<p>As we proceed, the granite rises higher, until +nearly a thousand feet of the lower part of the +walls are composed of this rock.</p> + +<p>About eleven o'clock we hear a great roar +ahead, and approach it very cautiously. The +sound grows louder and louder as we run, and at +last we find ourselves above a long, broken fall,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +with ledges and pinnacles of rock obstructing the +river. There is a descent of, perhaps, seventy-five +or eighty feet in a third of a mile, and the +rushing waters break into great waves on the +rocks, and lash themselves into a mad, white, +foam. We can land just above, but there is no +foothold on either side by which we can make a +portage. It is nearly a thousand feet to the top +of the granite, so it will be impossible to carry our +boats around, though we can climb to the summit +up a side gulch, and, passing along a mile or +two, can descend to the river. This we find on +examination; but such a portage would be impracticable +for us, and we must run the rapid, or +abandon the river. There is no hesitation. We +step into our boats, push off, and away we go, +first on smooth but swift water, then we strike a +glassy wave, and ride to its top, down again into +the trough, up again on a higher wave, and down +and up on waves higher and still higher, until we +strike one just as it curls back, and a breaker +rolls over our little boat. Still, on we speed, +shooting past projecting rocks, till the little boat +is caught in a whirlpool, and spun around several +times. At last we pull out again into the stream, +and now the other boats have passed us. The +open compartment of the <i>Emma Dean</i> is filled +with water, and every breaker rolls over us. +Hurled back from a rock, now on this side, now +on that, we are carried into an eddy, in which we +struggle for a few minutes, and are then out again, +the breakers still rolling over us. Our boat is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +unmanageable, but she cannot sink, and we drift +down another hundred yards, through breakers; +how, we scarcely know. We find the other boats +have turned into an eddy at the foot of the fall, +and are waiting to catch us as we come, for the +men have seen that our boat is swamped. They +push out as we come near, and pull us in against +the wall. We bail our boat, and on we go again.</p> + +<p>The walls, now, are more than a mile in height—a +vertical distance difficult to appreciate. +Stand on the south steps of the Treasury Building, +in Washington, and look down Pennsylvania +Avenue to the Capitol Park, and measure this +distance overhead, and imagine cliffs to extend to +that altitude, and you will understand what I +mean; or, stand at Canal Street, in New York, and +look up Broadway to Grace Church, and you +have about the distance; or, stand at Lake Street +Bridge in Chicago, and look down to the Central +Depot, and you have it again.</p> + +<p>A thousand feet of this is up through granite +crags, then steep slopes and perpendicular cliffs +rise, one above another, to the summit. The +gorge is black and narrow below, red and gray +and flaring above, with crags and angular projections +on the walls, which, cut in many places +by side cañons, seem to be a vast wilderness of +rocks. Down in these grand, gloomy depths we +glide, ever listening, for the mad waters keep up +their roar; ever watching, ever peering ahead, for +the narrow cañon is winding, and the river is +closed in so that we can see but a few hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +yards, and what there may be below we know +not; but we listen for falls, and watch for rocks, +or stop now and then, in the bay of a recess, to +admire the gigantic scenery. And ever, as we go, +there is some new pinnacle or tower, some crag or +peak, some distant view of the upper plateau, +some strange-shaped rock, or some deep, narrow +side cañon. Then we come to another broken +fall, which appears more difficult than the one we +ran this morning.</p> + +<p>A small creek comes in on the right, and the +first fall of the water is over boulders, which have +been carried down by this lateral stream. We +land at its mouth, and stop for an hour or two to +examine the fall. It seems possible to let down +with lines, at least a part of the way, from point +to point, along the right-hand wall. So we make +a portage over the first rocks, and find footing on +some boulders below. Then we let down one of +the boats to the end of her line, when she reaches +a corner of the projecting rock, to which one of +the men clings, and steadies her, while I examine +an eddy below. I think we can pass the other +boats down by us, and catch them in the eddy. +This is soon done and the men in the boats in the +eddy pull us to their side. On the shore of this +little eddy there is about two feet of gravel beach +above the water. Standing on this beach, some +of the men take the line of the little boat and let +it drift down against another projecting angle. +Here is a little shelf, on which a man from my boat +climbs, and a shorter line is passed to him, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +he fastens the boat to the side of the cliff. Then +the second one is let down, bringing the line of +the third. When the second boat is tied up, the +two men standing on the beach above spring into +the last boat, which is pulled up alongside of ours. +Then we let down the boats, for twenty-five or +thirty yards, by walking along the shelf, landing +them again in the mouth of a side cañon. Just +below this there is another pile of boulders, over +which we make another portage. From the foot of +these rocks we can climb to another shelf, forty +or fifty feet above the water.</p> + +<p>On this beach we camp for the night. We find +a few sticks, which have lodged in the rocks. It +is raining hard, and we have no shelter, but +kindle a fire and have our supper. We sit on the +rocks all night, wrapped in our ponchos, getting +what sleep we can.</p> + +<p><i>August 15.</i> This morning we find we can let +down for three or four hundred yards, and it is +managed in this way: We pass along the wall by +climbing from projecting point to point, sometimes +near the water's edge, at other places fifty +or sixty feet above, and hold the boat with a line, +while two men remain aboard, and prevent her +from being dashed against the rocks, and keep +the line from getting caught in the wall. In two +hours we have brought them all down, as far as it +is possible, in this way. A few yards below, the +river strikes with great violence against a projecting +rock, and our boats are pulled up in a little +bay above. We must now manage to pull out of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +this, and clear the point below. The little boat +is held by the bow obliquely up the stream. We +jump in, and pull out only a few strokes, and +sweep clear of the dangerous rock. The other +boats follow in the same manner, and the rapid +is passed.