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Dave Gowan for Project Gutenberg + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + EVOLUTION AND ETHICS<br /> AND OTHER ESSAYS + </h1> + <h2> + By Thomas H. Huxley + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> I. <b>EVOLUTION AND ETHICS</b>. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0016"> XIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0017"> XIV. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> II. <b>EVOLUTION AND ETHICS</b>. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_NOTE"> NOTES. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0020"> III. <b>SCIENCE AND MORALS</b> (1886) </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0021"> I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0022"> II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0023"> III </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0024"> V. <b>SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES</b> + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF2"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0026"> INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0027"> <b>THE SALVATION ARMY ARTICLES OF WAR</b> </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + THE discourse on "Evolution and Ethics," reprinted in the first half of + the present volume, was delivered before the University of Oxford, as the + second of the annual lectures founded by Mr. Romanes: whose name I may not + write without deploring the untimely death, in the flower of his age, of a + friend endeared to me, as to so many others, by his kindly nature; and + justly valued by all his colleagues for his powers of investigation and + his zeal for the advancement of knowledge. I well remember, when Mr. + Romanes' early work came into my hands, as one of the secretaries of the + Royal Society, how much I rejoiced in the accession to the ranks of the + little army of workers in science of a recruit so well qualified to take a + high place among us. + </p> + <p> + It was at my friend's urgent request that I agreed to undertake the + lecture, should I be honoured with an official proposal to give it, though + I confess not without misgivings, if only on account of the serious + fatigue and hoarseness which public speaking has for some years caused me; + while I knew that it would be my fate to follow the most accomplished and + facile orator of our time, whose indomitable youth is in no matter more + manifest than in his penetrating and musical voice. A certain saying about + comparisons intruded itself somewhat importunately. + </p> + <p> + And even if I disregarded the weakness of my body in the matter of voice, + and that of my mind in the matter of vanity, there remained a third + difficulty. For several reasons, my attention, during a number of years, + has been much directed to the bearing of modern scientific thought on the + problems of morals and of politics, and I did not care to be diverted from + that topic. Moreover, I thought it the most important and the worthiest + which, at the present time, could engage the attention even of an ancient + and renowned University. + </p> + <p> + But it is a condition of the Romanes foundation that the lecturer shall + abstain from treating of either Religion or Politics; and it appeared to + me that, more than most, perhaps, I was bound to act, not merely up to the + letter, but in the spirit, of that prohibition. Yet Ethical Science is, on + all sides, so entangled with Religion and Politics that the lecturer who + essays to touch the former without coming into contact with either of the + latter, needs all the dexterity of an egg-dancer; and may even discover + that his sense of clearness and his sense of propriety come into conflict, + by no means to the advantage of the former. + </p> + <p> + I had little notion of the real magnitude of these difficulties when I + set about my task; but I am consoled for my pains and anxiety by observing + that none of the multitudinous criticisms with which I have been favoured + and, often, instructed, find fault with me on the score of having strayed + out of bounds. + </p> + <p> + Among my critics there are not a few to whom I feel deeply indebted for + the careful attention which they have given to the exposition thus + hampered; and further weakened, I am afraid, by my forgetfulness of a + maxim touching lectures of a popular character, which has descended to me + from that prince of lecturers, Mr. Faraday. He was once asked by a + beginner, called upon to address a highly select and cultivated audience, + what he might suppose his hearers to know already. Whereupon the past + master of the art of exposition emphatically replied "Nothing!" + </p> + <p> + To my shame as a retired veteran, who has all his life profited by this + great precept of lecturing strategy, I forgot all about it just when it + would have been most useful. I was fatuous enough to imagine that a number + of propositions, which I thought established, and which, in fact, I had + advanced without challenge on former occasions, needed no repetition. + </p> + <p> + I have endeavoured to repair my error by prefacing the lecture with some + matter—chiefly elementary or recapitulatory—to which I have + given the title of "Prolegomena" I wish I could have hit upon a heading of + less pedantic aspect which would have served my purpose; and if it be + urged that the new building looks over large for the edifice to which it + is added, I can only plead the precedent of the ancient architects, who + always made the adytum the smallest part of the temple. + </p> + <p> + If I had attempted to reply in full to the criticisms to which I have + referred, I know not what extent of ground would have been covered by my + pronaos. All I have endeavoured to do, at present, is to remove that which + seems to have proved a stumbling-block to many—namely, the apparent + paradox that ethical nature, while born of cosmic nature, is necessarily + at enmity with its parent. Unless the arguments set forth in the + Prolegomena, in the simplest language at my command, have some flaw which + I am unable to discern, this seeming paradox is a truth, as great as it is + plain, the recognition of which is fundamental for the ethical + philosopher. + </p> + <p> + We cannot do without our inheritance from the forefathers who were the + puppets of the cosmic process; the society which renounces it must be + destroyed from without. Still less can we de with too much of it; the + society in which it dominates must be destroyed from within. + </p> + <p> + The motive of the drama of human life is the necessity, laid upon every + man who comes into the world, of discovering the mean between + self-assertion and self-restraint suited to his character and his + circumstances. And the eternally tragic aspect of the drama lies in this: + that the problem set before us is one the elements of which can be but + imperfectly known, and of which even an approximately right solution + rarely presents itself, until that stern critic, aged experience, has been + furnished with ample justification for venting his sarcastic humour upon + the irreparable blunders we have already made. + </p> + <p> + I have reprinted the letters on the "Darkest England" scheme, published in + the "Times" of December, 1890, and January, 1891; and subsequently issued, + with additions, as a pamphlet, under the title of "Social Diseases and + Worse Remedies," because, although the clever attempt to rush the country + on behalf of that scheme has been balked, Booth's standing army remains + afoot, retaining all the capacities for mischief which are inherent in its + constitution. I am desirous that this fact should be kept steadily in + view; and that the moderation of the clamour of the drums and trumpets + should not lead us to forget the existence of a force, which, in bad + hands, may, at any time, be used for bad purposes. + </p> + <p> + In 1892, a Committee was "formed for the purpose of investigating the + manner in which the moneys, subscribed in response to the appeal made in + the book entitled 'In Darkest England and the Way out,' have been + expended." The members of this body were gentlemen in whose competency and + equity every one must have complete confidence; and in December, 1892, + they published a report in which they declare that, "with the exception of + the sums expended on the 'barracks' at Hadleigh," the moneys in question + have been "devoted only to the objects and expended in the methods set out + in that appeal, and to and in no others." + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, their final conclusion runs as follows: "(4) That whilst the + invested property, real and personal, resulting from such Appeal is so + vested and controlled by the Trust of the Deed of January 30th, 1891, that + any application of it to purposes other than those declared in the deed by + any 'General' of the Salvation Army would amount to a breach of trust, and + would subject him to the proceedings of a civil and criminal character, + before mentioned in the Report, ADEQUATE LEGAL SAFEGUARDS DO NOT AT + PRESENT EXIST TO PREVENT THE MISAPPLICATION OF SUCH PROPERTY." + </p> + <p> + The passage I have italicised forms part of a document dated December + 19th, 1892. It follows, that, even after the Deed of January 30th, 1891, + was executed, "adequate legal safeguards" "to prevent the misapplication + of the property" did not exist. What then was the state of things, up to a + week earlier, that is on January 22nd, 1891, when my twelfth and last + letter appeared in the "Times"? A better justification for what I have + said about the want of adequate security for the proper administration of + the funds intrusted to Mr. Booth could not be desired, unless it be that + which is to be found in the following passages of the Report (pp. 36 and + 37):— + </p> + <p> + "It is possible that a 'General' may be forgetful of his duty, and sell + property and appropriate the proceeds to his own use, or to meeting the + general liabilities of the Salvation Army. As matters now stand, he, and + he alone, would have control over such a sale. Against such possibilities + it appears to the Committee to be reasonable that some check should be + imposed." + </p> + <p> + Once more let it be remembered that this opinion given under the hand of + Sir Henry James, was expressed by the Committee, with the Trust Deed of + 1891, which has been so sedulously flaunted before the public, in full + view. + </p> + <p> + The Committee made a suggestion for the improvement of this very + unsatisfactory state of things; but the exact value set upon it by the + suggestors should be carefully considered (p.37). + </p> + <p> + "The Committee are fully aware that if the views thus expressed are + carried out, the safeguards and checks created will not be sufficient for + all purposes absolutely to prevent possible dealing with the property and + moneys inconsistent with the purposes to which they are intended to be + devoted." + </p> + <p> + In fact, they are content to express the very modest hope that "if the + suggestion made be acted upon, some hindrance will thereby be placed in + the way of any one acting dishonestly in respect of the disposal of the + property and moneys referred to." + </p> + <p> + I do not know, and, under the circumstances, I cannot say I much care, + whether the suggestions of the Committee have, or have not, been acted + upon. Whether or not, the fact remains that an unscrupulous "General" will + have a pretty free hand, notwithstanding "some" hindrance. + </p> + <p> + Thus, the judgment of the highly authoritative, and certainly not hostile, + Committee of 1892, upon the issues with which they concerned themselves is + hardly such as to inspire enthusiastic confidence. And it is further to be + borne in mind that they carefully excluded from their duties "any + examination of the principles, government, teaching, or methods of the + Salvation Army as a religious organization, or of its affairs" except so + far as they related to the administration of the moneys collected by the + "Darkest England" appeal. + </p> + <p> + Consequently, the most important questions discussed in my letters were + not in any way touched by the Committee. Even if their report had been far + more favourable to the "Darkest England" scheme than it is; if it had + really assured the contributors that the funds raised were fully secured + against malversation; the objections, on social and political grounds, to + Mr. Booth's despotic organization, with its thousands of docile satellites + pledged to blind obedience, set forth in the letters, would be in no + degree weakened. The "sixpennyworth of good" would still be out-weighed by + the "shillingsworth of harm"; if indeed the relative worth, or unworth, of + the latter should not be rated in pounds rather than in shillings. + </p> + <p> + What would one not give for the opinion of the financial members of the + Committee about the famous Bank; and that of the legal experts about the + proposed "tribunes of the people"? + </p> + <h3> + HODESLEA, EASTBOURNE, + </h3> + <p> + July, 1894. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I. EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. + </h2> + <h3> + PROLEGOMENA. + </h3> + <h4> + (1894) + </h4> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I. + </h2> + <p> + IT may be safely assumed that, two thousand years ago, before Caesar set + foot in southern Britain, the whole country-side visible from the windows + of the room in which I write, was in what is called "the state of nature." + Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as those which + still, here and there, break the flowing contours of the downs, man's + hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin veil of vegetation which + overspread the broad-backed heights and the shelving sides of the coombs + was unaffected by his industry. The native grasses and weeds, the + scattered patches of gorse, contended with one another for the possession + of the scanty surface soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, + the frosts of winter, and the furious gales which swept, with unbroken + force, now from the <span class="pagenum">2</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink2" id="link2"></a> Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, + at all times of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps + made in their ranks by all sorts of underground and overground animal + ravagers. One year with another, an average population, the floating + balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the indigenous + plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be doubted, that an + essentially similar state of nature prevailed, in this region, for many + thousand years before the coming of Caesar; and there is no assignable + reason for denying that it might continue to exist through an equally + prolonged futurity, except for the intervention of man. + </p> + <p> + Reckoned by our customary standards of duration, the native vegetation, + like the "everlasting hills" which it clothes, seems a type of permanence. + The little Amarella Gentians, which abound in some places to-day, are the + descendants of those that were trodden underfoot, by the prehistoric + savages who have left their flint tools, about, here and there; and they + followed ancestors which, in the climate of the glacial epoch, probably + flourished better than they do now. Compared with the long past of this + humble plant, all the history of civilized men is but an episode. + </p> + <p> + Yet nothing is more certain than that, measured by the liberal scale of + time-keeping of the universe, this present state of nature, however it may + seem to have gone and to go on for ever, is <span class="pagenum">3</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink3" id="link3"></a> but a fleeting phase of her infinite + variety; merely the last of the series of changes which the earth's + surface has undergone in the course of the millions of years of its + existence. Turn back a square foot of the thin turf, and the solid + foundation of the land, exposed in cliffs of chalk five hundred feet high + on the adjacent shore, yields full assurance of a time when the sea + covered the site of the "everlasting hills"; and when the vegetation of + what land lay nearest, was as different from the present Flora of the + Sussex downs, as that of Central Africa now is.* No less certain is it + that, between the time during which the chalk was formed and that at which + the original turf came into existence, thousands of centuries elapsed, in + the course of which, the state of nature of the ages during which the + chalk was deposited, passed into that which now is, by changes so slow + that, in the coming and going of the generations of men, had such + witnessed them, the contemporary conditions would have seemed to be + unchanging and unchangeable. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "On a piece of Chalk" in the preceding volume of these + Essays (vol. viii. p. 1). +</pre> + <p> + But it is also certain that, before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly + longer period had elapsed; throughout which it is easy to follow the + traces of the same process of ceaseless modification and of the + internecine struggle for existence of living things; and that even when we + can get no further <span class="pagenum">4</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink4" id="link4"></a> back, it is not because there is any + reason to think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail of + the most ancient life remains hidden, or has become obliterated. + </p> + <p> + Thus that state of nature of the world of plants which we began by + considering, is far from possessing the attribute of permanence. Rather + its very essence is impermanence. It may have lasted twenty or thirty + thousand years, it may last for twenty or thirty thousand years more, + without obvious change; but, as surely as it has followed upon a very + different state, so it will be followed by an equally different condition. + That which endures is not one or another association of living forms, but + the process of which the cosmos is the product, and of which these are + among the transitory expressions. And in the living world, one of the most + characteristic features of this cosmic process is the struggle for + existence, the competition of each with all, the result of which is the + selection, that is to say, the survival of those forms which, on the + whole, are best adapted, to the conditions which at any period obtain; and + which are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the + fittest.* The acme reached by the cosmic <span class="pagenum">5</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink5" id="link5"></a> process in the vegetation of the downs + is seen in the turf, with its weeds and gorse. Under the conditions, they + have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by surviving, have proved + that they are the fittest to survive. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * That every theory of evolution must be consistent not merely + with progressive development, but with indefinite persistence + in the same condition and with retrogressive modification, is a + point which I have insisted upon repeatedly from the year 1862 + till now. See Collected Essays, vol. ii. pp. 461-89; vol. iii. + p. 33; vol. viii. p. 304. In the address on "Geological + Contemporaneity and Persistent Types" (1862), the + paleontological proofs of this proposition were, I believe, + first set forth. +</pre> + <p> + That the state of nature, at any time, is a temporary phase of a process + of incessant change, which has been going on for innumerable ages, appears + to me to be a proposition as well established as any in modern history. + </p> + <p> + Paleontology assures us, in addition, that the ancient philosophers who, + with less reason, held the same doctrine, erred in supposing that the + phases formed a cycle, exactly repeating the past, exactly foreshadowing + the future, in their rotations. On the contrary, it furnishes us with + conclusive reasons for thinking that, if every link in the ancestry of + these humble indigenous plants had been preserved and were accessible to + us, the whole would present a converging series of forms of gradually + diminishing complexity, until, at some period in the history of the earth, + far more remote than any of which organic remains have yet been + discovered, they would merge in those low groups among which the + Boundaries between animal and vegetable life become effaced.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "On the Border Territory between the Animal and the Vegetable + Kingdoms," Essays, vol. viii. p. 162 +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">6</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink6" id="link6"></a> The word "evolution," now generally + applied to the cosmic process, has had a singular history, and is used in + various senses.* Taken in its popular signification it means progressive + development, that is, gradual change from a condition of relative + uniformity to one of relative complexity; but its connotation has been + widened to include the phenomena of retrogressive metamorphosis, that is, + of progress from a condition of relative complexity to one of relative + uniformity. + </p> + <p> + As a natural process, of the same character as the development of a tree + from its seed, or of a fowl from its egg, evolution excludes creation and + all other kinds of supernatural intervention. As the expression of a fixed + order, every stage of which is the effect of causes operating according to + definite rules, the conception of evolution no less excludes that of + chance. It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not an + explanation of the cosmic process, but merely a generalized statement of + the method and results of that process. And, further, that, if there is + proof that the cosmic process was set going by any agent, then that agent + will be, the creator of it and of all its products, although supernatural + intervention may remain strictly excluded from its further course. + </p> + <p> + So far as that limited revelation of the nature of things, which we call + scientific knowledge, has <span class="pagenum">7</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink7" id="link7"></a> yet gone, it tends, with constantly + increasing emphasis, to the belief that, not merely the world of plants, + but that of animals; not merely living things, but the whole fabric of the + earth; not merely our planet, but the whole solar system; not merely our + star and its satellites, but the millions of similar bodies which bear + witness to the order which pervades boundless space, and has endured + through boundless time; are all working out their predestined courses of + evolution. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "Evolution in Biology," Essays, vol. ii. p. 187 +</pre> + <p> + With none of these have I anything to do, at present, except with that + exhibited by the forms of life which tenant the earth. All plants and + animals exhibit the tendency to vary, the causes of which have yet to be + ascertained; it is the tendency of the conditions of life, at any given + time, while favouring the existence of the variations best adapted to + them, to oppose that of the rest and thus to exercise selection; and all + living things tend to multiply without limit, while the means of support + are limited; the obvious cause of which is the production of offspring + more numerous than their progenitors, but with equal expectation of life + in the actuarial sense. Without the first tendency there could be no + evolution. Without the second, there would be no good reason why one + variation should disappear and another take its place; that is to say + there would be no selection. Without the <span class="pagenum">8</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink8" id="link8"></a> third, the struggle for existence, the + agent of the selective process in the state of nature, would vanish.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. ii. passim. +</pre> + <p> + Granting the existence of these tendencies, all the known facts of the + history of plants and of animals may be brought into rational correlation. + And this is more than can be said for any other hypothesis that I know of. + Such hypotheses, for example, as that of the existence of a primitive, + orderless chaos; of a passive and sluggish eternal matter moulded, with + but partial success, by archetypal ideas; of a brand-new world-stuff + suddenly created and swiftly shaped by a supernatural power; receive no + encouragement, but the contrary, from our present knowledge. That our + earth may once have formed part of a nebulous cosmic magma is certainly + possible, indeed seems highly probable; but there is no reason to doubt + that order reigned there, as completely as amidst what we regard as the + most finished works of nature or of man.** The faith which is born of + knowledge, finds its object in an eternal order, bringing forth ceaseless + change, through endless time, in endless space; the manifestations of the + cosmic energy alternating between phases of potentiality and phases of + explication. It may be that, as Kant suggests,*** every cosmic <span + class="pagenum">9</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink9" id="link9"></a> magma predestined to evolve into a new + world, has been the no less predestined end of a vanished predecessor. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + **Ibid., vol. iv. p. 138; vol. v. pp. 71-73. + ***Ibid., vol. viii. p. 321. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. + </h2> + <p> + Three or four years have elapsed since the state of nature, to which I + have referred, was brought to an end, so far as a small patch of the soil + is concerned, by the intervention of man. The patch was cut off from the + rest by a wall; within the area thus protected, the native vegetation was, + as far as possible, extirpated; while a colony of strange plants was + imported and set down in its place. In short, it was made into a garden. + At the present time, this artificially treated area presents an aspect + extraordinarily different from that of so much of the land as remains in + the state of nature, outside the wall. Trees, shrubs, and herbs, many of + them appertaining to the state of nature of remote parts of the globe, + abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable quantities of vegetables, + fruits, and flowers are produced, of kinds which neither now exist, nor + have ever existed, except under conditions such as obtain in the garden; + and which, therefore, are as much works of the art of man as the frames + and glasshouses in which some of them are raised. That the "state of Art," + thus created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and dependent + on him, would at once become <span class="pagenum">10</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink10" id="link10"></a> apparent, if the watchful + supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic + influences of the general cosmic process were no longer sedulously warded + off, or counteracted. The walls and gates would decay; quadrupedal and + bipedal intruders would devour and tread down the useful and beautiful + plants; birds, insects, blight, and mildew would work their will; the + seeds of the native plants, carried by winds or other agencies, would + immigrate, and in virtue of their long-earned special adaptation to the + local conditions, these despised native weeds would soon choke their + choice exotic rivals. A century or two hence, little beyond the + foundations of the wall and of the houses and frames would be left, in + evidence of the victory of the cosmic powers at work in the state of + nature, over the temporary obstacles to their supremacy, set up by the art + of the horticulturist. + </p> + <p> + It will be admitted that the garden is as much a work of art,* or + artifice, as anything that can be mentioned. The energy localised in + certain human bodies, directed by similarly localised intellects, has + produced a collocation of other material bodies which could not be brought + about in the state of nature. The same proposition is true of all the + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The sense of the term "Art" is becoming narrowed; "work of + Art" to most people means a picture, a statue, or a piece of + bijouterie; by way of compensation "artist" has included in its + wide embrace cooks and ballet girls, no less than painters and + sculptors. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">11</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink11" id="link11"></a> works of man's hands, from a flint + implement to a cathedral or a chronometer; and it is because it is true, + that we call these things artificial, term them works of art, or artifice, + by way of distinguishing them from the products of the cosmic process, + working outside man, which we call natural, or works of nature. The + distinction thus drawn between the works of nature and those of man, is + universally recognized; and it is, as I conceive, both useful and + justifiable. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. + </h2> + <p> + No doubt, it may be properly urged that the operation of human energy and + intelligence, which has brought into existence and maintains the garden, + by what I have called "the horticultural process," is, strictly speaking, + part and parcel of the cosmic process. And no one could more readily agree + to that proposition than I. In fact, I do not know that any one has taken + more pains than I have, during the last thirty years, to insist upon the + doctrine, so much reviled in the early part of that period, that man, + physical, intellectual, and moral, is as much a part of nature, as purely + a product of the cosmic process, as the humblest weed.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "Man's Place in Nature," Collected Essays, vol. vii., and + "On the Struggle for Existence in Human Society" (1888), below. +</pre> + <p> + But if, following up this admission, it is urged <span class="pagenum">12</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink12" id="link12"></a> that, such being the case, the + cosmic process cannot be in antagonism with that horticultural process + which is part of itself—I can only reply, that if the conclusion + that the two are antagonistic is logically absurd, I am sorry for logic, + because, as we have seen, the fact is so. The garden is in the same + position as every other work of man's art; it is a result of the cosmic + process working through and by human energy and intelligence; and, as is + the case with every other artificial thing set up in the state of nature, + the influences of the latter, are constantly tending to break it down and + destroy it. No doubt, the Forth bridge and an ironclad in the offing, are, + in ultimate resort, products of the cosmic process; as much so as the + river which flows under the one, or the seawater on which the other + floats. Nevertheless, every breeze strains the bridge a little, every tide + does something to weaken its foundations; every change of temperature + alters the adjustment of its parts, produces friction and consequent wear + and tear. From time to time, the bridge must be repaired, just as the + ironclad must go into dock; simply because nature is always tending to + reclaim that which her child, man, has borrowed from her and has arranged + in combinations which are not those favoured by the general cosmic + process. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it is not only true that the cosmic energy, working through man upon + a portion of <span class="pagenum">13</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink13" id="link13"></a> the plant world, opposes the same + energy as it works through the state of nature, but a similar antagonism + is everywhere manifest between the artificial and the natural. Even in the + state of nature itself, what is the struggle for existence but the + antagonism of the results of the cosmic process in the region of life, one + to another?* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Or to put the case still more simply. When a man lays hold of + the two ends of a piece of string and pulls them, with intent + to break it, the right arm is certainly exerted in antagonism + to the left arm; yet both arms derive their energy from the + same original source. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV. + </h2> + <p> + Not only is the state of nature hostile to the state of art of the garden; + but the principle of the horticultural process, by which the latter is + created and maintained, is antithetic to that of the cosmic process. The + characteristic feature of the latter is the intense and unceasing + competition of the struggle for existence. The characteristic of the + former is the elimination of that struggle, by the removal of the + conditions which give rise to it. The tendency of the cosmic process is to + bring about the adjustment of the forms of plant life to the current + conditions; the tendency of the horticultural process is the adjustment of + the conditions to the needs of the forms of plant life which the gardener + desires to raise. + </p> + <p> + The cosmic process uses unrestricted multiplication <span class="pagenum">14</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink14" id="link14"></a> as the means whereby hundreds + compete for the place and nourishment adequate for one; it employs frost + and drought to cut off the weak and unfortunate; to survive, there is need + not only of strength, but of flexibility and of good fortune. + </p> + <p> + The gardener, on the other hand, restricts multiplication; provides that + each plant shall have sufficient space and nourishment; protects from + frost and drought; and, in every other way, attempts to modify the + conditions, in such a manner as to bring about the survival of those forms + which most nearly approach the standard of the useful or the beautiful, + which he has in his mind. + </p> + <p> + If the fruits and the tubers, the foliage and the flowers thus obtained, + reach, or sufficiently approach, that ideal, there is no reason why the + status quo attained should not be indefinitely prolonged. So long as the + state of nature remains approximately the same, so long will the energy + and intelligence which created the garden suffice to maintain it. However, + the limits within which this mastery of man over nature can be maintained + are narrow. If the conditions of the cretaceous epoch returned, I fear the + most skilful of gardeners would have to give up the cultivation of apples + and gooseberries; while, if those of the glacial period once again + obtained, open asparagus beds would be superfluous, and the training of + fruit <span class="pagenum">15</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink15" id="link15"></a> trees against the most favourable of + South walls, a waste of time and trouble. + </p> + <p> + But it is extremely important to note that, the state of nature remaining + the same, if the produce does not satisfy the gardener, it may be made to + approach his ideal more closely. Although the struggle for existence may + be at end, the possibility of progress remains. In discussions on these + topics, it is often strangely forgotten that the essential conditions of + the modification, or evolution, of living things are variation and + hereditary transmission. Selection is the means by which certain + variations are favoured and their progeny preserved. But the struggle for + existence is only one of the means by which selection may be effected. The + endless varieties of cultivated flowers, fruits, roots, tubers, and bulbs + are not products of selection by means of the struggle for existence, but + of direct selection, in view of an ideal of utility or beauty. Amidst a + multitude of plants, occupying the same station and subjected to the same + conditions, in the garden, varieties arise. The varieties tending in a + given direction are preserved, and the rest are destroyed. And the same + process takes place among the varieties until, for example, the wild kale + becomes a cabbage, or the wild Viola tricolor, a prize pansy. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">16</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink16" id="link16"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. + </h2> + <p> + The process of colonisation presents analogies to the formation of a + garden which are highly instructive. Suppose a shipload of English + colonists sent to form a settlement, in such a country as Tasmania was in + the middle of the last century. On landing, they find themselves in the + midst of a state of nature, widely different from that left behind them in + everything but the most general physical conditions. The common plants, + the common birds and quadrupeds, are as totally distinct as the men from + anything to be seen on the side of the globe from which they come. The + colonists proceed to put an end to this state of things over as large an + area as they desire to occupy. They clear away the native vegetation, + extirpate or drive out the animal population, so far as may be necessary, + and take measures to defend themselves from the re-immigration of either. + In their place, they introduce English grain and fruit trees; English + dogs, sheep, cattle, horses; and English men; in fact, they set up a new + Flora and Fauna and a new variety of mankind, within the old state of + nature. Their farms and pastures represent a garden on a great scale, and + themselves the gardeners who have to keep it up, in watchful antagonism to + the old regime. Considered as a whole, the colony is a composite unit + introduced into the old state of nature; and, <span class="pagenum">17</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink17" id="link17"></a> thenceforward, a competitor in the + struggle for existence, to conquer or be vanquished. + </p> + <p> + Under the conditions supposed, there is no doubt of the result, if the + work of the colonists be carried out energetically and with intelligent + combination of all their forces. On the other hand, if they are slothful, + stupid, and careless; or if they waste their energies in contests with one + another, the chances are that the old state of nature will have the best + of it. The native savage will destroy the immigrant civilized man; of the + English animals and plants some will be extirpated by their indigenous + rivals, others will pass into the feral state and themselves become + components of the state of nature. In a few decades, all other traces of + the settlement will have vanished. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VI. + </h2> + <p> + Let us now imagine that some administrative authority, as far superior in + power and intelligence to men, as men are to their cattle, is set over the + colony, charged to deal with its human elements in such a manner as to + assure the victory of the settlement over the antagonistic influences of + the state of nature in which it is set down. He would proceed in the same + fashion as that in which the gardener dealt with his garden. In the first + place, he would, as far as possible, put a <span class="pagenum">18</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink18" id="link18"></a> stop to the influence of external + competition by thoroughly extirpating and excluding the native rivals, + whether men, beasts, or plants. And our administrator would select his + human agents, with a view to his ideal of a successful colony, just as the + gardener selects his plants with a view to his ideal of useful or + beautiful products. + </p> + <p> + In the second place, in order that no struggle for the means of existence + between these human agents should weaken the efficiency of the corporate + whole in the battle with the state of nature, he would make arrangements + by which each would be provided with those means; and would be relieved + from the fear of being deprived of them by his stronger or more cunning + fellows. Laws, sanctioned by the combined force of the colony, would + restrain the self-assertion of each man within the limits required for the + maintenance of peace. In other words, the cosmic struggle for existence, + as between man and man, would be rigorously suppressed; and selection, by + its means, would be as completely excluded as it is from the garden. + </p> + <p> + At the same time, the obstacles to the full development of the capacities + of the colonists by other conditions of the state of nature than those + already mentioned, would be removed by the creation of artificial + conditions of existence of a more favourable character: Protection against + extremes of heat and cold would <span class="pagenum">19</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink19" id="link19"></a> be afforded by houses and clothing; + drainage and irrigation works would antagonise the effects of excessive + rain and excessive drought; roads, bridges, canals, carriages, and ships + would overcome the natural obstacles to locomotion and transport; + mechanical engines would supplement the natural strength of men and of + their draught animals; hygienic precautions would check, or remove, the + natural causes of disease. With every step of this progress in + civilization, the colonists would become more and more independent of the + state of nature; more and more, their lives would be conditioned by a + state of art. In order to attain his ends, the administrator would have to + avail himself of the courage, industry, and co-operative intelligence of + the settlers; and it is plain that the interest of the community would be + best served by increasing the proportion of persons who possess such + qualities, and diminishing that of persons devoid of them. In other words, + by selection directed towards an ideal. + </p> + <p> + Thus the administrator might look to the establishment of an earthly + paradise, a true garden of Eden, in which all things should work together + towards the well-being of the gardeners: within which the cosmic process, + the coarse struggle for existence of the state of nature, should be + abolished; in which that state should be replaced by a state of art; <span + class="pagenum">20</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink20" id="link20"></a> where every plant and every lower + animal should be adapted to human wants, and would perish if human + supervision and protection were withdrawn; where men themselves should + have been selected, with a view to their efficiency as organs for the + performance of the functions of a perfected society. And this ideal polity + would have been brought about, not by gradually adjusting the men to the + conditions around them, but by creating artificial conditions for them; + not by allowing the free play of the struggle for existence, but by + excluding that struggle; and by substituting selection directed towards + the administrator's ideal for the selection it exercises. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VII. + </h2> + <p> + But the Eden would have its serpent, and a very subtle beast too. Man + shares with the rest of the living world the mighty instinct of + reproduction and its consequence, the tendency to multiply with great + rapidity. The better the measures of the administrator achieved their + object, the more completely the destructive agencies of the state of + nature were defeated, the less would that multiplication be checked. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, within the colony, the enforcement of peace, which + deprives every man of the power to take away the means of existence from + another, simply because he is the stronger, <span class="pagenum">21</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink21" id="link21"></a> would have put an end to the + struggle for existence between the colonists, and the competition for the + commodities of existence, which would alone remain, is no check upon + population. + </p> + <p> + Thus, as soon as the colonists began to multiply, the administrator would + have to face the tendency to the reintroduction of the cosmic struggle + into his artificial fabric, in consequence of the competition, not merely + for the commodities, but for the means of existence. When the colony + reached the limit of possible expansion, the surplus population must be + disposed of somehow; or the fierce struggle for existence must recommence + and destroy that peace, which is the fundamental condition of the + maintenance of the state of art against the state of nature. + </p> + <p> + Supposing the administrator to be guided by purely scientific + considerations, he would, like the gardener, meet this most serious + difficulty by systematic extirpation, or exclusion, of the superfluous. + The hopelessly diseased, the infirm aged, the weak or deformed in body or + in mind, the excess of infants born, would be put away, as the gardener + pulls up defective and superfluous plants, or the breeder destroys + undesirable cattle. Only the strong and the healthy, carefully matched, + with a view to the progeny best adapted to the purposes of the + administrator, would be permitted to perpetuate their kind. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">22</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink22" id="link22"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VIII. + </h2> + <p> + Of the more thoroughgoing of the multitudinous attempts to apply the + principles of cosmic evolution, or what are supposed to be such, to social + and political problems, which have appeared of late years, a considerable + proportion appear to me to be based upon the notion that human society is + competent to furnish, from its own resources, an administrator of the kind + I have imagined. The pigeons, in short, are to be their own Sir John + Sebright.* A despotic government, whether individual or collective, is to + be endowed with the preternatural intelligence, and with what, I am + afraid, many will consider the preternatural ruthlessness, required for + the purpose of carrying out the principle of improvement by selection, + with the somewhat drastic thoroughness upon which the success of the + method depends. Experience certainly does not justify us in limiting the + ruthlessness of individual "saviours of society"; and, on the well-known + grounds of the aphorism which denies both body and soul to corporations, + it seems probable (indeed the belief is not without support in history) + that a collective despotism, a mob got to believe in its own divine right + by demagogic missionaries, would be capable of more thorough <span + class="pagenum">23</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink23" id="link23"></a> work in this direction than any + single tyrant, puffed up with the same illusion, has ever achieved. But + intelligence is another affair. The fact that "saviours of society" take + to that trade is evidence enough that they have none to spare. And such as + they possess is generally sold to the capitalists of physical force on + whose resources they depend. However, I doubt whether even the keenest + judge of character, if he had before him a hundred boys and girls under + fourteen, could pick out, with the least chance of success, those who + should be kept, as certain to be serviceable members of the polity, and + those who should be chloroformed, as equally sure to be stupid, idle, or + vicious. The "points" of a good or of a bad citizen are really far harder + to discern than those of a puppy or a short-horn calf; many do not show + themselves before the practical difficulties of life stimulate manhood to + full exertion. And by that time the mischief is done. The evil stock, if + it be one, has had time to multiply, and selection is nullified. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Not that the conception of such a society is necessarily based + upon the idea of evolution. The Platonic state testifies to the + contrary. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IX. + </h2> + <p> + I have other reasons for fearing that this logical ideal of evolutionary + regimentation—this pigeon-fanciers' polity—is unattainable. In + the absence of any such a severely scientific administrator as we have + been dreaming of, human society <span class="pagenum">24</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink24" id="link24"></a> is kept together by bonds of such a + singular character, that the attempt to perfect society after his fashion + would run serious risk of loosening them. Social organization is not + peculiar to men. Other societies, such as those constituted by bees and + ants, have also arisen out of the advantage of co-operation in the + struggle for existence; and their resemblances to, and their differences + from, human society are alike instructive. The society formed by the hive + bee fulfils the ideal of the communistic aphorism "to each according to + his needs, from each according to his capacity." Within it, the struggle + for existence is strictly limited. Queen, drones, and workers have each + their allotted sufficiency of food; each performs the function assigned to + it in the economy of the hive, and all contribute to the success of the + whole cooperative society in its competition with rival collectors of + nectar and pollen and with other enemies, in the state of nature without. + In the same sense as the garden, or the colony, is a work of human art, + the bee polity is a work of apiarian art, brought about by the cosmic + process, working through the organization of the hymenopterous type. + </p> + <p> + Now this society is the direct product of an organic necessity, impelling + every member of it to a course of action which tends to the good of the + whole. Each bee has its duty and none <span class="pagenum">25</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink25" id="link25"></a> has any rights. Whether bees are + susceptible of feeling and capable of thought is a question which cannot + be dogmatically answered. As a pious opinion, I am disposed to deny them + more than the merest rudiments of consciousness.* But it is curious to + reflect that a thoughtful drone (workers and queens would have no leisure + for speculation) with a turn for ethical philosophy, must needs profess + himself an intuitive moralist of the purest water. He would point out, + with perfect justice, that the devotion of the workers to a life of + ceaseless toil for a mere subsistence wage, cannot be accounted for either + by enlightened selfishness, or by any other sort of utilitarian motives; + since these bees begin to work, without experience or reflection, as they + emerge from the cell in which they are hatched. Plainly, an eternal and + immutable principle, innate in each bee, can alone account for the + phenomena. On the other hand, the biologist, who traces out all the extant + stages of gradation between solitary and hive bees, as clearly sees in the + latter, simply the perfection of an automatic mechanism, hammered out by + the blows of the struggle for existence upon the progeny of the former, + during long ages of constant variation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. i., "Animal Automatism"; vol. v., + "Prologue," pp. 45 et seq. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">26</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink26" id="link26"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + X. + </h2> + <p> + I see no reason to doubt that, at its origin, human society was as much a + product of organic necessity as that of the bees.* The human family, to + begin with, rested upon exactly the same conditions as those which gave + rise to similar associations among animals lower in the scale. Further, it + is easy to see that every increase in the duration of the family ties, + with the resulting co-operation of a larger and larger number of + descendants for protection and defence, would give the families in which + such modification took place a distinct advantage over the others. And, as + in the hive, the progressive limitation of the struggle for existence + between the members of the family would involve increasing efficiency as + regards outside competition. + </p> + <p> + But there is this vast and fundamental difference between bee society and + human society. In the former, the members of the society are each + organically predestined to the performance of one particular class of + functions only. If they were endowed with desires, each could desire to + perform none but those offices for which its organization specially fits + it; and which, in view of the good of the whole, it is proper it should + do. So long as a new queen does not make her appearance, rivalries, and + competition are absent from the bee polity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol v., Prologue, pp. 50-54, +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">27</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink27" id="link27"></a> Among mankind, on the contrary, + there is no such predestination to a sharply defined place in the social + organism. However much men may differ in the quality of their intellects, + the intensity of their passions, and the delicacy of their sensations, it + cannot be said that one is fitted by his organization to be an + agricultural labourer and nothing else, and another to be a landowner and + nothing else. Moreover, with all their enormous differences in natural + endowment, men agree in one thing, and that is their innate desire to + enjoy the pleasures and to escape the pains of life; and, in short, to do + nothing but that which it pleases them to do, without the least reference + to the welfare of the society into which they are born. That is their + inheritance (the reality at the bottom of the doctrine of original sin) + from the long series of ancestors, human and semi-human and brutal, in + whom the strength of this innate tendency to self-assertion was the + condition of victory in the struggle for existence. That is the reason of + the aviditas vitae*—the insatiable hunger for enjoyment—of all + mankind, which is one of the essential conditions of success in the war + with the state of nature outside; and yet the sure agent of the + destruction of society if allowed free play within. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See below. Romanes' Lecture, note 7. +</pre> + <p> + The check upon this free play of self-assertion, or natural liberty, which + is the necessary condition for the origin of human society, is the product + <span class="pagenum">28</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink28" id="link28"></a> of organic necessities of a + different kind from those upon which the constitution of the hive depends. + One of these is the mutual affection of parent and offspring, intensified + by the long infancy of the human species. But the most important is the + tendency, so strongly developed in man, to reproduce in himself actions + and feelings similar to, or correlated with, those of other men. Man is + the most consummate of all mimics in the animal world; none but himself + can draw or model; none comes near him in the scope, variety, and + exactness of vocal imitation; none is such a master of gesture; while he + seems to be impelled thus to imitate for the pure pleasure of it. And + there is no such another emotional chameleon. By a purely reflex operation + of the mind, we take the hue of passion of those who are about us, or, it + may be, the complementary colour. It is not by any conscious "putting + one's self in the place" of a joyful or a suffering person that the state + of mind we call sympathy usually arises; * indeed, it is often contrary to + one's sense of <span class="pagenum">29</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink29" id="link29"></a> right, and in spite of one's will, + that "fellow-feeling makes us wondrous kind," or the reverse. However + complete may be the indifference to public opinion, in a cool, + intellectual view, of the traditional sage, it has not yet been my fortune + to meet with any actual sage who took its hostile manifestations with + entire equanimity. Indeed, I doubt if the philosopher lives, or ever has + lived who could know himself to be heartily despised by a street boy + without some irritation. And, though one cannot justify Haman for wishing + to hang Mordecai on such a very high gibbet, yet, really, the + consciousness of the Vizier of Ahasuerus, as he went in and out of the + gate, that this obscure Jew had no respect for him, must have been very + annoying.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Adam Smith makes the pithy observation that the man who + sympathises with a woman in childbed, cannot be said to put + himself in her place. ("The Theory of the Moral Sentiments," + Part vii. sec. iii. chap. i.) Perhaps there is more humour than + force in the example; and, in spite of this and other + observations of the same tenor, I think that the one defect of + the remarkable work in which it occurs is that it lays too much + stress on conscious substitution, too little on purely reflex + sympathy. + + ** Esther v. 9-13. ". . . but when Haman saw Mordecai in the + king's gate, that he stood not up, nor moved for him, he was + full of indignation against Mordecai. . . . And Haman told them + of the glory of his riches . . . and all the things wherein the + king had promoted him . . . Yet all this availeth me nothing, + so long as I see Mordecai the Jew sitting at the king's gate." + What a shrewd exposure of human weakness it is! +</pre> + <p> + It is needful only to look around us, to see that the greatest restrainer + of the anti-social tendencies of men is fear, not of the law, but of the + opinion of their fellows. The conventions of honour bind men who break + legal, moral, and religious bonds; and, while people endure the extremity + of physical pain rather than part with life, shame drives the weakest to + suicide. + </p> + <p> + Every forward step of social progress brings <span class="pagenum">30</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink30" id="link30"></a> men into closer relations with their + fellows, and increases the importance of the pleasures and pains derived + from sympathy. We judge the acts of others by our own sympathies, and we + judge our own acts by the sympathies of others, every day and all day + long, from childhood upwards, until associations, as indissoluble as those + of language, are formed between certain acts and the feelings of + approbation or disapprobation. It becomes impossible to imagine some acts + without disapprobation, or others without approbation of the actor, + whether he be one's self, or any one else. We come to think in the + acquired dialect of morals. An artificial personality, the "man within," + as Adam Smith* calls conscience, is built up beside the natural + personality. He is the watchman of society, charged to restrain the + anti-social tendencies of the natural man within the limits required by + social welfare. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Theory of the Moral Sentiments," Part iii. chap. 3. On the + Influence and Authority of Conscience. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XI. + </h2> + <p> + I have termed this evolution of the feelings out of which the primitive + bonds of human society are so largely forged, into the organized and + personified sympathy we call conscience, the ethical process.* So far as + it tends to + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Worked out, in its essential features, chiefly by Hartley and + Adam Smith, long before the modern doctrine of evolution was + thought of. See Note below, p. 45. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">31</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink31" id="link31"></a> make any human society more + efficient in the struggle for existence with the state of nature, or with + other societies, it works in harmonious contrast with the cosmic process. + But it is none the less true that, since law and morals are restraints + upon the struggle for existence between men in society, the ethical + process is in opposition to the principle of the cosmic process, and tends + to the suppression of the qualities best fitted for success in that + struggle.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the essay "On the Struggle for Existence in Human Society" + below; and Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 276, for Kant's + recognition of these facts. +</pre> + <p> + It is further to be observed that, just as the self-assertion, necessary + to the maintenance of society against the state of nature, will destroy + that society if it is allowed free operation within; so the + self-restraint, the essence of the ethical process, which is no less an + essential condition of the existence of every polity, may, by excess, + become ruinous to it. + </p> + <p> + Moralists of all ages and of all faiths, attending only to the relations + of men towards one another in an ideal society, have agreed upon the + "golden rule," "Do as you would be done by." In other words, let sympathy + be your guide; put yourself in the place of the man towards whom your + action is directed; and do to him what you would like to have done to + yourself under the circumstances. However much one may admire the + generosity of such a rule of <span class="pagenum">32</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink32" id="link32"></a> conduct; however confident one may + be that average men may be thoroughly depended upon not to carry it out to + its full logical consequences; it is nevertheless desirable to recognise + the fact that these consequences are incompatible with the existence of a + civil state, under any circumstances of this world which have obtained, + or, so far as one can see, are, likely to come to pass. + </p> + <p> + For I imagine there can be no doubt that the great desire of every + wrongdoer is to escape from the painful consequences of his actions. If I + put myself in the place of the man who has robbed me, I find that I am + possessed by an exceeding desire not to be fined or imprisoned; if in that + of the man who has smitten me on one cheek, I contemplate with + satisfaction the absence of any worse result than the turning of the other + cheek for like treatment. Strictly observed, the "golden rule" involves + the negation of law by the refusal to put it in motion against + law-breakers; and, as regards the external relations of a polity, it is + the refusal to continue the struggle for existence. It can be obeyed, even + partially, only under the protection of a society which repudiates it. + Without such shelter, the followers of the "golden rule" may indulge in + hopes of heaven, but they must reckon with the certainty that other people + will be masters of the earth. + </p> + <p> + What would become of the garden if the <span class="pagenum">33</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink33" id="link33"></a> gardener treated all the weeds and + slugs, and birds and trespassers as he would like to be treated, if he + were in their place? + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XII. + </h2> + <p> + Under the preceding heads, I have endeavoured to represent in broad, but I + hope faithful, outlines the essential features of the state of nature and + of that cosmic process of which it is the outcome, so far as was needful + for my argument; I have contrasted with the state of nature the state of + art, produced by human intelligence and energy, as it is exemplified by a + garden; and I have shown that the state of art, here and elsewhere, can be + maintained only by the constant counteraction of the hostile influences of + the state of nature. Further, I have pointed out that the "horticultural + process," which thus sets itself against the "cosmic process" is opposed + to the latter in principle, in so far as it tends to arrest the struggle + for existence, by restraining the multiplication which is one of the chief + causes of that struggle, and by creating artificial conditions of life, + better adapted to the cultivated plants than are the conditions of the + state of nature. And I have dwelt upon the fact that, though the + progressive modification, which is the consequence of the struggle for + existence in the state of nature, is at an end, such modification may + still be effected <span class="pagenum">34</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink34" id="link34"></a> by that selection, in view of an + ideal of usefulness, or of pleasantness, to man, of which the state of + nature knows nothing. + </p> + <p> + I have proceeded to show that a colony, set down in a country in the state + of nature, presents close analogies with a garden; and I have indicated + the course of action which an administrator, able and willing to carry out + horticultural principles, would adopt, in order to secure the success of + such a newly formed polity, supposing it to be capable of indefinite + expansion. In the contrary case, I have shown that difficulties must + arise; that the unlimited increase of the population over a limited area + must, sooner or later, reintroduce into the colony that struggle for the + means of existence between the colonists, which it was the primary object + of the administrator to exclude, insomuch as it is fatal to the mutual + peace which is the prime condition of the union of men in society. + </p> + <p> + I have briefly described the nature of the only radical cure, known to me, + for the disease which would thus threaten the existence of the colony; + and, however regretfully, I have been obliged to admit that this + rigorously scientific method of applying the principles of evolution to + human society hardly comes within the region of practical politics; not + for want of will on the part of a great many people; but because, for one + reason, there is no hope that mere human beings will ever possess enough + intelligence to select the fittest. And I <span class="pagenum">35</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink35" id="link35"></a> have adduced other grounds for + arriving at the same conclusion. + </p> + <p> + I have pointed out that human society took its rise in the organic + necessities expressed by imitation and by the sympathetic emotions; and + that, in the struggle for existence with the state of nature and with + other societies, as part of it, those in which men were thus led to close + co-operation had a great advantage.* But, since each man retained more or + less of the faculties common to all the rest, and especially a full share + of the desire for unlimited self-gratification, the struggle for existence + within society could only be gradually eliminated. So long as any of it + remained, society continued to be an imperfect instrument of the struggle + for existence and, consequently, was improvable by the selective influence + of that struggle. Other things being alike, the tribe of savages in which + order was best maintained; in which there was most security within the + tribe and the most loyal mutual support outside it, would be the + survivors. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. v., Prologue, p. 52. +</pre> + <p> + I have termed this gradual strengthening of the social bond, which, though + it arrest the struggle for existence inside society, up to a certain point + improves the chances of society, as a corporate whole, in the cosmic + struggle—the ethical process. I have endeavoured to show that, when + the ethical process has advanced so far as to secure <span class="pagenum">36</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink36" id="link36"></a> every member of the society in the + possession of the means of existence, the struggle for existence, as + between man and man, within that society is, ipso facto, at an end. And, + as it is undeniable that the most highly civilized societies have + substantially reached this position, it follows that, so far as they are + concerned, the struggle for existence can play no important part within + them.* In other words, the kind of evolution which is brought about in the + state of nature cannot take place. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Whether the struggle for existence with the state of nature + and with other societies, so far as they stand in the relation + of the state of nature with it, exerts a selective influence + upon modern society, and in what direction, are questions not + easy to answer. The problem of the effect of military and + industrial warfare upon those who wage it is very complicated. +</pre> + <p> + I have further shown cause for the belief that direct selection, after the + fashion of the horticulturist and the breeder, neither has played, nor can + play, any important part in the evolution of society; apart from other + reasons, because I do not see how such selection could be practised + without a serious weakening, it may be the destruction, of the bonds which + hold society together. It strikes me that men who are accustomed to + contemplate the active or passive extirpation of the weak, the + unfortunate, and the superfluous; who justify that conduct on the ground + that it has the sanction of the cosmic process, and is the only way of + ensuring the progress of the race; who, if <span class="pagenum">37</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink37" id="link37"></a> they are consistent, must rank + medicine among the black arts and count the physician a mischievous + preserver of the unfit; on whose matrimonial undertakings the principles + of the stud have the chief influence; whose whole lives, therefore, are an + education in the noble art of suppressing natural affection and sympathy, + are not likely to have any large stock of these commodities left. But, + without them, there is no conscience, nor any restraint on the conduct of + men, except the calculation of self-interest, the balancing of certain + present gratifications against doubtful future pains; and experience tells + us how much that is worth. Every day, we see firm believers in the hell of + the theologians commit acts by which, as they believe when cool, they risk + eternal punishment; while they hold back from those which are opposed to + the sympathies of their associates. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0016" id="link2H_4_0016"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIII. + </h2> + <p> + That progressive modification of civilization which passes by the name of + the "evolution of society," is, in fact, a process of an essentially + different character, both from that which brings about the evolution of + species, in the state of nature, and from that which gives rise to the + evolution of varieties, in the state of art. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that vast changes have taken place in English + civilization since the reign <span class="pagenum">38</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink38" id="link38"></a> of the Tudors. But I am not aware of + a particle of evidence in favour of the conclusion that this evolutionary + process, has been accompanied by any modification of the physical, or the + mental, characters of the men who have been the subjects of it. I have not + met with any grounds for suspecting that the average Englishmen of to-day + are sensibly different from those that Shakspere knew and drew. We look + into his magic mirror of the Elizabethan age, and behold, nowise darkly, + the presentment of ourselves. + </p> + <p> + During these three centuries, from the reign of Elizabeth to that of + Victoria, the struggle for existence between man and man has been so + largely restrained among the great mass of the population (except for one + or two short intervals of civil war), that it can have had little, or no, + selective operation. As to anything comparable to direct selection, it has + been practised on so small a scale that it may also be neglected. The + criminal law, in so far as by putting to death or by subjecting to long + periods of imprisonment, those who infringe its provisions, prevents the + propagation of hereditary criminal tendencies; and the poor-law, in so far + as it separates married couples, whose destitution arises from hereditary + defects of character, are doubtless selective agents operating in favour + of the non-criminal and the more effective members of society. But the + proportion of the population which they influence <span class="pagenum">39</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink39" id="link39"></a> is very small; and, generally, the + hereditary criminal and the hereditary pauper have propagated their kind + before the law affects them. In a large proportion of cases, crime and + pauperism have nothing to do with heredity; but are the consequence, + partly, of circumstances and, partly, of the possession of qualities, + which, under different conditions of life, might have excited esteem and + even admiration. It was a shrewd man of the world who, in discussing + sewage problems, remarked that dirt is riches in the wrong place; and that + sound aphorism has moral applications. The benevolence and open-handed + generosity which adorn a rich man, may make a pauper of a poor one; the + energy and courage to which the successful soldier owes his rise, the cool + and daring subtlety to which the great financier owes his fortune, may + very easily, under unfavourable conditions, lead their possessors to the + gallows, or to the hulks. Moreover, it is fairly probable that the + children of a "failure" will receive from their other parent just that + little modification of character which makes all the difference. I + sometimes wonder whether people, who talk so freely about extirpating the + unfit, ever dispassionately consider their own history. Surely, one must + be very "fit," indeed, not to know of an occasion, or perhaps two, in + one's life, when it would have been only too easy to qualify for a place + among the "unfit." + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">40</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink40" id="link40"></a> In my belief the innate qualities, + physical, intellectual, and moral, of our nation have remained + substantially the same for the last four or five centuries. If the + struggle for existence has affected us to any serious extent (and I doubt + it) it has been, indirectly, through our military and industrial wars with + other nations. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0017" id="link2H_4_0017"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIV. + </h2> + <p> + What is often called the struggle for existence in society (I plead guilty + to having used the term too loosely myself), is a contest, not for the + means of existence, but for the means of enjoyment. Those who occupy the + first places in this practical competitive examination are the rich and + the influential; those who fail, more or less, occupy the lower places, + down to the squalid obscurity of the pauper and the criminal. Upon the + most liberal estimate, I suppose the former group will not amount to two + per cent. of the population. I doubt if the latter exceeds another two per + cent.; but let it be supposed, for the sake of argument, that it is as + great as five per cent.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Those who read the last Essay in this volume will not accuse + me of wishing to attenuate the evil of the existence of this + group, whether great or small. +</pre> + <p> + As it is only in the latter group that any thing comparable to the + struggle for existence in the state of nature can take place; as it is + <span class="pagenum">41</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink41" id="link41"></a> only among this twentieth of the + whole people that numerous men, women, and children die of rapid or slow + starvation, or of the diseases incidental to permanently bad conditions of + life; and as there is nothing to prevent their multiplication before they + are killed off, while, in spite of greater infant mortality, they increase + faster than the rich; it seems clear that the struggle for existence in + this class can have no appreciable selective influence upon the other 95 + per cent. of the population. + </p> + <p> + What sort of a sheep breeder would he be who should content himself with + picking out the worst fifty out of a thousand, leaving them on a barren + common till the weakest starved, and then letting the survivors go back to + mix with the rest? And the parallel is too favourable; since in a large + number of cases, the actual poor and the convicted criminals are neither + the weakest nor the worst. + </p> + <p> + In the struggle for the means of enjoyment, the qualities which ensure + success are energy, industry, intellectual capacity, tenacity of purpose, + and, at least, as much sympathy as is necessary to make a man understand + the feelings of his fellows. Were there none of those artificial + arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top of society + instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom,* the struggle for + the means <span class="pagenum">42</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink42" id="link42"></a> of enjoyment would ensure a constant + circulation of the human units of the social compound, from the bottom to + the top and from the top to the bottom. The survivors of the contest, + those who continued to form the great bulk of the polity, would not be + those "fittest" who got to the very top, but the great body of the + moderately "fit," whose numbers and superior propagative power, enable + them always to swamp the exceptionally endowed minority. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have elsewhere lamented the absence from society of a + machinery for facilitating the descent of incapacity. + "Administrative Nihilism." Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 54. +</pre> + <p> + I think it must be obvious to every one, that, whether we consider the + internal or the external interests of society, it is desirable they should + be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest share of energy, + of industry, of intellectual capacity, of tenacity of purpose, while they + are not devoid of sympathetic humanity; and, in so far as the struggle for + the means of enjoyment tends to place such men in possession of wealth and + influence, it is a process which tends to the good of society. But the + process, as we have seen, has no real resemblance to that which adapts + living beings to current conditions in the state of nature; nor any to the + artificial selection of the horticulturist. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">43</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink43" id="link43"></a> To return, once more, to the + parallel of horticulture. In the modern world, the gardening of men by + themselves is practically restricted to the performance, not of selection, + but of that other function of the gardener, the creation of conditions + more favourable than those of the state of nature; to the end of + facilitating the free expansion of the innate faculties of the citizen, so + far as it is consistent with the general good. And the business of the + moral and political philosopher appears to me to be the ascertainment, by + the same method of observation, experiment, and ratiocination, as is + practised in other kinds of scientific work, of the course of conduct + which will best conduce to that end. + </p> + <p> + But, supposing this course of conduct to be scientifically determined and + carefully followed out, it cannot put an end to the struggle for existence + in the state of nature; and it will not so much as tend, in any way, to + the adaptation of man to that state. Even should the whole human race be + absorbed in one vast polity, within which "absolute political justice" + reigns, the struggle for existence with the state of nature outside it, + and the tendency to the return to the struggle within, in consequence of + over-multiplication, will remain; and, unless men's inheritance from the + ancestors who fought a good fight in the state of <span class="pagenum">44</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink44" id="link44"></a> nature, their dose of original sin, + is rooted out by some method at present unrevealed, at any rate to + disbelievers in supernaturalism, every child born into the world will + still bring with him the instinct of unlimited self-assertion. He will + have to learn the lesson of self-restraint and renunciation. But the + practice of self-restraint and renunciation is not happiness, though it + may be something much better. + </p> + <p> + That man, as a "political animal," is susceptible of a vast amount of + improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of his + intelligence to the adaptation of the conditions of life to his higher + needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But so long as he remains + liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is compelled to be + perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose ends are not his + ends, without and within himself; so long as he is haunted by inexpugnable + memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as the recognition of his + intellectual limitations forces him to acknowledge his incapacity to + penetrate the mystery of existence; the prospect of attaining untroubled + happiness, or of a state which can, even remotely, deserve the title of + perfection, appears to me to be as misleading an illusion as ever was + dangled before the eyes of poor humanity. And there have been many of + them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +That which lies before the human race is a <span class="pagenum">45</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink45" id="link45"></a> constant struggle to maintain and + improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State of Art of an + organized polity; in which, and by which, man may develop a worthy + civilization, capable of maintaining and constantly improving itself, + until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far upon its + downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; and, once more, + the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our planet. Note: (See p. + 30).—It seems the fashion nowadays to ignore Hartley; though, a + century and a half ago, he not only laid the foundations but built up much + of the superstructure of a true theory of the Evolution of the + intellectual and moral faculties. He speaks of what I have termed the + ethical process as "our Progress from Self-interest to Self-annihilation." + Observations on Man (1749), vol. ii p. 281. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">46</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink46" id="link46"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. + </h2> + <h3> + [The Romanes Lecture, 1893.] + </h3> + <p> + <i>Soleo enim et in aliena castra transire, non tanquam transfuga sed + tanquam explorator</i>. (L. ANNAEI SENECAE EPIST. II. 4.) + </p> + <p> + THERE is a delightful child's story, known by the title of "Jack and the + Bean-stalk," with which my contemporaries who are present will be + familiar. But so many of our grave and reverend Juniors have been brought + up on severer intellectual diet, and, perhaps, have become acquainted with + fairyland only through primers of comparative mythology, that it may be + needful to give an outline of the tale. It is a legend of a bean-plant, + which grows and grows until it reaches the high heavens and there spreads + out into a vast canopy of foliage. The hero, being moved to climb the + stalk, discovers that the leafy expanse supports a world composed of the + same elements as that below but yet strangely new; and his adventures + there, on which I may not dwell, must <span class="pagenum">47</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink47" id="link47"></a> have completely changed his views of + the nature of things; though the story, not having been composed by, or + for, philosophers, has nothing to say about views. + </p> + <p> + My present enterprise has a certain analogy to that of the daring + adventurer. I beg you to accompany me in an attempt to reach a world + which, to many, is probably strange, by the help of a bean. It is, as you + know, a simple, inert-looking thing. Yet, if planted under proper + conditions, of which sufficient warmth is one of the most important, it + manifests active powers of a very remarkable kind. A small green seedling + emerges, rises to the surface of the soil, rapidly increases in size and, + at the same time, undergoes a series of metamorphoses which do not excite + our wonder as much as those which meet us in legendary history, merely + because they are to be seen every day and all day long. + </p> + <p> + By insensible steps, the plant builds itself up into a large and various + fabric of root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit, every one moulded within + and without in accordance with an extremely complex but, at the same time, + minutely defined pattern. In each of these complicated structures, as in + their smallest constituents, there is an immanent energy which, in harmony + with that resident in all the others, incessantly works towards the + maintenance ,of the whole and the efficient performance of the part which + it has to play in the economy of nature. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">48</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink48" id="link48"></a> But no sooner has the edifice, + reared with such exact elaboration, attained completeness, than it begins + to crumble. By degrees, the plant withers and disappears from view, + leaving behind more or fewer apparently inert and simple bodies, just like + the bean from which it sprang; and, like it, endowed with the potentiality + of giving rise to a similar cycle of manifestations. Neither the poetic + nor the scientific imagination is put to much strain in the search after + analogies with this process of going forth and, as it were, returning to + the starting-point. It may be likened to the ascent and descent of a slung + stone, or the course of an arrow along its trajectory. Or we may say that + the living energy takes first an upward and then a downward road. Or it + may seem preferable to compare the expansion of the germ into the + full-grown plant, to the unfolding of a fan, or to the rolling forth and + widening of a stream; and thus to arrive at the conception of + "development," or "evolution." Here, as elsewhere, names are "noise and + smoke"; the important point is to have a clear and adequate conception of + the fact signified by a name. And, in this case, the fact is the + Sisyphaean process, in the course of which, the living and growing plant + passes from the relative simplicity and latent potentiality of the seed to + the full epiphany of a highly differentiated type, thence to fall back to + simplicity and potentiality. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">49</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink49" id="link49"></a> The value of a strong intellectual + grasp of the nature of this process lies in the circumstance that what is + true of the bean is true of living things in general. From very low forms + up to the highest—in the animal no less than in the vegetable + kingdom—the process of life presents the same appearance [Note 1} of + cyclical evolution. Nay, we have but to cast our eyes over the rest of the + world and cyclical change presents itself on all sides. It meets us in the + water that flows to the sea and returns to the springs; in the heavenly + bodies that wax and wane, go and return to their places; in the inexorable + sequence of the ages of man's life; in that successive rise, apogee, and + fall of dynasties and of states which is the most prominent topic of civil + history. + </p> + <p> + As no man fording a swift stream can dip his foot twice into the same + water, so no man can, with exactness, affirm of anything in the sensible + world that it is.[Note 2} As he utters the words, nay, as he thinks them, + the predicate ceases to be applicable; the present has become the past; + the "is" should be "was." And the more we learn of the nature of things, + the more evident is it that what we call rest is only unperceived + activity; that seeming peace is silent but strenuous battle. In every + part, at every moment, the state of the cosmos is the expression of a + transitory adjustment of contending forces; a scene, of strife, in which + all the combatants fall in turn. What is <span class="pagenum">50</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink50" id="link50"></a> true of each part, is true of the + whole. Natural knowledge tends more and more to the conclusion that "all + the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth" are the transitory forms + of parcels of cosmic substance wending along the road of evolution, from + nebulous potentiality, through endless growths of sun and planet and + satellite; through all varieties of matter; through infinite diversities + of life and thought; possibly, through modes of being of which we neither + have a conception, nor are competent to form any, back to the indefinable + latency from which they arose. Thus the most obvious attribute of the + cosmos is its impermanence. It assumes the aspect not so much of a + permanent entity as of a changeful process in which naught endures save + the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades it. + </p> + <p> + We have climbed our bean-stalk and have reached a wonderland in which the + common and the familiar become things new and strange. In the exploration + of the cosmic process thus typified, the highest intelligence of man finds + inexhaustible employment; giants are subdued to our service; and the + spiritual affections of the contemplative philosopher are engaged by + beauties worthy of eternal constancy. + </p> + <p> + But there is another aspect of the cosmic process, so perfect as a + mechanism, so beautiful as a work of art. Where the cosmopoietic energy + <span class="pagenum">51</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink51" id="link51"></a> works through sentient beings, there + arises, among its other manifestations, that which we call pain or + suffering. This baleful product of evolution increases in quantity and in + intensity, with advancing grades of animal organization, until it attains + its highest level in man. Further, the consummation is not reached in man, + the mere animal; nor in man, the whole or half savage; but only in man, + the member of an organized polity. And it is a necessary consequence of + his attempt to live in this way; that is, under those conditions which are + essential to the full development of his noblest powers. + </p> + <p> + Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the + sentient world, and has become the superb animal which he is, in virtue of + his success in the struggle for existence. The conditions having been of a + certain order, man's organization has adjusted itself to them better than + that of his competitors in the cosmic strife. In the case of mankind, the + self-assertion, the unscrupulous seizing upon all that can be grasped, the + tenacious holding of all that can be kept, which constitute the essence of + the struggle for existence, have answered. For his successful progress, + throughout the savage state, man has been largely indebted to those + qualities which he shares with the ape and the tiger; his exceptional + physical organization; his cunning, his sociability, his curiosity, and + his imitativeness; his ruthless and <span class="pagenum">52</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink52" id="link52"></a> ferocious destructiveness when his + anger is roused by opposition. + </p> + <p> + But, in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social organization, + and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth, these deeply + ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects. After the manner of + successful persons, civilized man would gladly kick down the ladder by + which he has climbed. He would be only too pleased to see "the ape and + tiger die." But they decline to suit his convenience; and the unwelcome + intrusion of these boon companions of his hot youth into the ranged + existence of civil life adds pains and griefs, innumerable and + immeasurably great, to those which the cosmic process necessarily brings + on the mere animal. In fact, civilized man brands all these ape and tiger + promptings with the name of sins; he punishes many of the acts which flow + from them as crimes; and, in extreme cases, he does his best to put an end + to the survival of the fittest of former days by axe and rope. + </p> + <p> + I have said that civilized man has reached this point; the assertion is + perhaps too broad and general; I had better put it that ethical man has + attained thereto. The science of ethics professes to furnish us with a + reasoned rule of life; to tell us what is right action and why it is so. + Whatever differences of opinion may exist among experts there is a general + consensus that the ape and <span class="pagenum">53</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink53" id="link53"></a> tiger methods of the struggle for + existence are not reconcilable with sound ethical principles. + </p> + <p> + The hero of our story descended the bean-stalk, and came back to the + common world, where fare and work were alike hard; where ugly competitors + were much commoner than beautiful princesses; and where the everlasting + battle with self was much less sure to be crowned with victory than a + turn-to with a giant. We have done the like. Thousands upon thousands of + our fellows, thousands of years ago, have preceded us in finding + themselves face to face with the same dread problem of evil. They also + have seen that the cosmic process is evolution; that it is full of wonder, + full of beauty, and, at the same time, full of pain. They have sought to + discover the bearing of these great facts on ethics; to find out whether + there is, or is not, a sanction for morality in the ways of the cosmos. + </p> + <p> + Theories of the universe, in which the conception of evolution plays a + leading part, were extant at least six centuries before our era. Certain + knowledge of them, in the fifth century, reaches us from localities as + distant as the valley of the Ganges and the Asiatic coasts of the Aegean. + To the early philosophers of Hindostan, no less than to those of Ionia, + the salient and characteristic feature of the phenomenal world was its + <span class="pagenum">54</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink54" id="link54"></a> changefulness; the unresting flow of + all things, through birth to visible being and thence to not being, in + which they could discern no sign of a beginning and for which they saw no + prospect of an ending. It was no less plain to some of these antique + forerunners of modern philosophy that suffering is the badge of all the + tribe of sentient things; that it is no accidental accompaniment, but an + essential constituent of the cosmic process. The energetic Greek might + find fierce joys in a world in which "strife is father and king;" but the + old Aryan spirit was subdued to quietism in the Indian sage; the mist of + suffering which spread over humanity hid everything else from his view; to + him life was one with suffering and suffering with life. + </p> + <p> + In Hindostan, as in Ionia, a period of relatively high and tolerably + stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi-barbarism and + struggle. Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement, and, + close at their heels, had followed the malady of thought. To the struggle + for bare existence, which never ends, though it may be alleviated and + partially disguised for a fortunate few, succeeded the struggle to make + existence intelligible and to bring the order of things into harmony with + the moral sense of man, which also never ends, but, for the thinking few, + becomes keen er with every increase of knowledge and with every step + towards the realization of a worthy ideal of life. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">55</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink55" id="link55"></a> Two thousand five hundred years ago, + the value of civilization was as apparent as it is now; then, as now, it + was obvious that only in the garden of an orderly polity can the finest + fruits humanity is capable of bearing be produced. But it had also become + evident that the blessings of culture were not unmixed. The garden was apt + to turn into a hothouse. The stimulation of the senses, the pampering of + the emotions, endlessly multiplied the sources of pleasure. The constant + widening of the intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of that + especially human faculty of looking before and after, which adds to the + fleeting present those old and new worlds of the past and the future, + wherein men dwell the more the higher their culture. But that very + sharpening of the sense and that subtle refinement of emotion, which + brought such a wealth of pleasures, were fatally attended by a + proportional enlargement of the capacity for suffering; and the divine + faculty of imagination, while it created new heavens and new earths, + provided them with the corresponding hells of futile regret for the past + and morbid anxiety for the future. [Note 3} Finally, the inevitable + penalty of over-stimulation, exhaustion, opened the gates of civilization + to its great enemy, ennui; the stale and flat weariness when man + delights-not, nor woman neither; when all things are vanity and vexation; + and life seems not worth living except to escape the bore of dying. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">56</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink56" id="link56"></a> Even purely intellectual progress + brings about its revenges. Problems settled in a rough and ready way by + rude men, absorbed in action, demand renewed attention and show themselves + to be still unread riddles when men have time to think. The beneficent + demon, doubt, whose name is Legion and who dwells amongst the tombs of old + faiths, enters into mankind and thenceforth refuses to be cast out. Sacred + customs, venerable dooms of ancestral wisdom, hallowed by tradition and + professing to hold good for all time, are put to the question. Cultured + reflection asks for their credentials; judges them by its own standards; + finally, gathers those of which it approves into ethical systems, in which + the reasoning is rarely much more than a decent pretext for the adoption + of foregone conclusions. + </p> + <p> + One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the + conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are + associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one another; + its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide by that + agreement; and, so far as they waver, that mutual trust which is the bond + of society is weakened or destroyed. Wolves could not hunt in packs except + for the real, though unexpressed, understanding that they should not + attack one another during the chase. The most rudimentary polity is a pack + of men living under the like tacit, or expressed, <span class="pagenum">57</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink57" id="link57"></a> understanding; and having made the + very important advance upon wolf society, that they agree to use the force + of the whole body against individuals who violate it and in favour of + those who observe it. This observance of a common understanding, with the + consequent distribution of punishments and rewards according to accepted + rules, received the name of justice, while the contrary was called + injustice. Early ethics did not take much note of the animus of the + violator of the rules. But civilization could not advance far, without the + establishment of a capital distinction between the case of involuntary and + that of wilful misdeed; between a merely wrong action and a guilty one. + And, with increasing refinement of moral appreciation, the problem of + desert, which arises out of this distinction, acquired more and more + theoretical and practical importance. If life must be given for life, yet + it was recognized that the unintentional slayer did not altogether deserve + death; and, by a sort of compromise between the public and the private + conception of justice, a sanctuary was provided in which he might take + refuge from the avenger of blood. + </p> + <p> + The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from punishment + and reward according to acts, to punishment and reward according to + desert; or, in other words, according to motive. Righteousness, that is, + action from right motive, <span class="pagenum">58</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink58" id="link58"></a> not only became synonymous with + justice, but the positive constituent of innocence and the very heart of + goodness. + </p> + <p> + Now when the ancient sage, whether Indian or Greek, who had attained to + this conception of goodness, looked the world, and especially human life, + in the face, he found it as hard as we do to bring the course of evolution + into harmony with even the elementary requirement of the ethical ideal of + the just and the good. + </p> + <p> + If there is one thing plainer than another, it is that neither the + pleasures nor the pains of life, in the merely animal world, are + distributed according to desert; for it is admittedly impossible for the + lower orders of sentient beings, to deserve either the one or the other. + If there is a generalization from the facts of human life which has the + assent of thoughtful men in every age and country, it is that the violator + of ethical rules constantly escapes the punishment which he deserves; that + the wicked flourishes like a green bay tree, while, the righteous begs his + bread; that the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children; that, + in the realm of nature, ignorance is punished just as severely as wilful + wrong; and that thousands upon thousands of innocent beings suffer for the + crime, or the unintentional trespass of one. + </p> + <p> + Greek and Semite and Indian are agreed upon <span class="pagenum">59</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink59" id="link59"></a> this subject. The book of Job is at + one with the "Works and Days" and the Buddhist Sutras; the Psalmist and + the Preacher of Israel, with the Tragic Poets of Greece. What is a more + common motive of the ancient tragedy in fact, than the unfathomable + injustice of the nature of things; what is more deeply felt to be true + than its presentation of the destruction of the blameless by the work of + his own hands, or by the fatal operation of the sins of others? Surely + Oedipus was pure of heart; it was the natural sequence of events—the + cosmic process—which drove him, in all innocence, to slay his father + and become the husband of his mother, to the desolation of his people and + his own headlong ruin. Or to step, for a moment, beyond the chronological + limits I have set myself, what constitutes the sempiternal attraction of + Hamlet but the appeal to deepest experience of that history of a no less + blameless dreamer, dragged, in spite of himself, into a world out of joint + involved in a tangle of crime and misery, created by one of the prime + agents of the cosmic process as it works in and through man? + </p> + <p> + Thus, brought before the tribunal of ethics, the cosmos might well seem to + stand condemned. The conscience of man revolted against the moral + indifference of nature, and the microcosmic atom should have found the + illimitable macrocosm guilty. But few, or none, ventured to record that + verdict. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">60</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink60" id="link60"></a> In the great Semitic trial of this + issue, Job takes refuge in silence and submission; the Indian and the + Greek, less wise perhaps, attempt to reconcile the irreconcilable and + plead for the defendant. To this end, the Greeks invented Theodicies; + while the Indians devised what, in its ultimate form, must rather be + termed a Cosmodicy. For, although Buddhism recognizes gods many and lords + many, they are products of the cosmic process; and transitory, however + long enduring, manifestations of its eternal activity. In the doctrine of + transmigration, whatever its origin, Brahminical and Buddhist speculation + found, ready to hand[Note 4} the means of constructing a plausible + vindication of the ways of the cosmos to man. If this world is full of + pain and sorrow; if grief and evil fall, like the rain, upon both the just + and the unjust; it is because, like the rain, they are links in the + endless chain of natural causation by which past, present, and future are + indissolubly connected; and there is no more injustice in the one case + than in the other. Every sentient being is reaping as it has sown; if not + in this life, then in one or other of the infinite series of antecedent + existences of which it is the latest term. The present distribution of + good and evil is, therefore, the algebraical sum of accumulated positive + and negative deserts; or, rather, it depends on the floating balance of + the account. For it was not thought necessary that a complete settlement + <span class="pagenum">61</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink61" id="link61"></a> should ever take place. Arrears + might stand over as a sort of "hanging gale;" a period of celestial + happiness just earned might be succeeded by ages of torment in a hideous + nether world, the balance still overdue for some remote ancestral error. + [Note 5} + </p> + <p> + Whether the cosmic process looks any more moral than at first, after such + a vindication, may perhaps be questioned. Yet this plea of justification + is not less plausible than others; and none but very hasty thinkers will + reject it on the ground of inherent absurdity. Like the doctrine of + evolution itself, that of transmigration has its roots in the world of + reality; and it may claim such support as the great argument from analogy + is capable of supplying. + </p> + <p> + Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped under + the name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious marks of his + parentage, perhaps of remoter relationships. More particularly, the sum of + tendencies to act in a certain way, which we call "character," is often to + be traced through a long series of progenitors and collaterals. So we may + justly say that this "character"—this moral and intellectual essence + of a man—does veritably pass over from one fleshly tabernacle to + another, and does really transmigrate from generation to generation. In + the new-born infant, the character of the stock lies latent, and the Ego + is little more <span class="pagenum">62</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink62" id="link62"></a> than a bundle of potentialities. + But, very early, these become acutalities; from childhood to age they + manifest themselves in dulness or brightness, weakness or strength, + viciousness or uprightness; and with each feature modified by confluence + with another character, if by nothing else, the character passed on to its + incarnation in new bodies. + </p> + <p> + The Indian philosophers called character, as thus defined, "karma."[Note + 6} It is this karma which passed from life to life and linked them in the + chain of transmigrations; and they held that it is modified in each life, + not merely by confluence of parentage, but by its own acts. They were, in + fact, strong believers in the theory, so much disputed just at present, of + the hereditary transmission of acquired characters. That the manifestation + of the tendencies of a character may be greatly facilitated, or impeded, + by conditions, of which self-discipline, or the absence of it, are among + the most important, is indubitable; but that the character itself is + modified in this way is by no means so certain; it is not so sure that the + transmitted character of an evil liver is worse, or that of a righteous + man better, than that which he received. Indian philosophy, however, did + not admit of any doubt on this subject; the belief in the influence of + conditions, notably of self-discipline, on the karma was not merely a + necessary postulate of its theory of retribution, but it presented <span + class="pagenum">63</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink63" id="link63"></a> the only way of escape from the + endless round of transmigrations. + </p> + <p> + The earlier forms of Indian philosophy agreed with those prevalent in our + own times, in supposing the existence of a permanent reality, or + "substance," beneath the shifting series of phenomena, whether of matter + or of mind. The substance of the cosmos was "Brahma," that of the + individual man "Atman;" and the latter was separated from the former only, + if I may so speak, by its phenomenal envelope, by the casing of + sensations, thoughts and desires, pleasures and pains, which make up the + illusive phantasmagoria of life. This the ignorant take for reality; their + "Atman" therefore remains eternally imprisoned in delusions, bound by the + fetters of desire and scourged by the whip of misery. But the man who has + attained enlightenment sees that the apparent reality is mere illusion, + or, as was said a couple of thousand years later, that there is nothing + good nor bad but thinking makes it so. If the cosmos is just "and of our + pleasant vices makes instruments to scourge us," it would seem that the + only way to escape from our heritage of evil is to destroy that fountain + of desire whence our vices flow; to refuse any longer to be the + instruments of the evolutionary process, and withdraw from the struggle + for existence. If the karma is modifiable by self-discipline, if its + coarser desires, one after another, can be extinguished, the ultimate + <span class="pagenum">64</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink64" id="link64"></a> fundamental desire of + self-assertion, or the desire to be, may also be destroyed. [Note 7} Then + the bubble of illusion will burst, and the freed individual "Atman" will + lose itself in the universal "Brahma." + </p> + <p> + Such seems to have been the pre-Buddhistic conception of salvation, and of + the way to be followed by those who would attain thereto. No more thorough + mortification of the flesh has ever been attempted than-that achieved by + the Indian ascetic anchorite; no later monachism has so nearly succeeded + in reducing the human mind to that condition of impassive + quasi-somnambulism, which, but for its acknowledged holiness, might run + the risk of being confounded with idiocy. + </p> + <p> + And this salvation, it will be observed, was to be attained through + knowledge, and by action based on that knowledge; just as the + experimenter, who would obtain a certain physical or chemical result, must + have a knowledge of the natural laws involved and the persistent + disciplined will adequate to carry out all the various operations + required. The supernatural, in our sense of the term, was entirely + excluded. There was no external power which could affect the sequence of + cause and effect which gives rise to karma; none but the will of the + subject of the karma which could put an end to it. + </p> + <p> + Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of + which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline. It was folly to + continue <span class="pagenum">65</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink65" id="link65"></a> to exist when an overplus of pain + was certain; and the probabilities in favour of the increase of misery + with the prolongation of existence, were so overwhelming. Slaying the body + only made matters worse; there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by + the voluntary arrest of all its activities. Property, social ties, family + affections, common companionship, must be abandoned; the most natural + appetites, even that for food, must be suppressed, or at least minimized; + until all that remained of a man was the impassive, extenuated, mendicant + monk, self-hypnotised into cataleptic trances, which the deluded mystic + took for foretastes of the final union with Brahma. + </p> + <p> + The founder of Buddhism accepted the chief postulates demanded by his + predecessors. But he was not satisfied with the practical annihilation + involved in merging the individual existence in the unconditioned—the + Atman in Brahma. It would seem that the admission of the existence of any + substance whatever—even of the tenuity of that which has neither + quality nor energy and of which no predicate whatever can be asserted—appeared + to him to be a danger and a snare. Though reduced to a hypostatized + negation, Brahma was not to be trusted; so long as entity was there, it + might conceivably resume the weary round of evolution, with all its train + of immeasurable miseries. Gautama got rid of even that <span + class="pagenum">66</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink66" id="link66"></a> shade of a shadow of permanent + existence by a metaphysical tour de force of great interest to the student + of philosophy, seeing that it supplies the wanting half of Bishop + Berkeley's well-known idealistic argument. + </p> + <p> + Granting the premises, I am not aware of any escape from Berkeley's + conclusion, that the "substance" of matter is a metaphysical unknown + quantity, of the existence of which there is no proof. What Berkeley does + not seem to have so clearly perceived is that the non-existence of a + substance of mind is equally arguable; and that the result of the + impartial applications of his reasonings is the reduction of the All to + coexistences and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond which there is + nothing cognoscible. It is a remarkable indication of the subtlety of + Indian speculation that Gautama should have seen deeper than the greatest + of modern idealists; though it must be admitted that, if some of + Berkeley's reasonings respecting the nature of spirit are pushed home, + they reach pretty much the same conclusion. [Note 8} + </p> + <p> + Accepting the prevalent Brahminical doctrine that the whole cosmos, + celestial, terrestrial, and infernal, with its population of gods and + other celestial beings, of sentient animals, of Mara and his devils, is + incessantly shifting through recurring cycles of production and + destruction, in each of which every human being has his transmigratory + <span class="pagenum">67</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink67" id="link67"></a> representative, Gautama proceeded to + eliminate substance altogether; and to reduce the cosmos to a mere flow of + sensations, emotions, volitions, and thoughts, devoid of any substratum. + As, on the surface of a stream of water, we see ripples and whirlpools, + which last for a while and then vanish with the causes that gave rise to + them, so what seem individual existences are mere temporary associations + of phenomena circling round a centre, "like a dog tied to a post." In the + whole universe there is nothing permanent, no eternal substance either of + mind or of matter. Personality is a metaphysical fancy; and in very truth, + not only we, but all things, in the worlds without end of the cosmic + phantasmagoria, are such stuff as dreams are made of. + </p> + <p> + What then becomes of karma? Karma remains untouched. As the peculiar form + of energy we call magnetism may be transmitted from a loadstone to a piece + of steel, from the steel to a piece of nickel, as it may be strengthened + or weakened by the conditions to which it is subjected while resident in + each piece, so it seems to have been conceived that karma might be + transmitted from one phenomenal association to another by a sort of + induction. However this may be, Gautama doubtless had a better guarantee + for the abolition of transmigration, when no wrack of substance, either of + Atman or of Brahma, was left behind; when, in short, a man had but to + <span class="pagenum">68</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink68" id="link68"></a> dream that he willed not to dream, + to put an end to all dreaming. + </p> + <p> + This end of life's dream is Nirvana. What Nirvana is the learned do not + agree. But, since the best original authorities tell us there is neither + desire nor activity, nor any possibility of phenomenal reappearance for + the sage who has entered Nirvana, it may be safely said of this acme of + Buddhistic philosophy—"the rest is silence." + </p> + <p> + [Note 9} Thus there is no very great practical disagreement between + Gautama and his predecessors with respect to the end of action; but it is + otherwise as regards the means to that end. With just insight into human + nature, Gautama declared extreme ascetic practices to be useless and + indeed harmful. The appetites and the passions are not to be abolished by + mere mortification of the body; they must, in addition, be attacked on + their own ground and conquered by steady cultivation of the mental habits + which oppose them; by universal benevolence; by the return of good for + evil; by humility; by abstinence from evil thought; in short, by total + renunciation of that self-assertion which is the essence of the cosmic + process. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless, it is to these ethical qualities that Buddhism owes its + marvellous success.[Note 10} A system which knows no God in the western + sense; which denies a soul to man; which counts the belief in immortality + a blunder and the hope of it a sin; <span class="pagenum">69</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink69" id="link69"></a> which refuses any efficacy to prayer + and sacrifice; which bids men look to nothing but their own efforts for + salvation; which, in its original purity, knew nothing of vows of + obedience, abhorred intolerance, and never sought the aid of the secular + arm; yet spread over a considerable moiety of the Old World with + marvellous rapidity, and is still, with whatever base admixture of foreign + superstitions, the dominant creed of a large fraction of mankind. + </p> + <p> + Let us now set our faces westwards, towards Asia Minor and Greece and + Italy, to view the rise and progress of another philosophy, apparently + independent, but no less pervaded by the conception of evolution.[Note 11} + </p> + <p> + The sages of Miletus were pronounced evolutionists; and, however dark may + be some of the sayings of Heracleitus of Ephesus, who was probably a + contemporary of Gautama, no better expressions of the essence of the + modern doctrine of evolution can be found than are presented by some of + his pithy aphorisms and striking metaphors. [Note 12} Indeed, many of my + present auditors must have observed that, more than once, I have borrowed + from him in the brief exposition of the theory of evolution with which + this discourse commenced. + </p> + <p> + But when the focus of Greek intellectual activity shifted to Athens, the + leading minds <span class="pagenum">70</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink70" id="link70"></a> concentrated their attention upon + ethical problems. Forsaking the study of the macrocosm for that of the + microcosm, they lost the key to the thought of the great Ephesian, which, + I imagine, is more intelligible to us than it was to Socrates, or to + Plato. Socrates, more especially, set the fashion of a kind of inverse + agnosticism, by teaching that the problems of physics lie beyond the reach + of the human intellect; that the attempt to solve them is essentially + vain; that the one worthy object of investigation is the problem of + ethical life; and his example was followed by the Cynics and the later + Stoics. Even the comprehensive knowledge and the penetrating intellect of + Aristotle failed to suggest to him that in holding the eternity of the + world, within its present range of mutation, he was making a retrogressive + step. The scientific heritage of Heracleitus passed into the hands neither + of Plato nor of Aristotle, but into those of Democritus. But the world was + not yet ready to receive the great conceptions of the philosopher of + Abdera. It was reserved for the Stoics to return to the track marked out + by the earlier philosophers; and, professing themselves disciples of + Heracleitus, to develop the idea of evolution systematically. In doing + this, they not only omitted some characteristic features of their master's + teaching, but they made additions altogether foreign to it. One of the + most influential of these importations was the transcendental <span + class="pagenum">71</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink71" id="link71"></a> theism which had come into vogue. + The restless, fiery energy, operating according to law, out of which all + things emerge and into which they return, in the endless successive cycles + of the great year; which creates and destroys worlds as a wanton child + builds up, and anon levels, sand castles on the seashore; was + metamorphosed into a material world-soul and decked out with all the + attributes of ideal Divinity; not merely with infinite power and + transcendent wisdom, but with absolute goodness. + </p> + <p> + The consequences of this step were momentous. For if the cosmos is the + effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent cause, the + existence in it of real evil, still less of necessarily inherent evil, is + plainly inadmissible. [Note 13} Yet the universal experience of mankind + testified then, as now, that, whether we look within us or without us, + evil stares us in the face on all sides; that if anything is real, pain + and sorrow and wrong are realities. + </p> + <p> + It would be a new thing in history if a priori philosophers were daunted + by the factious opposition of experience; and the Stoics were the last men + to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts. "Give me a doctrine and I + will find the reasons for it," said Chrysippus. So they perfected, if they + did not invent, that ingenious and plausible form of pleading, the + Theodicy; for the purpose of showing firstly, that there is no such <span + class="pagenum">72</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink72" id="link72"></a> thing as evil; secondly, that if + there is, it is the necessary correlate of good; and, moreover, that it is + either due to our own fault, or inflicted for our benefit. Theodicies have + been very popular in their time, and I believe that a numerous, though + somewhat dwarfed, progeny of them still survives. So far as I know, they + are all variations of the theme set forth in those famous six lines of the + "Essay on Man," in which Pope sums up Bolingbroke's reminiscences of + stoical and other speculations of this kind— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "All nature is but art, unknown to thee; + All chance, direction which thou canst not see; + All discord, harmony not understood; + All partial evil, universal good; + And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, + One truth is clear: whatever is is right." +</pre> + <p> + Yet, surely, if there are few more important truths than those enunciated + in the first triad, the second is open to very grave objections. That + there is a "soul of good in things evil" is unquestionable; nor will any + wise man deny the disciplinary value of pain and sorrow. But these + considerations do not help us to see why the immense multitude of + irresponsible sentient beings, which cannot profit by such discipline, + should suffer; nor why, among the endless possibilities open to + omnipotence—that of sinless, happy existence among the rest—the + actuality in which sin and misery abound should be that selected. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">73</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink73" id="link73"></a> Surely it is mere cheap rhetoric to + call arguments which have never yet been answered by even the meekest and + the least rational of Optimists, suggestions of the pride of reason. As to + the concluding aphorism, its fittest place would be as an inscription in + letters of mud over the portal of some "stye of Epicurus"[Note 14}; for + that is where the logical application of it to practice would land men, + with every aspiration stifled and every effort paralyzed. Why try to set + right what is right already? Why strive to improve the best of all + possible worlds? Let us eat and drink, for as today all is right, so + to-morrow all will be. + </p> + <p> + But the attempt of the Stoics to blind themselves to the reality of evil, + as a necessary concomitant of the cosmic process, had less success than + that of the Indian philosophers to exclude the reality of good from their + purview. Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut one's eyes to good than + to evil. Pain and sorrow knock at our doors more loudly than pleasure and + happiness; and the prints of their heavy footsteps are less easily + effaced. Before the grim realities of practical life the pleasant fictions + of optimism vanished. If this were the best of all possible worlds, it + nevertheless proved itself a very inconvenient habitation for the ideal + sage. + </p> + <p> + The stoical summary of the whole duty of man, "Live according to nature," + would seem to imply that the cosmic process is an exemplar for human <span + class="pagenum">74</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink74" id="link74"></a> conduct. Ethics would thus become + applied Natural History. In fact, a confused employment of the maxim, in + this sense, has done immeasurable mischief in later times. It has + furnished an axiomatic foundation for the philosophy of philosophasters + and for the moralizing of sentimentalists. But the Stoics were, at bottom, + not merely noble, but sane, men; and if we look closely into what they + really meant by this ill-used phrase, it will be found to present no + justification for the mischievous conclusions that have been deduced from + it. + </p> + <p> + In the language of the Stoa, "Nature" was a word of many meanings. There + was the "Nature" of the cosmos and the "Nature" of man. In the latter, the + animal "nature," which man shares with a moiety of the living part of the + cosmos, was distinguished from a higher "nature." Even in this higher + nature there were grades of rank. The logical faculty is an instrument + which may be turned to account for any purpose. The passions and the + emotions are so closely tied to the lower nature that they may be + considered to be pathological, rather than normal, phenomena. The one + supreme, hegemonic, faculty, which constitutes the essential "nature" of + man, is most nearly represented by that which, in the language of a later + philosophy, has been called the pure reason. It is this "nature" which + holds up the ideal of the supreme good and demands absolute submission of + the will to its behests. It is <span class="pagenum">75</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink75" id="link75"></a> which commands all men to love one + another, to return good for evil, to regard one another as fellow-citizens + of one great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress towards perfection of + a civilized state, or polity, depends on the obedience of its members to + these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed the pure reason the + "political" nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the adjective has + undergone so much modification, that the application of it to that which + commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would now sound almost + grotesque. [Note 15} + </p> + <p> + But what part is played by the theory of evolution in this view of ethics? + So far as I can discern, the ethical system of the Stoics, which is + essentially intuitive, and reverences the categorical imperative as + strongly as that of any later moralists, might have been just what it was + if they had held any other theory; whether that of special creation, on + the one side, or that of the eternal existence of the present order, on + the other.[Note 16} To the Stoic, the cosmos had no importance for the + conscience, except in so far as he chose to think it a pedagogue to + virtue. The pertinacious optimism of our philosophers hid from them the + actual state of the case. It prevented them from seeing that cosmic nature + is no school of virtue, but the headquarters of the enemy of ethical + nature. The logic of facts was necessary to convince them <span + class="pagenum">76</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink76" id="link76"></a> that the cosmos works through the + lower nature of man, not for righteousness, but against it. And it finally + drove them to confess that the existence of their ideal "wise man" was + incompatible with the nature of things; that even a passable approximation + to that ideal was to be attained only at the cost of renunciation of the + world and mortification, not merely of the flesh, but of all human + affections. The state of perfection was that "apatheia"[Note 17} in which + desire, though it may still be felt, is powerless to move the will, + reduced to the sole function of executing the commands of pure reason. + Even this residuum of activity was to be regarded as a temporary loan, as + an efflux of the divine world-pervading spirit, chafing at its + imprisonment in the flesh, until such time as death enabled it to return + to its source in the all-pervading logos. + </p> + <p> + I find it difficult to discover any very great difference between Apatheia + and Nirvana, except that stoical speculation agrees with pre-Buddhistic + philosophy, rather than with the teachings of Gautama, in so far as it + postulates a permanent substance equivalent to "Brahma" and "Atman;" and + that, in stoical practice, the adoption of the life of the mendicant cynic + was held to be more a counsel of perfection than an indispensable + condition of the higher life. + </p> + <p> + Thus the extremes touch. Greek thought and <span class="pagenum">77</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink77" id="link77"></a> Indian thought set out from ground + common to both, diverge widely, develop under very different physical and + moral conditions, and finally converge to practically the same end. + </p> + <p> + The Vedas and the Homeric epos set before us a world of rich and vigorous + life, full of joyous fighting men + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + That ever with a frolic welcome took + The thunder and the sunshine .... +</pre> + <p> + and who were ready to brave the very Gods themselves when their blood was + up. A few centuries pass away, and under the influence of civilization the + descendants of these men are "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought"—frank + pessimists, or, at best, make-believe optimists. The courage of the + warlike stock may be as hardly tried as before, perhaps more hardly, but + the enemy is self. The hero has become a monk. The man of action is + replaced by the quietist, whose highest aspiration is to be the passive + instrument of the divine Reason. By the Tiber, as by the Ganges, ethical + man admits that the cosmos is too strong for him; and, destroying every + bond which ties him to it by ascetic discipline, he seeks salvation in + absolute renunciation.[Note 18} + </p> + <p> + Modern thought is making a fresh start from the base whence Indian and + Greek philosophy set out; and, the human mind being very much what <span + class="pagenum">78</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink78" id="link78"></a> it was six-and-twenty centuries ago, + there is no ground for wonder if it presents indications of a tendency to + move along the old lines to the same results. + </p> + <p> + We are more than sufficiently familiar with modern pessimism, at least as + a speculation; for I cannot call to mind that any of its present votaries + have sealed their faith by assuming the rags and the bowl of the mendicant + Bhikku, or the cloak and the wallet of the Cynic. The obstacles placed in + the way of sturdy vagrancy by an unphilosophical police have, perhaps, + proved too formidable for philosophical consistency. We also know modern + speculative optimism, with its perfectibility of the species, reign of + peace, and lion and lamb transformation scenes; but one does not hear so + much of it as one did forty years ago; indeed, I imagine it is to be met + with more commonly at the tables of the healthy and wealthy, than in the + congregations of the wise. The majority of us, I apprehend, profess + neither pessimism nor optimism. We hold that the world is neither so good, + nor so bad, as it conceivably might be; and, as most of us have reason, + now and again, to discover that it can be. Those who have failed to + experience the joys that make life worth living are, probably, in as small + a minority as those who have never known the griefs that rob existence of + its savour and turn its richest fruits into mere dust and ashes. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">79</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink79" id="link79"></a> Further, I think I do not err in + assuming that, however diverse their views on philosophical and religious + matters, most men are agreed that the proportion of good and evil in life + may be very sensibly affected by human action. I never heard anybody doubt + that the evil may be thus increased, or diminished; and it would seem to + follow that good must be similarly susceptible of addition or subtraction. + Finally, to my knowledge, nobody professes to doubt that, so far forth as + we possess a power of bettering things, it is our paramount duty to use it + and to train all our intellect and energy to this supreme service of our + kind. + </p> + <p> + Hence the pressing interest of the question, to what extent modern + progress in natural knowledge, and, more especially, the general outcome + of that progress in the doctrine of evolution, is competent to help us in + the great work of helping one another? + </p> + <p> + The propounders of what are called the "ethics of evolution," when the + "evolution of ethics" would usually better express the object of their + speculations, adduce a number of more or less interesting facts and more + or less sound arguments in favour of the origin of the moral sentiments, + in the same way as other natural phenomena, by a process of evolution. I + have little doubt, for my own part, that they are on the right track; but + as the immoral sentiments have no less been evolved, there is, so far, as + much natural sanction for the <span class="pagenum">80</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink80" id="link80"></a> one as the other. The thief and the + murderer follow nature just as much as the philanthropist. Cosmic + evolution may teach us how the good and the evil tendencies of man may + have come about; but, in itself, it is incompetent to furnish any better + reason why what we call good is preferable to what we call evil than we + had before. Some day, I doubt not, we shall arrive at an understanding of + the evolution of the æsthetic faculty; but all the understanding in the + world will neither increase nor diminish the force of the intuition that + this is beautiful and that is ugly. + </p> + <p> + There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called + "ethics of evolution." It is the notion that because, on the whole, + animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by means of + the struggle for existence and the consequent "survival of the fittest;" + therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must look to the same + process to help them towards perfection. I suspect that this fallacy has + arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the phrase "survival of the + fittest." "Fittest" has a connotation of "best;" and about "best" there + hangs a moral flavour. In cosmic nature, however, what is "fittest" + depends upon the conditions. Long since [Note 19}, I ventured to point out + that if our hemisphere were to cool again, the survival of the fittest + might bring about, in the vegetable kingdom, a population of more and more + stunted and humbler <span class="pagenum">81</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink81" id="link81"></a> and humbler organisms, until the + "fittest" that survived might be nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such + microscopic organisms as those which give red snow its colour; while, if + it became hotter, the pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might be + uninhabitable by any animated beings save those that flourish in a + tropical jungle. They, as the fittest, the best adapted to the changed + conditions, would survive. + </p> + <p> + Men in society are undoubtedly subject to the cosmic process. As among + other animals, multiplication goes on without cessation, and involves + severe competition for the means of support. The struggle for existence + tends to eliminate those less fitted to adapt themselves to the + circumstances of their existence. The strongest, the most self-assertive, + tend to tread down the weaker. But the influence of the cosmic process on + the evolution of society is the greater the more rudimentary its + civilization. Social progress means a checking of the cosmic, process at + every step and the substitution for it of another, which may be called the + ethical process; the end of which is not the survival of those who may + happen to be the fittest, in respect of the whole of the conditions which + obtain, but of those who are ethically the best.[Note 20} + </p> + <p> + As I have already urged, the practice of that which is ethically best—what + we call goodness or virtue—involves a course of conduct which, in + all <span class="pagenum">82</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink82" id="link82"></a> respects, is opposed to that which + leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of + ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting + aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that the individual + shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its influence is + directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as to the fitting of + as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the gladiatorial theory of + existence. It demands that each man who enters into the enjoyment of the + advantages of a polity shall be mindful of his debt to those who have + laboriously constructed it; and shall take heed that no act of his weakens + the fabric in which he has been permitted to live. Laws and moral precepts + are directed to the end of curbing the cosmic process and reminding the + individual of his duty to the community, to the protection and influence + of which he owes, if not existence itself, at least the life of something + better than a brutal savage. + </p> + <p> + It is from neglect of these plain considerations that the fanatical + individualism [Note 21} of our time attempts to apply the analogy of + cosmic nature to society. Once more we have a misapplication of the + stoical injunction to follow nature; the duties of the individual to the + state are forgotten, and his tendencies to self-assertion are dignified by + the name of rights. It is seriously debated whether the members of a + community are justified in using <span class="pagenum">83</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink83" id="link83"></a> their combined strength to constrain + one of their number to contribute his share to the maintenance of it; or + even to prevent him from doing his best to destroy it. The struggle for + existence which has done such admirable work in cosmic nature, must, it + appears, be equally beneficent in the ethical sphere. Yet if that which I + have insisted upon is true; if the cosmic process has no sort of relation + to moral ends; if the imitation of it by man is inconsistent with the + first principles of ethics; what becomes of this surprising theory? + </p> + <p> + Let us understand, once for all, that the ethical progress of society + depends, not on imitating the cosmic process, still less in running away + from it, but in combating it. It may seem an audacious proposal thus to + pit the microcosm against the macrocosm and to set man to subdue nature to + his higher ends; but I venture to think that the great intellectual + difference between the ancient times with which we have been occupied and + our day, lies in the solid foundation we have acquired for the hope that + such an enterprise may meet with a certain measure of success. + </p> + <p> + The history of civilization details the steps by which men have succeeded + in building up an artificial world within the cosmos. Fragile reed as he + may be, man, as Pascal says, is a thinking reed: [Note 22} there lies + within him a fund of energy operating intelligently and so far akin to + that which pervades the universe, that it is competent <span + class="pagenum">84</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink84" id="link84"></a> to influence and modify the cosmic + process. In virtue of his intelligence, the dwarf bends the Titan to his + will. In every family, in every polity that has been established, the + cosmic process in man has been restrained and otherwise modified by law + and custom; in surrounding nature, it has been similarly influenced by the + art of the shepherd, the agriculturist, the artisan. As civilization has + advanced, so has the extent of this interference increased; until the + organized and highly developed sciences and arts of the present day have + endowed man with a command over the course of non-human nature greater + than that once attributed to the magicians. The most impressive, I might + say startling, of these changes have been brought about in the course of + the last two centuries; while a right comprehension of the process of life + and of the means of influencing its manifestations is only just dawning + upon us. We do not yet see our way beyond generalities; and we are + befogged by the obtrusion of false analogies and crude anticipations. But + Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, have all had to pass through similar + phases, before they reached the stage at which their influence became an + important factor in human affairs. Physiology, Psychology, Ethics, + Political Science, must submit to the same ordeal. Yet it seems to me + irrational to doubt that, at no distant period, they will work as great a + revolution in the sphere of practice. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">85</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink85" id="link85"></a> The theory of evolution encourages + no millennial anticipations. If, for millions of years, our globe has + taken the upward road, yet, some time, the summit will be reached and the + downward route will be commenced. The most daring imagination will hardly + venture upon the suggestion that the power and the intelligence of man can + ever arrest the procession of the great year. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent, necessary + for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of severe + training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries will + suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. Ethical nature + may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and powerful enemy as + long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I see no limit to the + extent to which intelligence and will, guided by sound principles of + investigation, and organized in common effort, may modify the conditions + of existence, for a period longer than that now covered by history. And + much may be done to change the nature of man himself. [Note 23} The + intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the faithful + guardian of the flock ought to be able to do something towards curbing the + instincts of savagery in civilized men. + </p> + <p> + But if we may permit ourselves at larger hope of abatement of the + essential evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the infancy + of <span class="pagenum">86</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink86" id="link86"></a> exact knowledge, faced the problem + of existence more than a score of centuries ago, I deem it an essential + condition of the realization of that hope that we should cast aside the + notion that the escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life. + </p> + <p> + We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when + good and evil could be met with the same "frolic welcome;" the attempts to + escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in flight from the + battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the youthful overconfidence + and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage. We are grown men, and + must play the man + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "...strong in will + To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield," +</pre> + <p> + cherishing the good that falls in our way, and bearing the evil, in and + around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. So far, we all may + strive in one faith towards one hope: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "... It may be that the gulfs will wash us down, + It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, + + ... but something ere the end, + Some work of noble note may yet be done." [Note 24} +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">187</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink187" id="link187"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_NOTE" id="link2H_NOTE"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + NOTES. + </h2> + <h3> + Note 1 (p. 49). + </h3> + <p> + I have been careful to speak of the "appearance" of cyclical evolution + presented by living things; for, on critical examination, it will be found + that the course of vegetable and of animal life is not exactly represented + by, the figure of a cycle which returns into itself. What actually + happens, in all but the lowest organisms, is that one part of the growing + germ (A) gives rise to tissues and organs; while another part (B) remains + in its primitive condition, or is but slightly modified. The moiety A + becomes the body of the adult and, sooner or later, perishes, while + portions of the moiety B are detached and, as offspring, continue the life + of the species. Thus, if we trace back an organism along the direct line + of descent from its remotest ancestor, B, as a whole, has never suffered + death; portions of it, only, have been cast off and died in each + individual offspring. + </p> + <p> + Everybody is familiar with the way in which the "suckers" of a strawberry + plant behave. A thin cylinder of living tissue keeps on growing at its + free end, until it attains a considerable length. At <span class="pagenum">88</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink88" id="link88"></a> successive intervals, it develops + buds which grow into strawberry plants; and these become independent by + the death of the parts of the sucker which connect them. The rest of the + sucker, however, may go on living and growing indefinitely, and, + circumstances remaining favourable, there is no obvious reason why it + should ever die. The living substance B, in a manner, answers to the + sucker. If we could restore the continuity which was once possessed by the + portions of B, contained in all the individuals of a direct line of + descent, they would form a sucker, or stolon, on which these individuals + would be strung, and which would never have wholly died. + </p> + <p> + A species remains unchanged so long as the potentiality of development + resident in B remains unaltered; so long, e.g., as the buds of the + strawberry sucker tend to become typical strawberry plants. In the case of + the progressive evolution of a species, the developmental potentiality of + B becomes of a higher and higher order. In retrogressive evolution, the + contrary would be the case. The phenomena of atavism seem to show that + retrogressive evolution that is, the return of a species to one or other + of its earlier forms, is a possibility to be reckoned with. The + simplification of structure, which is so common in the parasitic members + of a group, however, does not properly come under this head. The + worm-like, limbless Lernoea has no resemblance to any of the stages of + development of the many-limbed active animals of the group to which it + belongs. <span class="pagenum">89</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink89" id="link89"></a> Note 2 (p. 49). + </p> + <p> + Heracleitus says,[Greek phrase Potamo gar ouk esti dis embenai to suto] + but, to be strictly accurate, the river remains, though the water of which + it is composed changes—just as a man retains his identity though the + whole substance of his body is constantly shifting. + </p> + <p> + This is put very well by Seneca (Ep. lvii. i. 20, Ed. Ruhkopf): "Corpora + nostra rapiuntur fluminum more, quidquid vides currit cum tempore; nihil + ex his quae videmus manet. Ego ipse dum loquor mutari ista, mutatus sum. + Hoc est quod ait Heraclitus 'In idem flumen bis non descendimus.' Manet + idem fluminis nomen, aqua transmissa est. Hoc in amne manifestius est quam + in homine, sed nos quoque non minus velox cursus praetervehit." + </p> + <p> + Note 3 (p. 55). + </p> + <p> + "Multa bona nostra nobis nocent, timoris enim tormentum memorin reducit, + providentia anticipat. Nemo tantum praesentibus miser est." (Seneca, Ed. + v. 7.) + </p> + <p> + Among the many wise and weighty aphorisms of the Roman Bacon, few sound + the realities of life more deeply than "Multa bona nostra nobis nocent." + If there is a soul of good in things evil, it is at least equally true + that there is a soul of evil in things good: for things, like men, have + "les defauts de leurs qualites." It is one of the last lessons one learns + from experience, but not the least important, that a <span class="pagenum">90</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink90" id="link90"></a> heavy tax is levied upon all forms + of success, and that failure is one of the commonest disguises assumed by + blessings. + </p> + <p> + Note 4 (p. 60). + </p> + <p> + "There is within the body of every man a soul which, at the death of the + body, flies away from it like a bird out of a cage, and enters upon a new + life ... either in one of the heavens or one of the hells or on this + earth. The only exception is the rare case of a man having in this life + acquired a true knowledge of God. According to the pre-Buddhistic theory, + the soul of such a man goes along the path of the Gods to God, and, being + united with Him, enters upon an immortal life in which his individuality + is not extinguished. In the latter theory his soul is directly absorbed + into the Great Soul, is lost in it, and has no longer any independent + existence. The souls of all other men enter, after the death of the body, + upon a new existence in one or other of the many different modes of being. + If in heaven or hell, the soul itself becomes a god or demon without + entering a body; all superhuman beings, save the great gods, being looked + upon as not eternal, but merely temporary creatures. If the soul returns + to earth it may or may not enter a new body; and this either of a human + being, an animal, a plant, or even a material object. For all these are + possessed of souls, and there is no essential difference between these + souls and the souls of men—all being alike mere sparks of the Great + Spirit, who is <span class="pagenum">91</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink91" id="link91"></a> the only real existence." (Rhys + Davids, Hibbert Lectures, 1881, p. 83.) + </p> + <p> + For what I have said about Indian Philosophy, I am particularly indebted + to the luminous exposition of primitive Buddhism and its relations to + earlier Hindu thought, which is given by Prof. Rhys Davids in his + remarkable Hibbert Lectures for 1881, and Buddhism (1890). The only + apology I can offer for the freedom with which I have borrowed from him in + these notes, is my desire to leave no doubt as to my indebtedness. I have + also found Dr. Oldenberg's Buddha (Ed. 2, 1890) very helpful. The origin + of the theory of transmigration stated in the above extract is an unsolved + problem. That it differs widely from the Egyptian metempsychosis is clear. + In fact, since men usually people the other world with phantoms of this, + the Egyptian doctrine would seem to presuppose the Indian as a more + archaic belief. + </p> + <p> + Prof. Rhys Davids has fully insisted upon the ethical importance of the + transmigration theory. "One of the latest speculations now being put + forward among ourselves would seek to explain each man's character, and + even his outward condition in life, by the character he inherited from his + ancestors, a character gradually formed during a practically endless + series of past existences, modified only by the conditions into which he + was born, those very conditions being also, in like manner, the last + result of a practically endless series of past causes. Gotama's; + speculation might be stated in the same words. But it attempted also to + explain, in a way different from <span class="pagenum">92</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink92" id="link92"></a> that which would be adopted by the + exponents of the modern theory, that strange problem which it is also the + motive of the wonderful drama of the book of Job to explain—the fact + that the actual distribution here of good fortune, or misery, is entirely + independent of the moral qualities which men call good or bad. We cannot + wonder that a teacher, whose whole system was so essentially an ethical + reformation, should have felt it incumbent upon him to seek an explanation + of this apparent injustice. And all the more so, since the belief he had + inherited, the theory of the transmigration of souls, had provided a + solution perfectly sufficient to any one who could accept that belief." + (Hibbert Lectures, p. 93.) I should venture to suggest the substitution of + "largely" for "entirely" in the foregoing passage. Whether a ship makes a + good or a bad voyage is largely independent of the conduct of the captain, + but it is largely affected by that conduct. Though powerless before a + hurricane he may weather a bad gale. + </p> + <p> + Note 5 (P. 61). + </p> + <p> + The outward condition of the soul is, in each new birth, determined by its + actions in a previous birth; but by each action in succession, and not by + the balance struck after the evil has been reckoned off against the good. + A good man who has once uttered a slander may spend a hundred thousand + years as a god, in consequence of his goodness, and when the power of his + good actions is exhausted, may be born <span class="pagenum">93</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink93" id="link93"></a> as a dumb man on account of his + transgression; and a robber who has once done an act of mercy, may come to + life in a king's body as the result of his virtue, and then suffer + torments for ages in hell or as a ghost without a body, or be re-born many + times as a slave or an outcast, in consequence of his evil life. + </p> + <p> + "There is no escape, according to this theory, from the result of any act; + though it is only the consequences of its own acts that each soul has to + endure. The force has been set in motion by itself and can never stop; and + its effect can never be foretold. If evil, it can never be modified or + prevented, for it depends on a cause already completed, that is now for + ever beyond the soul's control. There is even no continuing consciousness, + no memory of the past that could guide the soul to any knowledge of its + fate. The only advantage open to it is to add in this life to the sum of + its good actions, that it may bear fruit with the rest. And even this can + only happen in some future life under essentially them same conditions as + the present one: subject, like the present one, to old age, decay, and + death; and affording opportunity, like the present one, for the commission + of errors, ignorances, or sins, which in their turn must inevitably + produce their due effect of sickness, disability, or woe. Thus is the soul + tossed about from life to life, from billow to billow in the great ocean + of transmigration. And there is no escape save for the very few, who, + during their birth as men, attain to a right knowledge of the Great + Spirit: and thus enter into immortality, or, as the later <span + class="pagenum">94</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink94" id="link94"></a> philosophers taught, are absorbed + into the Divine Essence." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 85, 86.) + </p> + <p> + The state after death thus imagined by the Hindu philosophers has a + certain analogy to the purgatory of the Roman Church; except that escape + from it is dependent, not on a divine decree modified, it may be, by + sacerdotal or saintly intercession, but by the acts of the individual + himself; and that while ultimate emergence into heavenly bliss of the + good, or well-prayed for, Catholic is professedly assured, the chances in + favour of the attainment of absorption, or of Nirvana, by any individual + Hindu are extremely small. + </p> + <p> + Note 6 (P. 62). + </p> + <p> + "That part of the then prevalent transmigration theory which could not be + proved false seemed to meet a deeply felt necessity, seemed to supply a + moral cause which would explain the unequal distribution here of happiness + or woe, so utterly inconsistent with the present characters of men." + Gautama "still therefore talked of men's previous existence, but by no + means in the way that he is generally represented to have done." What he + taught was "the transmigration of character." He held that after the death + of any being, whether human or not, there survived nothing at all but that + being's "Karma," the result, that is, of its mental and bodily actions. + Every individual, whether human or divine, was the last inheritor and the + last result of the Karma of a long series of past individuals—"a + series <span class="pagenum">95</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink95" id="link95"></a> so long that its beginning is beyond + the reach of calculation, and its end will be coincident with the + destruction of the world." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, p. 92.) + </p> + <p> + In the theory of evolution, the tendency of a germ to develop according to + a certain specific type, e.g. of the kidney bean seed to grow into a plant + having all the characters of Phaseolus vulgaris, is its "Karma." It is the + "last inheritor and the last result" of all the conditions that have + affected a line of ancestry which goes back for many millions of years to + the time when life first appeared on the earth. The moiety B of the + substance of the bean plant (see Note 1) is the last link in a once + continuous chain extending from the primitive living substance: and the + characters of the successive species to which it has given rise are the + manifestations of its gradually modified Karma. As Prof. Rhys Davids aptly + says, the snowdrop "is a snowdrop and not an oak, and just that kind of + snowdrop, because it is the outcome of the Karma of an endless series of + past existences." (Hibbert Lectures, p. 114.) + </p> + <p> + Note 7 (p. 64). + </p> + <p> + "It is interesting to notice that the very point which is the weakness of + the theory—the supposed concentration of the effect of the Karma in + one new being—presented itself to the early Buddhists themselves as + a difficulty. They avoided it, partly by explaining that it was a + particular thirst in the creature dying (a craving, Tanha, which plays + other <span class="pagenum">96</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink96" id="link96"></a> wise a great part in the Buddhist + theory) which actually caused the birth of the new individual who was to + inherit the Karma of the former one. But, how this too place, how the + craving desire produced this effect, was acknowledged to be a mystery + patent only to a Buddha." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, P. 95.) + </p> + <p> + Among the many parallelisms of Stoicism and Buddhism, it is curious to + find one for this Tanha, "thirst," or "craving desire" for life. Seneca + writes (Epist. lxxvi. 18): "Si enim ullum aliud est bonum quam honestum, + sequetur nos aviditas vitae aviditas rerum vitam instruentium: quod est + intolerabile infinitum, vagum." + </p> + <p> + Note 8 (P. 66). + </p> + <p> + "The distinguishing characteristic of Buddhism was that it started a new + line, that it looked upon the deepest questions men have to solve from an + entirely different standpoint. It swept away from the field of its vision + the whole of the great soul theory which had hitherto so completely filled + and dominated the minds of the superstitious and the thoughtful alike. For + the first time in the history of the world, it proclaimed a salvation + which each man could gain for himself and by himself, in this world, + during this life, without any the least reference to God, or to Gods, + either great or small. Like the Upanishads, it placed the first importance + on knowledge; but it was no longer a knowledge of God, it was a clear + perception of the real nature, as <span class="pagenum">97</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink97" id="link97"></a> they supposed it to be, of men and + things. And it added to the necessity of knowledge, the necessity of + purity, of courtesy, of uprightness, of peace and of a universal love far + reaching, grown great and beyond measure." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, + p. 29.) + </p> + <p> + The contemporary Greek philosophy takes an analogous direction. According + to Heracleitus, the universe was made neither by Gods nor men; but, from + all eternity, has been, and to all eternity, will be, immortal fire, + glowing and fading in due measure. (Mullach, Heracliti Fragmenta, 27.) And + the part assigned by his successors, the Stoics, to the knowledge and the + volition of the "wise man" made their Divinity (for logical thinkers) a + subject for compliments, rather than a power to be reckoned with. In Hindu + speculation the "Arahat," still more the "Buddha," becomes the superior of + Brahma; the stoical "wise man" is, at least, the equal of Zeus. + </p> + <p> + Berkeley affirms over and over again that no idea can be formed of a soul + or spirit—"If any man shall doubt of the truth of what is here + delivered, let him but reflect and try if he can form any idea of power or + active being; and whether he hath ideas of two principal powers marked by + the names of will and understanding distinct from each other, as well as + from a third idea of substance or being in general, with a relative notion + of its supporting or being the subject of the aforesaid power, which is + signified by the name soul or spirit. This is what some hold but, so far + as I can see, the words will, soul, spirit, do not stand for different + ideas or, in truth, for any idea at all, but for something which is very + different from ideas, and which, being an agent, cannot be like unto or + represented by Any idea whatever [though it must be owned at the same + time, that we have some notion of soul, spirit, and the operations of the + mind, such as willing, loving, hating, inasmuch as we know or understand + the meaning of these words". (The Principles of Human Knowledge, lxxvi. + See also sections lxxxix., cxxxv., cxlv.) + </p> + <p> + It is open to discussion, I think, whether it is possible to have "some + notion" of that of which we can form no "idea." + </p> + <p> + Berkeley attaches several predicates to the "perceiving active being mind, + spirit, soul or myself" (Parts I. II.) It is said, for example, to be + "indivisible, incorporeal, unextended, and incorruptible." The predicate + indivisible, though negative in form, has highly positive consequences. + For, if "perceiving active being" is strictly indivisible, man's soul must + be one with the Divine spirit: which is good Hindu or Stoical doctrine, + but hardly orthodox Christian philosophy. If, on the other hand, the + "substance" of active perceiving "being" is actually divided into the one + Divine and innumerable human entities, how can the predicate "indivisible" + be rigorously applicable to it? + </p> + <p> + Taking the words cited, as they stand, the amount to the denial of the + possibility of any knowledge of substance. "Matter" having been resolved + into mere affections of "spirit", "spirit" melts away into an admittedly + inconceivable and unknowable <span class="pagenum">99</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink99" id="link99"></a> hypostasis of thought and power—consequently + the existence of anything in the universe beyond a flow of phenomena is a + purely hypothetical assumption. Indeed a pyrrhonist might raise the + objection that if "esse" is "percipi" spirit itself can have no existence + except as a perception, hypostatized into a "self," or as a perception of + some other spirit. In the former case, objective reality vanishes; in the + latter, there would seem to be the need of an infinite series of spirits + each perceiving the others. + </p> + <p> + It is curious to observe how very closely the phraseology of Berkeley + sometimes approaches that of the Stoics: thus (cxlviii.) "It seems to be a + general pretence of the unthinking herd that they cannot see God. . . But, + alas, we need only open our eyes to see the Sovereign Lord of all things + with a more full and clear view, than we do any of our fellow-creatures . + . . we do at all times and in all places perceive manifest tokens of the + Divinity: everything we see, hear, feel, or any wise perceive by sense, + being a sign or effect of the power of God" . . . cxlix. "It is therefore + plain, that nothing can be more evident to any one that is capable of the + least reflection, than the existence of God, or a spirit who is intimately + present to our minds, producing in them all that variety of ideas or + sensations which continually affect us, on whom we have an absolute and + entire dependence, in short, in whom we live and move and have our being." + cl. "[But you will say hath Nature no share in the production of natural + things, and must they all be ascribed to the immediate and sole operation + of God? ... if by Nature is <span class="pagenum">100</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink100" id="link100"></a> meant some being distinct from + God, as well as from the laws of nature and things perceived by sense, I + must confess that word is to me an empty sound, without any intelligible + meaning annexed to it.] Nature in this acceptation is a vain Chimaera + introduced by those heathens, who had not just notions of the omnipresence + and infinite perfection of God." + </p> + <p> + Compare Seneca (De Beneficiis, iv. 7): + </p> + <p> + "Natura, inquit, haec mihi praestat. Non intelligis te, quum hoc dicis, + mutare Nomen Deo? Quid enim est aliud Natura quam Deus, et divina ratio, + toti mundo et partibus ejus inserta? Quoties voles tibi licet aliter hunc + auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare, et Jovem illum optimum et maximum + rite dices, et tonantem, et statorem: qui non, ut historici tradiderunt, + ex eo quod post votum susceptum acies Romanorum fugientum stetit, sed quod + stant beneficio ejus omnina, stator, stabilitorque est: hunc eundem et + fatum si dixeris, non mentieris, nam quum fatum nihil aliud est, quam + series implexa causarum, ille est prima omnium causa, ea qua caeterae + pendent." It would appear, therefore, that the good Bishop is somewhat + hard upon the "heathen," of whose words his own might be a paraphrase. + </p> + <p> + There is yet another direction in which Berkeley's philosophy, I will not + say agrees with Gautama's, but at any rate helps to make a fundamental + dogma of Buddhism intelligible. + </p> + <p> + "I find I can excite ideas in my mind at pleasure, and vary and shift the + scene as often as I think fit. It is no more than willing, and straightway + this or that idea arises in my fancy: and by the same power <span + class="pagenum">101</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink101" id="link101"></a> it is obliterated, and makes way + for another. This making and unmaking of ideas doth very properly + denominate the mind active. This much is certain and grounded on + experience. . ." (Principles, xxviii.) + </p> + <p> + A good many of us, I fancy, have reason to think that experience tells + them very much the contrary; and are painfully familiar with the obsession + of the mind by ideas which cannot be obliterated by any effort of the will + and steadily refuse to make way for others. But what I desire to point out + is that if Gautama was equally confident that he could "make and unmake" + ideas—then, since he had resolved self into a group of ideal + phantoms—the possibility of abolishing self by volition naturally + followed. + </p> + <p> + Note 9 (P. 68). + </p> + <p> + According to Buddhism, the relation of one life to the next is merely that + borne by the flame of one lamp to the flame of another lamp which is set + alight by it. To the "Arahat" or adept "no outward form, no compound + thing, no creature, no creator, no existence of any kind, must appear to + be other than a temporary collocation of its component parts, fated + inevitably to be dissolved."