</p> + +<p>It is not easy to describe the labour of such +navigation. We must prevent the waves from +dashing the boats against the cliffs. Sometimes, +where the river is swift, we must put a bight of +rope about a rock, to prevent her being snatched +from us by a wave; but where the plunge is too +great, or the chute too swift, we must let her leap, +and catch her below, or the undertow will drag +her under the falling water, and she sinks. Where +we wish to run her out a little way from shore, +through a channel between rocks, we first throw +in little sticks of driftwood, and watch their +course, to see where we must steer, so that she +will pass the channel in safety. And so we hold, +and let go, and pull, and lift, and ward, among +rocks, around rocks, and over rocks.</p> + +<p>And now we go on through this solemn, mysterious +way. The river is very deep, the cañon +very narrow, and still obstructed, so that there +is no steady flow of the stream; but the waters +wheel, and roll, and boil, and we are scarcely able +to determine where we can go. Now, the boat is +carried to the right, perhaps close to the wall; +again, she is shot into the stream, and perhaps +is dragged over to the other side, where, caught +in a whirlpool, she spins about. We can neither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +land nor run as we please. The boats are entirely +unmanageable; no order in their running +can be preserved; now one, now another, is ahead, +each crew labouring for its own preservation. +In such a place we come to another rapid. Two +of the boats run it perforce. One succeeds in +landing, but there is no foothold by which to +make a portage, and she is pushed out again into +the stream. The next minute a great reflex wave +fills the open compartment; she is water-logged, +and drifts unmanageable. Breaker after breaker +roll over her, and one capsizes her. The men are +thrown out; but they cling to the boat, and she +drifts down some distance, alongside of us, and +we are able to catch her. She is soon bailed out, +and the men are aboard once more; but the oars +are lost, so a pair from the <i>Emma Dean</i> is spared. +Then for two miles we find smooth water.</p> + +<p>Clouds are playing in the cañon to-day. Sometimes +they roll down in great masses, filling the +gorge with gloom; sometimes they hang above, +from wall to wall, and cover the cañon with a +roof of impending storm; and we can peer long +distances up and down this cañon corridor, with +its cloud roof overhead, its walls of black granite, +and its river bright with the sheen of broken +waters. Then, a gust of wind sweeps down a side +gulch, and, making a rift in the clouds, reveals the +blue heavens, and a stream of sunlight pours in. +Then, the clouds drift away into the distance, and +hang around crags, and peaks, and pinnacles, and +towers, and walls, and cover them with a mantle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +that lifts from time to time, and sets them all in +sharp relief. Then, baby clouds creep out of side +cañons, glide around points, and creep back again +into more distant gorges. Then, clouds, set in +strata across the cañon, with intervening vista +views, to cliffs and rocks beyond. The clouds +are children of the heavens, and when they play +among the rocks they lift them to the region +above.</p> + +<p>It rains! Rapidly little rills are formed above, +and these soon grow into brooks, and the brooks +grow into creeks, and tumble over the walls in +innumerable cascades, adding their wild music to +the roar of the river. When the rain ceases, the +rills, brooks, and creeks run dry. The waters +that fall during a rain on these steep rocks are +gathered at once into the river; they could +scarcely be poured in more suddenly if some vast +spout ran from the clouds to the stream itself. +When a storm bursts over the cañon a side gulch +is dangerous, for a sudden flood may come, and +the inpouring water will raise the river, so as to +hide the rocks before your eyes.</p> + +<p>Early in the afternoon we discover a stream, +entering from the north, a clear, beautiful creek, +coming down through a gorgeous red cañon. We +land, and camp on a sand beach, above its mouth, +under a great, overspreading tree, with willow-shaped +leaves.</p> + +<p><i>August 16.</i> We must dry our rations again to-day, +and make oars.</p> + +<p>The Colorado is never a clear stream, but for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +the past three or four days it has been raining +much of the time, and the floods, which are +poured over the walls, have brought down great +quantities of mud, making it exceedingly turbid +now. The little affluent, which we have discovered +here, is a clear, beautiful creek, or river, +as it would be termed in this Western country, +where streams are not abundant. We have +named one stream, away above, in honour of the +great chief of the “Bad Angels,” and, as this is +in beautiful contrast to that, we conclude to name +it “Bright Angel.”</p> + +<p>Early in the morning, the whole party starts +up to explore the Bright Angel River, with the +special purpose of seeking timber, from which to +make oars. A couple of miles above, we find a +large pine log, which has been floated down from +the plateau, probably from an altitude of more +than 6,000 feet, but not many miles back. On its +way, it must have passed over many cataracts +and falls, for it bears scars in evidence of the +rough usage it has received. The men roll it on +skids, and the work of sawing oars is commenced.</p> + +<p>This stream heads away back, under a line of +abrupt cliffs, that terminates the plateau, and +tumbles down more than 4,000 feet in the first +mile or two of its course; then runs through a +deep, narrow cañon, until it reaches the river.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;"> +<img src="images/il155.png" width="346" height="500" alt="Fig. 30.—Mu-av Cañon, a side gorge" title="Fig. 30.—Mu-av Cañon, a side gorge" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 30.—Mu-av Cañon, a side gorge</span> +</div> + +<p>Late in the afternoon I return, and go up a +little gulch, just above this creek, and about two +hundred yards from camp, and discover the ruins +of two or three old houses, which were originally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +of stone, laid in mortar. Only the foundations +are left, but irregular blocks, of which the houses +were constructed, lie scattered about. In one +room I find an old mealing stone, deeply worn, as +if it had been much used. A great deal of pottery +is strewn around, and old trails, which in some +places are deeply worn into the rocks, are seen.</p> + +<p>It is ever a source of wonder to us why these +ancient people sought such inaccessible places for +their homes. They were, doubtless, an agricultural +race, but there are no lands here of any considerable +extent that they could have cultivated. +To the west of Oraiby, one of the towns in the +“Province of Tusayan,” in Northern Arizona, the +inhabitants have actually built little terraces +along the face of the cliff, where a spring gushes +out, and thus made their sites for gardens. It +is possible that the ancient inhabitants of this +place made their agricultural lands in the same +way. But why should they seek such spots? +Surely, the country was not so crowded with population +as to demand the utilization of so barren +a region. The only solution of the problem suggested +is this: We know that, for a century or +two after the settlement of Mexico, many expeditions +were sent into the country, now comprised +in Arizona and New Mexico, for the purpose of +bringing the town-building people under the +dominion of the Spanish Government. Many +of their villages were destroyed, and the inhabitants +fled to regions at that time unknown; and +there are traditions among the people who inhabit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +the <i>pueblos</i> that still remain that the cañons +were these unknown lands. Maybe these buildings +were erected at that time; sure it is that they +have a much more modern appearance than the +ruins scattered over Nevada, Utah, Colorado, +Arizona, and New Mexico. Those old Spanish +conquerors had a monstrous greed for gold, and +a wonderful lust for saving souls. Treasures +they must have if not on earth, why, then, in +heaven; and when they failed to find heathen +temples bedecked with silver, they propitiated +Heaven by seizing the heathen themselves. +There is yet extant a copy of a record, made by +a heathen artist, to express his conception of the +demands of the conquerors. In one part of the +picture we have a lake, and near by stands a +priest pouring water on the head of a native. On +the other side, a poor Indian has a cord about his +throat. Lines run from these two groups to a +central figure, a man with beard and full Spanish +panoply. The interpretation of the picture-writing +is this: “Be baptized, as this saved +heathen; or be hanged, as that damned heathen.” +Doubtless, some of these people preferred a third +alternative, and, rather than be baptized or +hanged, they chose to be imprisoned within these +cañon walls.</p> + +<p><i>August 17.</i> Our rations are still spoiling; the +bacon is so badly injured that we are compelled +to throw it away. By accident, this morning, +the saleratus is lost overboard. We have now +only musty flour sufficient for ten days, a few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +dried apples, but plenty of coffee. We must +make all haste possible. If we meet with difficulties, +as we have done in the cañon above, +we may be compelled to give up the expedition, +and try to reach the Mormon settlements to the +north. Our hopes are that the worst places are +passed, but our barometers are all so much injured +as to be useless, so we have lost our reckoning in +altitude, and know not how much descent the +river has yet to make.</p> + +<p>The stream is still wild and rapid, and rolls +through a narrow channel. We make but slow +progress, often landing against a wall, and climbing +around some point, where we can see the +river below. Although very anxious to advance, +we are determined to run with great caution, lest, +by another accident, we lose all our supplies. +How precious that little flour has become! We +divide it among the boats, and carefully store it +away, so that it can be lost only by the loss of +the boat itself.</p> + +<p>We make ten miles and a half, and camp among +the rocks on the right. We have had rain, from +time to time, all day, and have been thoroughly +drenched and chilled; but between showers the +sun shines with great power, and the mercury in +our thermometers stands at 115°, so that we have +rapid changes from great extremes, which are +very disagreeable. It is especially cold in the +rain to-night. The little canvas we have is rotten +and useless; the rubber ponchos, with which we +started from Green River City, have all been lost;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +more than half the party is without hats, and not +one of us has an entire suit of clothes, and we have +not a blanket apiece. So we gather driftwood, +and build a fire; but after supper the rain, coming +down in torrents, extinguishes it, and we sit up +all night on the rocks, shivering, and are more exhausted +by the night's discomfort than by the +day's toil.</p> + +<p><i>August 18.</i> The day is employed in making +portages, and we advance but two miles on our +journey. Still it rains.</p> + +<p>While the men are at work making portages, I +climb up the granite to its summit, and go away +back over the rust-coloured sandstones and +greenish-yellow shales to the foot of the marble +wall. I climb so high that the men and boats +are lost in the black depths below, and the dashing +river is a rippling brook; and still there is +more cañon above than below. All about me are +interesting geological records. The book is open, +and I can read as I run. All about me are grand +views, for the clouds are playing again in the +gorges. But somehow I think of the nine days' +rations, and the bad river, and the lesson of the +rocks, and the glory of the scene is but half seen.</p> + +<p>I push on to an angle, where I hope to get a +view of the country beyond, to see, if possible, +what the prospect may be of our soon running +through this plateau, or, at least, of meeting +with some geological change that will let us out +of the granite; but, arriving at the point, I can +see below only a labyrinth of deep gorges.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>August 19.</i> Rain again this morning. Still +we are in our granite prison, and the time is occupied +until noon in making a long, bad portage.</p> + +<p>After dinner, in running a rapid, the pioneer +boat is upset by a wave. We are some distance +in advance of the larger boats, the river is rough +and swift, and we are unable to land, but cling to +the boat, and are carried down stream over another +rapid. The men in the boats above see our +trouble, but they are caught in whirlpools, and +are spinning about in eddies, and it seems a long +time before they come to our relief. At last they +do come; our boat is turned right side up, bailed +out; the oars, which fortunately have floated +along in company with us, are gathered up, and +on we go, without even landing.</p> + +<p>Soon after the accident the clouds break away, +and we have sunshine again.</p> + +<p>Soon we find a little beach, with just room +enough to land. Here we camp, but there is no +wood. Across the river, and a little way above, +we see some driftwood lodged in the rocks. So +we bring two boatloads over, build a huge fire, +and spread everything to dry. It is the first +cheerful night we have had for a week; a warm, +drying fire in the midst of the camp and a few +bright stars in our patch of heavens overhead.</p> + +<p><i>August 20.</i> The characteristics of the cañon +change this morning. The river is broader, the +walls more sloping, and composed of black slates, +that stand on edge. These nearly vertical slates +are washed out in places—that is, the softer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +beds are washed out between the harder, which +are left standing. In this way curious little +alcoves are formed, in which are quiet bays of +water, but on a much smaller scale than the great +bays and buttresses of Marble Cañon.</p> + +<p>The river is still rapid, and we stop to let down +with lines several times, but make greater progress +as we run ten miles. We camp on the right bank. +Here, on a terrace of trap, we discover another +group of ruins. There was evidently quite a +village on this rock. Again we find mealing +stones, and much broken pottery, and up in a +little natural shelf in the rock, back of the ruins, +we find a globular basket, that would hold perhaps +a third of a bushel. It is badly broken, and, +as I attempt to take it up, it falls to pieces. +There are many beautiful flint-chips, as if this had +been the home of an old arrow-maker.