—(Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, p. + 211.) + </p> + <p> + The self is nothing but a group of phenomena held together by the desire + of life; when that desire shall have ceased, "the Karma of that particular + chain of lives will cease to influence any longer any distinct individual, + and there will be no more birth; <span class="pagenum">102</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink102" id="link102"></a> for birth, decay, and death, + grief, lamentation, and despair will have come, so far as regards that + chain of lives, for ever to an end." + </p> + <p> + The state of mind of the Arahat in which the desire of life has ceased is + Nirvana. Dr. Oldenberg has very acutely and patiently considered the + various interpretations which have been attached to "Nirvana" in the work + to which I have referred (pp. 285 et seq.). The result of his and other + discussions of the question may I think be briefly stated thus: + </p> + <p> + 1. Logical deduction from the predicates attached to the term "Nirvana" + strips it of all reality, conceivability, or perceivability, whether by + Gods or men. For all practical purposes, therefore, it comes to exactly + the same thing as annihilation. + </p> + <p> + 2. But it is not annihilation in the ordinary sense, inasmuch as it could + take place in the living Arahat or Buddha. + </p> + <p> + 3. And, since, for the faithful Buddhist, that which was abolished in the + Arahat was the possibility of further pain, sorrow, or sin; and that which + was attained was perfect peace; his mind directed itself exclusively to + this joyful consummation, and personified the negation of all conceivable + existence and of all pain into a positive bliss. This was all the more + easy, as Gautama refused to give any dogmatic definition of Nirvana. There + is something analogous in the way in which people commonly talk of the + "happy release" of a man who has been long suffering from mortal disease. + According to their own views, it must always be extremely doubtful whether + the man will be any happier after the "release" <span class="pagenum">103</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink103" id="link103"></a> than before. But they do not + choose to look at the matter in this light. + </p> + <p> + The popular notion that, with practical, if not metaphysical, annihilation + in view, Buddhism must needs be a sad and gloomy faith seems to be + inconsistent with fact; on the contrary, the prospect of Nirvana fills the + true believer, not merely with cheerfulness, but with an ecstatic desire + to reach it. + </p> + <p> + Note 10 (P. 68.) + </p> + <p> + The influence of the picture of the personal qualities of Gautama, + afforded by the legendary anecdotes which rapidly grew into a biography of + the Buddha; and by the birth stories, which coalesced with the current + folk-lore, and were intelligible to all the world, doubtless played a + great part. Further, although Gautama appears not to have meddled with the + caste system, he refused to recognize any distinction, save that of + perfection in the way of salvation, among his followers; and by such + teaching, no less than by the inculcation of love and benevolence to all + sentient beings, he practically levelled every social, political, and + racial barrier. A third important condition was the organization of the + Buddhists into monastic communities for the stricter professors, while the + laity were permitted a wide indulgence in practice and were allowed to + hope for accommodation in some of the temporary abodes of bliss. With a + few hundred thousand years of immediate paradise in sight, the average man + could be content to shut his eyes to what might follow. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">104</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink104" id="link104"></a> + </p> + <p> + Note 11 (P. 69). + </p> + <p> + In ancient times it was the fashion, even among the Greeks themselves, to + derive all Greek wisdom from Eastern sources; not long ago it was as + generally denied that Greek philosophy had any connection, with Oriental + speculation; it seems probable, however, that the truth lies between these + extremes. + </p> + <p> + The Ionian intellectual movement does not stand alone. It is only one of + several sporadic indications of the working of some powerful mental + ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the Aegean and + Northern Hindostan during the eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries before + our era. In these three hundred years, prophetism attained its apogee + among the Semites of Palestine; Zoroasterism grew and became the creed of + a conquering race, the Iranic Aryans; Buddhism rose and spread with + marvellous rapidity among the Aryans of Hindostan; while scientific + naturalism took its rise among the Aryans of Ionia. It would be difficult + to find another three centuries which have given birth to four events of + equal importance. All the principal existing religions of mankind have + grown out of the first three: while the fourth is the little spring, now + swollen into the great stream of positive science. So far as physical + possibilities go, the prophet Jeremiah and the oldest Ionian philosopher + might have met and conversed. If they had done so, they would probably + have disagreed a good deal; and it is interesting to reflect that their + discussions might have <span class="pagenum">105</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink105" id="link105"></a> embraced Questions which, at the + present day, are still hotly controverted. + </p> + <p> + The old Ionian philosophy, then, seems to be only one of many results of a + stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the Aryan and the Semitic + populations of Western Asia. The conditions of this general awakening were + doubtless manifold; but there is one which modern research has brought + into great prominence. This is the existence of extremely ancient and + highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + It is now known that, more than a thousand—perhaps more than two + thousand—years before the sixth century B.C., civilization had + attained a relatively high pitch among the Babylonians and the Egyptians. + Not only had painting, sculpture, architecture, and the industrial arts + reached a remarkable development; but in Chaldaea, at any rate, a vast + amount of knowledge had been accumulated and methodized, in the + departments of grammar, mathematics, astronomy, and natural history. Where + such traces of the scientific spirit are visible, naturalistic speculation + is rarely far off, though, so far as I know, no remains of an Accacian, or + Egyptian, philosophy, properly so called, have yet been recovered. + </p> + <p> + Geographically, Chaldaea occupied a central position among the oldest + seats of civilization. Commerce, largely aided by the intervention of + those colossal pedlars, the Phoenicians, had brought Chaldaea into + connection with all of them, for a thousand years before the epoch at + present under consideration. And in the ninth, eighth and seventh <span + class="pagenum">106</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink106" id="link106"></a> centuries, the Assyrian, the + depositary of Chaldaean civilization, as the Macedonian and the Roman, at + a later date, were the depositories of Greek culture, had added + irresistible force to the other agencies for the wide distribution of + Chaldaean literature, art, and science. + </p> + <p> + I confess that I find it difficult to imagine that the Greek immigrant—who + stood in somewhat the same relation to the Babylonians and the Egyptians + as the later Germanic barbarians to the Romans of the Empire—should + not have been immensely influenced by the new life with which they became + acquainted. But there is abundant direct evidence of the magnitude of this + influence in certain spheres. I suppose it is not doubted that the Greek + went to school with the Oriental for his primary instruction in reading, + writing, and arithmetic; and that Semitic theology supplied him with some + of his mythological lore. Nor does there now seem to be any question about + the large indebtedness of Greek art to that of Chaldaea and that of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + But the manner of that indebtedness is very instructive. The obligation is + clear, but its limits are no less definite. Nothing better exemplifies the + indomitable originality of the Greeks than the relations of their art to + that of the Orientals. Far from being subdued into mere imitators by the + technical excellence of their teachers, they lost no time in bettering the + instruction they received, using their models as mere stepping stones on + the way to those unsurpassed and unsurpassable achievements which are all + their own. The shibboleth of Art is <span class="pagenum">107</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink107" id="link107"></a> the human figure. The ancient + Chaldaeans and Egyptians, like the modern Japanese, did wonders in the + representation of birds and quadrupeds; they even attained to something + more than respectability in human portraiture. But their utmost efforts + never brought them within range of the best Greek embodiments of the grace + of womanhood, or of the severer beauty of manhood. + </p> + <p> + It is worth while to consider the probable effect upon the acute and + critical Greek mind of the conflict of ideas, social, political, and + theological, which arose out of the conditions of life in the Asiatic + colonies. The Ionian polities had passed through the whole gamut of social + and political changes, from patriarchal and occasionally oppressive + kingship to rowdy and still more burdensome mobship—no doubt with + infinitely eloquent and copious argumentation, on both sides, at every + stage of their progress towards that arbitrament of force which settles + most political questions. The marvellous speculative faculty, latent in + the Ionian, had come in contact with Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Phoenician + theologies and cosmogonies; with the illuminati of Orphism and the + fanatics and dreamers of the Mysteries; possibly with Buddhism and + Zoroasterism; possibly even with Judaism. And it has been observed that + the mutual contradictions of antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to play + a large part among the generative agencies of naturalism. + </p> + <p> + Thus, various external influences may have contributed to the rise of + philosophy among the Ionian Greeks of the sixth century. But the + assimilative <span class="pagenum">108</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink108" id="link108"></a> capacity of the Greek mind—its + power of Hellenizing whatever it touched—has here worked so + effectually, that, so far as I can learn, no indubitable traces of such + extraneous contributions are now allowed to exist by the most + authoritative historians of Philosophy. Nevertheless, I think it must be + admitted that the coincidences between the Heracleito-stoical doctrines + and those of the older Hindu philosophy are extremely remarkable. In both, + the cosmos pursues an eternal succession of cyclical changes. The great + year, answering to the Kalpa, covers an entire cycle from the origin of + the universe as a fluid to its dissolution in fire—"Humor initium, + ignis exitus mundi," as Seneca has it. In both systems, there is immanent + in the cosmos a source of energy, Brahma, or the Logos, which works + according to fixed laws. The individual soul is an efflux of this + world-spirit, and returns to it. Perfection is attainable only by + individual effort, through ascetic discipline, and is rather a state of + painlessness than of happiness; if indeed it can be said to be a state of + anything, save the negation of perturbing emotion. The hatchment motto "In + Coelo Quies" would serve both Hindu and Stoic; and absolute quiet is not + easily distinguishable from annihilation. + </p> + <p> + Zoroasterism, which, geographically, occupies a position intermediate + between Hellenism and Hinduism, agrees with the latter in recognizing the + essential evil of the cosmos; but differs from both in its intensely + anthropomorphic personification of the two antagonistic principles, to the + one of which it ascribes all the good; and, to the other, all the evil. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">109</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink109" id="link109"></a> In fact, it assumes the existence + of two worlds, one good and one bad; the latter created by the evil power + for the purpose of damaging the former. The existing cosmos is a mere + mixture of the two, and the "last judgment" is a root-and-branch + extirpation of the work of Ahriman. + </p> + <p> + Note 12 (p. 69). + </p> + <p> + There is no snare in which the feet of a modern student of ancient lore + are more easily entangled, than that which is spread by the similarity of + the language of antiquity to modern modes of expression. I do not presume + to interpret the obscurest of Greek philosophers; all I wish is to point + out, that his words, in the sense accepted by competent interpreters, fit + modern ideas singularly well. + </p> + <p> + So far as the general theory of evolution goes there is no difficulty. The + aphorism about the river; the figure of the child playing on the shore; + the kingship and fatherhood of strife, seem decisive. The [Greek phrase + osod ano kato mie] expresses, with singular aptness, the cyclical aspect + of the one process of organic evolution in individual plants and animals: + yet it may be a question whether the Heracleitean strife included any + distinct conception of the struggle for existence. Again, it is tempting + to compare the part played by the Heracleitean "fire" with that ascribed + by the moderns to heat, or rather to that cause of motion of which heat is + one expression; and a little ingenuity might find a foreshadowing of the + doctrine of the conservation of energy, in the saying <span class="pagenum">110</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink110" id="link110"></a> that all the things are changed + into fire and fire into all things, as gold into goods and goods into + gold. + </p> + <p> + Note 13 (p. 71). + </p> + <p> + Pope's lines in the Essay on Man(Ep. i. 267-8), + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + All are but parts of one stupendous whole, + Whose body Nature is, and God the soul," +</pre> + <p> + simply paraphrase Seneca's "quem in hoc mundo locum deus obtinet, hunc in + homine animus: quod est illic materia, id nobis corpus est."—(Ep. + lxv. 24); which again is a Latin version of the old Stoical doctrine, + [Greek phrase eis apan tou kosou meros diekei o nous, kataper aph emon e + psuche]. + </p> + <p> + So far as the testimony for the universality of what ordinary people call + "evil" goes, there is nothing better than the writings of the Stoics + themselves. They might serve, as a storehouse for the epigrams of the + ultra-pessimists. Heracleitus (circa 500 B.C.) says just as hard things + about ordinary humanity as his disciples centuries later; and there really + seems no need to seek for the causes of this dark view of life in the + circumstances of the time of Alexander's successors or of the early + Emperors of Rome. To the man with an ethical ideal, the world, including + himself, will always seem full of evil. + </p> + <p> + Note 14 (P. 73). + </p> + <p> + I use the well-known phrase, but decline responsibility for the libel upon + Epicurus, whose doctrines <span class="pagenum">111</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink111" id="link111"></a> were far less compatible with + existence in a stye than those of the Cynics. If it were steadily borne + in mind that the conception of the "flesh" as the source of evil, and the + great saying "Initium est salutis notitia peccati," are the property of + Epicurus, fewer illusions about Epicureanism would pass muster for + accepted truth. + </p> + <p> + Note 15 (P. 75). + </p> + <p> + The Stoics said that man was a [Greek phrase zoon logikon politikon + philallelon], or a rational, a political, and an altruistic or + philanthropic animal. In their view, his higher nature tended to develop + in these three directions, as a plant tends to grow up into its typical + form. Since, without the introduction of any consideration of pleasure or + pain, whatever thwarted the realization of its type by the plant might be + said to be bad, and whatever helped it good; so virtue, in the Stoical + sense, as the conduct which tended to the attainment of the rational, + political, and philanthropic ideal, was good in itself, and irrespectively + of its emotional concomitants. + </p> + <p> + Man is an "animal sociale communi bono genitum." The safety of society + depends upon practical recognition of the fact. "Salva autem esse societas + nisi custodia et amore partium non possit," says Seneca. (De. Ira, ii. + 31.) + </p> + <p> + Note 16 (P. 75). + </p> + <p> + The importance of the physical doctrine of the Stoics lies in its clear + recognition of the universality <span class="pagenum">112</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink112" id="link112"></a> of the law of causation, with its + corollary, the order of nature: the exact form of that order is an + altogether secondary consideration. + </p> + <p> + Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the incompatibility of + pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt about the immortality of the + soul, with religion and morality, is to be held as an axiomatic truth. I + confess that I have a certain difficulty in accepting this dogma. For the + Stoics were notoriously materialists and pantheists of the most extreme + character; and while no strict Stoic believed in the eternal duration of + the individual soul, some even denied its persistence after death. Yet it + is equally certain that of all gentile philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the + highest ethical development, is animated by the most religious spirit, and + has exerted the profoundest influence upon the moral and religious + development not merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the + moderns down to our own day. + </p> + <p> + Seneca was claimed as a Christian and placed among the saints by the + fathers of the early Christian Church; and the genuineness of a + correspondence between him and the apostle Paul has been hotly maintained + in our own time, by orthodox writers. That the letters, as we possess + them, are worthless forgeries is obvious; and writers as wide apart as + Baur and Lightfoot agree that the whole story is devoid of foundation. + </p> + <p> + The dissertation of the late Bishop of Durham (Epistle to the Philippians) + is particularly worthy of study, apart from this question, on account of + <span class="pagenum">113</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink113" id="link113"></a> evidence which it supplies of the + numerous similarities of thought between Seneca and the writer of the + Pauline epistles. When it is remembered that the writer of the Acts puts a + quotation from Aratus, or Cleanthes, into the mouth of the apostle; and + that Tarsus was a great seat of philosophical and especially stoical + learning (Chrysippus himself was a native of the adjacent town of Soli), + there is no difficulty in understanding the origin of these resemblances. + See, on this subject, Sir Alexander Grant's dissertation in his edition of + The Ethics of Aristotle (where there is an interesting reference to the + stoical character of Bishop Butler's ethics), the concluding pages of Dr. + Weygoldt's instructive little work Die Philosophie der Stoa, and + Aubertin's Seneque et Saint Paul. + </p> + <p> + It is surprising that a writer of Dr. Lightfoot's stamp should speak of + Stoicism as a philosophy of "despair." Surely, rather, it was a philosophy + of men who, having cast off all illusions, and the childishness of despair + among them, were minded to endure in patience whatever conditions the + cosmic process might create, so long as those conditions were compatible + with the progress towards virtue, which alone, for them, conferred a + worthy object on existence. There is no note of despair in the stoical + declaration that the perfected "wise man" is the equal of Zeus in + everything but the duration of his existence. And, in my judgment, there + is as little pride about it, often as it serves for the text of discourses + on stoical arrogance. Grant the stoical postulate that there is no good + except virtue; grant that <span class="pagenum">114</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink114" id="link114"></a> the perfected wise man is + altogether virtuous, in consequence of being guided in all things by the + reason, which is an effluence of Zeus, and there seems no escape from the + stoical conclusion. + </p> + <p> + Note 17 (p. 76). + </p> + <p> + Our "Apathy" carries such a different set of connotations from its Greek + original that I have ventured on using the latter as a technical term. + </p> + <p> + Note 18 (P. 77). + </p> + <p> + Many of the stoical philosophers recommended their disciples to take an + active share in public affairs; and in the Roman world, for several + centuries, the best public men were strongly inclined to Stoicism. + Nevertheless, the logical tendency of Stoicism seems to me to be fulfilled + only in such men as Diogenes and Epictetus. + </p> + <p> + Note 19 (P. 80). + </p> + <p> + "Criticisms on the Origin of Species," 1864. Collected Essays, vol. ii. p. + 91.{1894.] + </p> + <p> + Note 20 (P. 81). + </p> + <p> + Of course, strictly speaking, social life, and the ethical process in + virtue of which it advances towards perfection, Are part and parcel of the + general process of evolution, just as the gregarious habit of in <span + class="pagenum">115</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink115" id="link115"></a> numerable plants and animals, + which has been of immense advantage to them, is so. A hive of bees is an + organic polity, a society in which the part played by each member is + determined by organic necessities. Queens, workers, and drones are, so to + speak, castes, divided from one another by marked physical barriers. Among + birds and mammals, societies are formed, of which the bond in many cases + seems to be purely psychological; that is to say, it appears to depend + upon the liking of the individuals for one another's company. The tendency + of individuals to over self-assertion is kept down by fighting. Even in + these rudimentary forms of society, love and fear come into play, and + enforce a greater or less renunciation of self-will. To this extent the + general cosmic process begins to be checked by a rudimentary ethical + process, which is, strictly speaking, part of the former, just as the + "governor" in a steam-engine is part of the mechanism of the engine. + </p> + <p> + Note 21 (p. 82). + </p> + <p> + See "Government: Anarchy or Regimentation," Collected Essays, vol. i. pp. + 413-418. It is this form of political philosophy to which I conceive the + epithet of "reasoned savagery" to be strictly applicable.{1894.] + </p> + <p> + Note 22 (p. 83). + </p> + <p> + "L'homme n'est qu'un roseau, le plus faible de la nature, mais c'est un + roseau pensant. Il ne faut <span class="pagenum">116</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink116" id="link116"></a> pas que l'univers entier s'arme + pour l'ecraser. Une vapour, une goutte d'eau, suffit pour le tuer. Mais + quand l'univers l'ecraserait, l'homme serait encore plus noble que ce qui + le tue, parce qu'il sait qu'il muert; et l'avantage que l'univers a sur + lui, l'univers n'en sait rien."—Pensees de Pascal. + </p> + <p> + Note 23 (p. 85). + </p> + <p> + The use of the word "Nature" here may be criticised. Yet the manifestation + of the natural tendencies of men is so profoundly modified by training + that it is hardly too strong. Consider the suppression of the sexual + instinct between near relations. + </p> + <p> + Note 24 (p. 86). + </p> + <p> + A great proportion of poetry is addressed by the young to the young; only + the great masters of the art are capable of divining, or think it worth + while to enter into, the feelings of retrospective age. The two great + poets whom we have so lately lost, Tennyson and Browning, have done this, + each in his own inimitable way; the one in the Ulysses, from which I have + borrowed; the other in that wonderful fragment "Childe Roland to the dark + Tower came." + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">117</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink117" id="link117"></a> + </p> + <p> + (Note: Section III belowcame from a different source than the other sections + and thus does not have page numbers. + +Section III of the volume, "Science and Theology", is not Huxley's text +and is not by Huxley. It reprints instead an entirely different essay, +one by Asa Gray on Darwin, published in the Atlantic in 1860 as +specified in a note before the text here; what looks like a subheading, +"NATURAL SELECTION NOT INCONSISTENT WITH NATURAL THEOLOGY", is the title +given to Gray's essay in some reprints.) + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0020" id="link2H_4_0020"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. SCIENCE AND MORALS (1886) + </h2> + <h3> + NATURAL SELECTION NOT INCONSISTENT WITH NATURAL THEOLOGY + </h3> + <p> + (Atlantic Monthly for July, August, and October, 1860, reprinted in 1861) + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0021" id="link2H_4_0021"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I + </h2> + <p> + Novelties are enticing to most people; to us they are simply annoying. We + cling to a long-accepted theory, just as we cling to an old suit of + clothes. A new theory, like a new pair of breeches (the Atlantic still + affects the older type of nether garment), is sure to have hard-fitting + places; or, even when no particular fault can be found with the article, + it oppresses with a sense of general discomfort. New notions and new + styles worry us, till we get well used to them, which is only by slow + degrees. + </p> + <p> + Wherefore, in Galileos time, we might have helped to proscribe, or to burn—had + he been stubborn enough to warrant cremation—even the great pioneer + of inductive research; although, when we had fairly recovered our + composure, and bad leisurely excogitated the matter, we might have come to + conclude that the new doctrine was better than the old one, after all, at + least for those who had nothing to unlearn. + </p> + <p> + Such being our habitual state of mind, it may well be believed that the + perusal of the new book "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural + Selection" left an uncomfortable impression, in spite of its plausible and + winning ways. We were not wholly unprepared for it, as many of our + contemporaries seem to have been. The scientific reading in which we + indulge as a relaxation from severer studies had raised dim forebodings. + Investigations about the succession of species in time, and their actual + geographical distribution over the earths surface, were leading up from + all sides and in various ways to the question of their origin. Now and + then we encountered a sentence, like Prof. Owens "axiom of the continuous + operation of the ordained becoming of living things," which haunted us + like an apparition. For, dim as our conception must needs be as to what + such oracular and grandiloquent phrases might really mean, we felt + confident that they presaged no good to old beliefs. Foreseeing, yet + deprecating, the coming time of trouble, we still hoped that, with some + repairs and makeshifts, the old views might last out our days. Apres nous + le deluge. Still, not to lag behind the rest of the world, we read the + book in which the new theory is promulgated. We took it up, like our + neighbors, and, as was natural, in a somewhat captious frame of mind. + </p> + <p> + Well, we found no cause of quarrel with the first chapter. Here the author + takes us directly to the barn-yard and the kitchen-garden. Like an + honorable rural member of our General Court, who sat silent until, near + the close of a long session, a bill requiring all swine at large to wear + pokes was introduced, when he claimed the privilege of addressing the + house, on the proper ground that he had been "brought up among the pigs, + and knew all about them"—so we were brought up among cows and + cabbages; and the lowing of cattle, the cackle of hens, and the cooing of + pigeons, were sounds native and pleasant to our ears. So "Variation under + Domestication" dealt with familiar subjects in a natural way, and gently + introduced "Variation under Nature," which seemed likely enough. Then + follows "Struggle for Existence"—a principle which we experimentally + know to be true and cogent—bringing the comfortable assurance, that + man, even upon Leviathan Hobbess theory of society, is no worse than the + rest of creation, since all Nature is at war, one species with another, + and the nearer kindred the more internecine—bringing in thousandfold + confirmation and extension of the Malthusian doctrine that population + tends far to outrun means of subsistence throughout the animal and + vegetable world, and has to be kept down by sharp preventive checks; so + that not more than one of a hundred or a thousand of the individuals whose + existence is so wonderfully and so sedulously provided for ever comes to + anything, under ordinary circumstances; so the lucky and the strong must + prevail, and the weaker and ill-favored must perish; and then follows, as + naturally as one sheep follows another, the chapter on "Natural + Selection," Darwins cheval de bataille, which is very much the Napoleonic + doctrine that Providence favors the strongest battalions—that, since + many more individuals are born than can possibly survive, those + individuals and those variations which possess any advantage, however + slight, over the rest, are in the long-run sure to survive, to propagate, + and to occupy the limited field, to the exclusion or destruction of the + weaker brethren. All this we pondered, and could not much object to. In + fact, we began to contract a liking for a system which at the outset + illustrates the advantages of good breeding, and which makes the most "of + every creatures best." + </p> + <p> + Could we "let by-gones be by-gones," and, beginning now, go on improving + and diversifying for the future by natural selection, could we even take + up the theory at the introduction of the actually existing species, we + should be well content; and so, perhaps, would most naturalists be. It is + by no means difficult to believe that varieties are incipient or possible + species, when we see what trouble naturalists, especially botanists, have + to distinguish between them—one regarding as a true species what + another regards as a variety; when the progress of knowledge continually + increases, rather than diminishes, the number of doubtful instances; and + when there is less agreement than ever among naturalists as to what is the + basis in Nature upon which our idea of species reposes, or how the word is + to be defined. Indeed, when we consider the endless disputes of + naturalists and ethnologists over the human races, as to whether they + belong to one species or to more, and, if to more, whether to three, or + five, or fifty, we can hardly help fancying that both may be right—or + rather, that the uni-humanitarians would have been right many thousand + years ago, and the multi-humanitarians will be several thousand years + later; while at present the safe thing to say is, that probably there is + some truth on both sides. + </p> + <p> + "Natural selection," Darwin remarks, "leads to divergence of character; + for the more living beings can be supported on the same area, the more + they diverge in structure, habits, and constitution" (a principle which, + by-the-way, is paralleled and illustrated by the diversification of human + labor); and also leads to much extinction of intermediate or unimproved + forms. Now, though this divergence may "steadily tend to increase," yet + this is evidently a slow process in Nature, and liable to much + counteraction wherever man does not interpose, and so not likely to work + much harm for the future. And if natural selection, with artificial to + help it, will produce better animals and better men than the present, and + fit them better to the conditions of existence, why, let it work, say we, + to the top of its bent There is still room enough for improvement. Only + let us hope that it always works for good: if not, the divergent lines on + Darwin's lithographic diagram of "Transmutation made Easy," ominously show + what small deviations from the straight path may come to in the end. + </p> + <p> + The prospect of the future, accordingly, is on the whole pleasant and + encouraging. It is only the backward glance, the gaze up the long vista of + the past, that reveals anything alarming. Here the lines converge as they + recede into the geological ages, and point to conclusions which, upon the + theory, are inevitable, but hardly welcome. The very first step backward + makes the negro and the Hottentot our blood-relations—not that + reason or Scripture objects to that, though pride may. The next suggests a + closer association of our ancestors of the olden time with "our poor + relations" of the quadrumanous family than we like to acknowledge. + Fortunately, however—even if we must account for him scientifically + —man with his two feet stands upon a foundation of his own. + Intermediate links between the Bimana and the Quadrumana are lacking + altogether; so that, put the genealogy of the brutes upon what footing you + will, the four-handed races will not serve for our forerunners—at + least, not until some monkey, live or fossil, is producible with + great-toes, instead of thumbs, upon his nether extremities; or until some + lucky geologist turns up the bones of his ancestor and prototype in France + or England, who was so busy "napping the chuckie-stanes" and chipping out + flint knives and arrow-heads in the time of the drift, very many ages ago—before + the British Channel existed, says Lyell [III-1}—and until these men + of the olden time are shown to have worn their great-toes in the divergent + and thumblike fashion. That would be evidence indeed: but, until some + testimony of the sort is produced, we must needs believe in the separate + and special creation of man, however it may have been with the lower + animals and with plants. + </p> + <p> + No doubt, the full development and symmetry of Darwin's hypothesis + strongly suggest the evolution of the human no less than the lower animal + races out of some simple primordial animal—that all are equally + "lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first + bed of the Silurian system was deposited." But, as the author speaks + disrespectfully of spontaneous generation, and accepts a supernatural + beginning of life on earth, in some form or forms of being which included + potentially all that have since existed and are yet to be, he is thereby + not warranted to extend his inferences beyond the evidence or the fair + probability. There seems as great likelihood that one special origination + should be followed by another upon fitting occasion (such as the + introduction of man), as that one form should be transmuted into another + upon fitting occasion, as, for instance, in the succession of species + which differ from each other only in some details. To compare small things + with great in a homely illustration: man alters from time to time his + instruments or machines, as new circumstances or conditions may require + and his wit suggest. Minor alterations and improvements he adds to the + machine he possesses; he adapts a new rig or a new rudder to an old boat: + this answers to Variation. "Like begets like," being the great rule in + Nature, if boats could engender, the variations would doubtless be + propagated, like those of domestic cattle. In course of time the old ones + would be worn out or wrecked; the best sorts would be chosen for each + particular use, and further improved upon; and so the primordial boat be + developed into the scow, the skiff, the sloop, and other species of + water-craft—the very diversification, as well as the successive + improvements, entailing the disappearance of intermediate forms, less + adapted to any one particular purpose; wherefore these go slowly out of + use, and become extinct species: this is Natural Selection. Now, let a + great and important advance be made, like that of steam navigation: here, + though the engine might be added to the old vessel, yet the wiser and + therefore the actual way is to make a new vessel on a modified plan: this + may answer to Specific Creation. Anyhow, the one does not necessarily + exclude the other. Variation and natural selection may play their part, + and so may specific creation also. Why not? + </p> + <p> + This leads us to ask for the reasons which call for this new theory of + transmutation. The beginning of things must needs lie in obscurity, beyond + the bounds of proof, though within those of conjecture or of analogical + inference. Why not hold fast to the customary view, that all species were + directly, instead of indirectly, created after their respective kinds, as + we now behold them—and that in a manner which, passing our + comprehension, we intuitively refer to the supernatural? Why this + continual striving after "the unattained and dim?" why these anxious + endeavors, especially of late years, by naturalists and philosophers of + various schools and different tendencies, to penetrate what one of them + calls "that mystery of mysteries," the origin of species? + </p> + <p> + To this, in general, sufficient answer may be found in the activity of the + human intellect, "the delirious yet divine desire to know," stimulated as + it has been by its own success in unveiling the laws and processes of + inorganic Nature; in the fact that the principal triumphs of our age in + physical science have consisted in tracing connections where none were + known before, in reducing heterogeneous phenomena to a common cause or + origin, in a manner quite analogous to that of the reduction of supposed + independently originated species to a common ultimate origin—thus, + and in various other ways, largely and legitimately extending the domain + of secondary causes. Surely the scientific mind of an age which + contemplates the solar system as evolved from a common revolving fluid + mass—which, through experimental research, has come to regard light, + heat, electricity, magnetism, chemical affinity, and mechanical power as + varieties or derivative and convertible forms of one force, instead of + independent species—which has brought the so-called elementary kinds + of matter, such as the metals, into kindred groups, and pertinently raised + the question, whether the members of each group may not be mere varieties + of one species—and which speculates steadily in the direction of the + ultimate unity of matter, of a sort of prototype or simple element which + may be to the ordinary species of matter what the Protozoa or what the + component cells of an organism are to the higher sorts of animals and + plants—the mind of such an age cannot be expected to let the old + belief about species pass unquestioned. It will raise the question, how + the diverse sorts of plants and animals came to be as they are and where + they are and will allow that the whole inquiry transcends its powers only + when all endeavors have failed Granting the origin to be super natural or + miraculous even, will not arrest the inquiry All real origination the + philosophers will say, is supernatural, their very question is, whether we + have yet gone back to the origin and can affirm that the present forms of + plants and animals are the primordial, the miraculously created ones. And, + even if they admit that, they will still inquire into the order of the + phenomena, into the form of the miracle You might as well expect the child + to grow up content with what it is told about the advent of its infant + brother Indeed, to learn that the new comer is the gift of God, far from + lulling inquiry, only stimulates speculation as to how the precious gift + was bestowed That questioning child is father to the man—is + philosopher in short-clothes. + </p> + <p> + Since, then questions about the origin of species will be raised, and have + been raised—and since the theorizings, however different in + particulars, all proceed upon the notion that one species of plant or + animal is somehow derived from another, that the different sorts which now + flourish are lineal (or unlineal) descendants of other and earlier sorts—it + now concerns us to ask, What are the grounds in Nature, the admitted + facts, which suggest hypotheses of derivation in some :shape or other? + Reasons there must be, and plausible ones, for the persistent recurrence + of theories upon this genetic basis. A study of Darwins book, and a + general glance at the present state of the natural sciences, enable us to + gather the following as among the most suggestive and influential. We can + only enumerate them here, without much indication of their particular + bearing. There is— + </p> + <p> + 1. The general fact of variability, and the general tendency of the + variety to propagate its like—the patent facts that all species vary + more or less; that domesticated plants and animals, being in conditions + favorable to the production and preservation of varieties, are apt to vary + widely; and that, by interbreeding, any variety may be fixed into a race, + that is, into a variety which comes true from seed. Many such races, it is + allowed, differ from each other in structure and appearance as widely as + do many admitted species; and it is practically very difficult, even + impossible, to draw a clear line between races and species. Witness the + human races, for instance. Wild species also vary, perhaps about as widely + as those of domestication, though in different ways. Some of them + apparently vary little, others moderately, others immoderately, to the + great bewilderment of systematic botanists and zoologists, and increasing + disagreement as to whether various forms shall be held to be original + species or strong varieties. Moreover, the degree to which the descendants + of the same stock, varying in different directions, may at length diverge, + is unknown. All we know is, that varieties are themselves variable, and + that very diverse forms have been educed from one stock. + </p> + <p> + 2. Species of the same genus are not distinguished from each other by + equal amounts of difference. There is diversity in this respect analogous + to that of the varieties of a polymorphous species, some of them slight, + others extreme. And in large genera the unequal resemblance shows itself + in the clustering of the species around several types or central species, + like satellites around their respective planets. Obviously suggestive this + of the hypothesis that they were satellites, not thrown off by revolution, + like the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and our own solitary moon, but + gradually and peacefully detached by divergent variation. That such + closely-related species may be only varieties of higher grade, earlier + origin, or more favored evolution, is not a very violent supposition. + Anyhow, it was a supposition sure to be made. + </p> + <p> + 3. The actual geographical distribution of species upon the earths surface + tends to suggest the same notion. For, as a general thing, all or most of + the species of a peculiar genus or other type are grouped in the same + country, or occupy continuous, proximate, or accessible areas. So well + does this rule hold, so general is the implication that kindred species + are or were associated geographically, that most trustworthy naturalists, + quite free from hypotheses of transmutation, are constantly inferring + former geographical continuity between parts of the world now widely + disjoined, in order to account thereby for certain generic similarities + among their inhabitants; just as philologists infer former connection of + races, and a parent language, to account for generic similarities among + existing languages. Yet no scientific explanation has been offered to + account for the geographical association of kindred species, except the + hypothesis of a common origin. + </p> + <p> + 4. Here the fact of the antiquity of creation, and in particular of the + present kinds of the earths inhabitants, or of a large part of them, comes + in to rebut the objection that there has not been time enough for any + marked diversification of living things through divergent variation—not + time enough for varieties to have diverged into what we call species. + </p> + <p> + So long as the existing species of plants and animals were thought to have + originated a few thousand years ago, and without predecessors, there was + no room for a theory of derivation of one sort from another, nor time + enough even to account for the establishment of the races which are + generally believed to have diverged from a common stock. Not so much that + five or six thousand years was a short allowance for this; but because + some of our familiar domesticated varieties of grain, of fowls, and of + other animals, were pictured and mummified by the old Egyptians more than + half that number of years ago, if not earlier. Indeed, perhaps the + strongest argument for the original plurality of human species was drawn + from the identification of some of the present races of men upon these + early historical monuments and records. + </p> + <p> + But this very extension of the current chronology, if we may rely upon the + archaeologists, removes the difficulty by opening up a longer vista. So + does the discovery in Europe of remains and implements of prehistoric + races of men, to whom the use of metals was unknown—men of the stone + age, as the Scandinavian archaeologists designate them. And now, "axes and + knives of flint, evidently wrought by human skill, are found in beds of + the drift at Amiens (also in other places, both in France and England), + associated with the bones of extinct species of animals." These + implements, indeed, were noticed twenty years ago; at a place in Suffolk + they have been exhumed from time to time for more than a century; but the + full confirmation, the recognition of the age of the deposit in which the + implements occur, their abundance, and the appreciation of their bearings + upon most interesting questions, belong to the present time. To complete + the connection of these primitive people with the fossil ages, the French + geologists, we are told, have now "found these axes in Picardy associated + with remains of Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus + fossilis, and an extinct species of Bos."[III-2} In plain language, these + workers in flint lived in the time of the mammoth, of a rhinoceros now + extinct, and along with horses and cattle unlike any now existing—specifically + different, as naturalists say, from those with which man is now + associated. Their connection with existing human races may perhaps be + traced through the intervening people of the stone age, who were succeeded + by the people of the bronze age, and these by workers in iron.[III-3} Now, + various evidence carries back the existence of many of the present lower + species of animals, and probably of a larger number of plants, to the same + drift period. All agree that this was very many thousand years ago. + Agassiz tells us that the same species of polyps which are now building + coral walls around the present peninsula of Florida actually made that + peninsula, and have been building there for many thousand centuries. + </p> + <p> + 5. The overlapping of existing and extinct species, and the seemingly + gradual transition of the life of the drift period into that of the + present, may be turned to the same account. Mammoths, mastodons, and Irish + elks, now extinct, must have lived down to human, if not almost to + historic times. Perhaps the last dodo did not long outlive his huge New + Zealand kindred. The aurochs, once the companion of mammoths, still + survives, but owes his present and precarious existence to mans care. Now, + nothing that we know of forbids the hypothesis that some new species have + been independently and supernaturally created within the period which + other species have survived. Some may even believe that man was created in + the days of the mammoth, became extinct, and was recreated at a later + date. But why not say the same of the aurochs, contemporary both of the + old man and of the new? Still it is more natural, if not inevitable, to + infer that, if the aurochs of that olden time were the ancestors of the + aurochs of the Lithuanian forests, so likewise were the men of that age + the ancestors of the present human races. Then, whoever concludes that + these primitive makers of rude flint axes and knives were the ancestors of + the better workmen of the succeeding stone age, and these again of the + succeeding artificers in brass and iron, will also be likely to suppose + that the Equus and Bos of that time, different though they be, were the + remote progenitors of our own horses and cattle. In all candor we must at + least concede that such considerations suggest a genetic descent from the + drift period down to the present, and allow time enough—if time is + of any account— for variation and natural selection to work out some + appreciable results in the way of divergence into races, or even into + so-called species. Whatever might have been thought, when geological time + was supposed to be separated from the present era by a clear line, it is + now certain that a gradual replacement of old forms by new ones is + strongly suggestive of some mode of origination which may still be + operative. When species, like individuals, were found to die out one by + one, and apparently to come in one by one, a theory for what Owen + sonorously calls "the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of + living things" could not be far off. + </p> + <p> + That all such theories should take the form of a derivation of the new + from the old seems to be inevitable, perhaps from our inability to + conceive of any other line of secondary causes in this connection. Owen + himself is apparently in travail with some transmutation theory of his own + conceiving, which may yet see the light, although Darwins came first to + the birth. Different as the two theories will probably be, they cannot + fail to exhibit that fundamental resemblance in this respect which + betokens a community of origin, a common foundation on the general facts + and the obvious suggestions of modern science. Indeed—to turn the + point of a pungent simile directed against Darwin—the difference + between the Darwinian and the Owenian hypotheses may, after all, be only + that between homoeopathic and heroic doses of the same drug. + </p> + <p> + If theories of derivation could only stop here, content with explaining + the diversification and succession of species between the teritiary period + and the present time, through natural agencies or secondary causes still + in operation, we fancy they would not be generally or violently objected + to by the savants of the present day. But it is hard, if not impossible, + to find a stopping-place. Some of the facts or accepted conclusions + already referred to, and several others, of a more general character, + which must be taken into the account, impel the theory onward with + accumulated force. Vires (not to say virus) acquirit eundo. The theory + hitches on wonderfully well to Lyells uniformitarian theory in geology—that + the thing that has been is the thing that is and shall be—that the + natural operations now going on will account for all geological changes in + a quiet and easy way, only give them time enough, so connecting the + present and the proximate with the farthest past by almost imperceptible + gradations—a view which finds large and increasing, if not general, + acceptance in physical geology, and of which Darwins theory is the natural + complement. + </p> + <p> + So the Darwinian theory, once getting a foothold, marches; boldly on, + follows the supposed near ancestors of our present species farther and yet + farther back into the dim past, and ends with an analogical inference + which "makes the whole world kin." As we said at the beginning, this + upshot discomposes us. Several features of the theory have an uncanny + look. They may prove to be innocent: but their first aspect is suspicious, + and high authorities pronounce the whole thing to be positively + mischievous. In this dilemma we are going to take advice. Following the + bent of our prejudices, and hoping to fortify these by new and strong + arguments, we are going now to read the principal reviews which undertake + to demolish the theory—with what result our readers shall be duly + informed. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0022" id="link2H_4_0022"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II + </h2> + <p> + "I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and + dispassionate judgment of which I am capable, that the view which most + naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained, namely, that each + species has been independently created, is erroneous. I am fully convinced + that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are + called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally + extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any + one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am + convinced that Natural Selection has been the main, but not exclusive, + means of modification." + </p> + <p> + This is the kernel of the new theory, the Darwinian creed, as recited at + the close of the introduction to the remarkable book under consideration. + The questions, "What will he do with it?" and "How far will he carry it?" + the author answers at the close of the volume: + </p> + <p> + "I cannot doubt that the theory of descent with modification embraces all + the members of the same class." Furthermore, "I believe that all animals + have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from + an equal or lesser number." + </p> + <p> + Seeing that analogy as strongly suggests a further step in the same + direction, while he protests that "analogy may be a deceitful guide," yet + he follows its inexorable leading to the inference that— + </p> + <p> + "Probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this ear have + descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first + breathed."[III-4} + </p> + <p> + In the first extract we have the thin end of the wedge driven a little + way; in the last, the wedge driven home. + </p> + <p> + We have already sketched some of the reasons suggestive of such a theory + of derivation of species, reasons which gave it plausibility, and even no + small probability, as applied to our actual world and to changes occurring + since the latest tertiary period. We are well pleased at this moment to + find that the conclusions we were arriving at in this respect are + sustained by the very high authority and impartial judgment of Pictet, the + Swiss paleontologist. In his review of Darwins book[III-5} — the + fairest and most admirable opposing one that has appeared—he freely + accepts that ensemble of natural operations which Darwin impersonates + under the now familiar name of Natural Selection, allows that the + exposition throughout the first chapters seems "a la fois prudent et + fort," and is disposed to accept the whole argument in its foundations, + that is, so far as it relates to what is now going on, or has taken place + in the present geological period—which period he carries back + through the diluvial epoch to the borders of the tertiary.