</p> + +<p><i>August 21.</i> We start early this morning, +cheered by the prospect of a fine day, and encouraged, +also, by the good run made yesterday. +A quarter of a mile below camp the river +turns abruptly to the left, and between camp and +that point is very swift, running down in a long, +broken chute, and piling up against the foot of +the cliff, where it turns to the left. We try to +pull across, so as to go down on the other side, but +the waters are swift, and it seems impossible for +us to escape the rock below; but, in pulling across, +the bow of the boat is turned to the farther shore, +so that we are swept broadside down, and are prevented, +by the rebounding waters, from striking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +against the wall. There we toss about for a few +seconds in these billows, and are carried past the +danger. Below, the river turns again to the +right, the cañon is very narrow, and we see in +advance but a short distance. The water, too, +is very swift, and there is no landing-place. +From around this curve there comes a mad roar, +and down we are earned, with a dizzying velocity, +to the head of another rapid. On either side, +high over our heads, there are overhanging granite +walls, and the sharp bends cut off our view, so +that a few minutes will carry us into unknown +waters. Away we go, on one long winding chute. +I stand on deck, supporting myself with a strap, +fastened on either side to the gunwale, and the +boat glides rapidly, where the water is smooth, or, +striking a wave, she leaps and bounds like a thing +of life, and we have a wild, exhilarating ride for +ten miles, which we make in less than an hour. +The excitement is so great that we forget the +danger, until we hear the roar of a great fall below; +then we back on our oars, and are carried +slowly towards its head, and succeed in landing +just above, and find that we have to make another +portage. At this we are engaged until +some time after dinner.</p> + +<p>Just here we run out of the granite!</p> + +<p>Ten miles in less than half a day, and limestone +walls below. Good cheer returns; we forget the +storms, and the gloom, and cloud-covered cañons, +and the black granite, and the raging river, and +push our boats from shore in great glee.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<p>Though we are out of the granite, the river is +still swift, and we wheel about a point again to +the right, and turn, so as to head back in the +direction from which we come, and see the granite +again, with its narrow gorge and black crags; but +we meet with no more great falls or rapids. Still, +we run cautiously, and stop, from time to time, +to examine some places which look bad. Yet, +we make ten miles this afternoon; twenty miles, +in all, to-day.</p> + +<p><i>August 22.</i> We come to rapids again, this +morning, and are occupied several hours in passing +them, letting the boats down, from rock to +rock, with lines, for nearly half a mile, and then +have to make a long portage. While the men are +engaged in this, I climb the wall on the northeast, +to a height of about 2,500 feet, where I can obtain +a good view of a long stretch of cañon below. +Its course is to the southwest. The walls seem +to rise very abruptly, for 2,500 or 3,000 feet, and +then there is a gently sloping terrace, on each +side, for two or three miles, and again we find +cliffs, 1,500 or 2,000 feet high. From the brink +of these the plateau stretches back to the north +and south, for a long distance. Away down the +cañon, on the right wall, I can see a group of +mountains, some of which appear to stand on the +brink of the cañon. The effect of the terrace is +to give the appearance of a narrow, winding valley, +with high walls on either side, and a deep, +dark, meandering gorge down its middle. It is +impossible, from this point of view, to determine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +whether we have granite at the bottom or not; +but, from geological considerations, I conclude +that we shall have marble walls below.</p> + +<p>After my return to the boats, we run another +mile and camp for the night.</p> + +<p>We have made but little over seven miles to-day, +and a part of our flour has been soaked in the +river again.</p> + +<p><i>August 23.</i> Our way to-day is again through +marble walls. Now and then we pass, for a +short distance, through patches of granite, like +hills thrust up into the limestone. At one of +these places we have to make another portage, +and, taking advantage of the delay, I go up a +little stream to the north, wading it all the way, +sometimes having to take a plunge in to my neck; +in other places being compelled to swim across +little basins that have been excavated at the foot +of the falls. Along its course are many cascades +and springs, gushing out from the rocks on either +side. Sometimes a cottonwood tree grows over +the water. I come to one beautiful fall, of more +than a hundred and fifty feet, and climb around it +to the right, on the broken rocks. Still going up, +I find the cañon narrowing very much, being but +fifteen or twenty feet wide; yet the walls rise on +either side many hundreds of feet, perhaps thousands; +I can hardly tell.</p> + +<p>In some places the stream has not excavated its +channel down vertically through the rocks, but +has cut obliquely, so that one wall overhangs +the other. In other places it is cut vertically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +above and obliquely below, or obliquely above +and vertically below, so that it is impossible to see +out overhead. But I can go no farther. The +time which I estimated it would take to make the +portage has almost expired, and I start back on a +round trot, wading in the creek where I must, and +plunging through basins, and find the men waiting +for me, and away we go on the river.</p> + +<p>Just after dinner we pass a stream on the right, +which leaps into the Colorado by a direct fall of +more than a hundred feet, forming a beautiful +cascade. There is a bed of very hard rock above, +thirty or forty feet in thickness, and much softer +beds below. The hard beds above project many +yards beyond the softer, which are washed out, +forming a deep cave behind the fall, and the +stream pours through a crevice above into a deep +pool below. Around on the rocks, in the cave-like +chamber, are set beautiful ferns, with delicate +fronds and enamelled stalks. The little frondlets +have their points turned down, to form spore +cases. It has very much the appearance of the +maiden's hair fern, but is much larger. This +delicate foliage covers the rocks all about the +fountain, and gives the chamber great beauty. +But we have little time to spend in admiration, so +on we go.</p> + +<p>We make fine progress this afternoon, carried +along by a swift river, and shoot over the rapids, +finding no serious obstructions.</p> + +<p>The cañon walls, for 2,500 or 3,000 feet, are +very regular, rising almost perpendicularly, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +here and there set with narrow steps, and occasionally +we can see away above the broad terrace, +to distant cliffs.</p> + +<p>We camp to-night in a marble cave, and find, +on looking at our reckoning, we have run twenty-two +miles.</p> + +<p><i>August 24.</i> The cañon is wider to-day. The +walls rise to a vertical height of nearly 3,000 feet. +In many places the river runs under a cliff, in +great curves, forming amphitheatres, half-dome +shaped.</p> + +<p>Though the river is rapid, we meet with no +serious obstructions, and run twenty miles. It +is curious how anxious we are to make-up our +reckoning every time we stop, now that our diet +is confined to plenty of coffee, very little spoiled +flour, and very few dried apples. It has come to +be a race for a dinner. Still, we make such fine +progress, all hands are in good cheer, but not a +moment of daylight is lost.</p> + +<p><i>August 25.</i> We make twelve miles this morning, +when we come to monuments of lava, standing +in the river; low rocks mostly, but some of +them shafts more than a hundred feet high. Going +on down, three or four miles, we find them +increasing in number. Great quantities of +cooled lava and many cinder cones are seen on +either side; and then we come to an abrupt cataract. +Just over the fall, on the right wall, a cinder +cone, or extinct volcano, with a well-defined +crater, stands on the very brink of the cañon. +This, doubtless, is the one we saw two or three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +days ago. From this volcano vast floods of lava +have been poured into the river, and a stream of +the molten rock has run up the cañon, three or +four miles, and down, we know not how far. +Just where it poured over the cañon wall is the +fall. The whole north side, as far as we can see, +is lined with the black basalt, and high up on the +opposite wall are patches of the same material, +resting on the benches, and filling old alcoves and +caves, giving to the wall a spotted appearance.</p> + +<p>The rocks are broken in two, along a line which +here crosses the river, and the beds, which we +have seen coming down the cañon for the last +thirty miles, have dropped eight hundred feet, +on the lower side of the line, forming what geologists +call a fault. The volcanic cone stands +directly over the fissure thus formed. On the +side of the river opposite, mammoth springs +burst out of this crevice, one or two hundred +feet above the river, pouring in a stream +quite equal in volume to the Colorado Chiquito.</p> + +<p>This stream seems to be loaded with carbonate +of lime, and the water, evaporating, leaves an incrustation +on the rocks; and this process has been +continued for a long time, for extensive deposits +are noticed, in which are basins, with bubbling +springs. The water is salty.</p> + +<p>We have to make a portage here, which is completed +in about three hours, and on we go.</p> + +<p>We have no difficulty as we float along, and I +am able to observe the wonderful phenomena connected +with this flood of lava. The cañon was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +doubtless filled to a height of twelve or fifteen +hundred feet, perhaps by more than one flood. +This would dam the water back; and in cutting +through this great lava bed, a new channel has +been formed, sometimes on one side, sometimes +on the other. The cooled lava, being of firmer +texture than the rocks of which the walls are +composed, remains in some places; in others a +narrow channel has been cut, leaving a line of +basalt on either side. It is possible that the lava +cooled faster on the sides against the walls, and +that the centre ran out; but of this we can only +conjecture. There are other places, where almost +the whole of the lava is gone, patches of it +only being seen where it has caught on the walls. +As we float down, we can see that it ran out into +side cañons. In some places this basalt has a +fine, columnar structure, often in concentric +prisms, and masses of these concentric columns +have coalesced. In some places, where the flow +occurred, the cañon was probably at about the +same depth as it is now, for we can see where the +basalt has rolled out on the sands, and, what +seems curious to me, the sands are not melted or +metamorphosed to any appreciable extent. In +places the bed of the river is of sandstone or limestone, +in other places of lava, showing that it has +all been cut out again where the sandstones and +limestones appear; but there is a little yet left +where the bed is of lava.</p> + +<p>What a conflict of water and fire there must +have been here! Just imagine a river of molten<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +rock, running down into a river of melted snow. +What a seething and boiling of the waters; what +clouds of steam rolled into the heavens!</p> + +<p>Thirty-five miles to-day. Hurrah!</p> + +<p><i>August 26.</i> The cañon walls are steadily becoming +higher as we advance. They are still +bold, and nearly vertical up to the terrace. We +still see evidence of the eruption discovered yesterday, +but the thickness of the basalt is decreasing, +as we go down the stream; yet it has been +reinforced at points by streams that have come +from volcanoes standing on the terrace above, +but which we cannot see from the river below.</p> + +<p>Since we left the Colorado Chiquito, we have +seen no evidences that the tribe of Indians inhabiting +the plateaus on either side ever come down +to the river; but about eleven o'clock to-day we +discover an Indian garden, at the foot of the +wall on the right, just where a little stream, with +a narrow flood plain, comes down through a side +cañon. Along the valley, the Indians have +planted corn, using the water which burst out in +springs at the foot of the cliff for irrigation. The +corn is looking quite well, but is not sufficiently +advanced to give us roasting ears; but there are +some nice green squashes. We carry ten or a +dozen of these on board our boats, and hurriedly +leave, not willing to be caught in the robbery, yet +excusing ourselves by pleading our great want. +We run down a short distance to where we feel +certain no Indians can follow; and what a kettle +of squash sauce we make! True, we have no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +salt with which to season it, but it makes a fine +addition to our unleavened bread and coffee. +Never was fruit so sweet as those stolen squashes. +After dinner we push on again, making fine time, +finding many rapids, but none so bad that we cannot +run them with safety, and when we stop, just +at dusk, and foot up our reckoning, we find that; +we have run thirty-five miles again.</p> + +<p>What a supper we make; unleavened bread, +green squash sauce, and strong coffee. We have +been for a few days on half-rations, but we have +no stint of roast squash.</p> + +<p>A few days like this, and we are out of prison.</p> + +<p><i>August 27.</i> This morning the river takes a +more southerly direction. The dip of the rocks +is to the north, and we are rapidly running into +lower formations. Unless our course changes, we +shall very soon run again into the granite. This +gives us some anxiety. Now and then the river +turns to the west, and excites hopes that are soon +destroyed by another turn to the south. About +nine o'clock we come to the dreaded rock. It is +with no little misgiving that we see the river +enter those black, hard walls. At its very entrance +we have to make a portage; then we have +to let down with lines past some ugly rocks. +Then we run a mile or two farther, and then the +rapids below can be seen.