[III-6} Pictet + accordingly admits that the theory will very well account for the + origination by divergence of nearly-related species, whether within the + present period or in remoter geological times; a very natural view for him + to take, since he appears to have reached and published, several years + ago, the pregnant conclusion that there most probably was some material + connection between the closely-related species of two successive faunas, + and that the numerous close species, whose limits are so difficult to + determine, were not all created distinct and independent. But while thus + accepting, or ready to accept, the basis of Darwins theory, and all its + legitimate direct inferences, he rejects the ultimate conclusions, brings + some weighty arguments to bear against them, and is evidently convinced + that he can draw a clear line between the sound inferences, which he + favors, and the unsound or unwarranted theoretical deductions, which he + rejects. We hope he can. + </p> + <p> + This raises the question, Why does Darwin press his theory to these + extreme conclusions? Why do all hypotheses of derivation converge so + inevitably to one ultimate point? Having already considered some of the + reasons which suggest or support the theory at its outset—which may + carry it as far as such sound and experienced naturalists as Pictet allow + that it may be true—perhaps as far as Darwin himself unfolds it in + the introductory proposition cited at the beginning of this article—we + may now inquire after the motives which impel the theorist so much + farther. Here proofs, in the proper sense of the word, are not to be had. + We are beyond the region of demonstration, and have only probabilities to + consider. What are these probabilities? What work will this hypothesis do + to establish a claim to be adopted in its completeness? Why should a + theory which may plausibly enough account for the diversification of the + species of each special type or genus be expanded into a general system + for the origination or successive diversification of all species, and all + special types or forms, from four or five remote primordial forms, or + perhaps from one? We accept the theory of gravitation because it explains + all the facts we know, and bears all the tests that we can put it to. We + incline to accept the nebular hypothesis, for similar reasons; not because + it is proved—thus far it is incapable of proof—but because it + is a natural theoretical deduction from accepted physical laws, is + thoroughly congruous with the facts, and because its assumption serves to + connect and harmonize these into one probable and consistent whole. Can + the derivative hypothesis be maintained and carried out into a system on + similar grounds? If so, however unproved, it would appear to be a tenable + hypothesis, which is all that its author ought now to claim. Such + hypotheses as, from the conditions of the case, can neither be proved nor + disproved by direct evidence or experiment, are to be tested only + indirectly, and therefore imperfectly, by trying their power to harmonize + the known facts, and to account for what is otherwise unaccountable. So + the question comes to this: What will an hypothesis of the derivation of + species explain which the opposing view leaves unexplained? + </p> + <p> + Questions these which ought to be entertained before we take up the + arguments which have been advanced against this theory. We can barely + glance at some of the considerations which Darwin adduces, or will be sure + to adduce in the future and fuller exposition which is promised. To + display them in such wise as to indoctrinate the unscientific reader would + require a volume. Merely to refer to them in the most general terms would + suffice for those familiar with scientific matters, but would scarcely + enlighten those who are not. Wherefore let these trust the impartial + Pictet, who freely admits that, "in the absence of sufficient direct + proofs to justify the possibility of his hypothesis, Mr. Darwin relies + upon indirect proofs, the bearing of which is real and incontestable;" who + concedes that "his theory accords very well with the great facts of + comparative anatomy and zoology—comes in admirably to explain unity + of composition of organisms, also to explain rudimentary and + representative organs, and the natural series of genera and species—equally + corresponds with many paleontological data—agrees well with the + specific resemblances which exist between two successive faunas, with the + parallelism which is sometimes observed between the series of + paleontological succession and of embryonal development," etc.; and + finally, although he does not accept the theory in these results, he + allows that "it appears to offer the best means of explaining the manner + in which organized beings were produced in epochs anterior to our own." + </p> + <p> + What more than this could be said for such an hypothesis? Here, probably, + is its charm, and its strong hold upon the speculative mind. Unproven + though it be, and cumbered prima facie with cumulative improbabilities as + it proceeds, yet it singularly accords with great classes of facts + otherwise insulated and enigmatic, and explains many things which are thus + far utterly inexplicable upon any other scientific assumption. + </p> + <p> + We have said that Darwins hypothesis is the natural complement to Lyells + uniformitarian theory in physical geology. It is for the organic world + what that is for the inorganic; and the accepters of the latter stand in a + position from which to regard the former in the most favorable light. + Wherefore the rumor that the cautious Lyell himself has adopted the + Darwinian hypothesis need not surprise us. The two views are made for each + other, and, like the two counterpart pictures for the stereoscope, when + brought together, combine into one apparently solid whole. + </p> + <p> + If we allow, with Pictet, that Darwins theory will very well serve for all + that concerns the present epoch of the worlds history—an epoch in + which this renowned paleontologist includes the diluvial or quaternary + period—then Darwins first and foremost need in his onward course is + a practicable road from this into and through the tertiary period, the + intervening region between the comparatively near and the far remote past. + Here Lyells doctrine paves the way, by showing that in the physical + geology there is no general or absolute break between the two, probably no + greater between the latest tertiary and the quaternary period than between + the latter and the present time. So far, the Lyellian view is, we suppose, + generally concurred in. It is largely admitted that numerous tertiary + species have continued down into the quaternary, and many of them to the + present time. A goodly percentage of the earlier and nearly half of the + later tertiary mollusca, according to Des Hayes, Lye!!, and, if we mistake + not, Bronn, still live. This identification, however, is now questioned by + a naturalist of the very highest authority. But, in its bearings on the + new theory, the point here turns not upon absolute identity so much as + upon close resemblance. For those who, with Agassiz, doubt the specific + identity in any of these cases, and those who say, with Pictet, that "the + later tertiary deposits contain in general the debris of species very + nearly related to those which still exist, belonging to the same genera, + but specifically different," may also agree with Pictet, that the + nearly-related species of successive faunas must or may have had "a + material connection." But the only material connection that we have an + idea of in such a case is a genealogical one. And the supposition of a + genealogical connection is surely not unnatural in such cases—is + demonstrably the natural one as respects all those tertiary species which + experienced naturalists have pronounced to be identical with existing + ones, but which others now deem distinct For to identify the two is the + same thing as to conclude the one to be the ancestor of the other No doubt + there are differences between the tertiary and the present individuals, + differences equally noticed by both classes of naturalists, but + differently estimated By the one these are deemed quite compatible, by the + other incompatible, with community of origin But who can tell us what + amount of difference is compatible with community of origin? This is the + very question at issue, and one to be settled by observation alone Who + would have thought that the peach and the nectarine came from one stock? + But, this being proved is it now very improbable that both were derived + from the almond, or from some common amygdaline progenitor? Who would have + thought that the cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli kale, and kohlrabi are + derivatives of one species, and rape or colza, turnip, and probably + ruta-baga, of another species? And who that is convinced of this can long + undoubtingly hold the original distinctness of turnips from cabbages as an + article of faith? On scientific grounds may not a primordial cabbage or + rape be assumed as the ancestor of all the cabbage races, on much the same + ground that we assume a common ancestry for the diversified human races? + If all Our breeds of cattle came from one stock why not this stock from + the auroch, which has had all the time between the diluvial and the + historic periods in which to set off a variation perhaps no greater than + the difference between some sorts of domestic cattle? + </p> + <p> + That considerable differences are often discernible between tertiary + individuals and their supposed descendants of the present day affords no + argument against Darwins theory, as has been rashly thought, but is + decidedly in its favor. If the identification were so perfect that no more + differences were observable between the tertiary and the recent shells + than between various individuals of either, then Darwins opponents, who + argue the immutability of species from the ibises and cats preserved by + the ancient Egyptians being just like those of the present day, could + triumphantly add a few hundred thousand years more to the length of the + experiment and to the force of their argument. + </p> + <p> + As the facts stand, it appears that, while some tertiary forms are + essentially undistinguishable from existing ones, others are the same with + a difference, which is judged not to be specific or aboriginal; and yet + others show somewhat greater differences, such as are scientifically + expressed by calling them marked varieties, or else doubtful species; + while others, differing a little more, are confidently termed distinct, + but nearly-related species. Now, is not all this a question of degree, of + mere gradation of difference? And is it at all likely that these several + gradations came to be established in two totally different ways—some + of them (though naturalists cant agree which) through natural variation, + or other secondary cause, and some by original creation, without secondary + cause? We have seen that the judicious Pictet answers such questions as + Darwin would have him do, in affirming that, in all probability, the + nearly-related species of two successive faunas were materially connected, + and that contemporaneous species, similarly resembling each other, were + not all created so, but have become so. This is equivalent to saying that + species (using the term as all naturalists do, and must continue to employ + the word) have only a relative, not an absolute fixity; that differences + fully equivalent to what are held to be specific may arise in the course + of time, so that one species may at length be naturally replaced by + another species a good deal like it, or may be diversified into two, + three, or more species, or forms as different as species. This concedes + all that Darwin has a right to ask, all that he can directly infer from + evidence. We must add that it affords a locus standi, more or less + tenable, for inferring more. + </p> + <p> + Here another geological consideration comes in to help on this inference. + The species of the later tertiary period for the most part not only + resembled those of our days—many of them so closely as to suggest an + absolute continuity—but also occupied in general the same regions + that their relatives occupy now. The same may be said, though less + specially, of the earlier tertiary and of the later secondary; but there + is less and less localization of forms as we recede, yet some localization + even in palaeozoic times. While in the secondary period one is struck with + the similarity of forms and the identity of many of the species which + flourished apparently at the same time in all or in the most + widely-separated parts of the world, in the tertiary epoch, on the + contrary, along with the increasing specialization of climates and their + approximation to the present state, we find abundant evidence of + increasing localization of orders, genera and species, and this + localization strikingly accords with the present geographical distribution + of the same groups of species Where the imputed forefathers lived their + relatives and supposed descendants now flourish All the actual classes of + the animal and vegetable kingdoms were represented in the tertiary faunas + and floras and in nearly the same proportions and the same diversities as + at present The faunas of what is now Europe, Asia America and Australia, + differed from each other much as they now differ: in fact—according + to Adolphe Brongniart, whose statements we here condense[III-7}—the + inhabitants of these different regions appear for the most part to have + acquired, before the close of the tertiary period, the characters which + essentially distinguish their existing faunas. The Eastern Continent had + then, as now, its great pachyderms, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus; + South America, its armadillos, sloths, and anteaters; Australia, a crowd + of marsupials; and the very strange birds of New Zealand had predecessors + of similar strangeness. + </p> + <p> + Everywhere the same geographical distribution as now, with a difference in + the particular area, as respects the northern portion of the continents, + answering to a warmer climate then than ours, such as allowed species of + hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant, to range even to the regions now + inhabited by the reindeer and the musk-ox, and with the serious disturbing + intervention of the glacial period within a comparatively recent time. Let + it be noted also that those tertiary species which have continued with + little change down to our days are the marine animals of the lower grades, + especially mollusca. Their low organization, moderate sensibility, and the + simple conditions of an existence in a medium like the ocean, not subject + to great variation and incapable of sudden change, may well account for + their continuance; while, on the other hand, the more intense, however + gradual, climatic vicissitudes on land, which have driven all tropical and + subtropical forms out of the higher latitudes and assigned to them their + actual limits, would be almost sure to extinguish such huge and unwieldy + animals as mastodons, mammoths, and the like, whose power of enduring + altered circumstances must have been small. + </p> + <p> + This general replacement of the tertiary species of a country by others so + much like them is a noteworthy fact. The hypothesis of the independent + creation of all species, irrespective of their antecedents, leaves this + fact just as mysterious as is creation itself; that of derivation + undertakes to account for it. Whether it satisfactorily does so or not, it + must be allowed that the facts well accord with that hypothesis. The same + may be said of another conclusion, namely, that the geological succession + of animals and plants appears to correspond in a general way with their + relative standing or rank in a natural system of classification. It seems + clear that, though no one of the grand types of the animal kingdom can be + traced back farther than the rest, yet the lower classes long preceded the + higher; that there has been on the whole a steady progression within each + class and order; and that the highest plants and animals have appeared + only in relatively modern times. It is only, however, in a broad sense + that this generalization is now thought to hold good. It encounters many + apparent exceptions, and sundry real ones. So far as the rule holds, all + is as it should be upon an hypothesis of derivation. + </p> + <p> + The rule has its exceptions. But, curiously enough, the most striking + class of exceptions, if such they be, seems to us even more favorable to + the doctrine of derivation than is the general rule of a pure and simple + ascending gradation. We refer to what Agassiz calls prophetic and + synthetic types; for which the former name may suffice, as the difference + between the two is evanescent. + </p> + <p> + "It has been noticed," writes our great zoologist, "that certain types, + which are frequently prominent among the representatives of past ages, + combine in their structure peculiarities which at later periods are only + observed separately in different, distinct types. Sauroid fishes before + reptiles, Pterodactyles before birds, Ichthyosauri before dolphins, etc. + There are entire families, of nearly every class of animals, which in the + state of their perfect development exemplify such prophetic relations. + </p> + <p> + The sauroid fishes of the past geological ages are an example of this kind + These fishes which preceded the appearance of reptiles present a + combination of ichthyic and reptilian characters not to be found in the + true members of this class, which form its bulk at present. The + Pterodactyles, which preceded the class of birds, and the Ichthyosauri, + which preceded the Cetacea, are other examples of such prophetic types."—(Agassiz, + "Contributions, Essay on Classification," p. 117.) + </p> + <p> + Now, these reptile-like fishes, of which gar-pikes are the living + representatives, though of earlier appearance, are admittedly of higher + rank than common fishes. They dominated until reptiles appeared, when they + mostly gave place to (or, as the derivationists will insist, were resolved + by divergent variation and natural selection into) common fishes, + destitute of reptilian characters, and saurian reptiles—the + intermediate grades, which, according to a familiar piscine saying, are + "neither fish, flesh, nor good red-herring," being eliminated and + extinguished by natural consequence of the struggle for existence which + Darwin so aptly portrays. And so, perhaps, of the other prophetic types. + Here type and antitype correspond. If these are true prophecies, we need + not wonder that some who read them in Agassizs book will read their + fulfillment in Darwins. + </p> + <p> + Note also, in this connection, that along with a wonderful persistence of + type, with change of species, genera, orders, etc., from formation to + formation, no species and no higher group which has once unequivocally + died out ever afterward reappears. Why is this, but that the link of + generation has been sundered? Why, on the hypothesis of independent + originations, were not failing species recreated, either identically or + with a difference, in regions eminently adapted to their well-being? To + take a striking case. That no part of the world now offers more suitable + conditions for wild horses and cattle than the pampas and other plains of + South America, is shown by the facility with which they have there run + wild and enormously multiplied, since introduced from the Old World not + long ago. There was no wild American stock. Yet in the times of the + mastodon and megatherium, at the dawn of the present period, wild-horses—certainly + very much like the existing horse—roamed over those plains in + abundance. On the principle of original and direct created adaptation of + species to climate and other conditions, why were they not reproduced, + when, after the colder intervening era, those regions became again + eminently adapted to such animals? Why, but because, by their complete + extinction in South America, the line of descent was there utterly broken? + Upon the ordinary hypothesis, there is no scientific explanation possible + of this series of facts, and of many others like them. Upon the new + hypothesis, "the succession of the same types of structure within the same + areas during the later geological periods ceases to be mysterious, and is + simply explained by inheritance." Their cessation is failure of issue. + </p> + <p> + Along with these considerations the fact (alluded to on page 98) should be + remembered that, as a general thing, related species of the present age + are geographically associated. The larger part of the plants, and still + more of the animals, of each separate country are peculiar to it; and, as + most species now flourish over the graves of their by-gone relatives of + former ages, so they now dwell among or accessibly near their kindred + species. + </p> + <p> + Here also comes in that general "parallelism between the order of + succession of animals and plants in geological times, and the gradation + among their living representatives" from low to highly organized, from + simple and general to complex and specialized forms; also "the parallelism + between the order of succession of animals in geological times and the + changes their living representatives undergo during their embryological + growth," as if the world were one prolonged gestation. Modern science has + much insisted on this parallelism, and to a certain extent is allowed to + have made it out. All these things, which conspire to prove that the + ancient and the recent forms of life "are somehow intimately connected + together in one grand system," equally conspire to suggest that the + connection is one similar or analogous to generation. Surely no naturalist + can be blamed for entering somewhat confidently upon a field of + speculative inquiry which here opens so invitingly; nor need former + premature endeavors and failures utterly dishearten him. + </p> + <p> + All these things, it may naturally be said, go to explain the order, not + the mode, of the incoming of species. But they all do tend to bring out + the generalization expressed by Mr. Wallace in the formula that "every + species has come into existence coincident both in time and space with + preexisting closely-allied species." Not, however, that this is proved + even of existing species as a matter of general fact. It is obviously + impossible to prove anything of the kind. But we must concede that the + known facts strongly suggest such an inference. And—since species + are only congeries of individuals, since every individual came into + existence in consequence of preexisting individuals of the same sort, so + leading up to the individuals with which the species began, and since the + only material sequence we know of among plants and animals is that from + parent to progeny—the presumption becomes exceedingly strong that + the connection of the incoming with the preexisting species is a + genealogical one. + </p> + <p> + Here, however, all depends upon the probability that Mr. Wallaces + inference is really true. Certainly it is not yet generally accepted; but + a strong current is setting toward its acceptance. + </p> + <p> + So long as universal cataclysms were in vogue, and all life upon the earth + was thought to have been suddenly destroyed and renewed many times in + succession, such a view could not be thought of. So the equivalent view + maintained by Agassiz, and formerly, we believe, by DOrbigny, that + irrespectively of general and sudden catastrophes, or any known adequate + physical cause, there has been a total depopulation at the close of each + geological period or formation, say forty or fifty times or more, followed + by as many independent great acts of creation, at which alone have species + been originated, and at each of which a vegetable and an animal kingdom + were produced entire and complete, full-fledged, as flourishing, as + wide-spread, and populous, as varied and mutually adapted from the + beginning as ever afterward—such a view, of course, supersedes all + material connection between successive species, and removes even the + association and geographical range of species entirely out of the domain + of physical causes and of natural science. This is the extreme opposite of + Wallaces and Darwin s view, and is quite as hypothetical. The nearly + universal opinion, if we rightly gather it, manifestly is, that the + replacement of the species of successive formations was not complete and + simultaneous, but partial and successive; and that along the course of + each epoch some species probably were introduced, and some, doubtless, + became extinct. If all since the tertiary belongs to our present epoch, + this is certainly true of it: if to two or more epochs, then the + hypothesis of a total change is not true of them. + </p> + <p> + Geology makes huge demands upon time; and we regret to find that it has + exhausted ours—that what we meant for the briefest and most general + sketch of some geological considerations in favor of Darwins hypothesis + has so extended as to leave no room for considering "the great facts of + comparative anatomy and zoology" with which Darwins theory "very well + accords," nor for indicating how "it admirably serves for explaining the + unity of composition of all organisms, the existence of representative and + rudimentary organs, and the natural series which genera and species + compose." Suffice it to say that these are the real strongholds of the new + system on its theoretical side; that it goes far toward explaining both + the physiological and the structural gradations and relations between the + two kingdoms, and the arrangement of all their forms in groups subordinate + to groups, all within a few great types; that it reads the riddle of + abortive organs and of morphological conformity, of which no other theory + has ever offered a scientific explanation, and supplies a ground for + harmonizing the two fundamental ideas which naturalists and philosophers + conceive to have ruled the organic world, though they could not reconcile + them; namely, Adaptation to Purpose and Conditions of Existence, and Unity + of Type. To reconcile these two undeniable principles is the capital + problem in the philosophy of natural history; and the hypothesis which + consistently does so thereby secures a great advantage. + </p> + <p> + We all know that the arm and hand of a monkey, the foreleg and foot of a + dog and of a horse, the wing of a bat, and the fin of a porpoise, are + fundamentally identical; that the long neck of the giraffe has the same + and no more bones than the short one of the elephant; that the eggs of + Surinam frogs hatch into tadpoles with as good tails for swimming as any + of their kindred, although as tadpoles they never enter the water; that + the Guinea-pig is furnished with incisor teeth which it never uses, as it + sheds them before birth; that embryos of mammals and birds have branchial + slits and arteries running in loops, in imitation or reminiscence of the + arrangement which is permanent in fishes; and that thousands of animals + and plants have rudimentary organs which, at least in numerous cases, are + wholly useless to their possessors, etc., etc. Upon a derivative theory + this morphological conformity is explained by community of descent; and it + has not been explained in any other way. + </p> + <p> + Naturalists are constantly speaking of "related species," of the + "affinity" of a genus or other group, and of "family resemblance"—vaguely + conscious that these terms of kinship are something more than mere + metaphors, but unaware of the grounds of their aptness. Mr. Darwin assures + them that they have been talking derivative doctrine all their lives—as + M. Jourdain talked prose—without knowing it. + </p> + <p> + If it is difficult and in many cases practically impossible to fix the + limits of species, it is still more so to fix those of genera; and those + of tribes and families are still less susceptible of exact natural + circumscription. Intermediate forms occur, connecting one group with + another in a manner sadly perplexing to systematists, except to those who + have ceased to expect absolute limitations in Nature. All this blending + could hardly fail to suggest a former material connection among allied + forms, such as that which the hypothesis of derivation demands. + </p> + <p> + Here it would not be amiss to consider the general principle of gradation + throughout organic Nature—a principle which answers in a general way + to the Law of Continuity in the inorganic world, or rather is so analogous + to it that both may fairly be expressed by the Leibnitzian axiom, Natura + non agit saltatim. As an axiom or philosophical principle, used to test + modal laws or hypotheses, this in strictness belongs only to physics. In + the investigation of Nature at large, at least in the organic world, + nobody would undertake to apply this principle as a test of the validity + of any theory or supposed law. But naturalists of enlarged views will not + fail to infer the principle from the phenomena they investigate—to + perceive that the rule holds, under due qualifications and altered forms, + throughout the realm of Nature; although we do not suppose that Nature in + the organic world makes no distinct steps, but only short and serial steps—not + infinitely fine gradations, but no long leaps, or few of them. + </p> + <p> + To glance at a few illustrations out of many that present themselves. It + would be thought that the distinction between the two organic kingdoms was + broad and absolute. Plants and animals belong to two very different + categories, fulfill opposite offices and, as to the mass of them are so + unlike that the difficulty of the ordinary observer would be to find + points of comparison Without entering into details which would fill an + article, we may safely say that the difficulty with the naturalist is all + the other way—that all these broad differences vanish one by one as + we approach the lower confines of the two kingdoms, and that no absolute + distinction whatever is now known between them. It is quite possible that + the same organism may be both vegetable and animal, or may be first the + one and then the other. If some organisms may be said to be at first + vegetables and then animals, others, like the spores and other + reproductive bodies of many of the lower Algae, may equally claim to have + first a characteristically animal, and then an unequivocally vegetable + existence. Nor is the gradation restricted to these simple organisms. It + appears in general functions, as in that of reproduction, which is + reducible to the same formula in both kingdoms, while it exhibits close + approximations in the lower forms; also in a common or similar ground of + sensibility in the lowest forms of both, a common faculty of effecting + movements tending to a determinate end, traces of which pervade the + vegetable kingdom—while, on the other hand, this indefinable + principle, this vegetable + </p> + <p> + "Animula vagula, blandula, Hospes comesque corporis," + </p> + <p> + graduates into the higher sensitiveness of the lower class of animals. Nor + need we hesitate to recognize the fine gradations from simple + sensitiveness and volition to the higher instinctive and to the other + psychical manifestations of the higher brute animals. The gradation is + undoubted, however we may explain it. + </p> + <p> + Again, propagation is of one mode in the higher animals, of two in all + plants; but vegetative propagation, by budding or offshoots, extends + through the lower grades of animals. In both kingdoms there may be + separation of the offshoots, or indifference in this respect, or continued + and organic union with the parent stock; and this either with essential + independence of the offshoots, or with a subordination of these to a + common whole; or finally with such subordination and amalgamation, along + with specialization of function, that the same parts, which in other cases + can be regarded only as progeny, in these become only members of an + individual. + </p> + <p> + This leads to the question of individuality, a subject quite too large and + too recondite for present discussion. The conclusion of the whole matter, + however, is, that individuality—that very ground of being as + distinguished from thing—is not attained in Nature at one leap. If + anywhere truly exemplified in plants, it is only in the lowest and + simplest, where the being is a structural unit, a single cell, member-less + and organless, though organic—the same thing as those cells of which + all the more complex plants are built up, and with which every plant and + (structurally) every animal began its development. In the ascending + gradation of the vegetable kingdom individuality is, so to say, striven + after, but never attained; in the lower animals it is striven after with + greater though incomplete success; it is realized only in animals of so + high a rank that vegetative multiplication or offshoots are out of the + question, where all parts are strictly members and nothing else, and all + subordinated to a common nervous centre—is fully realized only in a + conscious person. + </p> + <p> + So, also, the broad distinction between reproduction by seeds or ova and + propagation by buds, though perfect in some of the lowest forms of life, + becomes evanescent in others; and even the most absolute law we know in + the physiology of genuine reproduction—that of sexual cooperation—has + its exceptions in both kingdoms in parthenogenesis, to which in the + vegetable kingdom a most curious and intimate series of gradations leads. + In plants, likewise, a long and finely graduated series of transitions + leads from bisexual to unisexual blossoms; and so in various other + respects. Everywhere we may perceive that Nature secures her ends, and + makes her distinctions on the whole manifest and real but everywhere + without abrupt breaks We need not wonder therefore that gradations between + species and varieties should occur; the more so, since genera, tribes, and + other groups into which the naturalist collocates species, are far from + being always absolutely limited in Nature, though they are necessarily + represented to be so in systems. From the necessity of the case, the + classifications of the naturalist abruptly define where Nature more or + less blends. Our systems are nothing, if not definite. They express + differences, and some of the coarser gradations. But this evinces not + their perfection, but their imperfection. Even the best of them are to the + system of Nature what consecutive patches of the seven colors are to the + rainbow. + </p> + <p> + Now the principle of gradation throughout organic Nature may, of course, + be interpreted upon other assumptions than those of Darwins hypothesis—certainly + upon quite other than those of a materialistic philosophy, with which we + ourselves have no sympathy. Still we conceive it not only possible, but + probable, that this gradation, as it has its natural ground, may yet have + its scientific explanation. In any case, there is no need to deny that the + general facts correspond well with an hypothesis like Darwins, which is + built upon fine gradations. + </p> + <p> + We have contemplated quite long enough the general presumptions in favor + of an hypothesis of the derivation of species. We cannot forget, however, + while for the moment we overlook, the formidable difficulties which all + hypotheses of this class have to encounter, and the serious implications + which they seem to involve. We feel, moreover, that Darwins particular + hypothesis is exposed to some special objections. It requires no small + strength of nerve steadily to conceive, not only of the diversification, + but of the formation of the organs of an animal through cumulative + variation and natural selection. Think of such an organ as the eye, that + most perfect of optical instruments, as so produced in the lower animals + and perfected in the higher! A friend of ours, who accepts the new + doctrine, confesses that for a long while a cold chill came over him + whenever he thought of the eye. He has at length got over that stage of + the complaint, and is now in the fever of belief, perchance to be + succeeded by the sweating stage, during which sundry peccant humors may be + eliminated from the system. For ourselves, we dread the chill, and have + some misgivings about the consequences of the reaction. We find ourselves + in the "singular position" acknowledged by Pictet—that is, + confronted with a theory which, although it can really explain much, seems + inadequate to the heavy task it so boldly assumes, but which, + nevertheless, appears better fitted than any other that has been broached + to explain, if it be possible to explain, somewhat of the manner in which + organized beings may have arisen and succeeded each other. In this dilemma + we might take advantage of Mr. Darwins candid admission, that he by no + means expects to convince old and experienced people, whose minds are + stocked with a multitude of facts all regarded during a long course of + years from the old point of view. This is nearly our case. So, owning no + call to a larger faith than is expected of us, but not prepared to + pronounce the whole hypothesis untenable, under such construction as we + should put upon it, we naturally sought to attain a settled conviction + through a perusal of several proffered refutations of the theory. At + least, this course seemed to offer the readiest way of bringing to a head + the various objections to which the theory is exposed. On several accounts + some of these opposed reviews especially invite examination. We propose, + accordingly, to conclude our task with an article upon "Darwin and his + Reviewers." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0023" id="link2H_4_0023"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III + </h2> + <p> + The origin of species, like all origination, like the institution of any + other natural state or order, is beyond our immediate ken. We see or may + learn how things go on; we can only frame hypotheses as to how they began. + </p> + <p> + Two hypotheses divide the scientific world, very unequally, upon the + origin of the existing diversity of the plants and animals which surround + us. One assumes that the actual kinds are primordial; the other, that they + are derivative. One, that all kinds originated supernaturally and directly + as such, and have continued unchanged in the order of Nature; the other, + that the present kinds appeared in some sort of genealogical connection + with other and earlier kinds, that they became what they now are in the + course of time and in the order of Nature. + </p> + <p> + Or, bringing in the word species, which is well defined as "the perennial + succession of individuals," commonly of very like individuals—as a + close corporation of individuals perpetuated by generation, instead of + election—and reducing the question to mathematical simplicity of + statement: species are lines of individuals coming down from the past and + running on to the future; lines receding, therefore, from our view in + either direction. Within our limited observation they appear to be + parallel lines, as a general thing neither approaching to nor diverging + from each other. + </p> + <p> + The first hypothesis assumes that they were parallel from the unknown + beginning and will be to the unknown end. The second hypothesis assumes + that the apparent parallelism is not real and complete, at least + aboriginally, but approximate or temporary; that we should find the lines + convergent in the past, if we could trace them far enough; that some of + them, if produced back, would fall into certain fragments of lines, which + have left traces in the past, lying not exactly in the same direction, and + these farther back into others to which they are equally unparallel. It + will also claim that the present lines, whether on the whole really or + only approximately parallel, sometimes fork or send off branches on one + side or the other, producing new lines (varieties), which run for a while, + and for aught we know indefinitely when not interfered with, near and + approximately parallel to the parent line. This claim it can establish; + and it may also show that these close subsidiary lines may branch or vary + again, and that those branches or varieties which are best adapted to the + existing conditions may be continued, while others stop or die out. And so + we may have the basis of a real theory of the diversification of species + and here indeed, there is a real, though a narrow, established ground to + build upon But as systems of organic Nature, both doctrines are equally + hypotheses, are suppositions of what there is no proof of from experience, + assumed in order to account for the observed phenomena, and supported by + such indirect evidence as can be had. + </p> + <p> + Even when the upholders of the former and more popular system mix up + revelation with scientific discussion—which we decline to do—they + by no means thereby render their view other than hypothetical. Agreeing + that plants and animals were produced by Omnipotent fiat does not exclude + the idea of natural order and what we call secondary causes. The record of + the fiat—"Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed," + etc., "and it was so;" "let the earth bring forth the living creature + after his kind, cattle and creeping thing and beast of the earth after his + kind, and it was so"—seems even to imply them. Agreeing that they + were formed of "the dust of the ground," and of thin air, only leads to + the conclusion that the pristine individuals were corporeally constituted + like existing individuals, produced through natural agencies. To agree + that they were created "after their kinds" determines nothing as to what + were the original kinds, nor in what mode, during what time, and in what + connections it pleased the Almighty to introduce the first individuals of + each sort upon the earth. Scientifically considered, the two opposing + doctrines are equally hypothetical. + </p> + <p> + The two views very unequally divide the scientific world; so that + believers in "the divine right of majorities" need not hesitate which side + to take, at least for the present. Up to a time quite within the memory of + a generation still on the stage, two hypotheses about the nature of light + very unequally divided the scientific world. But the small minority has + already prevailed: the emission theory has gone out; the undulatory or + wave theory, after some fluctuation, has reached high tide, and is now the + pervading, the fully-established system. There was an intervening time + during which most physicists held their opinions in suspense. + </p> + <p> + The adoption of the undulatory theory of light called for the extension of + the same theory to heat, and this promptly suggested the hypothesis of a + correlation, material connection, and transmutability of heat, light, + electricity, magnetism, etc.; which hypothesis the physicists held in + absolute suspense until very lately, but are now generally adopting. If + not already established as a system, it promises soon to become so. At + least, it is generally received as a tenable and probably true hypothesis. + </p> + <p> + Parallel to this, however less cogent the reasons, Darwin and others, + having shown it likely that some varieties of plants or animals have + diverged in time into cognate species, or into forms as different as + species, are led to infer that all species of a genus may have thus + diverged from a common stock, and thence to suppose a higher community of + origin in ages still farther back, and so on. Following the safe example + of the physicists, and acknowledging the fact of the diversification of a + once homogeneous species into varieties, we may receive the theory of the + evolution of these into species, even while for the present we hold the + hypothesis of a further evolution in cool suspense or in grave suspicion. + In respect to very many questions a wise mans mind rests long in a state + neither of belief nor unbelief. But your intellectually short-sighted + people are apt to be preternaturally clear-sighted, and to find their way + very plain to positive conclusions upon one side or the other of every + mooted question. + </p> + <p> + In fact, most people, and some philosophers, refuse to hold questions in + abeyance, however incompetent they may be to decide them. And, curiously + enough, the more difficult, recondite, and perplexing, the questions or + hypotheses are—such, for instance, as those about organic Nature—the + more impatient they are of suspense. Sometimes, and evidently in the + present case, this impatience grows out of a fear that a new hypothesis + may endanger cherished and most important beliefs. Impatience under such + circumstances is not unnatural, though perhaps needless, and, if so, + unwise. + </p> + <p> + To us the present revival of the derivative hypothesis, in a more winning + shape than it ever before had, was not unexpected. We wonder that any + thoughtful observer of the course of investigation and of speculation in + science should not have foreseen it, and have learned at length to take + its inevitable coming patiently; the more so, as in Darwins treatise it + comes in a purely scientific form, addressed only to scientific men. The + notoriety and wide popular perusal of this treatise appear to have + astonished the author even more than the book itself has astonished the + reading world Coming as the new presentation does from a naturalist of + acknowledged character and ability and marked by a conscientiousness and + candor which have not always been reciprocated we have thought it simply + right to set forth the doctrine as fairly and as favorably as we could + There are plenty to decry it and the whole theory is widely exposed to + attack For the arguments on the other side we may look to the numerous + adverse publications which Darwin s volume has already called out and + especially to those reviews which propose directly to refute it. Taking + various lines and reflecting very diverse modes of thought, these hostile + critics may be expected to concentrate and enforce the principal + objections which can be brought to bear against the derivative hypothesis + in general, and Darwins new exposition of it in particular. + </p> + <p> + Upon the opposing side of the question we have read with attention—1. + An article in the North American Review for April last; 2. One in the + Christian Examiner, Boston, for May; 3. M. Pictets article in the + Bibliotheque Universelle, which we have already made considerable use of, + which seems throughout most able and correct, and which in tone and + fairness is admirably in contrast with—4. The article in the + Edinburgh Review for May, attributed—although against a large amount + of internal presumptive evidence—to the most distinguished British + comparative anatomist; 5. An article in the North British Review for May; + 6. Prof. Agassiz has afforded an early opportunity to peruse the + criticisms he makes in the forthcoming third volume of his great work, by + a publication of them in advance in the American Journal of Science for + July. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +In our survey of the lively discussion which has been raised, it +matters little how our own particular opinions may incline. But we may +confess to an impression, thus far, that the doctrine of the permanent +and complete immutability of species has not been established, and may +fairly be doubted. We believe that species vary, and that "Natural +Selection" + works; but we suspect that its operation, like every analogous natural +operation, may be limited by something else. Just as every species by +its natural rate of reproduction would soon completely fill any country +it could live in, but does not, being checked by some other species or +some other condition—so it may be surmised that variation and natural +selection have their struggle and consequent check, or are limited by +something inherent in the constitution of organic beings. +</pre> + <p> + We are disposed to rank the derivative hypothesis in its fullness with the + nebular hypothesis, and to regard both as allowable, as not unlikely to + prove tenable in spite of some strong objections, but as not therefore + demonstrably true. Those, if any there be, who regard the derivative + hypothesis as satisfactorily proved, must have loose notions as to what + proof is. Those who imagine it can be easily refuted and cast aside, must, + we think, have imperfect or very prejudiced conceptions of the facts + concerned and of the questions at issue. + </p> + <p> + We are not disposed nor prepared to take sides for or against the new + hypothesis, and so, perhaps, occupy a good position from which to watch + the discussion and criticise those objections which are seemingly + inconclusive. On surveying the arguments urged by those who have + undertaken to demolish the theory, we have been most impressed with a + sense of their great inequality. Some strike us as excellent and perhaps + unanswerable; some, as incongruous with other views of the same writers; + others, when carried out, as incompatible with general experience or + general beliefs, and therefore as proving too much; still others, as + proving nothing at all; so that, on the whole, the effect is rather + confusing and disappointing. We certainly expected a stronger adverse case + than any which the thoroughgoing opposers of Darwin appear to have made + out. Wherefore, if it be found that the new hypothesis has grown upon our + favor as we proceeded, this must be attributed not so much to the force of + the arguments of the book itself as to the want of force of several of + those by which it has been assailed. Darwins arguments we might resist or + adjourn; but some of the refutations of it give us more concern than the + book itself did. + </p> + <p> + These remarks apply mainly to the philosophical and theological objections + which have been elaborately urged, almost exclusively by the American + reviewers. The North British reviewer, indeed, roundly denounces the book + as atheistical, but evidently deems the case too clear for argument. The + Edinburgh reviewer, on the contrary, scouts all such objections—as + well he may, since he records his belief in "a continuous creative + operation," a constantly operating secondary creational law," through + which species are successively produced; and he emits faint, but not + indistinct, glimmerings of a transmutation theory of his own;[III-8} so + that he is equally exposed to all the philosophical objections advanced by + Agassiz, and to most of those urged by the other American critics, against + Darwin himself. + </p> + <p> + Proposing now to criticise the critics, so far as to see what their most + general and comprehensive objections amount to, we must needs begin with + the American reviewers, and with their arguments adduced to prove that a + derivative hypothesis ought not to be true, or is not possible, + philosophical, or theistic. + </p> + <p> + It must not be forgotten that on former occasions very confident judgments + have been pronounced by very competent persons, which have not been + finally ratified. Of the two great minds of the seventeenth century, + Newton and Leibnitz, both profoundly religious as well as philosophical, + one produced the theory of gravitation, the other objected to that theory + that it was subversive of natural religion. The nebular hypothesis—a + natural consequence of the theory of gravitation and of the subsequent + progress of physical and astronomical discovery—has been denounced + as atheistical even down to our own day. But it is now largely adopted by + the most theistical natural philosophers as a tenable and perhaps + sufficient hypothesis, and where not accepted is no longer objected to, so + far as we know, on philosophical or religious grounds. + </p> + <p> + The gist of the philosophical objections urged by the two Boston reviewers + against an hypothesis of the derivation of species—or at least + against Darwins particular hypothesis— is, that it is incompatible + with the idea of any manifestation of design in the universe, that it + denies final causes. A serious objection this, and one that demands very + serious attention. + </p> + <p> + The proposition, that things and events in Nature were not designed to be + so, if logically carried out, is doubtless tantamount to atheism. Yet most + people believe that some were designed and others were not, although they + fall into a hopeless maze whenever they undertake to define their + position. So we should not like to stigmatize as atheistically disposed a + person who regards certain things and events as being what they are + through designed laws (whatever that expression means), but as not + themselves specially ordained, or who, in another connection, believes in + general, but not in particular Providence. We could sadly puzzle him with + questions; but in return he might equally puzzle us. Then, to deny that + anything was specially designed to be what it is, is one proposition; + while to deny that the Designer supernaturally or immediately made it so, + is another: though the reviewers appear not to recognize the distinction. + </p> + <p> + Also, "scornfully to repudiate" or to "sneer at the idea of any + manifestation of design in the material universe,"[III-9} is one thing; + while to consider, and perhaps to exaggerate, the difficulties which + attend the practical application of the doctrine of final causes to + certain instances, is quite another thing: yet the Boston reviewers, we + regret to say, have not been duly regardful of the difference. Whatever be + thought of Darwins doctrine, we are surprised that he should be charged + with scorning or sneering at the opinions of others, upon such a subject. + Perhaps Darwins view is incompatible with final causes—we will + consider that question presently— but as to the Examiners charge, + that he "sneers at the idea of any manifestation of design in the material + universe," though we are confident that no misrepresentation was intended, + we are equally confident that it is not at all warranted by the two + passages cited in support of it. Here are the passages: + </p> + <p> + "If green woodpeckers alone had existed, or we did not know that there + were many black and pied kinds, I dare say that we should have thought + that the green color was a beautiful adaptation to hide this + tree-frequenting bird from its enemies." + </p> + <p> + "If our reason leads us to admire with enthusiasm a multitude of + inimitable contrivances in Nature, this same reason tells us, though we + may easily err on both sides, that some contrivances are less perfect. Can + we consider the sting of the wasp or of the bee as perfect, which, when + used against many attacking animals, cannot be withdrawn, owing to the + backward serratures, and so inevitably causes the death of the insect by + tearing out its viscera?" + </p> + <p> + If the sneer here escapes ordinary vision in the detached extracts (one of + them wanting the end of the sentence), it is, if possible, more + imperceptible when read with the context. Moreover, this perusal inclines + us to think that the Examiner has misapprehended the particular argument + or object, as well as the spirit, of the author in these passages. The + whole reads more naturally as a caution against the inconsiderate use of + final causes in science, and an illustration of some of the manifold + errors and absurdities which their hasty assumption is apt to involve—considerations + probably equivalent to those which induced Lord Bacon to liken final + causes to "vestal virgins." So, if any one, it is here Bacon that "sitteth + in the seat of the scornful." As to Darwin, in the section from which the + extracts were made, he is considering a subsidiary question, and trying to + obviate a particular difficulty, but, we suppose, is wholly unconscious of + denying "any manifestation of design in the material universe." He + concludes the first sentence: + </p> + <p> + —"and consequently that it was a character of importance, and might + have been acquired through natural selection; as it is, I have no doubt + that the color is due to some quite distinct cause, probably to sexual + selection." + </p> + <p> + After an illustration from the vegetable creation, Darwin adds: + </p> + <p> + "The naked skin on the head of a vulture is generally looked at as a + direct adaptation for wallowing in putridity; and so it may be, or it may + possibly be due to the direct action of putrid matter; but we should be + very cautious in drawing any such inference, when we see that the skin on + the head of the clean-feeding male turkey is likewise naked. The sutures + in the skulls of young mammals have been advanced as a beautiful + adaptation for aiding parturition, and no doubt they facilitate or may be + indispensable for this act; but as sutures occur in the skulls of young + birds and reptiles, which have only to escape from a broken egg, we may + infer that this structure has arisen from the laws of growth, and has been + taken advantage of in the parturition of the higher animals." + </p> + <p> + All this, simply taken, is beyond cavil, unless the attempt to explain + scientifically how any designed result is accomplished savors of + impropriety. + </p> + <p> + In the other place, Darwin is contemplating the patent fact that + "perfection here below" is relative, not absolute—and illustrating + this by the circumstance that European animals, and especially plants, are + now proving to be better adapted for New Zealand than many of the + indigenous ones—that "the correction for the aberration of light is + said, on high authority, not to be quite perfect even in that most perfect + organ, the eye." And then follows the second extract of the reviewer. But + what is the position of the reviewer upon his own interpretation of these + passages? If he insists that green woodpeckers were specifically created + so in order that they might be less liable to capture, must he not equally + hold that the black and pied ones were specifically made of these colors + in order that they might be more liable to be caught? And would an + explanation of the mode in which those woodpeckers came to be green, + however complete, convince him that the color was undesigned? + </p> + <p> + As to the other illustration, is the reviewer so complete an optimist as + to insist that the arrangement and the weapon are wholly perfect (quoad + the insect) the normal use of which often causes the animal fatally to + injure or to disembowel itself? Either way it seems to us that the + argument here, as well as the insect, performs hari-kari. The Examiner + adds: + </p> + <p> + "We should in like manner object to the word favorable, as implying that + some