</p> + +<p>About eleven o'clock we come to a place where +it seems much worse than any we have yet met in +all its course. A little creek comes down from +the left. We land first on the right, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +clamber up over the granite pinnacles for a mile +or two, but can see no way by which we can let +down, and to run it would be sure destruction. +After dinner we cross to examine it on the left. +High above the river we can walk along on the +top of the granite, which is broken off at the edge, +and set with crags and pinnacles, so that it is +very difficult to get a view of the river at all. In +my eagerness to reach a point where I can see the +roaring fall below, I go too far on the wall, and +can neither advance nor retreat. I stand with +one foot on a little projecting rock, and cling +with my hand fixed in a little crevice. Finding +I am caught here, suspended four hundred feet +above the river, into which I should fall if my +footing fails, I call for help. The men come, and +pass me a line, but I cannot let go of the rock long +enough to take hold of it. Then they bring two +or three of the largest oars. All this takes time +which seems very precious to me; but at last they +arrive. The blade of one of the oars is pushed +into a little crevice in the rock beyond me, in +such a manner that they can hold me pressed +against the wall. Then another is fixed in +such a way that I can step on it, and thus I am +extricated.</p> + +<p>Still another hour is spent in examining the +river from this side, but no good view of it is +obtained, so now we return to the side that was +first examined, and the afternoon is spent in +clambering among the crags and pinnacles, and +carefully scanning the river again. We find that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +the lateral streams have washed boulders into the +river, so as to form a dam over which the water +makes a broken fall of eighteen or twenty feet; +then there is a rapid, beset with rocks, for two or +three hundred yards, while, on the other side, +points of the wall project into the river. Then +there is a second fall below; how great, we cannot +tell. Then there is a rapid, filled with huge rocks, +for one or two hundred yards. At the bottom of +it, from the right wall, a great rock projects quite +half-way across the river. It has a sloping surface +extending upstream, and the water, coming +down with all the momentum gained in the falls +and rapids above, rolls up this inclined plane +many feet and tumbles over to the left. I decide +that it is possible to let down over the first fall, +then run near the right cliff to a point just above +the second, where we can pull out into a little +chute, and, having run over that in safety, we +must pull with all our power across the stream, +to avoid the great rock below. On my return to +the boat, I announce to the men that we are to +run it in the morning. Then we cross the river, +and go down into camp for the night on some +rocks, in the mouth of the little side cañon.</p> + +<p>After supper Captain Howland asks to have a +talk with me. We walk up the little creek a +short distance, and I soon find that his object is +to remonstrate against my determination to proceed. +He thinks that we had better abandon the +river here. Talking with him, I learn that his +brother, William Dunn, and himself have determined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +to go no farther in the boats. So we +return to camp. Nothing is said to the other +men.</p> + +<p>For the last two days our course has not been +plotted. I sit down and do this now, for the +purpose of finding where we are by dead reckoning. +It is a clear night, and I take out the sextant +to make observations for latitude, and find +that the astronomic determination agrees very +nearly with that of the plot—quite as closely as +might be expected, from a meridian observation +on a planet. In a direct line, we must be about +forty-five miles from the mouth of the Rio Virgen. +If we can reach that point, we know that there +are settlements up that river about twenty miles. +This forty-five miles, in a direct line, will probably +be eighty or ninety in the meandering line +of the river. But then we know that there is +comparatively open country for many miles +about the mouth of the Virgen, which is our +point of destination.</p> + +<p>As soon as I determine all this, I spread my +plot on the sand, and wake Howland, who is +sleeping down by the river, and show him where +I suppose we are, and where several Mormon +settlements are situated.</p> + +<p>We have another short talk about the morrow, +and he lies down again; but for me there is no +sleep. All night long I pace up and down a little +path, on a few yards of sand beach, along by the +river. Is it wise to go on? I go to the boats +again, to look at our rations. I feel satisfied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +that we can get over the danger immediately +before us; what there may be below I know not. +From our outlook yesterday, on the cliffs, the +cañon seemed to make another great bend to the +south, and this, from our experience heretofore, +means more and higher granite walls. I am not +sure that we can climb out of the cañon here, and, +when at the top of the wall, I know enough of the +country to be certain that it is a desert of rock +and sand, between this and the nearest Mormon +town, which, on the most direct line, must be +seventy-five miles away. True, the late rains +have been favourable to us, should we go out, +for the probabilities are that we shall find water +still standing in holes, and, at one time, I almost +conclude to leave the river. But for years I have +been contemplating this trip. To leave the exploration +unfinished, to say that there is a part of +the cañon which I cannot explore, having already +almost accomplished it, is more than I am willing +to acknowledge, and I determine to go on.</p> + +<p>I wake my brother and tell him of Howland's +determination, and he promises to stay with me; +then I call up Hawkins, the cook, and he makes a +like promise; then Sumner, and Bradley, and +Hall, and they all agree to go on.</p> + +<p><i>August 28.</i> At last daybreak comes, and we +have breakfast, without a word being said about +the future. The meal is as solemn as a funeral. +After breakfast I ask the three men if they still +think it best to leave us. The elder Howland +thinks it is, and Dunn agrees with him. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +younger Howland tries to persuade them to go +on with the party, failing in which, he decides to +go with his brother.</p> + +<p>Then we cross the river. The small boat is +very much disabled, and unseaworthy. With +the loss of hands, consequent on the departure +of the three men, we shall not be able to +run all of the boats, so I decide to leave my +<i>Emma Dean</i>.</p> + +<p>Two rifles and a shotgun are given to the men +who are going out. I ask them to help themselves +to the rations, and take what they think +to be a fair share. This they refuse to do, saying +they have no fear but what they can get something +to eat; but Billy, the cook, has a pan of biscuits +prepared for dinner, and these he leaves on +a rock.