species are placed by the Creator under unfavorable circumstances, at + least under such as might be advantageously modified." + </p> + <p> + But are not many individuals and some races of men placed by the Creator + "under unfavorable circumstances, at least under such as might be + advantageously modified?" Surely these reviewers must be living in an + ideal world, surrounded by "the faultless monsters which our world neer + saw," in some elysium where imperfection and distress were never heard of! + Such arguments resemble some which we often hear against the Bible, + holding that book responsible as if it originated certain facts on the + shady side of human nature or the apparently darker lines of Providential + dealing, though the facts are facts of common observation and have to be + confronted upon any theory. + </p> + <p> + The North American reviewer also has a world of his own—just such a + one as an idealizing philosopher would be apt to devise—that is, + full of sharp and absolute distinctions: such, for instance, as the + "absolute invariableness of instinct;" an absolute want of intelligence in + any brute animal; and a complete monopoly of instinct by the brute + animals, so that this "instinct is a great matter" for them only, since it + sharply and perfectly distinguishes this portion of organic Nature from + the vegetable kingdom on the one hand and from man on the other: most + convenient views for argumentative purposes, but we suppose not borne out + in fact. + </p> + <p> + In their scientific objections the two reviewers take somewhat different + lines; but their philosophical and theological arguments strikingly + coincide. They agree in emphatically asserting that Darwins hypothesis of + the origination of species through variation and natural selection + "repudiates the whole doctrine of final causes," and "all indication of + design or purpose in the organic world . . . is neither more nor less than + a formal denial of any agency beyond that of a blind chance in the + developing or perfecting of the organs or instincts of created beings. . . + . It is in vain that the apologists of this hypothesis might say that it + merely attributes a different mode and time to the Divine agency—that + all the qualities subsequently appearing in their descendants must have + been implanted, and have remained latent in the original pair." Such a + view, the Examiner declares, "is nowhere stated in this book, and would + be, we are sure, disclaimed by the author." + </p> + <p> + We should like to be informed of the grounds of this sureness. The marked + rejection of spontaneous generation—the statement of a belief that + all animals have descended from four or five progenitors, and plants from + an equal or lesser number, or, perhaps, if constrained to it by analogy, + "from some one primordial form into which life was first breathed"—coupled + with the expression, "To my mind it accords better with what we know of + the laws impressed on matter by the Creator, that the production and + extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have + been due to secondary causes," than "that each species has been + independently created"—these and similar expressions lead us to + suppose that the author probably does accept the kind of view which the + Examiner is sure he would disclaim. At least, we charitably see nothing in + his scientific theory to hinder his adoption of Lord Bacons "Confession of + Faith" in this regard— "That, notwithstanding God hath rested and + ceased from creating, yet, nevertheless, he doth accomplish and fulfill + his divine will in all things, great and small, singular and general, as + fully and exactly by providence as he could by miracle and new creation, + though his working be not immediate and direct, but by compass; not + violating Nature, which is his own law upon the creature." + </p> + <p> + However that may be, it is undeniable that Mr. Darwin has purposely been + silent upon the philosophical and theological applications of his theory. + This reticence, under the circumstances, argues design, and raises inquiry + as to the final cause or reason why. Here, as in higher instances, + confident as we are that there is a final cause, we must not be + overconfident that we can infer the particular or true one. Perhaps the + author is more familiar with natural-historical than with philosophical + inquiries, and, not having decided which particular theory about efficient + cause is best founded, he meanwhile argues the scientific questions + concerned—all that relates to secondary causes—upon purely + scientific grounds, as he must do in any case. Perhaps, confident, as he + evidently is, that his view will finally be adopted, he may enjoy a sort + of satisfaction in hearing it denounced as sheer atheism by the + inconsiderate, and afterward, when it takes its place with the nebular + hypothesis and the like, see this judgment reversed, as we suppose it + would be in such event. + </p> + <p> + Whatever Mr. Darwins philosophy may be, or whether he has any, is a matter + of no consequence at all, compared with the important questions, whether a + theory to account for the origination and diversification of animal and + vegetable forms through the operation of secondary causes does or does not + exclude design; and whether the establishment by adequate evidence of + Darwin s particular theory of diversification through variation and + natural selection would essentially alter the present scientific and + philosophical grounds for theistic views of Nature. The unqualified + affirmative judgment rendered by the two Boston reviewers, evidently able + and practised reasoners, "must give us pause." We hesitate to advance our + conclusions in opposition to theirs. But, after full and serious + consideration, we are constrained to say that, in our opinion, the + adoption of a derivative hypothesis, and of Darwins particular hypothesis, + if we understand it, would leave the doctrines of final causes, utility, + and special design, just where they were before. We do not pretend that + the subject is not environed with difficulties. Every view is so + environed; and every shifting of the view is likely, if it removes some + difficulties, to bring others into prominence. But we cannot perceive that + Darwins theory brings in any new kind of scientific difficulty, that is, + any with which philosophical naturalists were not already familiar. + </p> + <p> + Since natural science deals only with secondary or natural causes, the + scientific terms of a theory of derivation of species—no less than + of a theory of dynamics—must needs be the same to the theist as to + the atheist. The difference appears only when the inquiry is carried up to + the question of primary cause—a question which belongs to + philosophy. Wherefore, Darwin s reticence about efficient cause does not + disturb us. He considers only the scientific questions. As already stated, + we think that a theistic view of Nature is implied in his book, and we + must charitably refrain from suggesting the contrary until the contrary is + logically deduced from his premises. If, however, he anywhere maintains + that the natural causes through which species are diversified operate + without an ordaining and directing intelligence, and that the orderly + arrangements and admirable adaptations we see all around us are fortuitous + or blind, undesigned results—that the eye, though it came to see, + was not designed for seeing, nor the hand for handling—then, we + suppose, he is justly chargeable with denying, and very needlessly + denying, all design in organic Nature; otherwise, we suppose not. Why, if + Darwins well-known passage about the eye[III-10} equivocal though some of + the language be—does not imply ordaining and directing intelligence, + then he refutes his own theory as effectually as any of his opponents are + likely to do. He asks: + </p> + <p> + "May we not believe that [under variation proceeding long enough, + generation multiplying the better variations times enough, and natural + selection securing the improvements] a living optical instrument might be + thus formed as superior to one of glass as the works of the Creator are to + those of man?" + </p> + <p> + This must mean one of two things: either that the living instrument was + made and perfected under (which is the same thing as by) an intelligent + First Cause, or that it was not. If it was, then theism is asserted; and + as to the mode of operation, how do we know, and why must we believe, + that, fitting precedent forms being in existence, a living instrument (so + different from a lifeless manufacture) would be originated and perfected + in any other way, or that this is not the fitting way? If it means that it + was not, if he so misuses words that by the Creator he intends an + unintelligent power, undirected force, or necessity, then he has put his + case so as to invite disbelief in it. For then blind forces have produced + not only manifest adaptions of means to specific ends—which is + absurd enough—but better adjusted and more perfect instruments or + machines than intellect (that is, human intellect) can contrive and human + skill execute—which no sane person will believe. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, if Darwin even admits—we will not say adopts—the + theistic view, he may save himself much needless trouble in the endeavor + to account for the absence of every sort of intermediate form. Those in + the line between one species and another supposed to be derived from it he + may be bound to provide; but as to "an infinite number of other varieties + not intermediate, gross, rude, and purposeless, the unmeaning creations of + an unconscious cause," born only to perish, which a relentless reviewer + has imposed upon his theory—rightly enough upon the atheistic + alternative—the theistic view rids him at once of this "scum of + creation." For, as species do not now vary at all times and places and in + all directions, nor produce crude, vague, imperfect, and useless forms, + there is no reason for supposing that they ever did. Good-for-nothing + monstrosities, failures of purpose rather than purposeless, indeed, + sometimes occur; but these are just as anomalous and unlikely upon Darwins + theory as upon any other. For his particular theory is based, and even + over-strictly insists, upon the most universal of physiological laws, + namely, that successive generations shall differ only slightly, if at all, + from their parents; and this effectively excludes crude and impotent + forms. Wherefore, if we believe that the species were designed, and that + natural propagation was designed, how can we say that the actual varieties + of the species were not equally designed? Have we not similar grounds for + inferring design in the supposed varieties of species, that we have in the + case of the supposed species of a genus? When a + </p> + <p> + naturalist comes to regard as three closely related species what he before + took to be so many varieties of one species how has he thereby + strengthened our conviction that the three forms are designed to have the + differences which they actually exhibit? Wherefore so long as gradatory, + orderly, and adapted forms in Nature argue design, and at least while the + physical cause of variation is utterly unknown and mysterious, we should + advise Mr. Darwin to assume in the philosophy of his hypothesis that + variation has been led along certain beneficial lines. Streams flowing + over a sloping plain by gravitation (here the counterpart of natural + selection) may have worn their actual channels as they flowed; yet their + particular courses may have been assigned; and where we see them forming + definite and useful lines of irrigation, after a manner unaccountable on + the laws of gravitation and dynamics, we should believe that the + distribution was designed. + </p> + <p> + To insist, therefore, that the new hypothesis of the derivative origin of + the actual species is incompatible with final causes and design, is to + take a position which we must consider philosophically untenable. We must + also regard it as highly unwise and dangerous, in the present state and + present prospects of physical and physiological science. We should expect + the philosophical atheist or skeptic to take this ground; also, until + better informed, the unlearned and unphilosophical believer; but we should + think that the thoughtful theistic philosopher would take the other side. + Not to do so seems to concede that only supernatural events can be shown + to be designed, which no theist can admit—seems also to misconceive + the scope and meaning of all ordinary arguments for design in Nature. This + misconception is shared both by the reviewers and the reviewed. At least, + Mr. Darwin uses expressions which imply that the natural forms which + surround us, because they have a history or natural sequence, could have + been only generally, but not particularly designed—a view at once + superficial and contradictory; whereas his true line should be, that his + hypothesis concerns the order and not the cause, the how and not the why + of the phenomena, and so leaves the question of design just where it was + before. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate this from the theists point of view: Transfer the question + for a moment from the origination of species to the origination of + individuals, which occurs, as we say, naturally. Because natural, that is, + "stated, fixed, or settled," is it any the less designed on that account? + We acknowledge that God is our maker—not merely the originator of + the race, but our maker as individuals—and none the less so because + it pleased him to make us in the way of ordinary generation. If any of us + were born unlike our parents and grandparents, in a slight degree, or in + whatever degree, would the case be altered in this regard? + </p> + <p> + The whole argument in natural theology proceeds upon the ground that the + inference for a final cause of the structure of the hand and of the valves + in the veins is just as valid now, in individuals produced through natural + generation, as it would have been in the case of the first man, + supernaturally created. Why not, then, just as good even on the + supposition of the descent of men from chimpanzees and gorillas, since + those animals possess these same contrivances? Or, to take a more + supposable case: If the argument from structure to design is convincing + when drawn from a particular animal, say a Newfoundland dog, and is not + weakened by the knowledge that this dog came from similar parents, would + it be at all weakened if, in tracing his genealogy, it were ascertained + that he was a remote descendant of the mastiff or some other breed, or + that both these and other breeds came (as is suspected) from some wolf? If + not, how is the argument for design in the structure of our particular dog + affected by the supposition that his wolfish progenitor came from a + post-tertiary wolf, perhaps less unlike an existing one than the dog in + question is to some other of the numerous existing races of dogs, and that + this post-tertiary came from an equally or more different tertiary wolf? + And if the argument from structure to design is not invalidated by our + present knowledge that our + </p> + <p> + individual dog was developed from a single organic cell, how is it + invalidated by the supposition of an analogous natural descent, through a + long line of connected forms, from such a cell, or from some simple + animal, existing ages before there were any dogs? + </p> + <p> + Again, suppose we have two well-known and apparently most decidedly + different animals or plants, A and D, both presenting, in their structure + and in their adaptations to the conditions of existence, as valid and + clear evidence of design as any animal or plant ever presented: suppose we + have now discovered two intermediate species, B and C, which make up a + series with equable differences from A to D. Is the proof of design or + final cause in A and D, whatever it amounted to, at all weakened by the + discovery of the intermediate forms? Rather does not the proof extend to + the intermediate species, and go to show that all four were equally + designed? Suppose, now, the number of intermediate forms to be much + increased, and therefore the gradations to be closer yet—as close as + those between the various sorts of dogs, or races of men, or of horned + cattle: would the evidence of design, as shown in the structure of any of + the members of the series, be any weaker than it was in the case of A and + D? Whoever contends that it would be, should likewise maintain that the + origination of individuals by generation is incompatible with design, or + an impossibility in Nature. We might all have confidently thought the + latter, antecedently to experience of the fact of reproduction. Let our + experience teach us wisdom. + </p> + <p> + These illustrations make it clear that the evidence of design from + structure and adaptation is furnished complete by the individual animal or + plant itself, and that our knowledge or our ignorance of the history of + its formation or mode of production adds nothing to it and takes nothing + away. We infer design from certain arrangements and results; and we have + no other way of ascertaining it. Testimony, unless infallible, cannot + prove it, and is out of the question here. Testimony is not the + appropriate proof of design: adaptation to purpose is. Some arrangements + in Nature appear to be contrivances, but may leave us in doubt. Many + others, of which the eye and the hand are notable examples, compel belief + with a force not appreciably short of demonstration. Clearly to settle + that such as these must have been designed goes far toward proving that + other organs and other seemingly less explicit adaptations in Nature must + also have been designed, and clinches our belief, from manifold + considerations, that all Nature is a preconcerted arrangement, a + manifested design. A strange contradiction would it be to insist that the + shape and markings of certain rude pieces of flint, lately found in + drift-deposits, prove design, but that nicer and thousand-fold more + complex adaptations to use in animals and vegetables do not a fortiori + argue design. + </p> + <p> + We could not affirm that the arguments for design in Nature are conclusive + to all minds. But we may insist, upon grounds already intimated, that, + whatever they were good for before Darwins book appeared, they are good + for now. To our minds the argument from design always appeared conclusive + of the being and continued operation of an intelligent First Cause, the + Ordainer of Nature; and we do not see that the grounds of such belief + would be disturbed or shifted by the adoption of Darwins hypothesis. We + are not blind to the philosophical difficulties which the thoroughgoing + implication of design in Nature has to encounter, nor is it our vocation + to obviate them It suffices us to know that they are not new nor peculiar + difficulties—that, as Darwin s theory and our reasonings upon it did + not raise these perturbing spirits, they are not bound to lay them. + Meanwhile, that the doctrine of design encounters the very same + difficulties in the material that it does in the moral world is Just what + ought to be expected. + </p> + <p> + So the issue between the skeptic and the theist is only the old one, long + ago argued out—namely, whether organic Nature is a result of design + or of chance. Variation and natural selection open no third alternative; + they concern only the question how the results, whether fortuitous or + designed, may have been brought about. Organic Nature abounds with + unmistakable and irresistible indications of design, and, being a + connected and consistent system, this evidence carries the implication of + design throughout the whole. On the other hand, chance carries no + probabilities with it, can never be developed into a consistent system, + but, when applied to the explanation of orderly or beneficial results, + heaps up improbabilities at every step beyond all computation. To us, a + fortuitous Cosmos is simply inconceivable. The alternative is a designed + Cosmos. + </p> + <p> + It is very easy to assume that, because events in Nature are in one sense + accidental, and the operative forces which bring them to pass are + themselves blind and unintelligent (physically considered, all forces + are), therefore they are undirected, or that he who describes these events + as the results of such forces thereby assumes that they are undirected. + This is the assumption of the Boston reviewers, and of Mr. Agassiz, who + insists that the only alternative to the doctrine, that all organized + beings were supernaturally created just as they are, is, that they have + arisen spontaneously through the omnipotence of matter.[III-11} + </p> + <p> + As to all this, nothing is easier than to bring out in the conclusion what + you introduce in the premises. If you import atheism into your conception + of variation and natural selection, you can readily exhibit it in the + result. If you do not put it in, perhaps there need be none to come out. + While the mechanician is considering a steamboat or locomotive-engine as a + material organism, and contemplating the fuel, water, and steam, the + source of the mechanical forces, and how they operate, he may not have + occasion to mention the engineer. But, the orderly and special results + accomplished, the why the movements are in this or that particular + direction, etc., is inexplicable without him. If Mr. Darwin believes that + the events which he supposes to have occurred and the results we behold + were undirected and undesigned, or if the physicist believes that the + natural forces to which he refers phenomena are uncaused and undirected, + no argument is needed to show that such belief is atheism. But the + admission of the phenomena and of these natural processes and forces does + not necessitate any such belief, nor even render it one whit less + improbable than before. + </p> + <p> + Surely, too, the accidental element may play its part in Nature without + negativing design in the theists view. He believes that the earths surface + has been very gradually prepared for man and the existing animal races, + that vegetable matter has through a long series of generations imparted + fertility to the soil in order that it may support its present occupants, + that even beds of coal have been stored up for mans benefit Yet what is + more accidental, and more simply the consequence of physical agencies than + the accumulation of vegetable matter in a peat bog and its transformation + into coal? No scientific person at this day doubts that our solar system + is a progressive development, whether in his conception he begins with + molten masses, or aeriform or nebulous masses, or with a fluid revolving + mass of vast extent, from which the specific existing worlds have been + developed one by one What theist doubts that the actual results of the + development in the inorganic worlds are not merely compatible with design + but are in the truest sense designed re suits? Not Mr. Agassiz, certainly, + who adopts a remarkable illustration of design directly founded on the + nebular hypothesis drawing from the position and times of the revolution + of the world, so originated direct evidence that the physical world has + been ordained in conformity with laws which obtain also among living + beings But the reader of the interesting exposition[III-12} will notice + that the designed result has been brought to pass through what, speaking + after the manner of men, might be called a chapter of accidents. + </p> + <p> + A natural corollary of this demonstration would seem to be, that a + material connection between a series of created things—such as the + development of one of them from another, or of all from a common stock—is + highly compatible with their intellectual connection, namely, with their + being designed and directed by one mind. Yet upon some ground which is not + explained, and which we are unable to conjecture, Mr. Agassiz concludes to + the contrary in the organic kingdoms, and insists that, because the + members of such a series have an intellectual connection, "they cannot be + the result of a material differentiation of the objects + themselves,"[III-13} that is, they cannot have had a genealogical + connection. But is there not as much intellectual connection between the + successive generations of any species as there is between the several + species of a genus, or the several genera of an order? As the intellectual + connection here is realized through the material connection, why may it + not be so in the case of species and genera? On all sides, therefore, the + implication seems to be quite the other way. + </p> + <p> + Returning to the accidental element, it is evident that the strongest + point against the compatibility of Darwins hypothesis with design in + Nature is made when natural selection is referred to as picking out those + variations which are improvements from a vast number which are not + improvements, but perhaps the contrary, and therefore useless or + purposeless, and born to perish. But even here the difficulty is not + peculiar; for Nature abounds with analogous instances. Some of our race + are useless, or worse, as regards the improvement of mankind; yet the race + may be designed to improve, and may be actually improving. Or, to avoid + the complication with free agency—the whole animate life of a + country depends absolutely upon the vegetation, the vegetation upon the + rain. The moisture is furnished by the ocean, is raised by the suns heat + from the oceans surface, and is wafted inland by the winds. But what + multitudes of raindrops fall back into the ocean—are as much without + a final cause as the incipient varieties which come to nothing! Does it + therefore follow that the rains which are bestowed upon the soil with such + rule and average regularity were not designed to support vegetable and + animal life? Consider, likewise, the vast proportion of seeds and pollen, + of ova and young—a thousand or more to one—which come to + nothing, and are therefore purposeless in the same sense, and only in the + same sense, as are Darwins unimproved and unused slight variations. The + world is full of such cases; and these must answer the argument—for + we cannot, except by thus showing that it proves too much. + </p> + <p> + Finally, it is worth noticing that, though natural selection is + scientifically explicable, variation is not. Thus far the cause of + variation, or the reason why the offspring is sometimes unlike the + parents, is just as mysterious as the reason why it is generally like the + parents. It is now as inexplicable as any other origination; and, if ever + explained, the explanation will only carry up the sequence of secondary + causes one step farther, and bring us in face of a somewhat different + problem, but which will have the same element of mystery that the problem + of variation has now. Circumstances may preserve or may destroy the + variations man may use or direct them but selection whether artificial or + natural no more originates them than man originates the power which turns + a wheel when he dams a stream and lets the water fall upon it The + origination of this power is a question about efficient cause. The + tendency of science in respect to this obviously is not toward the + omnipotence of matter, as some suppose, but to ward the omnipotence of + spirit. + </p> + <p> + So the real question we come to is as to the way in which we are to + conceive intelligent and efficient cause to be exerted, and upon what + exerted. Are we bound to suppose efficient cause in all cases exerted upon + nothing to evoke something into existence—and this thousands of + times repeated, when a slight change in the details would make all the + difference between successive species? Why may not the new species, or + some of them, be designed diversifications of the old? + </p> + <p> + There are, perhaps, only three views of efficient cause which may claim to + be both philosophical and theistic: + </p> + <p> + 1. The view of its exertion at the beginning of time, endowing matter and + created things with forces which do the work and produce the phenomena. + </p> + <p> + 2. This same view, with the theory of insulated interpositions, or + occasional direct action, engrafted upon it—the view that events and + operations in general go on in virtue simply of forces communicated at the + first, but that now and then, and only now and then, the Deity puts his + hand directly to the work. + </p> + <p> + 3. The theory of the immediate, orderly, and constant, however infinitely + diversified, action of the intelligent efficient Cause. + </p> + <p> + It must be allowed that, while the third is preeminently the Christian + view, all three are philosophically compatible with design in Nature. The + second is probably the popular conception. Perhaps most thoughtful people + oscillate from the middle view toward the first or the third—adopting + the first on some occasions, the third on others. Those philosophers who + like and expect to settle all mooted questions will take one or the other + extreme. The Examiner inclines toward, the North American reviewer fully + adopts, the third view, to the logical extent of maintaining that "the + origin of an individual, as well as the origin of a species or a genus, + can be explained only by the direct action of an intelligent creative + cause." To silence his critics, this is the line for Mr. Darwin to take; + for it at once and completely relieves his scientific theory from every + theological objection which his reviewers have urged against it. + </p> + <p> + At present we suspect that our author prefers the first conception, though + he might contend that his hypothesis is compatible with either of the + three. That it is also compatible with an atheistic or pantheistic + conception of the universe, is an objection which, being shared by all + physical, and some ethical or moral science, cannot specially be urged + against Darwins system. As he rejects spontaneous generation, and admits + of intervention at the beginning of organic life, and probably in more + than one instance, he is not wholly excluded from adopting the middle + view, although the interventions he would allow are few and far back. Yet + one interposition admits the principle as well as more. Interposition + presupposes particular necessity or reason for it, and raises the + question, when and how often it may have been necessary. It might be the + natural supposition, if we had only one set of species to account for, or + if the successive inhabitants of the earth had no other connections or + resemblances than those which adaptation to similar conditions, which + final causes in the narrower sense, might explain. But if this explanation + of organic Nature requires one to "believe that, at innumerable periods in + the earths history, certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly + to flash into living tissues," and this when the results are seen to be + strictly connected and systematic, we cannot wonder that such + interventions should at length be considered, not as interpositions or + interferences, but rather—to use the reviewers own language—as + "exertions so frequent and beneficent that we come to regard them as the + ordinary action of Him who laid the foundation of the earth, and without + whom not a sparrow falleth to the ground."[III-14} What does the + difference between Mr. Darwin and his reviewer now amount to? If we say + that according to one view the origination of species is natural, + according to the other miraculous, Mr. Darwin agrees that "what is natural + as much requires and presupposes an intelligent mind to render it so— + that is, to effect it continually or at stated times—as what is + supernatural does to effect it for once."[III-15} He merely inquires into + the form of the miracle, may remind us that all recorded miracles (except + the primal creation of matter) were transformations or actions in and upon + natural things, and will ask how many times and how frequently may the + origination of successive species be repeated before the supernatural + merges in the natural. + </p> + <p> + In short, Darwin maintains that the origination of a species, no less than + that of an individual, is natural; the reviewer, that the natural + origination of an individual, no less than the origination of a species, + requires and presupposes Divine power. A fortiori, then, the origination + of a variety requires and presupposes Divine power. And so between the + scientific hypothesis of the one and the philosophical conception of the + other no contrariety remains. And so, concludes the North American + reviewer, "a proper view of the nature of causation places the vital + doctrine of the being and the providence of a God on ground that can never + be shaken."[III-16} A worthy conclusion, and a sufficient answer to the + denunciations and arguments of the rest of the article, so far as + philosophy and natural theology are concerned. If a writer must needs use + his own favorite dogma as a weapon with which to give coup de grace to a + pernicious theory, he should be careful to seize his edge-tool by the + handle, and not by the blade. + </p> + <p> + We can barely glance at a subsidiary philosophical objection of the North + American reviewer, which the Examiner also raises, though less explicitly. + Like all geologists, Mr. Darwin draws upon time in the most unlimited + manner. He is not peculiar in this regard. Mr. Agassiz tells us that the + conviction is "now universal, among well-informed naturalists, that this + globe has been in existence for innumerable ages, and that the length of + time elapsed since it first became inhabited cannot be counted in years;" + Pictet, that the imagination refuses to calculate the immense number of + years and of ages during which the faunas of thirty or more epochs have + succeeded one another, and developed their long succession of generations. + Now, the reviewer declares that such indefinite succession of ages is + "virtually infinite," "lacks no characteristic of eternity except its + name," at least, that "the difference between such a conception and that + of the strictly infinite, if any, is not appreciable." But infinity + belongs to metaphysics. Therefore, he concludes, Darwin supports his + theory, not by scientific but by metaphysical evidence; his theory is + "essentially and completely metaphysical in character, resting altogether + upon that idea of the infinite which the human mind can neither put aside + nor comprehend."[III-17} And so a theory which will be generally regarded + as much too physical is transferred by a single syllogism to metaphysics. + </p> + <p> + Well, physical geology must go with it: for, even on the soberest view, it + demands an indefinitely long time antecedent to the introduction of + organic life upon our earth. A fortiori is physical astronomy a branch of + metaphysics, demanding, as it does, still larger "instalments of + infinity," as the reviewer calls them, both as to time and number. + Moreover, far the greater part of physical inquiries now relate to + molecular actions, which, a distinguished natural philosopher informs us, + "we have to regard as the results of an infinite number of in finitely + small material particles, acting on each other at infinitely small + distances"—a triad of infinities—and so physics becomes the + most metaphysical of sciences. Verily, if this style of reasoning is to + prevail— + </p> + <p> + "Thinking is but an idle waste of thought, And naught is everything, and + everything is naught." + </p> + <p> + The leading objection of Mr. Agassiz is likewise of a philosophical + character. It is, that species exist only "as categories of thought"—that, + having no material existence, they can have had no material variation, and + no material community of origin. Here the predication is of species in the + subjective sense, the inference in the objective sense. Reduced to plain + terms, the argument seems to be: Species are ideas; therefore the objects + from which the idea is derived cannot vary or blend, and cannot have had a + genealogical connection. + </p> + <p> + The common view of species is, that, although they are generalizations, + yet they have a direct objective ground in Nature, which genera, orders, + etc., have not. According to the succinct definition of Jussieu—and + that of Linnaeus is identical in meaning—a species is the perennial + succession of similar individuals in continued generations. The species is + the chain of which the individuals are the links. The sum of the + genealogically-connected similar individuals constitutes the species, + which thus has an actuality and ground of distinction not shared by genera + and other groups which were not supposed to be genealogically connected. + How a derivative hypothesis would modify this view, in assigning to + species only a temporary fixity, is obvious. Yet, if naturalists adopt + that hypothesis, they will still retain Jussieus definition, which leaves + untouched the question as to how and when the "perennial successions" were + established. The practical question will only be, How much difference + between two sets of individuals entitles them to rank under distinct + species? and that is the practical question now, on whatever theory. The + theoretical question is—as stated at the beginning of this article—whether + these specific lines were always as distinct as now. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Agassiz has "lost no opportunity of urging the idea that, while + species have no material existence, they yet exist as categories of + thought in the same way [and only in the same way] as genera, families, + orders, classes," etc. He + </p> + <p> + "has taken the ground that all the natural divisions in the animal kingdom + are primarily distinct, founded upon different categories of characters, + and that all exist in the same way, that is, as categories of thought, + embodied in individual living forms. I have attempted to show that + branches in the animal kingdom are founded upon different plans of + structure, and for that very reason have embraced from the beginning + representatives between which there could be no community of origin; that + classes are founded upon different modes of execution of these plans, and + therefore they also embrace representatives which could have no community + of origin; that orders represent the different degrees of complication in + the mode of execution of each class, and therefore embrace representatives + which could not have a community of origin any more than the members of + different classes or branches; that families are founded upon different + patterns of form, and embrace, representatives equally independent in + their origin; that genera are founded upon ultimate peculiarities of + structure, embracing representatives which, from the very nature of their + peculiarities, could have no community of origin; and that, finally, + species are based upon relations—and proportions that exclude, as + much as all the preceding distinctions, the idea of a common descent. + </p> + <p> + "As the community of characters among the beings belonging to these + different categories arises from the intellectual connection which shows + them to be categories of thought, they cannot be the result of a gradual + </p> + <p> + material differentiation of the objects themselves. The argument on which + these views are founded may be summed up in the following few words: + Species, genera, families, etc., exist as thoughts, individuals as + facts."[III-18} + </p> + <p> + An ingenious dilemma caps the argument: + </p> + <p> + "It seems to me that there is much confusion of ideas in the general + statement of the variability of species so often repeated lately. If + species do not exist at all, as the supporters of the transmutation theory + maintain, how can they vary? And if individuals alone exist, how can the + differences which may be observed among them prove the variability of + species?" + </p> + <p> + Now, we imagine that Mr. Darwin need not be dangerously gored by either + horn of this curious dilemma. Although we ourselves cherish old-fashioned + prejudices in favor of the probable permanence, and therefore of a more + stable objective ground of species, yet we agree—and Mr. Darwin will + agree fully with Mr. Agassiz—that species, and he will add + varieties, "exist as categories of thought," that is, as cognizable + distinctions—which is all that we can make of the phrase here, + whatever it may mean in the Aristotelian metaphysics. Admitting that + species are only categories of thought, and not facts or things, how does + this prevent the individuals, which are material things, from having + varied in the course of time, so as to exemplify the present almost + innumerable categories of thought, or embodiments of Divine thought in + material forms, or—viewed on the human side—in forms marked + with such orderly and graduated resemblances and differences as to suggest + to our minds the idea of species, genera, orders, etc., and to our reason + the inference of a Divine Original? We have no clear idea how Mr. Agassiz + intends to answer this question, in saying that branches are founded upon + different plans of structure, classes upon different mode of execution of + these plans, orders on different degrees of complication in the mode of + execution, families upon different patterns of form, genera upon ultimate + peculiarities of structure, and species upon relations and proportions. + That is, we do not perceive how these several "categories of thought" + exclude the possibility or the probability that the individuals which + manifest or suggest the thoughts had an ultimate community of origin. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, Mr. Darwin might insinuate that the particular philosophy of + classification upon which this whole argument reposes is as purely + hypothetical and as little accepted as is his own doctrine. If both are + pure hypotheses, it is hardly fair or satisfactory to extinguish the one + by the other. If there is no real contradiction between them, nothing is + gained by the attempt. + </p> + <p> + As to the dilemma propounded, suppose we try it upon that category of + thought which we call chair. This is a genus, comprising a common chair + (Sella vulgaris), arm or easy chair (S. cathedra), the rocking-chair (S. + oscillans)—widely distributed in the United States—and some + others, each of which has sported, as the gardeners say, into many + varieties. But now, as the genus and the species have no material + existence, how can they vary? If only individual chairs exist, how can the + differences which may be observed among them prove the variability of the + species? To which we reply by asking, Which does the question refer to, + the category of thought, or the individual embodiment? If the former, then + we would remark that our categories of thought vary from time to time in + the readiest manner. And, although the Divine thoughts are eternal, yet + they are manifested to us in time and succession, and by their + manifestation only can we know them, how imperfectly! Allowing that what + has no material existence can have had no material connection or + variation, we should yet infer that what has intellectual existence and + connection might have intellectual variation; and, turning to the + individuals, which represent the species, we do not see how all this shows + that they may not vary. Observation shows us that they do. Wherefore, + taught by fact that successive individuals do vary, we safely infer that + the idea must have varied, and that this variation of the individual + representatives proves the variability of the species, whether objectively + or subjectively regarded. + </p> + <p> + Each species or sort of chair, as we have said, has its varieties, and one + species shades off by gradations into another. And—note it well—these + numerous and successively slight variations and gradations, far from + suggesting an accidental origin to chairs and to their forms, are very + proofs of design. + </p> + <p> + Again, edifice is a generic category of thought. Egyptian, Grecian, + Byzantine, and Gothic buildings are well-marked species, of which each + individual building of the sort is a material embodiment. Now, the + question is, whether these categories or ideas may not have been evolved, + one from another in succession, or from some primal, less specialized, + edificial category. What better evidence for such hypothesis could we have + than the variations and grades which connect these species with each + other? We might extend the parallel, and get some good illustrations of + natural selection from the history of architecture, and the origin of the + different styles under different climates and conditions. Two + considerations may qualify or limit the comparison. One, that houses do + not propagate, so as to produce continuing lines of each sort and variety; + but this is of small moment on Agassizs view, he holding that genealogical + connection is not of the essence of a species at all. The other, that the + formation and development of the ideas upon which human works proceed are + gradual; or, as the same great naturalist well states it, "while human + thought is consecutive, Divine thought is simultaneous." But we have no + right to affirm this of Divine action. + </p> + <p> + We must close here. We meant to review some of the more general scientific + objections which we thought not altogether tenable. But, after all, we are + not so anxious just now to know whether the new theory is well founded on + facts, as whether it would be harmless if it were. Besides, we feel quite + unable to answer some of these objections, and it is pleasanter to take up + those which one thinks he can. + </p> + <p> + Among the unanswerable, perhaps the weightiest of the objections, is that + of the absence, in geological deposits, of vestiges of the intermediate + forms which the theory requires to have existed. Here all that Mr. Darwin + can do is to insist upon the extreme imperfection of the geological record + and the uncertainty of negative evidence. But, withal, he allows the force + of the objection almost as much as his opponents urge it—so much so, + indeed, that two of his English critics turn the concession unfairly upon + him, and charge him with actually basing his hypothesis upon these and + similar difficulties—as if he held it because of the difficulties, + and not in spite of them; a handsome return for his candor! + </p> + <p> + As to this imperfection of the geological record, perhaps we should get a + fair and intelligible illustration of it by imagining the existing animals + and plants of New England, with all their remains and products since the + arrival of the Mayflower, to be annihilated; and that, in the coming time, + the geologists of a new colony, dropped by the New Zealand fleet on its + way to explore the ruins of London, undertake, after fifty years of + examination, to reconstruct in a catalogue the flora and fauna of our day, + that is, from the close of the glacial period to the present time. With + all the advantages of a surface exploration, what a beggarly account it + would be! How many of the land animals and plants which are enumerated in + the Massachusetts official reports would it be likely to contain? + </p> + <p> + Another unanswerable question asked by the Boston reviewers is, Why, when + structure and instinct or habit vary— as they must have varied, on + Darwins hypothesis—they vary together and harmoniously, instead of + vaguely? We cannot tell, because we cannot tell why either varies at all. + Yet, as they both do vary in successive generations—as is seen under + domestication—and are correlated, we can only adduce the fact. + Darwin may be precluded from our answer, but we may say that they vary + together because designed to do so. A reviewer says that the chance of + their varying together is inconceivably small; yet, if they do not, the + variant individuals must all perish. Then it is well that it is not left + to chance. To refer to a parallel case: before we were born, nourishment + and the equivalent to respiration took place in a certain way. But the + moment we were ushered into this breathing world, our actions promptly + conformed, both as to respiration and nourishment, to the before unused + structure and to the new surroundings. + </p> + <p> + "Now," says the Examiner, "suppose, for instance, the gills of an aquatic + animal converted into lungs, while instinct still compelled a continuance + under water, would not drowning ensue?" No doubt. But—simply + contemplating the facts, instead of theorizing—we notice that young + frogs do not keep their heads under water after ceasing to be tadpoles. + The instinct promptly changes with the structure, without supernatural + interposition—just as Darwin would have it, if the development of a + variety or incipient species, though rare, were as natural as a + metamorphosis. + </p> + <p> + "Or if a quadruped, not yet furnished with wings, were suddenly inspired + with the instinct of a bird, and precipitated itself from a cliff, would + not the descent be hazardously rapid?" Doubtless the animal would be no + better supported than the objection. But Darwin makes very little indeed + of voluntary efforts as a cause of change, and even poor Lamarck need not + be caricatured. He never supposed that an elephant would take such a + notion into his wise head, or that a squirrel would begin with other than + short and easy leaps; yet might not the length of the leap be increased by + practice? + </p> + <p> + The North American reviewers position, that the higher brute animals have + comparatively little instinct and no intelligence, is a heavy blow and + great discouragement to dogs, horses, elephants, and monkeys. Thus + stripped of their all, and left to shift for themselves as they may in + this hard world, their pursuit and seeming attainment of knowledge under + such peculiar difficulties are interesting to contemplate. However, we are + not so sure as is the critic that instinct regularly increases downward + and decreases upward in the scale of being. Now that the case of the bee + is reduced to moderate proportions,[III-19} we know of nothing in instinct + surpassing that of an animal so high as a bird, the talegal, the male of + which plumes himself upon making a hot-bed in which to batch his partners + eggs—which he tends and regulates the beat of about as carefully and + skillfully as the unplumed biped does an eccaleobion.[III-20} + </p> + <p> + As to the real intelligence of the higher brutes, it has been ably + defended by a far more competent observer, Mr. Agassiz, to whose + conclusions we yield a general assent, although we cannot quite place the + best of dogs "in that respect upon a level with a considerable proportion + of poor humanity," nor indulge the hope, or indeed the desire, of a + renewed acquaintance with the whole animal kingdom in a future life. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The assertion that acquired habitudes or instincts, and acquired +structures, are not heritable, any breeder or good observer can +refute. + That "the human mind has become what it is out of a developed +instinct," is a statement which Mr. Darwin nowhere makes, and, we +presume, would not accept. That he would have us believe that +individual animals acquire their instincts gradually,[III-21} is a +statement which must have been penned in inadvertence both of the very +definition of instinct, and of everything we know of in Mr. Darwins +book. +</pre> + <p> + It has been attempted to destroy the very foundation of Darwins hypothesis + by denying that there are any wild varieties, to speak of, for natural + selection to operate upon. We cannot gravely sit down to prove that wild + varieties abound. We should think it just as necessary to prove that snow + falls in winter. That variation among plants cannot be largely due to + hybridism, and that their variation in Nature is not essentially different + from much that occurs in domestication, and, in the long-run, probably + hardly less in amount, we could show if our space permitted. + </p> + <p> + As to the sterility of hybrids, that can no longer be insisted upon as + absolutely true, nor be practically used as a test between species and + varieties, unless we allow that hares and rabbits are of one species. That + such sterility, whether total or partial, subserves a purpose in keeping + species apart, and was so designed, we do not doubt. But the critics fail + to perceive that this sterility proves nothing whatever against the + derivative origin of the actual species; for it may as well have been + intended to keep separate those forms which have reached a certain amount + of divergence, as those which were always thus distinct. + </p> + <p> + The argument for the permanence of species, drawn from the identity with + those now living of cats, birds, and other animals preserved in Egyptian + catacombs, was good enough as used by Cuvier against St.-Hilaire, that is, + against the supposition that time brings about a gradual alteration of + whole species; but it goes for little against Darwin, unless it be proved + that species never vary, or that the perpetuation of a variety + necessitates the extinction of the parent breed. For Darwin clearly + maintains—what the facts warrant—that the mass of a species + remains fixed so long as it exists at all, though it may set off a variety + now and then. The variety may finally supersede the parent form, or it may + coexist with it; yet it does not in the least hinder the unvaried stock + from continuing true to the breed, unless it crosses with it. The common + law of inheritance may be expected to keep both the original and the + variety mainly true as long as they last, and none the less so because + they have given rise to occasional varieties. The tailless Manx cats, like + the curtailed fox in the fable, have not induced the normal breeds to + dispense with their tails, nor have the Dorkings (apparently known to + Pliny) affected the permanence of the common sort of fowl. + </p> + <p> + As to the objection that the lower forms of life ought, on Darwins theory, + to have been long ago improved out of existence, and replaced by higher + forms, the objectors forget what a vacuum that would leave below, and what + a vast field there is to which a simple organization is best adapted, and + where an advance would be no improvement, but the contrary. To accumulate + the greatest amount of being upon a given space, and to provide as much + enjoyment of life as can be under the conditions, is what Nature seems to + aim at; and this is effected by diversification. + </p> + <p> + Finally, we advise nobody to accept Darwins or any other derivative theory + as true. The time has not come for that, and perhaps never will. We also + advise against a similar credulity on the other side, in a blind faith + that species—that the manifold sorts and forms of existing animals + and vegetables—"have no secondary cause." The contrary is already + not unlikely, and we suppose will hereafter become more and more probable. + But we are confident that, if a derivative hypothesis ever is established, + it will be so on a solid theistic ground. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile an inevitable and legitimate hypothesis is on trial—an + hypothesis thus far not untenable—a trial just now very useful to + science, and, we conclude, not harmful to religion, unless injudicious + assailants temporarily make it so. + </p> + <p> + One good effect is already manifest; its enabling the advocates of the + hypothesis of a multiplicity of human species to perceive the double + insecurity of their ground. When the races of men are admitted to be of + one species, the corollary, that they are of one origin, may be expected + to follow. Those who allow them to be of one species must admit an actual + diversification into strongly-marked and persistent varieties, and so + admit the basis of fact upon which the Darwinian hypothesis is built; + while those, on the other hand, who recognize several or numerous human + species, will hardly be able to maintain that such species were primordial + and supernatural in the ordinary sense of the word. + </p> + <p> + The English mind is prone to positivism and kindred forms of materialistic + philosophy, and we must expect the derivative theory to be taken up in + that interest. We have no predilection for that school, but the contrary. + If we had, we might have looked complacently upon a line of criticism + which would indirectly, but effectively, play into the hands of + positivists and materialistic atheists generally. The wiser and stronger + ground to take is, that the derivative hypothesis leaves the argument for + design, and therefore for a designer, as valid as it ever was; that to do + any work by an instrument must require, and therefore presuppose, the + exertion rather of more than of less power than to do it directly; that + whoever would be a consistent theist should believe that Design in the + natural world is coextensive with Providence, and hold as firmly to the + one as he does to the other, in spite of the wholly similar and apparently + insuperable difficulties which the mind encounters whenever it endeavors + to develop the idea into a system, either in the material and organic, or + in the moral world. It is enough, in the way of obviating objections, to + show that the philosophical difficulties of the one are the same, and only + the same, as of the other. + </p> + <h3> + IV. CAPITAL—THE MOTHER OF LABOUR + </h3> + <h3> + AN ECONOMICAL PROBLEM DISCUSSED FROM A PHYSIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW {1890.] + </h3> + <p> + THE first act of a new-born child is to draw a deep breath. In fact, it + will never draw a deeper, inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the + lungs, once distended with air, do not empty themselves again; it is only + a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the flow and the + ebb of the respiratory tide. Mechanically, this act of drawing breath, or + inspiration, is of the same nature as that by which the handles of a + bellows are separated, in order to fill the bellows with air; and, in like + manner, it involves that expenditure of energy which we call exertion, or + work, or labour. It is, therefore, no mere metaphor to say that man is + destined to a life of toil: the work of respiration which began with his + first breath ends only with his last; nor does one born in the purple get + off with a lighter task than the child who first sees light under a hedge. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">148</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink148" id="link148"></a> How is it that the new-born infant + is enabled to perform this first instalment of the sentence of life-long + labour which no man may escape? Whatever else a child may be, in respect + of this particular question, it is a complicated piece of mechanism, built + up out of materials supplied by its mother; and in the course of such + building-up, provided with a set of motors—the muscles. Each of + these muscles contains a stock of substance capable of yielding energy + under certain conditions, one of which is a change of state in the nerve + fibres connected with it. The powder in a loaded gun is such another stock + of substance capable of yielding energy in consequence of a change of + state in the mechanism of the lock, which intervenes between the finger of + the man who pulls the trigger and the cartridge. If that change is brought + about, the potential energy of the powder passes suddenly into actual + energy, and does the work of propelling the bullet. The powder, therefore, + may be appropriately called work-stuff, not only because it is stuff which + is easily made to yield work in the physical sense, but because a good + deal of work in the economical sense has contributed to its production. + Labour was necessary to collect, transport, and purify the raw sulphur and + saltpetre; to cut wood and convert it into powdered charcoal; to mix these + ingredients in the right proportions; to give the mixture the proper + grain, and so on. The powder <span class="pagenum">149</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink149" id="link149"></a> once formed part of the stock, or + capital, of a powder-maker: and it is not only certain natural bodies + which are collected and stored in the gunpowder, but the labour bestowed + on the operations mentioned may be figuratively said to be incorporated in + it. + </p> + <p> + In principle, the work-stuff stored in the muscles of the new-born child + is comparable to that stored in the gun-barrel. The infant is launched + into altogether new surroundings; and these operate through the mechanism + of the nervous machinery, with the result that the potential energy of + some of the work-stuff in the muscles which bring about inspiration is + suddenly converted into actual energy; and this, operating through the + mechanism of the respiratory apparatus, gives rise to an act of + inspiration. As the bullet is propelled by the "going off" of the powder, + as it might be said that the ribs are raised and the midriff depressed by + the "going off" of certain portions of muscular work-stuff. This + work-stuff is part of a stock or capital of that commodity stored up in + the child's organism before birth, at the expense of the mother; and the + mother has made good her expenditure by drawing upon the capital of + food-stuffs which furnished her daily maintenance. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, it does not appear to me to be open to doubt + that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily + accompany <span class="pagenum">150</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink150" id="link150"></a> the life of man is dependent upon + the pre-existence of a stock of material which is not only of use to him, + but which is disposed in such a manner as to be utilisable with facility. + And I further imagine that the propriety of the application of the term + 'capital' to this stock of useful substance cannot be justly called in + question; inasmuch as it is easy to prove that the essential constituents + of the work-stuff accumulated in the child's muscles have merely been + transferred from the store of food-stuffs, which everybody admits to be + capital, by means of the maternal organism to that of the child, in which + they are again deposited to await use. Every subsequent act of labour, in + like manner, involves an equivalent consumption of the child's store of + work-stuff—its vital capital; and one of the main objects of the + process of breathing is to get rid of some of the effects of that + consumption. It follows, then, that, even if no other than the respiratory + work were going on in the organism, the capital of work-stuff, which the + child brought with it into the world, must sooner or later be used up, and + the movements of breathing must come to an end; just as the see-saw of the + piston of a steam-engine stops when the coal in the fireplace has burnt + away. + </p> + <p> + Milk, however, is a stock of materials which essentially consists of + savings from the food-stuffs supplied to the mother. And these savings are + <span class="pagenum">151</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink151" id="link151"></a> in such a physical and chemical + condition that the organism of the child can easily convert them into + work-stuff. That is to say, by borrowing directly from the vital capital + of the mother, indirectly from the store in the natural bodies accessible + to her, it can make good the loss of its own. The operation of borrowing, + however, involves further work; that is, the labour of sucking, which is a + mechanical operation of much the same nature as breathing. The child thus + pays for the capital it borrows in labour; but as the value in work-stuff + of the milk obtained is very far greater than the value of that labour, + estimated by the consumption of work-stuff it involves, the operation + yields a large profit to the infant. The overplus of food-stuff suffices + to increase the child's capital of work-stuff; and to supply not only the + materials for the enlargement of the "buildings and machinery" which is + expressed by the child's growth, but also the energy required to put all + these materials together, and to carry them to their proper places. Thus, + throughout the years of infancy, and so long thereafter as the youth or + man is not thrown upon his own resources, he lives by consuming the vital + capital provided by others. To use a terminology which is more common than + appropriate, whatever work he performs (and he does a good deal, if only + in mere locomotion) is unproductive. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">152</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink152" id="link152"></a> Let us now suppose the child come + to man's estate in the condition of a wandering savage, dependent for his + food upon what he can pick up or catch, after the fashion of the + Australian aborigines. It is plain that the place of mother, as the + supplier of vital capital, is now taken by the fruits, seeds, and roots of + plants and by various kinds of animals. It is they alone which contain + stocks of those substances which can be converted within the man's + organism into work-stuff; and of the other matters, except air and water, + required to supply the constant consumption of his capital and to keep his + organic machinery going. In no way does the savage contribute to the + production of these substances. Whatever labour he bestows upon such + vegetable and animal bodies, on the contrary, is devoted to their + destruction; and it is a mere matter of accident whether a little labour + yields him a great deal—as in the case, for example, of a stranded + whale; or whether much labour yields next to nothing—as in times of + long-continued drought. The savage, like the child, borrows the capital he + needs, and, at any rate, intentionally, does nothing towards repayment; it + would plainly be an improper use of the word "produce" to say that his + labour in hunting for the roots, or the fruits, or the eggs, or the grubs + and snakes, which he finds and eats, "produces" or contributes to + "produce" them. The same thing is true of more advanced tribes, who <span + class="pagenum">153</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink153" id="link153"></a> are still merely hunters, such as + the Esquimaux. They may expend more labour and skill; but it is spent in + destruction. + </p> + <p> + When we pass from these to men who lead a purely pastoral life, like the + South American Gauchos, or some Asiatic nomads, there is an important + change. Let us suppose the owner of a flock of sheep to live on the milk, + cheese, and flesh which they yield. It is obvious that the flock stands to + him in the economic relation of the mother to the child, inasmuch as it + supplies him with food-stuffs competent to make good the daily and hourly + losses of his capital of workstuff. If we imagine our sheep-owner to have + access to extensive pastures and to be troubled neither by predacious + animals nor by rival shepherds, the performance of his pastoral functions + will hardly involve the expenditure of any more labour than is needful to + provide him with the exercise required to maintain health. And this is + true, even if we take into account the trouble originally devoted to the + domestication of the sheep. It surely would be a most singular pretension + for the shepherd to talk of the flock as the "produce" of his labour in + any but a very limited sense. In truth, his labour would have been a mere + accessory of production of very little consequence. Under the + circumstances supposed, a ram and some ewes, left to themselves for a few + years, would probably generate as large a flock; <span class="pagenum">154</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink154" id="link154"></a> and the superadded labour of the + shepherd would have little more effect upon their production than upon + that of the blackberries on the bushes about the pastures. For the most + part the increment would be thoroughly unearned; and, if it is a rule of + absolute political ethics that owners have no claim upon "betterment" + brought about independently of their own labour, then the shepherd would + have no claim to at least nine-tenths of the increase of the flock. + </p> + <p> + But if the shepherd has no real claim to the title of "producer," who has? + Are the rams and ewes the true "producers"? Certainly their title is + better if, borrowing from the old terminology of chemistry, they only + claim to be regarded as the "proximate principles" of production. And yet, + if strict justice is to be dispensed, even they are to be regarded rather + as collectors and distributors than as "producers." For all that they + really do is to collect, slightly modify, and render easily accessible, + the vital capital which already exists in the green herbs on which they + feed, but in such a form as to be practically out of the reach of man. + </p> + <p> + Thus, from an economic point of view, the sheep are more comparable to + confectioners than to producers. The usefulness of biscuit lies in the raw + flour of which it is made; but raw flour does not answer as an article of + human diet, and biscuit does. So the usefulness of mutton lies mainly in + certain chemical compounds which it <span class="pagenum">155</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink155" id="link155"></a> contains: the sheep gets them out + of grass; we cannot live on grass, but we can on mutton. + </p> + <p> + Now, herbaceous and all other green plants stand alone among terrestrial + natural bodies, in so far as, under the influence of light, they possess + the power to build up, out of the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere, + water and certain nitrogenous and mineral salts, those substances which in + the animal organism are utilised as work-stuff. They are the chief and, + for practical purposes, the sole producers of that vital capital which we + have seen to be the necessary antecedent of every act of labour. Every + green plant is a laboratory in which, so long as the sun shines upon it, + materials furnished by the mineral world, gases, water, saline compounds, + are worked up into those foodstuffs without which animal life cannot be + carried on. And since, up to the present time, synthetic chemistry has not + advanced so far as to achieve this feat, the green plant may be said to be + the only living worker whose labour directly results in the production of + that vital capital which is the necessary antecedent of human labour.* Nor + is this statement a paradox involving perpetual motion, because the energy + by which the plant does its work is supplied by the sun—the + primordial capitalist so far as we are concerned. But <span class="pagenum">156</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink156" id="link156"></a> it cannot be too strongly + impressed upon the mind that sunshine, air, water, the best soil that is + to be found on the surface of the earth, might co-exist; yet without + plants, there is no known agency competent to generate the so-called + "protein compounds," by which alone animal life can be permanently + supported. And not only are plants thus essential; but, in respect of + particular kinds of animals, they must be plants of a particular nature. + If there were no terrestrial green plants but, say, cypresses and mosses, + pastoral and agricultural life would be alike impossible; indeed, it is + difficult to imagine the possibility of the existence of any large animal, + as the labour required to get at a sufficiency of the store of + food-stuffs, contained in such plants as these, could hardly extract from + them an equivalent for the waste involved in that expenditure of work. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It remains to be seen whether the plants which have no + chlorophyll, and flourish in darkness, such as the Fungi, can + live upon purely mineral food. +</pre> + <p> + We are compact of dust and air; from that we set out, and to that + complexion must we come at last. The plant either directly, or by some + animal intermediary, lends us the capital which enables us to carry on the + business of life, as we flit through the upper world, from the one term of + our journey to the other. Popularly, no doubt, it is permissible to speak + of the soil as a "producer," just as we may talk of the daily movement of + the sun. But, as I have elsewhere remarked, propositions which are to bear + any deductive strain that may be put upon them must run the risk of <span + class="pagenum">157</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink157" id="link157"></a> seeming pedantic, rather than that + of being inaccurate. And the statement that land, in the sense of + cultivable soil, is a producer, or even one of the essentials of economic + production, is anything but accurate. The process of water-culture, in + which a plant is not "planted" in any soil, but is merely supported in + water containing in solution the mineral ingredients essential to that + plant, is now thoroughly understood; and, if it were worth while, a crop + yielding abundant food-stuffs could be raised on an acre of fresh water, + no less than on an acre of dry land. In the Arctic regions, again, land + has nothing to do with "production" in the social economy of the + Esquimaux, who live on seals and other marine animals; and might, like + Proteus, shepherd the flocks of Poseidon if they had a mind for pastoral + life. But the seals and the bears are dependent on other inhabitants of + the sea, until, somewhere in the series, we come to the minute green + plants which float in the ocean, and are the real "producers" by which the + whole of its vast animal population is supported.* Thus, when we find set + forth as an "absolute" <span class="pagenum">158</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink158" id="link158"></a> truth the statement that the + essential factors in economic production are land, capital and labour—when + this is offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other important truths may + be deduced—it is needful to remember that the assertion is true only + with a qualification. Undoubtedly "vital capital" is essential; for, as we + have seen, no human work can be done unless it exists, not even that + internal work of the body which is necessary to passive life. But, with + respect to labour (that is, human labour) I hope to have left no doubt on + the reader's mind that, in regard to production, the importance of human + labour may be so small as to be almost a vanishing quantity. Moreover, it + is certain that there is no approximation to a fixed ratio between the + expenditure of labour and the production of that vital capital which is + the foundation of all wealth. For, suppose that we introduce into our + suppositious pastoral paradise beasts of prey and rival shepherds, the + amount of labour thrown upon the sheep-owner may increase almost + indefinitely, and its importance as a condition of production may be + enormously augmented, while the quantity of produce remains stationary. + Compare for a moment the unimportance of the shepherd's labour, under the + circumstances first defined, with its indispensability in countries in + which the water for the sheep has to be drawn from deep <span + class="pagenum">159</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink159" id="link159"></a> wells, or in which the flock has + to be defended from wolves or from human depredators. As to land, it has + been shown that, except as affording mere room and standing ground, the + importance of land, great as it may be, is secondary. The one thing + needful for economic production is the green plant, as the sole producer + of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies. Men might exist without + labour (in the ordinary sense) and without land; without plants they must + inevitably perish. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In some remarkable passages of the Botany of Sir James Ross's + Antarctic voyage, which took place half a century ago, Sir + Joseph Hooker demonstrated the dependence of the animal life of + the sea upon the minute, indeed microscopic, plants which float + in it: a marvellous example of what may be done by + water-culture. One might indulge in dreams of cultivating and + improving diatoms, until the domesticated bore the same + relation to the wild forms, as cauliflowers to the primitive + Brassica oleracea, without passing beyond the limits of fair + scientific speculation. +</pre> + <p> + That which is true of the purely pastoral condition is a fortiori true of + the purely agricultural* condition, in which the existence of the + cultivator is directly dependent on the production of vital capital by the + plants which he cultivates. Here, again, the condition precedent of the + work of each year is vital capital. Suppose that a man lives exclusively + upon the plants which he cultivates. It is obvious that he must have + food-stuffs to live upon, while he prepares the soil for sowing and + throughout the period which elapses between this and harvest. These + food-stuffs must be yielded by the stock remaining over from former crops. + The result is the same as before—the pre-existence of vital capital + is the necessary antecedent of labour. Moreover, the amount of labour + which contributes, as an accessory condition, to the production <span + class="pagenum">160</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink160" id="link160"></a> of the crop varies as widely in + the case of plant-raising as in that of cattle-raising. With favourable + soil, climate and other conditions, it may be very small, with + unfavourable, very great, for the same revenue or yield of food-stuffs. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is a pity that we have no word that signifies plant-culture + exclusively. But for the present purpose I may restrict + agriculture to that sense. +</pre> + <p> + Thus, I do not think it is possible to dispute the following proposition: + the existence of any man, or of any number of men, whether organised into + a polity or not, depends on the production of foodstuffs (that is, vital + capital) readily accessible to man, either directly or indirectly, by + plants. But it follows that the number of men who can exist, say for one + year, on any given area of land, taken by itself, depends upon the + quantity of food-stuffs produced by such plants growing on the area in one + year. If a is that quantity, and b the minimum of food-stuffs required for + each man, A/B=N, the maximum number of men who can exist on the area. Now + the amount of production (a) is limited by the extent of area occupied; by + the quantity of sunshine which falls upon the area; by the range and + distribution of temperature; by the force of the winds; by the supply of + water; by the composition and the physical characters of the soil; by + animal and vegetable competitors and destroyers. The labour of man neither + does, nor can, produce vital capital; all that it can do is to modify, + favourably or unfavourably, the conditions of its production. The most + important of these— <span class="pagenum">161</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink161" id="link161"></a> namely, sunshine, range of daily + and nightly temperature, wind—are practically out of men's reach.* + On the other hand, the supply of water, the physical and chemical + qualities of the soil, and the influences of competitors and destroyers, + can often, though by no means always, be largely affected by labour and + skill. And there is no harm in calling the effect of such labour + "production," if it is clearly understood that "production" in this sense + is a very different thing from the "production" of food-stuffs by a plant. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I do not forget electric lighting, greenhouses and hothouses, + and the various modes of affording shelter against violent + winds: but in regard to production of food-stuffs on the large + scale they may be neglected. Even if synthetic chemistry should + effect the construction of proteids, the Laboratory will + hardly enter into competition with the Farm within any time + which the present generation need trouble itself about. +</pre> + <p> + We have been dealing hitherto with suppositions the materials of which are + furnished by everyday experience, not with mere a priori assumptions. Our + hypothetical solitary shepherd with his flock, or the solitary farmer with + his grain field, are mere bits of such experience, cut out, as it were, + for easy study. Still borrowing from daily experience, let us suppose that + either sheep-owner or farmer, for any reason that may be imagined, desires + the help of one or more other men; and that, in exchange for their labour, + he offers so many sheep, or quarts of milk, or pounds of <span + class="pagenum">162</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink162" id="link162"></a> cheese, or so many measures of + grain, for a year's service. I fail to discover any a priori "rights of + labour" in virtue of which these men may insist on being employed, if they + are not wanted. But, on the other hand, I think it is clear that there is + only one condition upon which the persons to whom the offer of these + "wages" is made can accept it; and that is that the things offered in + exchange for a year's work shall contain at least as much vital capital as + a man uses up in doing the year's work. For no rational man could + knowingly and willingly accept conditions which necessarily involve + starvation. Therefore there is an irreducible minimum of wages; it is such + an amount of vital capital as suffices to replace the inevitable + consumption of the person hired. Now, surely, it is beyond a doubt that + these wages, whether at or above the irreducible minimum, are paid out of + the capital disposable after the wants of the owner of the flock or of the + crop of grain are satisfied; and, from what has been said already, it + follows that there is a limit to the number of men, whether hired, or + brought in any other way, who can be maintained by the sheep owner or + landowner out of his own resources. Since no amount of labour can produce + an ounce of foodstuff beyond the maximum producible by a limited number of + plants, under the most favourable circumstances in regard to those + conditions which are not affected by labour, it follows <span + class="pagenum">163</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink163" id="link163"></a> that, if the number of men to be + fed increases indefinitely, a time must come when some will have to + starve. That is the essence of the so-called Malthusian doctrine; and it + is a truth which, to my mind, is as plain as the general proposition that + a quantity which constantly increases will, some time or other, exceed any + greater quantity the amount of which is fixed. + </p> + <p> + The foregoing considerations leave no doubt about the fundamental + condition of the existence of any polity, or organised society of men, + either in a purely pastoral or purely agricultural state, or in any + mixture of both states. It must possess a store of vital capital to start + with, and the means of repairing the consumption of that capital which + takes place as a consequence of the work of the members of the society. + And, if the polity occupies a completely isolated area of the earth's + surface, the numerical strength of that polity can never exceed the + quotient of the maximum quantity of food-stuffs producible by the green + plants on that area, in each year, divided by the quantity necessary for + the maintenance of each person during the year. But, there is a third mode + of existence possible to a polity; it may, conceivably, be neither purely + pastoral nor purely agricultural, but purely manufacturing. Let us suppose + three islands, like Gran Canaria, Teneriffe and Lanzerote, in the + Canaries, to be quite cut off from the rest of the world. Let Gran Canaria + be <span class="pagenum">164</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink164" id="link164"></a> inhabited by grain-raisers, + Teneriffe by cattle-breeders; while the population of Lanzerote (which we + may suppose to be utterly barren) consists of carpenters, woollen + manufacturers, and shoemakers. Then the facts of daily experience teach us + that the people of Lanzerote could never have existed unless they came to + the island provided with a stock of food-stuffs; and that they could not + continue to exist, unless that stock, as it was consumed, was made up by + contributions from the vital capital of either Gran Canaria, or Teneriffe, + or both. Moreover, the carpenters of Lanzerote could do nothing, unless + they were provided with wood from the other islands; nor could the wool + spinners and weavers or the shoemakers work without wool and skins from + the same sources. The wood and the wool and the skins are, in fact, the + capital without which their work as manufacturers in their respective + trades is impossible—so that the vital and other capital supplied by + Gran Canaria and Teneriffe is most indubitably the necessary antecedent of + the industrial labour of Lanzerote. It is perfectly true that by the time + the wood, the wool, and the skins reached Lanzerote a good deal of labour + in cutting, shearing, skinning, transport, and so on, would have been + spent upon them. But this does not alter the fact that the only + "production" which is essential to the existence of the population of + Teneriffe and Gran Canaria is that effected by the <span class="pagenum">165</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink165" id="link165"></a> green plants in both islands; and + that all the labour spent upon the raw produce useful in manufacture, + directly or indirectly yielded by them—by the inhabitants of these + islands and by those of Lanzerote into the bargain—will not provide + one solitary Lanzerotian with a dinner, unless the Teneriffians and + Canariotes happen to want his goods and to be willing to give some of + their vital capital in exchange for them. + </p> + <p> + Under the circumstances defined, if Teneriffe and Gran Canaria + disappeared, or if their inhabitants ceased to care for carpentry, + clothing, or shoes, the people of Lanzerote must starve. But if they wish + to buy, then the Lanzerotians, by "cultivating" the buyers, indirectly + favour the cultivation of the produce of those buyers. + </p> + <p> + Thus, if the question is asked whether the labour employed in manufacture + in Lanzerote is "productive" or "unproductive" there can be only one + reply. If anybody will exchange vital capital, or that which can be + exchanged for vital capital, for Lanzerote goods, it is productive; if + not, it is unproductive. + </p> + <p> + In the case of the manufacturer, the dependence of labour upon capital is + still more intimate than in that of the herdsman or agriculturist. When + the latter are once started they can go on, without troubling themselves + about the existence of any other people. But the manufacturer depends on + pre-existing capital, not only at the <span class="pagenum">166</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink166" id="link166"></a> beginning, but at the end of his + operations. However great the expenditure of his labour and of his skill, + the result, for the purpose of maintaining his existence, is just the same + as if he had done nothing, unless there is a customer able and willing to + exchange food-stuffs for that which his labour and skill have achieved. + </p> + <p> + There is another point concerning which it is very necessary to have clear + ideas. Suppose a carpenter in Lanzerote to be engaged in making chests of + drawers. Let us suppose that a, the timber, and b, the grain and meat + needful for the man's sustenance until he can finish a chest of drawers, + have to be paid for by that chest. Then the capital with which he starts + is represented by a + b. He could not start at all unless he had it; day + by day, he must destroy more or less of the substance and of the general + adaptability of a in order to work it up into the special forms needed to + constitute the chest of drawers; and, day by day, he must use up at least + so much of b as will replace his loss of vital capital by the work of that + day. Suppose it takes the carpenter and his workmen ten days to saw up the + timber, to plane the boards, and to give them the shape and size proper + for the various parts of the chest of drawers. And suppose that he then + offers his heap of boards to the advancer of a + b as an equivalent for + the wood + ten days' supply of vital capital? The latter will surely say: + "No. <span class="pagenum">167</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink167" id="link167"></a> I did not ask for a heap of + boards. I asked for a chest of drawers. Up to this time, so far as I am + concerned, you have done nothing and are as much in my debt as ever." And + if the carpenter maintained that he had "virtually" created two-thirds of + a chest of drawers, inasmuch as it would take only five days more to put + together the pieces of wood, and that the heap of boards ought to be + accepted as the equivalent of two-thirds of his debt, I am afraid the + creditor would regard him as little better than an impudent swindler. It + obviously makes no sort of difference whether the Canariote or Teneriffian + buyer advanced the wood and the food-stuffs, on which the carpenter had to + maintain himself; or whether the carpenter had a stock of both, the + consumption of which must be recouped by the exchange of a chest of + drawers for a fresh supply. In the latter case, it is even less doubtful + that, if the carpenter offered his boards to the man who wanted a chest of + drawers, the latter would laugh in his face. And if he took the chest of + drawers for himself, then so much of his vital capital would be sunk in it + past recovery. Again, the payment of goods in a lump, for the chest of + drawers, comes to the same thing as the payment of daily wages for the + fifteen days that the carpenter was occupied in making it. If, at the end + of each day, the carpenter chose to say to himself "I have 'virtually' + created, by my day's labour, a fifteenth of what I shall get for the chest + <span class="pagenum">168</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink168" id="link168"></a> of drawers—therefore my + wages are the produce of my day's labour"—there is no great harm in + such metaphorical speech, so long as the poor man does not delude himself + into the supposition that it represents the exact truth. "Virtually" is + apt to cover more intellectual sins than "charity" does moral delicts. + After what has been said, it surely must be plain enough that each day's + work has involved the consumption of the carpenter's vital capital, and + the fashioning of his timber, at the expense of more or less consumption + of those forms of capital. Whether the a + b to be exchanged for the chest + has been advanced as a loan, or is paid daily or weekly as wages, or, at + some later time, as the price of a finished commodity—the essential + element of the transaction, and the only essential element, is, that it + must, at least, effect the replacement of the vital capital consumed. + Neither boards nor chest of drawers are eatable; and, so far from the + carpenter having produced the essential part of his wages by each day's + labour, he has merely wasted that labour, unless somebody who happens to + want a chest of drawers offers to exchange vital capital, or something + that can procure it, equivalent to the amount consumed during the process + of manufacture.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the discussion of this subject further on. +</pre> + <p> + That it should be necessary, at this time of day, to set forth such + elementary truths as these may <span class="pagenum">169</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink169" id="link169"></a> well seem strange; but no one who + consults that interesting museum of political delusions, "Progress and + Poverty," some of the treasures of which I have already brought to light, + will doubt the fact, if he bestows proper attention upon the first book of + that widely-read work. At page 15 it is thus written: + </p> + <p> + "The proposition I shall endeavour to prove is: that wages, instead of + being drawn from capital, are, in reality, drawn from the product of the + labour for which they are paid." + </p> + <p> + Again at page 18:— + </p> + <p> + "In every case in which labour is exchanged for commodities, production + really precedes enjoyment . . . wages are the earnings—that is to + say, the makings—of labour—not the advances of capital." + </p> + <p> + And the proposition which the author endeavours to disprove is the + hitherto generally accepted doctrine + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ..."that labour is maintained and paid out of existing capital, + before the product which constitutes the ultimate object is + secured" (p. 16). +</pre> + <p> + The doctrine respecting the relation of capital and wages, which is thus + opposed in "Progress and Poverty," is that illustrated in the foregoing + pages; the truth of which, I conceive, must be plain to any one who has + apprehended the very simple arguments by which I have endeavoured to <span + class="pagenum">170</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink170" id="link170"></a> demonstrate it. One conclusion or + the other must be hopelessly wrong; and, even at the cost of going once + more over some of the ground traversed in this essay and that on "Natural + and Political Rights,"* I propose to show that the error lies with + "Progress and Poverty"; in which work, so far as political science is + concerned, the poverty is, to my eye, much more apparent than the + progress. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. i. pp. 359-382. +</pre> + <p> + To begin at the beginning. The author propounds a definition of wealth: + "Nothing which nature supplies to man without his labour is wealth" (p. + 28). Wealth consists of "natural substances or products which have been + adapted by human labour to human use or gratification, their value + depending upon the amount of labour which, upon the average, would be + required to produce things of like kind" (p. 27). The following examples + of wealth are given:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "Buildings, cattle, tools, machinery, agricultural and + mineral products, manufactured goods, ships, waggons, + furniture, and the like" (p. 27). +</pre> + <p> + I take it that native metals, coal and brick clay, are "mineral products"; + and I quite believe that they are properly termed "wealth." But when a + seam of coal crops out at the surface, and lumps of coal are to be had for + the picking up; or when native copper lies about in nuggets, or <span + class="pagenum">171</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink171" id="link171"></a> when brick clay forms a + superficial stratum, it appears to me that these things are supplied to, + nay almost thrust upon, man without his labour. According to the + definition, therefore, they are not "wealth." According to the + enumeration, however, they are "wealth": a tolerably fair specimen of a + contradiction in terms. Or does "Progress and Poverty" really suggest that + a coal seam which crops out at the surface is not wealth; but that if + somebody breaks off a piece and carries it away, the bestowal of this + amount of labour upon that particular lump makes it wealth; while the rest + remains "not wealth"? The notion that the value of a thing bears any + necessary relation to the amount of labour (average or otherwise) bestowed + upon it, is a fallacy which needs no further refutation than it has + already received. The average amount of labour bestowed upon warming-pans + confers no value upon them in the eyes of a Gold-Coast negro; nor would an + Esquimaux give a slice of blubber for the most elaborate of ice-machines. + </p> + <p> + So much for the doctrine of "Progress and Poverty" touching the nature of + wealth. Let us now consider its teachings respecting capital as wealth or + a part of wealth. Adam Smith's definition "that part of a man's stock + which he expects to yield him a revenue is called his capital" is quoted + with approval (p. 32); elsewhere capital is said to be that part of wealth + "which <span class="pagenum">172</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink172" id="link172"></a> is devoted to the aid of + production" (p. 28); and yet again it is said to be + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "wealth in course of exchange,* understanding exchange to + include, not merely the passing from hand to hand, but + also such transmutations as occur when the reproductive + or transforming forces of nature are utilised for the + increase of wealth" (p. 32). + + * The italics are the author's. +</pre> + <p> + But if too much pondering over the possible senses and scope of these + definitions should weary the reader, he will be relieved by the following + acknowledgment:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "Nor is the definition of capital I have suggested of + any importance" (p. 33). +</pre> + <p> + The author informs us, in fact, that he is "not writing a text-book," + thereby intimating his opinion that it is less important to be clear and + accurate when you are trying to bring about a political revolution than + when a merely academic interest attaches to the subject treated. But he is + not busy about anything so serious as a textbook: no, he "is only + attempting to discover the laws which control a great social problem"—a + mode of expression which indicates perhaps the high-water mark of + intellectual muddlement. I have heard, in my time, of "laws" which control + other "laws"; but this is the first occasion on which "laws" which + "control a problem" have come under my notice. Even the disquisitions "of + <span class="pagenum">173</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink173" id="link173"></a> those flabby writers who have + burdened the press and darkened counsel by numerous volumes which are + dubbed political economy" (p. 28) could hardly furnish their critics with + a finer specimen of that which a hero of the "Dunciad," by the one flash + of genius recorded of him, called "clotted nonsense." + </p> + <p> + Doubtless it is a sign of grace that the author of these definitions + should attach no importance to any of them; but since, unfortunately, his + whole argument turns upon the tacit assumption that they are important, I + may not pass them over so lightly. The third I give up. Why anything + should be capital when it is "in course of exchange," and not be capital + under other circumstances, passes my understanding. We are told that "that + part of a farmer's crop held for sale or for seed, or to feed his help, in + part payment of wages, would be accounted capital; that held for the care + of his family would not be" (p. 31). But I fail to discover any ground of + reason or authority for the doctrine that it is only when a crop is about + to be sold or sown, or given as wages, that it may be called capital. On + the contrary, whether we consider custom or reason, so much of it as is + stored away in ricks and barns during harvest, and remains there to be + used in any of these ways months or years afterwards, is customarily and + rightly termed capital. Surely, the meaning of the clumsy phrase that + capital is "wealth in the <span class="pagenum">174</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink174" id="link174"></a> course of exchange" must be that + it is "wealth capable of being exchanged" against labour or anything else. + That, in fact, is the equivalent of the second definition, that capital is + "that part of wealth which is devoted to the aid of production." + Obviously, if you possess that for which men will give labour, you can aid + production by means of that labour. And, again, it agrees with the first + definition (borrowed from Adam Smith) that capital is "that part of a + man's stock which he expects to yield him a revenue." For a revenue is + both etymologically and in sense a "return." A man gives his labour in + sowing grain, or in tending cattle, because he expects a "return"—a + "revenue"—in the shape of the increase of the grain or of the herd; + and also, in the latter case, in the shape of their labour and manure + which "aid the production" of such increase. The grain and cattle of which + he is possessed immediately after harvest is his capital; and his revenue + for the twelvemonth, until the next harvest, is the surplus of grain and + cattle over and above the amount with which he started. This is disposable + for any purpose for which he may desire to use it, leaving him just as + well off as he was at the beginning of the year. Whether the man keeps the + surplus grain for sowing more land, and the surplus cattle for occupying + more pasture; whether he exchanges them for other commodities, such as the + use of the land (as rent); or labour (as <span class="pagenum">175</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink175" id="link175"></a> wages); or whether he feeds + himself and his family, in no way alters their nature as revenue, or + affects the fact that this revenue is merely disposable capital. + </p> + <p> + That (even apart from etymology) cattle are typical examples of capital + cannot be denied ("Progress and Poverty," p. 25); and if we seek for that + particular quality of cattle which makes them "capital," neither has the + author of "Progress and Poverty" supplied, nor is any one else very likely + to supply, a better account of the matter than Adam Smith has done. Cattle + are "capital" because they are "stock which yields revenue." That is to + say, they afford to their owner a supply of that which he desires to + possess. And, in this particular case, the "revenue" is not only + desirable, but of supreme importance, inasmuch as it is capable of + maintaining human life. The herd yields a revenue of food-stuffs as milk + and meat; a revenue of skins; a revenue of manure; a revenue of labour; a + revenue of exchangeable commodities in the shape of these things, as well + as in that of live cattle. In each and all of these capacities cattle are + capital; and, conversely, things which possess any or all of these + capacities are capital. + </p> + <p> + Therefore what we find at page 25 of "Progress and Poverty" must be + regarded as a welcome lapse into clearness of apprehension:— + </p> + <p> + "A fertile field, a rich vein of ore, a falling stream which supplies + power, may give the possessor advantages <span class="pagenum">176</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink176" id="link176"></a> equivalent to the possession of + capital; but to class such things as capital would be to put an end to the + distinction between land and capital." + </p> + <p> + Just so. But the fatal truth is that these things are capital; and that + there really is no fundamental distinction between land and capital. Is it + denied that a fertile field, a rich vein of ore, or a falling stream, may + form part of a man's stock, and that, if they do, they are capable of + yielding revenue? Will not somebody pay a share of the produce in kind, or + in money, for the privilege of cultivating the first royalties for that of + working the second; and a like equivalent for that of erecting a mill on + the third? In what sense, then, are these things less "capital" than the + buildings and tools which on page 27 of "Progress and Poverty" are + admitted to be capital? Is it not plain that if these things confer + "advantages equivalent to the possession of capital," and if the + "advantage" of capital is nothing but the yielding of revenue, then the + denial that they are capital is merely a roundabout way of + self-contradiction? + </p> + <p> + All this confused talk about capital, however, is lucidity itself compared + with the exposition of the remarkable thesis, "Wages not drawn from + capital, but produced by labour," which occupies the third chapter of + "Progress and Poverty." + </p> + <p> + "If, for instance, I devote my labour to gathering birds' eggs or picking + wild berries, the eggs or berries I thus <span class="pagenum">177</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink177" id="link177"></a> get are my wages. Surely no one + will contend that, in such a case, wages are drawn from capital. There is + no capital in the case" (p. 34). + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, those who have followed what has been said in the first part + of this essay surely neither will, nor can, have any hesitation about + substantially adopting the challenged contention, though they may possibly + have qualms as to the propriety of the use of the term "wages."* They will + have no difficulty in apprehending the fact that birds' eggs and berries + are stores of foodstuffs, or vital capital; that the man who devotes his + labour to getting them does so at the expense of his personal vital + capital; and that, if the eggs and the berries are "wages" for his work, + they are so because they enable him to restore to his organism the vital + capital which he has consumed in doing the work of collection. So that + there is really a great deal of "capital in the case." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Not merely on the grounds stated below, but on the strength + of Mr. George's own definition. Does the gatherer of eggs, or + berries, produce them by his labour? If so, what do the hens + and the bushes do? +</pre> + <p> + Our author proceeds:— + </p> + <p> + "An absolutely naked man, thrown on an island where no human being has + before trod, may gather birds' eggs or pick berries" (p. 34). + </p> + <p> + No doubt. But those who have followed my argument thus far will be aware + that a man's vital capital does not reside in his clothes; and, therefore, + <span class="pagenum">178</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink178" id="link178"></a> they will probably fail, as + completely as I do, to discover the relevancy of the statement. + </p> + <p> + Again:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . Or, if I take a piece of leather and work it up into a + pair of shoes, the shoes are my wages—the reward of my + exertion. Surely they are not drawn from capital—either + my capital or anybody else's capital—but are brought + into existence by the labour of which they became the + wages; and, in obtaining this pair of shoes as the wages + of my labour, capital is not even momentarily lessened + one iota. For if we call in the idea of capital, my + capital at the beginning consists of the piece of + leather, the thread, &c. (p. 34). +</pre> + <p> + It takes away one's breath to have such a concatenation of fallacies + administered in the space of half a paragraph. It does not seem to have + occurred to our economical reformer to imagine whence his "capital at the + beginning," the "leather, thread, &c." came. I venture to suppose that + leather to have been originally cattle-skin; and since calves and oxen are + not flayed alive, the existence of the leather implies the lessening of + that form of capital by a very considerable iota. It is, therefore, as + sure as anything can be that, in the long run, the shoes are drawn from + that which is capital par excellence; to wit, cattle. It is further beyond + doubt that the operation of tanning must involve loss of capital in the + shape of bark, to say nothing of other losses; and that the use of the + awls and knives of the shoemaker involves loss of capital in the shape of + the store of <span class="pagenum">179</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink179" id="link179"></a> iron; further, the shoemaker has + been enabled to do his work not only by the vital capital expended during + the time occupied in making the pair of shoes, but by that expended from + the time of his birth, up to the time that he earned wages that would keep + him alive. + </p> + <p> + "Progress and Poverty" continues:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . As my labour goes on, value is steadily added until, + when my labour results in the finished shoes, I have my + capital plus the difference in value between the + material and the shoes. In obtaining this additional + value—my wages—how is capital, at any time, drawn + upon? (p, 34). +</pre> + <p> + In return we may inquire, how can any one propound such a question? + Capital is drawn upon all the time. Not only when the shoes are commenced, + but while they are being made, and until they are either used by the + shoemaker himself or are purchased by somebody else; that is, exchanged + for a portion of another man's capital. In fact (supposing that the + shoemaker does not want shoes himself), it is the existence of vital + capital in the possession of another person and the willingness of that + person to part with more or less of it in exchange for the shoes—it + is these two conditions, alone, which prevent the shoemaker from having + consumed his capital unproductively, just as much as if he had spent his + time in chopping up the leather into minute fragments. + </p> + <p> + Thus, the examination of the very case selected <span class="pagenum">180</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink180" id="link180"></a> by the advocate of the doctrine + that labour bestowed upon manufacture, without any intervention of + capital, can produce wages, proves to be a delusion of the first + magnitude; even though it be supported by the dictum of Adam Smith which + is quoted in its favour (p. 34)— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "The produce of labour constitutes the natural recompense + or wages of labour. In that original state of things which + precedes both the appropriation of land and the + accumulation of stock, the whole produce of labour belongs + to the labourer. He has neither landlord nor master to + share with him" ("Wealth of Nations," ch. viii). +</pre> + <p> + But the whole of this passage exhibits the influence of the French + Physiocrats by whom Adam Smith was inspired, at their worst; that is to + say, when they most completely forsook the ground of experience for a + priori speculation. The confident reference to "that original state of + things" is quite in the manner of the Essai sur l'Inegalie. Now, the state + of men before the "appropriation of land" and the "accumulation of stock" + must surely have been that of purely savage hunters. As, by the + supposition, nobody would have possessed land, certainly no man could have + had a landlord; and, if there was no accumulation of stock in a + transferable form, as surely there could be no master, in the sense of + hirer. But hirer and hire (that is, wages) are correlative terms, like + mother and child. As "child" implies "mother," so does "hire" or "wages" + imply a <span class="pagenum">181</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink181" id="link181"></a> "hirer" or "wage-giver." + Therefore, when a man in "the original state of things" gathered fruit or + killed game for his own sustenance, the fruit or the game could be called + his "wages" only in a figurative sense; as one sees if the term "hire," + which has a more limited connotation, is substituted for "wage." If not, + it must be assumed that the savage hired himself to get his own dinner; + whereby we are led to the tolerably absurd conclusion that, as in the + "state of nature" he was his own employer, the "master" and the labourer, + in that model age, appropriated the produce in equal shares! And if this + should be not enough, it has already been seen that, in the hunting state, + man is not even an accessory of production of vital capital; he merely + consumes what nature produces. + </p> + <p> + According to the author of "Progress and Poverty" political economists + have been deluded by a "fallacy which has entangled some of the most acute + minds in a web of their own spinning." + </p> + <p> + "It is in the use of the term capital in two senses. In the primary + proposition that capital is necessary to the exertion of productive + labour, the term "capital" is understood as including all food, clothing, + shelter, &c.; whereas in the deductions finally drawn from it, the + term is used in its common and legitimate meaning of wealth devoted, not + to the immediate gratification of desire, but to the procurement of more + wealth—of wealth in the hands of employers as distinguished from + labourers" (p. 40). + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">182</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink182" id="link182"></a> I am by no means concerned to + defend the political economists who are thus charged with blundering; but + I shall be surprised to learn that any have carried the art of + self-entanglement to the degree of perfection exhibited by this passage. + Who has ever imagined that wealth which, in the hands of an employer, is + capital, ceases to be capital if it is in the hands of a labourer? Suppose + a workman to be paid thirty shillings on Saturday evening for six days' + labour, that thirty shillings comes out of the employer's capital, and + receives the name of "wages" simply because it is exchanged for labour. In + the workman's pocket, as he goes home, it is a part of his capital, in + exactly the same sense as, half an hour before, it was part of the + employer's capital; he is a capitalist just as much as if he were a + Rothschild. Suppose him to be a single man, whose cooking and household + matters are attended to by the people of the house in which he has a room; + then the rent which he pays them out of this capital is, in part, wages + for their labour, and he is, so far, an employer. If he saves one shilling + out of his thirty, he has, to that extent, added to his capital when the + next Saturday comes round. And if he puts his saved shillings week by week + into the Savings Bank, the difference between him and the most bloated of + bankers is simply one of degree. + </p> + <p> + At page 42, we are confidently told that <span class="pagenum">183</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink183" id="link183"></a> "labourers by receiving wages" + cannot lessen "even temporarily" the "capital of the employer," while at + page 44 it is admitted that in certain cases the capitalist "pays out + capital in wages." One would think that the "paying out" of capital is + hardly possible without at least a "temporary" diminution of the capital + from which payment is made. But "Progress and Poverty" changes all that by + a little verbal legerdemain:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "For where wages are paid before the object of the labour + is obtained, or is finished—as in agriculture, where + ploughing and sowing must precede by several months the + harvesting of the crop; as in the erection of buildings, + the construction of ships, railroads, canals, &c.