</p> + +<p>Before starting, we take our barometers, fossils, +the minerals, and some ammunition from the +boat and leave them on the rocks. We are going +over this place as light as possible. The three +men help us lift our boats over a rock twenty-five +or thirty feet high, and let them down +again over the first fall, and now we are all +ready to start.</p> + +<p>The last thing before leaving, I write a +letter to my wife, and give it to Howland. Sumner +gives him his watch, directing that it be +sent to his sister, should he not be heard from +again. The records of the expedition have been +kept in duplicate. One set of these is given to +Howland, and now we are ready. For the last,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +time, they entreat us not to go on, and tell us that +it is madness to set out in this place; that we can +never get safely through it; and, further, that the +river turns again to the south into the granite, +and a few miles of such rapids and falls will +exhaust our entire stock of rations, and then it +will be too late to climb out. Some tears are +shed; it is a rather solemn parting; each party +thinks the other is taking the dangerous course.</p> + +<p>My old boat left, I go on board of the <i>Maid of +the Cañon</i>. The three men climb a crag, that +overhangs the river, to watch us off. The <i>Maid +of the Cañon</i> pushes out. We glide rapidly along +the foot of the wall, just grazing one great rock, +then pull out a little into the chute of the second +fall, and plunge over it. The open compartment is +filled when we strike the first wave below, but we +cut through it, and then the men pull with all +their power toward the left wall, and swing clear +of the dangerous rock below all right. We are +scarcely a minute in running it, and find that, +although it looked bad from above, we have +passed many places that were worse.</p> + +<p>The other boat follows with more difficulty. +We land at the first practicable point below and +fire our guns as a signal to the men above that we +have come over in safety. Here we remain a +couple of hours, hoping that they will take the +smaller boat and follow us. We are behind a +curve in the cañon, and cannot see up to where +we left them, and so we wait until their coming +seems hopeless, and push on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> + +<p>And now we have a succession of rapids and +falls until noon, all of which we run in safety. +Just after dinner we come to another bad place. +A little stream comes in from the left, and below +there is a fall, and still below another fall. Above, +the river tumbles down, over and among the +rocks, in whirlpools and great waves, and the +waters are lashed into mad, white foam. We run +along the left, above this, and soon see that we +cannot get down on this side, but it seems possible +to let down on the other. We pull up stream +again for two or three hundred yards and cross. +Now there is a bed of basalt on this northern side +of the cañon with a bold escarpment, that seems +to be a hundred feet high. We can climb it, and +walk along its summit to a point where we are +just at the head of the fall. Here the basalt is +broken down again, so it seems to us, and I +direct the men to take a line to the top of the +cliff, and let the boats down along the wall. One +man remains in the boat, to keep her clear of the +rocks, and prevent her line from being caught on +the projecting angles. I climb the cliff, and pass +along to a point just over the fall, and descend by +broken rocks, and find that the break of the fall +is above the break of the wall, so that we cannot +land; and that still below the river is very bad, +find that there is no possibility of a portage. +Without waiting further to examine and determine +what shall be done, I hasten back to the +top of the cliff, to stop the boats from coming +down. When I arrive I find the men have let<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +one of them down to the head of the fall. She is in +swift water, and they are not able to pull her +back; nor are they able to go on with the line, as +it is not long enough to reach the higher part of +the cliff, which is just before them; so they take +a bight around a crag. I send two men back for +the other line. The boat is in very swift water, +and Bradley is standing in the open compartment, +holding out his oar to prevent her from +striking against the foot of the cliff. Now she +shoots out into the stream, and up as far as the +line will permit, and then, wheeling, drives headlong +against the rock, then out and back again, +now straining on the line, now striking against +the rock. As soon as the second line is brought, +we pass it down to him; but his attention is all +taken up with his own situation, and he does not +see that we are passing the line to him. I stand +on a projecting rock, waving my hat to gain his +attention, for my voice is drowned by the roaring +of the falls. Just at this moment, I see him take +his knife from its sheath, and step forward to +cut the line. He has evidently decided that it is +better to go over with the boat as it is, than to +wait for her to be broken to pieces. As he leans +over, the boat sheers again into the stream, the +stem-post breaks away, and she is loose. With +perfect composure Bradley seizes the great scull +oar, places it in the stern rowlock, and pulls with +all his power (and he is an athlete) to turn the +bow of the boat downstream, for he wishes to go +bow down, rather than to drift broadside on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +One, two strokes he makes, and a third just as +she goes over, and the boat is fairly turned, and +she goes down almost beyond our sight, though +we are more than a hundred feet above the river. +Then she comes up again, on a great wave, and +down and up, then around behind some great +rocks, and is lost in the mad, white foam +below. We stand frozen with fear, for we +see no boat. Bradley is gone, so it seems. +But now, away below, we see something coming +out of the waves. It is evidently a +boat. A moment more, and we see Bradley +standing on deck, swinging his hat to +show that he is all right. But he is in a whirlpool. +We have the stem post of his boat attached +to the line. How badly she may be disabled +we know not. I direct Sumner and Powell +to pass along the cliff, and see if they can reach +him from below. Rhodes, Hall, and myself run +to the other boat, jump aboard, push out, and +away we go over the falls. A wave rolls over us, +and our boat is unmanageable. Another great +wave strikes us, the boat rolls over, and +tumbles and tosses, I know not how. All I +know is that Bradley is picking us up. We soon +have all right again, and row to the cliff, and +wait until Sumner and Powell can come. After +a difficult climb they reach us. We run two or +three miles farther, and turn again to the northwest, +continuing until night, when we have run +out of the granite once more.</p> + +<p><i>August 29.</i> We start very early this morning.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +The river still continues swift, but we have no +serious difficulty, and at twelve o'clock emerge +from the Grand Cañon of the Colorado.</p> + +<p>We are in a valley now, and low mountains are +seen in the distance, coming to the river below. +We recognize this as the Grand Wash.</p> + +<p>A few years ago a party of Mormons set out +from St. George, Utah, taking with them a boat, +and came down to the mouth of the Grand Wash, +where they divided, a portion of the party crossing +the river to explore the San Francisco Mountains. +Three men—Hamblin, Miller, and Crosby—taking +the boat, went on down the river to +Callville, landing a few miles below the mouth of +the Rio Virgen. We have their manuscript +journal with us, and so the stream is comparatively +well known.</p> + +<p>To-night we camp on the left bank in a mesquit +thicket.</p> + +<p>The relief from danger and the joy of success +are great. When he who has been chained by +wounds to a hospital cot, until his canvas tent +seems like a dungeon cell, until the groans of +those who lie about, tortured with probe and +knife, are piled up, a weight of horror on his ears +that he cannot throw off, cannot forget, and until +the stench of festering wounds and anæsthetic +drugs has filled the air with its loathsome burthen, +at last goes into the open field, what a +world he sees! How beautiful the sky; how +bright the sunshine; what “floods of delirious +music” pour from the throats of birds; how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +sweet the fragrance of earth and tree, and blossom! +The first hour of convalescent freedom +seems rich recompense for all—pain, gloom, +terror.</p> + +<p>Something like this are the feelings we experience +to-night. Ever before us has been an +unknown danger, heavier than immediate peril. +Every waking hour passed in the Grand Cañon +has been one of toil. We have watched with +deep solicitude the steady disappearance of our +scant supply of rations, and from time to time +have seen the river snatch a portion of the little +left, while we were ahungered. And danger and +toil were endured in those gloomy depths, where +ofttimes the clouds hid the sky by day, and but a +narrow zone of stars could be seen at night. Only +during the few hours of deep sleep, consequent +on hard labour, has the roar of the waters been +hushed. Now the danger is over; now the toil +has ceased; now the gloom has disappeared; now +the firmament is bounded only by the horizon; +and what a vast expanse of constellations can be +seen!</p> + +<p>The river rolls by us in silent majesty; the +quiet of the camp is sweet; our joy is almost +ecstasy. We sit till long after midnight, talking +of the Grand Cañon, talking of home, but chiefly +talking of the three men who left us. Are they +wandering in those depths, unable to find a way +out? are they searching over the desert lands +above for water? or are they nearing the settlements?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>August 30.</i> We run two or three short, low +cañons to-day, and on emerging from one, we discover +a band of Indians in the valley below. +They see us, and scamper away in most eager +haste, to hide among the rocks. Although we +land, and call for them to return, not an Indian +can be seen.</p> + +<p>Two or three miles farther down, in turning a +short bend in the river, we come upon another +camp. So near are we before they can see us that +I can shout to them, and, being able to speak a +little of their language, I tell them we are friends; +but they flee to the rocks, except a man, a woman, +and two children. We land, and talk with them. +They are without lodges, but have built little +shelters of boughs, under which they wallow in +the sand. The man is dressed in a hat; the +woman in a string of beads only. At first they +are evidently much terrified; but when I talk to +them in their own language, and tell them we are +friends, and inquire after people in the Mormon +towns, they are soon reassured, and beg for tobacco. +Of this precious article we have none to spare. +Sumner looks around in the boat for something +to give them, and finds a little piece of coloured +soap, which they receive as a valuable present, +rather as a thing of beauty than as a useful commodity, +however. They are either unwilling or +unable to tell us anything about the Indians or +white people, and so we push off, for we must +lose no time.</p> + +<p>We camp at noon under the right bank. And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +now, as we push out, we are in great expectancy, +for we hope every minute to discover the mouth +of the Rio Virgen.</p> + +<p>Soon one of the men exclaims: “Yonder's an +Indian in the river.” Looking for a few minutes, +we certainly do see two or three persons. The +men bend to their oars, and pull toward them. +Approaching, we see that there are three white +men and an Indian hauling a seine, and then we +discover that it is just at the mouth of the long-sought +river.</p> + +<p>As we come near, the men seem far less surprised +to see us than we do to see them. They +evidently know who we are, and, on talking with +them, they tell us that we have been reported +lost long ago, and that some weeks before, a messenger +had been sent from Salt Lake City, with +instructions for them to watch for any fragments +or relics of our party that might drift down the +stream.</p> + +<p>Our new-found friends, Mr. Asa and his two +sons, tell us that they are pioneers of a town that +is to be built on the bank.</p> + +<p>Eighteen or twenty miles up the valley of the +Rio Virgen there are two Mormon towns, St. +Joseph and St. Thomas. To-night we despatch +an Indian to the last mentioned place, to bring +any letters that may be there for us.</p> + +<p>Our arrival here is very opportune. When we +look over our store of supplies, we find about +ten pounds of flour, fifteen pounds of dried apples, +but seventy or eighty pounds of coffee.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Geologists would call these rocks metamorphic crystalline +schists, with dikes and beds of granite, but we will use the +popular name for the whole series—granite.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="trans-note"> +<h4><span class="smcap">Transcriber's Note:</span></h4> + +<p>Obvious printer's errors, including punctuation have +been silently corrected. Hyphenated and accented words +have been standardized.</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_18">Page 18</a>—“Peter Martyr tell us...” +changed to “Peter Martyr tells us...”</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_69">Page 69</a>—satisfacton changed to satisfaction.</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_99">Page 99</a>—oppossed changed to opposed.</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_101">Page 101</a>—nihgt changed to night.</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_127">Page 127</a>—connonade changed to cannonade.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Little Masterpieces of Science: +Explorers, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPLORERS *** + +***** This file should be named 29502-h.htm or 29502-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/5/0/29502/ + +Produced by Sigal Alon, Marcia Brooks, Fox in the Stars +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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