—it is + clear that the owners of the capital paid in wages cannot + expect an immediate return, but, as the phrase is, must + "outlay it" or "lie out of it" for a time which sometimes + amounts to many years. And hence, if first principles are + not kept in mind, it is easy to jump to the conclusion + that wages are advanced by capital" (p. 44). +</pre> + <p> + Those who have paid attention to the argument of former parts of this + paper may not be able to understand how, if sound "first principles are + kept in mind," any other conclusion can be reached, whether by jumping, or + by any other mode of logical progression. But the first principle which + our author "keeps in mind" possesses just that amount of ambiguity which + enables him to play hocus-pocus with it. It is this; that "the creation of + value does not depend upon the finishing of the product" (p. 44). + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">184</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink184" id="link184"></a> There is no doubt that, under + certain limitations, this proposition is correct. It is not true that + "labour always adds to capital by its exertion before it takes from + capital its wages" (p. 44), but it is true that it may, and often does, + produce that effect. + </p> + <p> + To take one of the examples given, the construction of a ship. The shaping + of the timbers undoubtedly gives them a value (for a shipbuilder) which + they did not possess before. When they are put together to constitute the + framework of the ship, there is a still further addition of value (for a + shipbuilder); and when the outside planking is added, there is another + addition (for a shipbuilder). Suppose everything else about the hull is + finished, except the one little item of caulking the seams, there is no + doubt that it has still more value for a shipbuilder. But for whom else + has it any value, except perhaps for a fire-wood merchant? What price will + any one who wants a ship—that is to say, something that will carry a + cargo from one port to another—give for the unfinished vessel which + would take water in at every seam and go down in half an hour, if she were + launched? Suppose the shipbuilder's capital to fail before the vessel is + caulked, and that he cannot find another shipbuilder who cares to buy and + finish it, what sort of proportion does the value created by the labour, + for which he has paid out of his capital, stand to that of his advances? + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">185</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink185" id="link185"></a> Surely no one will give him + one-tenth of the capital disbursed in wages, perhaps not so much even as + the prime cost of the raw materials. Therefore, though the assertion that + "the creation of value does not depend on the finishing of the product" + may be strictly true under certain circumstances, it need not be and is + not always true. And, if it is meant to imply or suggest that the creation + of value in a manufactured article does not depend upon the finishing of + that article, a more serious error could hardly be propounded. + </p> + <p> + Is there not a prodigious difference in the value of an uncaulked and in + that of a finished ship; between the value of a house in which only the + tiles of the roof are wanting and a finished house; between that of a + clock which only lacks the escapement and a finished clock? + </p> + <p> + As ships, house, and clock, the unfinished articles have no value whatever—that + is to say, no person who wanted to purchase one of these things, for + immediate use, would give a farthing for either. The only value they can + have, apart from that of the materials they contain, is that which they + possess for some one who can finish them, or for some one who can make use + of parts of them for the construction of other things. A man might buy an + unfinished house for the sake of the bricks; or he might buy an incomplete + clock to use the works for some other piece of machinery. + </p> + <p> + Thus, though every stage of the labour <span class="pagenum">186</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink186" id="link186"></a> bestowed on raw material, for the + purpose of giving rise to a certain product, confers some additional value + on that material in the estimation of those who are engaged in + manufacturing that product, the ratio of that accumulated value, at any + stage of the process, to the value of the finished product is extremely + inconstant, and often small; while, to other persons, the value of the + unfinished product may be nothing, or even a minus quantity. A + house-timber merchant, for example, might consider that wood which had + been worked into the ribs of a ship was spoiled—that is, had less + value than it had as a log. + </p> + <p> + According to "Progress and Poverty," there was, really, no advance of + capital while the great St. Gothard tunnel was cut. Suppose that, as the + Swiss and the Italian halves of the tunnel approached to within half a + kilometre, that half-kilometre had turned out to be composed of + practically impenetrable rock—would anybody have given a centime for + the unfinished tunnel? And if not, how comes it that "the creation of + value does not depend on the finishing of the product"? + </p> + <p> + I think it may be not too much to say that, of all the political delusions + which are current in this queer world, the very stupidest are those which + assume that labour and capital are necessarily antagonistic; that all + capital is produced by labour and therefore, by natural right, is the + property of <span class="pagenum">187</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink187" id="link187_"></a> the labourer; that the possessor + of capital is a robber who preys on the workman and appropriates to + himself that which he has had no share in producing. + </p> + <p> + On the contrary, capital and labour are, necessarily, close allies; + capital is never a product of human labour alone; it exists apart from + human labour; it is the necessary antecedent of labour; and it furnishes + the materials on which labour is employed. The only indispensable form of + capital—vital capital—cannot be produced by human labour. All + that man can do is to favour its formation by the real producers. There is + no intrinsic relation between the amount of labour bestowed on an article + and its value in exchange. The claim of labour to the total result of + operations which are rendered possible only by capital is simply an a + priori iniquity. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">188</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink188" id="link188"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0024" id="link2H_4_0024"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES + </h2> + <h3> + LETTERS TO THE "TIMES" ON MR. BOOTH'S SCHEME. + </h3> + <h3> + WITH A PREFACE AND INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. + </h3> + <h3> + (1891) + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF2" id="link2H_PREF2"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + The letters which are here collected together were published in the + "Times" in the course of the months of December, 1890, and January, 1891. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances which led me to write the first letter are sufficiently + set forth in its opening sentences; and the materials on which I based my + criticisms of Mr. Booth's scheme, in this and in the second letter, were + wholly derived from Mr. Booth's book. I had some reason to know, however, + that when anybody allows his sense of duty so far to prevail over his + sense of the blessedness of peace as to write a letter to the "Times," on + any subject of public interest, his reflections, before he has done with + the business, will be very like <span class="pagenum">189</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink189" id="link189"></a> those of Johnny Gilpin, "who + little thought, when he set out, of running such a rig." Such undoubtedly + are mine when I contemplate these twelve documents, and call to mind the + distinct addition to the revenue of the Post Office which must have + accrued from the mass of letters and pamphlets which have been delivered + at my door; to say nothing of the unexpected light upon my character, + motives, and doctrines, which has been thrown by some of the "Times'" + correspondents, and by no end of comments elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + If self-knowledge is the highest aim of man, I ought by this time to have + little to learn. And yet, if I am awake, some of my teachers—unable, + perhaps, to control the divine fire of the poetic imagination which is so + closely akin to, if not a part of, the mythopoeic faculty—have + surely dreamed dreams. So far as my humbler and essentially prosaic + faculties of observation and comparison go, plain facts are against them. + But, as I may be mistaken, I have thought it well to prefix to the letters + (by way of "Prolegomena") an essay which appeared in the "Nineteenth + Century" for January, 1888, in which the principles that, to my mind, lie + at the bottom of the "social question" are stated. So far as Individualism + and Regimental Socialism are concerned, this paper simply emphasizes and + expands the opinions expressed in an address to the members of the Midland + Institute, delivered seventeen years earlier, <span class="pagenum">190</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink190" id="link190"></a> and still more fully developed in + several essays published in the "Nineteenth Century" in 1889, which I + hope, before long, to republish.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 290 to end; and this volume, + p. 147. +</pre> + <p> + The fundamental proposition which runs through the writings, which thus + extend over twenty years, is, that the common a priori doctrines and + methods of reasoning about political and social questions are essentially + vicious; and that argumentation on this basis leads, with equal logical + force, to two contradictory and extremely mischievous systems, the one + that of Anarchaic Individualism, the other that of despotic or Regimental + Socialism. Whether I am right or wrong, I am at least consistent in + opposing both to the best of my ability. Mr. Booth's system appears to me, + and, as I have shown, is regarded by Socialists themselves, to be mere + autocratic Socialism, masked by its theological exterior. That the + "fantastic" religious skin will wear away, and the Socialistic reality it + covers will show its real nature, is the expressed hope of one candid + Socialist, and may be fairly conceived to be the unexpressed belief of the + despotic leader of the new Trades Union, who has shown his zeal, if not + his discretion, in championing Mr. Booth's projects. [See Letter VIII.] + </p> + <p> + Yet another word to commentators upon my letters. There are some who + rather chuckle, and <span class="pagenum">191</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink191" id="link191"></a> some who sneer, at what they seem + to consider the dexterity of an "old controversial hand," exhibited by the + contrast which I have drawn between the methods of conversion depicted in + the New Testament and those pursued by fanatics of the Salvationist type, + whether they be such as are now exploited by Mr. Booth, or such as those + who, from the time of the Anabaptists, to go no further back, have worked + upon similar lines. + </p> + <p> + Whether such observations were intended to be flattering or sarcastic, I + must respectfully decline to accept the compliment, or to apply the + sarcasm to myself. I object to obliquity of procedure and ambiguity of + speech in all shapes. And I confess that I find it difficult to understand + the state of mind which leads any one to suppose, that deep respect for + single-minded devotion to high aims is incompatible with the unhesitating + conviction that those aims include the propagation of doctrines which are + devoid of foundation—perhaps even mischievous. + </p> + <p> + The most degrading feature of the narrower forms of Christianity (of which + that professed by Mr. Booth is a notable example) is their insistence that + the noblest virtues, if displayed by those who reject their pitiable + formulae, are, as their pet phrase goes, "splendid sins." But there is, + perhaps, one step lower; and that is that men, who profess freedom of + thought, should fail to see and <span class="pagenum">192</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink192" id="link192"></a> appreciate that large soul of + goodness which often animates even the fanatical adherents of such tenets. + I am sorry for any man who can read the epistles to the Galatians and the + Corinthians without yielding a large meed of admiration to the fervent + humanity of Paul of Tarsus; who can study the lives of Francis of Assisi, + or of Catherine of Siena, without wishing that, for the furtherance of his + own ideals, he might be even as they; or who can contemplate unmoved the + steadfast veracity and true heroism which loom through the fogs of + mystical utterance in George Fox. In all these great men and women there + lay the root of the matter; a burning desire to amend the condition of + their fellow-men, and to put aside all other things for that end. If, in + spite of all the dogmatic helps or hindrances in which they were + entangled, these people are not to be held in high honour, who are? + </p> + <p> + I have never expressed a doubt—for I have none—that, when Mr. + Booth left the Methodist connection, and started that organisation of the + Salvation Army upon which, comparatively recently, such ambitious schemes + of social reform have been grafted, he may have deserved some share of + such honour. I do not say that, so far as his personal desires and + intentions go, he may not still deserve it. But the correlate of despotic + authority is unlimited responsibility. If Mr. Booth is to take <span + class="pagenum">193</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink193" id="link193"></a> credit for any good that the Army + system has effected, he must be prepared to bear blame for its inherent + evils. As it seems to me, that has happened to him which sooner or later + happens to all despots: he has become the slave of his own creation—the + prosperity and glory of the soul-saving machine have become the end, + instead of a means, of soul-saving; and to maintain these at the proper + pitch, the "General" is led to do things which the Mr. Booth of twenty + years ago would probably have scorned. + </p> + <p> + And those who desire, as I most emphatically desire, to be just to Mr. + Booth, however badly they may think of the working of the organization he + has founded, will bear in mind that some astute backers of his probably + care little enough for Salvationist religion; and, perhaps, are not very + keen about many of Mr. Booth's projects. I have referred to the rubbing of + the hands of the Socialists over Mr. Booth's success;* but, unless I err + greatly, there are politicians of a certain school to whom it affords + still greater satisfaction. Consider what electioneering agents the + captains of the Salvation Army, scattered through all our towns, and + directed from a political "bureau" in London, would make! Think how + political adversaries could be harassed by our local attorney—"tribune + of the people," I mean; and how a troublesome man, on the other side, + could be "hunted <span class="pagenum">194</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink194" id="link194"></a> down" upon any convenient charge, + whether true or false, brought by our Vigilance-familiar!** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Letter VIII. + ** See Letter II. +</pre> + <p> + I entirely acquit Mr. Booth of any complicity in far-reaching schemes of + this kind; but I did not write idly when, in my first letter, I gave no + vague warning of what might grow out of the organised force, drilled in + the habit of unhesitating obedience, which he has created. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">195</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink195" id="link195"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0026" id="link2H_4_0026"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. + </h2> + <h3> + THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN HUMAN SOCIETY. + </h3> + <h3> + (1888). + </h3> + <p> + The vast and varied procession of events, which we call Nature, affords a + sublime spectacle and an inexhaustible wealth of attractive problems to + the speculative observer. If we confine our attention to that aspect which + engages the attention of the intellect, nature appears a beautiful and + harmonious whole, the incarnation of a faultless logical process, from + certain premises in the past to an inevitable conclusion in the future. + But if it be regarded from a less elevated, though more human, point of + view; if our moral sympathies are allowed to influence our judgment, and + we permit ourselves to criticise our great mother as we criticise one + another; then our verdict, at least so far as sentient nature is + concerned, can hardly be so favourable. + </p> + <p> + In sober truth, to those who have made a study of the phenomena of life as + they exhibited by the higher forms of the animal world, <span + class="pagenum">196</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink196" id="link196"></a> the optimistic dogma, that this is + the best of all possible worlds, will seem little better than a libel upon + possibility. It is really only another instance to be added to the many + extant, of the audacity of a priori speculators who, having created God in + their own image, find no difficulty in assuming that the Almighty must + have been actuated by the same motives as themselves. They are quite sure + that, had any other course been practicable, He would no more have made + infinite suffering a necessary ingredient of His handiwork than a + respectable philosopher would have done the like. + </p> + <p> + But even the modified optimism of the time-honoured thesis of + physico-theology, that the sentient world is, on the whole, regulated by + principles of benevolence, does but ill stand the test of impartial + confrontation with the facts of the case. No doubt it is quite true that + sentient nature affords hosts of examples of subtle contrivances directed + towards the production of pleasure or the avoidance of pain; and it may be + proper to say that these are evidences of benevolence. But if so, why is + it not equally proper to say of the equally numerous arrangements, the no + less necessary result of which is the production of pain, that they are + evidences of malevolence? + </p> + <p> + If a vast amount of that which, in a piece of human workmanship, we should + call skill, is <span class="pagenum">197</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink197" id="link197"></a> visible in those parts of the + organization of a deer to which it owes its ability to escape from beasts + of prey, there is at least equal skill displayed in that bodily mechanism + of the wolf which enables him to track, and sooner or later to bring down, + the deer. Viewed under the dry light of science, deer and wolf are alike + admirable; and, if both were non-sentient automata, there would be nothing + to qualify our admiration of the action of the one on the other. But the + fact that the deer suffers, while the wolf inflicts suffering, engages our + moral sympathies. We should call men like the deer innocent and good, men + such as the wolf malignant and bad; we should call those who defended the + deer and aided him to escape brave and compassionate, and those who helped + the wolf in his bloody work base and cruel. Surely, if we transfer these + judgments to nature outside the world of man at all, we must do so + impartially. In that case, the goodness of the right hand which helps the + deer, and the wickedness of the left hand which eggs on the wolf, will + neutralize one another: and the course of nature will appear to be neither + moral nor immoral, but non-moral. + </p> + <p> + This conclusion is thrust upon us by analogous facts in every part of the + sentient world; yet, inasmuch as it not only jars upon prevalent + prejudices, but arouses the natural dislike to that which is painful, much + ingenuity has been exercised in devising an escape from it. + </p> + <p> + From the theological side, we are told that <span class="pagenum">198</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink198" id="link198"></a> this is a state of probation, and + that the seeming injustices and immoralities of nature will be compensated + by and by. But how this compensation is to be effected, in the case of the + great majority of sentient things, is not clear. I apprehend that no one + is seriously prepared to maintain that the ghosts of all the myriads of + generations of herbivorous animals which lived during the millions of + years of the earth's duration, before the appearance of man, and which + have all that time been tormented and devoured by carnivores, are to be + compensated by a perennial existence in clover; while the ghosts of + carnivores are to go to some kennel where there is neither a pan of water + nor a bone with any meat on it. Besides, from the point of view of + morality, the last stage of things would be worse than the first. For the + carnivores, however brutal and sanguinary, have only done that which, if + there is any evidence of contrivance in the world, they were expressly + constructed to do. Moreover, carnivores and herbivores alike have been + subject to all the miseries incidental to old age, disease, and + over-multiplication, and both might well put in a claim for "compensation" + on this score. + </p> + <p> + On the evolutionist side, on the other hand, we are told to take comfort + from the reflection that the terrible struggle for existence tends to + final good, and that the suffering of the ancestor is paid for by the + increased perfection of the progeny. There would be something in this + argument if, in <span class="pagenum">199</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink199" id="link199"></a> Chinese fashion, the present + generation could pay its debts to its ancestors; otherwise it is not clear + what compensation the Eohippus gets for his sorrows in the fact that, some + millions of years afterwards, one of his descendants wins the Derby. And, + again, it is an error to imagine that evolution signifies a constant + tendency to increased perfection. That process undoubtedly involves a + constant remodelling of the organism in adaptation to new conditions; but + it depends on the nature of those conditions whether the direction of the + modifications effected shall be upward or downward. Retrogressive is as + practicable as progressive metamorphosis. If what the physical + philosophers tell us, that our globe has been in a state of fusion, and, + like the sun, is gradually cooling down, is true; then the time must come + when evolution will mean adaptation to an universal winter, and all forms + of life will die out, except such low and simple organisms as the Diatom + of the arctic and antarctic ice and the Protococcus of the red snow. If + our globe is proceeding from a condition in which it was too hot to + support any but the lowest living thing to a condition in which it will be + too cold to permit of the existence of any others, the course of life upon + its surface must describe a trajectory like that of a ball fired from a + mortar; and the sinking half of that course is as much a part of the + general process of evolution as the rising. + </p> + <p> + From the point of view of the moralist the <span class="pagenum">200</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink200" id="link200"></a> animal world is on about the same + level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are fairly well treated, and + set to fight—whereby the strongest, the swiftest, and the cunningest + live to fight another day. The spectator has no need to turn his thumbs + down, as no quarter is given. He must admit that the skill and training + displayed are wonderful. But he must shut his eyes if he would not see + that more or less enduring suffering is the meed of both vanquished and + victor. And since the great game is going on in every corner of the world, + thousands of times a minute; since, were our ears sharp enough, we need + not descend to the gates of hell to hear— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . sospiri, pianti, ed alti guai. + Voci alte e floche, e suon di man con elle +</pre> + <p> + —it seems to follow that, if the world is governed by benevolence, + it must be a different sort of benevolence from that of John Howard. + </p> + <p> + But the old Babylonians wisely symbolized Nature by their great goddess + Istar, who combined the attributes of Aphrodite with those of Ares. Her + terrible aspect is not to be ignored or covered up with shams; but it is + not the only one. If the optimism of Leibnitz is a foolish though pleasant + dream, the pessimism of Schopenhauer is a nightmare, the more foolish + because of its hideousness. Error which is not pleasant is surely the + worst form of wrong. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">201</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink201" id="link201"></a> This may not be the best of all + possible worlds, but to say that it is the worst is mere petulant + nonsense. A worn-out voluptuary may find nothing good under the sun, or a + vain and inexperienced youth, who cannot get the moon he cries for, may + vent his irritation in pessimistic moanings; but there can be no doubt in + the mind of any reasonable person that mankind could, would, and in fact + do, get on fairly well with vastly less happiness and far more misery than + find their way into the lives of nine people out of ten. If each and all + of us had been visited by an attack of neuralgia, or of extreme mental + depression, for one hour in every twenty-four—a supposition which + many tolerably vigorous people know, to their cost, is not extravagant—the + burden of life would have been immensely increased without much practical + hindrance to its general course. Men with any manhood in them find life + quite worth living under worse conditions than these. + </p> + <p> + There is another sufficiently obvious fact, which renders the hypothesis + that the course of sentient nature is dictated by malevolence quite + untenable. A vast multitude of pleasures, and these among the purest and + the best, are superfluities, bits of good which are to all appearances + unnecessary as inducements to live, and are, so to speak, thrown into the + bargain of life. To those who experience them, few delights can be more + entrancing than such as are afforded by natural <span class="pagenum">202</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink202" id="link202"></a> beauty, or by the arts, and + especially by music; but they are products of, rather than factors in, + evolution, and it is probable that they are known, in any considerable + degree, to but a very small proportion of mankind. + </p> + <p> + The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be that, if Ormuzd has not had + his way in this world, neither has Ahriman. Pessimism is as little + consonant with the facts of sentient existence as optimism. If we desire + to represent the course of nature in terms of human thought, and assume + that it was intended to be that which it is, we must say that its + governing principle is intellectual and not moral; that it is a + materialized logical process, accompanied by pleasures and pains, the + incidence of which, in the majority of cases, has not the slightest + reference to moral desert. That the rain falls alike upon the just and the + unjust, and that those upon whom the Tower of Siloam fell were no worse + than their neighbours, seem to be Oriental modes of expressing the same + conclusion. + </p> + <p> + In the strict sense of the word "nature," it denotes the sum of the + phenomenal world, of that which has been, and is, and will be; and + society, like art, is therefore a part of nature. But it is convenient to + distinguish those parts of nature in which man plays the part of immediate + cause, as some thing apart; and, therefore, society, like art, <span + class="pagenum">203</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink203" id="link203"></a> is usefully to be considered as + distinct from nature. It is the more desirable, and even necessary, to + make this distinction, since society differs from nature in having a + definite moral object; whence it comes about that the course shaped by the + ethical man—the member of society or citizen—necessarily runs + counter to that which the non-ethical man—the primitive savage, or + man as a mere member of the animal kingdom—tends to adopt. The + latter fights out the struggle for existence to the bitter end, like any + other animal; the former devotes his best energies to the object of + setting limits to the struggle.* + </p> + <p> + In the cycle of phenomena presented by the life of man, the animal, no + more moral end is discernible than in that presented by the lives of the + wolf and of the deer. However imperfect the relics of prehistoric men may + be, the evidence which they afford clearly tends to the conclusion that, + for thousands and thousands of years, before the origin of the oldest + known civilizations, men were savages of a very low type. They strove with + their enemies and their competitors; they preyed upon things weaker or + less cunning than themselves; they were born, multiplied without stint, + and died, for thousands of generations alongside the mammoth, the urus, + the lion, and the hyaena, whose lives were spent in the same way; <span + class="pagenum">204</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink204" id="link204"></a> and they were no more to be + praised or blamed on moral grounds, than their less erect and more hairy + compatriots. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [The reader will observe that this is the argument of the + Romanes Lecture, in brief.—1894.] +</pre> + <p> + As among these, so among primitive men, the weakest and stupidest went to + the wall, while the toughest and shrewdest, those who were best fitted to + cope with their circumstances, but not the best in any other sense, + survived. Life was a continual free fight, and beyond the limited and + temporary relations of the family, the Hobbesian war of each against all + was the normal state of existence. The human species, like others, plashed + and floundered amid the general stream of evolution, keeping its head + above water as it best might, and thinking neither of whence nor whither. + </p> + <p> + The history of civilization—that is, of society—on the other + hand, is the record of the attempts which the human race has made to + escape from this position. The first men who substituted the state of + mutual peace for that of mutual war, whatever the motive which impelled + them to take that step, created society. But, in establishing peace, they + obviously put a limit upon the struggle for existence. Between the members + of that society, at any rate, it was not to be pursued a outrance. And of + all the successive shapes which society has taken, that most nearly + approaches perfection in which the war of individual against individual is + most strictly limited. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">205</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink205" id="link205"></a> The primitive savage, tutored by + Istar, appropriated whatever took his fancy, and killed whomsoever opposed + him, if he could. On the contrary, the ideal of the ethical man is to + limit his freedom of action to a sphere in which he does not interfere + with the freedom of others; he seeks the common weal as much as his own; + and, indeed, as an essential part of his own welfare. Peace is both end + and means with him; and he founds his life on a more or less complete + self-restraint, which is the negation of the unlimited struggle for + existence. He tries to escape from his place in the animal kingdom, + founded on the free development of the principle of non-moral evolution, + and to establish a kingdom of Man, governed upon the principle of moral + evolution. For society not only has a moral end, but in its perfection, + social life, is embodied morality. + </p> + <p> + But the effort of ethical man to work towards a moral end by no means + abolished, perhaps has hardly modified, the deep-seated organic impulses + which impel the natural man to follow his non-moral course. One of the + most essential conditions, if not the chief cause, of the struggle for + existence, is the tendency to multiply without limit, which man shares + with all living things. It is notable that "increase and multiply" is a + commandment traditionally much older than the ten; and that it is, + perhaps, the only one which has been spontaneously and ex animo obeyed by + <span class="pagenum">206</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink206" id="link206"></a> the great majority of the human + race. But, in civilized society, the inevitable result of such obedience + is the re-establishment, in all its intensity, of that struggle for + existence—the war of each against all—the mitigation or + abolition of which was the chief end of social organization. + </p> + <p> + It is conceivable that, at some perios in the history of the fabled Atlantis, + the production of food should have been exactly sufficient to meet the + wants of the population, that the makers of the commodities of the + artificer should have amounted to just the number supportable by the + surplus food of the agriculturists. And, as there is no harm in adding + another monstrous supposition to the foregoing, let it be imagined that + every man, woman, and child was perfectly virtuous, and aimed at the good + of all as the highest personal good. In that happy land, the natural man + would have been finally put down by the ethical man. There would have been + no competition, but the industry of each would have been serviceable to + all; nobody being vain and nobody avaricious, there would have been no + rivalries; the struggle for existence would have been abolished, and the + millennium would have finally set in. But it is obvious that this state of + things could have been permanent only with a stationary population. Add + ten fresh mouths; and as, by the supposition, there was only exactly + enough before, somebody must go on short rations. The <span class="pagenum">207</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink207" id="link207"></a> Atlantis society might have been a + heaven upon earth, the whole nation might have consisted of just men, + needing no repentance, and yet somebody must starve. Reckless Istar, + non-moral Nature, would have riven the ethical fabric. I was once talking + with a very eminent physician* about the vis medicatrix naturae. "Stuff!" + said he; "nine times out of ten nature does not want to cure the man: she + wants to put him in his coffin." And Istar-Nature appears to have equally + little sympathy with the ends of society. "Stuff! she wants nothing but a + fair field and free play for her darling the strongest." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The late Sir W. Gull +</pre> + <p> + Our Atlantis may be an impossible figment, but the antagonistic tendencies + which the fable adumbrates have existed in every society which was ever + established, and, to all appearance, must strive for the victory in all + that will be. Historians point to the greed and ambition of rulers, to the + reckless turbulence of the ruled, to the debasing effects of wealth and + luxury, and to the devastating wars which have formed a great part of the + occupation of mankind, as the causes of the decay of states and the + foundering of old civilizations, and thereby point their story with a + moral. No doubt immoral motives of all sorts have figured largely among + the minor causes of these events. But beneath all this <span + class="pagenum">208</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink208" id="link208"></a> superficial turmoil lay the + deep-seated impulse given by unlimited multiplication. In the swarms of + colonies thrown out by Phoenicia and by old Greece; in the ver sacrum of + the Latin races; in the floods of Gauls and of Teutons which burst over + the frontiers of the old civilization of Europe; in the swaying to and fro + of the vast Mongolian hordes in late times, the population problem comes + to the front in a very visible shape. Nor is it less plainly manifest in + the everlasting agrarian questions of ancient Rome than in the Arreoi + societies of the Polynesian Islands. + </p> + <p> + In the ancient world, and in a large part of that in which we live, the + practice of infanticide was, or is, a regular and legal custom; famine, + pestilence, and war were and are normal factors in the struggle for + existence, and they have served, in a gross and brutal fashion, to + mitigate the intensity of the effects of its chief cause. + </p> + <p> + But, in the more advanced civilizations, the progress of private and + public morality has steadily tended to remove all these checks. We declare + infanticide murder, and punish it as such; we decree, not quite so + successfully, that no one shall die of hunger; we regard death from + preventible causes of other kinds as a sort of constructive murder, and + eliminate pestilence to the best of our ability; we declaim against the + curse <span class="pagenum">209</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink209" id="link209"></a> of war, and the wickedness of the + military spirit, and we are never weary of dilating on the blessedness of + peace and the innocent beneficence of Industry. In their moments of + expansion, even statesmen and men of business go thus far. The finer + spirits look to an ideal civitas Dei; a state when, every man having + reached the point of absolute self-negation, and having nothing but moral + perfection to strive after, peace will truly reign, not merely among + nations, but among men, and the struggle for existence will be at an end. + </p> + <p> + Whether human nature is competent, under any circumstances, to reach, or + even seriously advance towards, this ideal condition, is a question which + need not be discussed. It will be admitted that mankind has not yet + reached this stage by a very long way, and my business is with the + present. And that which I wish to point out is that, so long as the + natural man increases and multiplies without restraint, so long will peace + and industry not only permit, but they will necessitate, a struggle for + existence as sharp as any that ever went on under the regime of war. If + Istar is to reign on the one hand, she will demand her human sacrifices on + the other. + </p> + <p> + Let us look at home. For seventy years peace and industry have had their + way among us with less interruption and under more favourable conditions + than in any other country on the face of the earth. The wealth of Croesus + was nothing to <span class="pagenum">210</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink210" id="link210"></a> that which we have accumulated, + and our prosperity has filled the world with envy. But Nemesis did not + forget Croesus: has she forgotten us? + </p> + <p> + I think not. There are now 36,000,000 of people in our islands, and every + year considerably more than 300,000 are added to our numbers.* That is to + say, about every hundred seconds, or so, a new claimant to a share in the + common stock or maintenance presents him or herself among us. At the + present time, the produce of the soil does not suffice to feed half its + population. The other moiety has to be supplied with food which must be + bought from the people of food-producing countries. That is to say, we + have to offer them the things which they want in exchange for the things + we want. And the things they want and which we can produce better than + they can are mainly manufactures—industrial products. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These numbers are only approximately accurate. In 1881, our + population amounted to 35,241,482, exceeding the number in 1871 + by 3,396,103. The average annual increase in the decennial. + 1871—1881 is therefore 339,610. The number of minutes in a + calendar year is 525,600. +</pre> + <p> + The insolent reproach of the first Napoleon had a very solid foundation. + We not only are, but, under penalty of starvation, we are bound to be, a + nation of shopkeepers. But other nations also lie under the same necessity + of keeping shop, and some of them deal in the same goods as ourselves. Our + customers naturally seek to get the most and <span class="pagenum">211</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink211" id="link211"></a> the best in exchange for their + produce. If our goods are inferior to those of our competitors, there is + no ground, compatible with the sanity of the buyers, which can be alleged, + why they should not prefer the latter. And, if that result should ever + take place on a large and general scale, five or six millions of us would + soon have nothing to eat. We know what the cotton famine was; and we can + therefore form some notion of what a dearth of customers would be. + </p> + <p> + Judged by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satisfactory than the + position in which we find ourselves. In a real, though incomplete, degree + we have attained the condition of peace which is the main object of social + organization; and, for argument's sake, it may be assumed that we desire + nothing but that which is in itself innocent and praiseworthy—namely, + the enjoyment of the fruits of honest industry. And lo! in spite of + ourselves, we are in reality engaged in an internecine struggle for + existence with our presumably no less peaceful and well-meaning + neighbours. We seek peace and we do not ensue it. The moral nature in us + asks for no more than is compatible with the general good; the non-moral + nature proclaims and acts upon that fine old Scottish family motto, "Thou + shalt starve ere I want." Let us be under no illusions, then. So long as + unlimited multiplication goes on, no social organization which has ever + been devised, or is likely to <span class="pagenum">212</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink212" id="link212"></a> be devised, no fiddle-faddling + with the distribution of wealth, will deliver society from the tendency to + be destroyed by the reproduction within itself, in its intensest form, of + that struggle for existence the limitation of which is the object of + society. And however shocking to the moral sense this eternal competition + of man against man and of nation against nation may be; however revolting + may be the accumulation of misery at the negative pole of society, in + contrast with that of monstrous wealth at the positive pole;* this state + of things must abide, and grow continually worse, so long as Istar holds + her way unchecked. It is the true riddle of the Sphinx; and every nation + which does not solve it will sooner or later be devoured by the monster + itself has generated. + </p> + <p> + The practical and pressing question for us, just now, seems to me to be + how to gain time. "Time brings counsel," as the Teutonic proverb has it; + and wiser folk among our posterity may see their way out of that which at + present looks like an impasse. + </p> + <p> + It would be folly to entertain any ill-feeling towards those neighbours + and rivals who, like ourselves, are slaves of Istar; but, if somebody is + to be starved, the modern world has no Oracle of Delphi to which the + nations can appeal for an <span class="pagenum">213</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink213" id="link213"></a> indication of the victim. It is + open to us to try our fortune; and, if we avoid impending fate, there will + be a certain ground for believing that we are the right people to escape. + Securus judicat orbis. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [It is hard to say whether the increase of the unemployed + poor, or that of the unemployed rich, is the greater social + evil. — 1894} +</pre> + <p> + To this end, it is well to look into the necessary condition of our + salvation by works. They are two, one plain to all the world and hardly + needing insistence; the other seemingly not so plain, since too often it + has been theoretically and practically left out of sight. The obvious + condition is that our produce shall be better than that of others. There + is only one reason why our goods should be preferred to those of our + rivals—our customers must find them better at the price. That means + that we must use more knowledge, skill, and industry in producing them, + without a proportionate increase in the cost of production; and, as the + price of labour constitutes a large element in that cost, the rate of + wages must be restricted within certain limits. It is perfectly true that + cheap production and cheap labour are by no means synonymous; but it is + also true that wages cannot increase beyond a certain proportion without + destroying cheapness. Cheapness, then, with, as part and parcel of + cheapness, a moderate price of labour, is essential to our success as + competitors in the markets of the world. + </p> + <p> + The second condition is really quite as plainly indispensable as the + first, if one thinks seriously <span class="pagenum">214</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink214" id="link214"></a> about the matter. It is social + stability. Society is stable, when the wants of its members obtain as much + satisfaction as, life being what it is, common sense and experience show + may be reasonably expected. Mankind, in general, care very little for + forms of government or ideal considerations of any sort; and nothing + really stirs the great multitude to break with custom and incur the + manifest perils of revolt except the belief that misery in this world, or + damnation in the next, or both, are threatened by the continuance of the + state of things in which they have been brought up. But when they do + attain that conviction, society becomes as unstable as a package of + dynamite, and a very small matter will produce the explosion which sends + it back to the chaos of savagery. + </p> + <p> + It needs no argument to prove that when the price of labour sinks below a + certain point, the worker infallibly falls into that condition which the + French emphatically call la misere—a word for which I do not think + there is any exact English equivalent. It is a condition in which the + food, warmth, and clothing which are necessary for the mere maintenance of + the functions of the body in their normal state cannot be obtained; in + which men, women, and children are forced to crowd into dens wherein + decency is abolished and the most ordinary conditions of healthful + existence are impossible of attainment; in which the <span class="pagenum">215</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink215" id="link215"></a> pleasures within reach are reduced + to bestiality and drunkenness; in which the pains accumulate at compound + interest, in the shape of starvation, disease, stunted development, and + moral degradation; in which the prospect of even steady and honest + industry is a life of unsuccessful battling with hunger, rounded by a + pauper's grave. + </p> + <p> + That a certain proportion of the members of every great aggregation of + mankind should constantly tend to establish and populate such a Slough of + Despond as this is inevitable, so long as some people are by nature idle + and vicious, while others are disabled by sickness or accident, or thrown + upon the world by the death of their bread-winners. So long as that + proportion is restricted within tolerable limits, it can be dealt with; + and, so far as it arises only from such causes, its existence may and must + be patiently borne. But, when the organization of society, instead of + mitigating this tendency, tends to continue and intensify it; when a given + social order plainly makes for evil and not for good, men naturally enough + begin to think it high time to try a fresh experiment. The animal man, + finding that the ethical man has landed him in such a slough, resumes his + ancient sovereignty, and preaches anarchy; which is, substantially, a + proposal to reduce the social cosmos to chaos, and begin the brute + struggle for existence once again. + </p> + <p> + Any one who is acquainted with the state of <span class="pagenum">216</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink216" id="link216"></a> the population of all great + industrial centres, whether in this or other countries, is aware that, + amidst a large and increasing body of that population, la misere reigns + supreme. I have no pretensions to the character of a philanthropist, and I + have a special horror of all sorts of sentimental rhetoric; I am merely + trying to deal with facts, to some extent within my own knowledge, and + further evidenced by abundant testimony, as a naturalist; and I take it to + be a mere plain truth that, throughout industrial Europe, there is not a + single large manufacturing city which is free from a vast mass of people + whose condition is exactly that described; and from a still greater mass + who, living just on the edge of the social swamp, are liable to be + precipitated into it by any lack of demand for their produce. And, with + every addition to the population, the multitude already sunk in the pit + and the number of the host sliding towards it continually increase. + </p> + <p> + Argumentation can hardly be needful to make it clear that no society in + which the elements of decomposition are thus swiftly and surely + accumulating can hope to win in the race of industries. + </p> + <p> + Intelligence, knowledge, and skill are undoubtedly conditions of success; + but of what avail are they likely to be unless they are backed up by + honesty, energy, goodwill, and all the physical and moral faculties that + go to the making of manhood, and unless they are stimulated by hope of + such <span class="pagenum">217</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink217" id="link217"></a> reward as men may fairly look to? + And what dweller in the slough of want, dwarfed in body and soul, + demoralized, hopeless, can reasonably be expected to possess these + qualities? + </p> + <p> + Any full and permanent development of the productive powers of an + industrial population, then, must be compatible with and, indeed, based + upon a social organization which will secure a fair amount of physical and + moral welfare to that population; which will make for good and not for + evil. Natural science and religious enthusiasm rarely go hand in hand, but + on this matter their concord is complete; and the least sympathetic of + naturalists can but admire the insight and the devotion of such social + reformers as the late Lord Shaftesbury, whose recently published "Life and + Letters" gives a vivid picture of the condition of the working classes + fifty years ago, and of the pit which our industry, ignoring these plain + truths, was then digging under its own feet. + </p> + <p> + There is, perhaps, no more hopeful sign of progress among us, in the last + half-century, than the steadily increasing devotion which has been and is + directed to measures for promoting physical and moral welfare among the + poorer classes. Sanitary reformers, like most other reformers whom I have + had the advantage of knowing, seem to need a good dose of fanaticism, as a + sort of moral coca, to keep them up to the mark, and, doubtless, they have + made many mistakes; but that the <span class="pagenum">218</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink218" id="link218"></a> endeavour to improve the condition + under our industrial population live, to amend the drainage of densely + peopled streets, to provide baths, washhouses, and gymnasia, to facilitate + habits of thrift, to furnish some provision for instruction and amusement + in public libraries and the like, is not only desirable from a + philanthropic point of view, but an essential condition of safe industrial + development, appears to me to be indisputable. It is by such means alone, + so far as I can see, that we can hope to check the constant gravitation of + industrial society towards la misere, until the general progress of + intelligence and morality leads men to grapple with the sources of that + tendency. If it is said that the carrying out of such arrangements as + those indicated must enhance the cost of production, and thus handicap the + producer in the race of competition, I venture, in the first place, to + doubt the fact; but if it be so, it results that industrial society has to + face a dilemma, either alternative of which threatens destruction. + </p> + <p> + On the one hand, a population the labour of which is sufficiently + remunerated may be physically and morally healthy and socially stable, but + may fail in industrial competition by reason of the dearness of its + produce. On the other hand, a population the labour of which is + insufficiently remunerated must become physically and morally unhealthy, + and socially unstable; and though it <span class="pagenum">219</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink219" id="link219"></a> may succeed for a while in + industrial competition, by reason of the cheapness of its produce, it must + in the end fall, through hideous misery and degradation, to utter ruin. + </p> + <p> + Well, if these are the only possible alternatives, let us for ourselves + and our children choose the former, and, if need be, starve like men. But + I do not believe that the stable society made up of healthy, vigorous, + instructed, and self-ruling people would ever incur serious risk of that + fate. They are not likely to be troubled with many competitors of the same + character, just yet; and they may be safely trusted to find ways of + holding their own. + </p> + <p> + Assuming that the physical and moral well-being and the stable social + order, which are the indispensable conditions of permanent industrial + development, are secured, there remains for consideration the means of + attaining that knowledge and skill without which, even then, the battle of + competition cannot be successfully fought. Let us consider how we stand. A + vast system of elementary education has now been in operation among us for + sixteen years, and has reached all but a very small fraction of the + population. I do not think that there is any room for doubt that, on the + whole, it has worked well, and that its indirect no less than its direct + benefits have been immense. But, as might be expected, it exhibits the + defects of all our educational systems—fashioned <span + class="pagenum">220</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink220" id="link220"></a> as they were to meet the wants of + a bygone condition of society. There is a widespread and, I think, + well-justified complaint that it has too much to do with books and too + little to do with things. I am as little disposed as any one can well be + to narrow early education and to make the primary school a mere annexe of + the shop. And it is not so much in the interests of industry, as in that + of breadth of culture, that I echo the common complaint against the + bookish and theoretical character of our primary instruction. + </p> + <p> + If there were no such things as industrial pursuits, a system of education + which does nothing for the faculties of observation, which trains neither + the eye nor the hand, and is compatible with utter ignorance of the + commonest natural truths, might still be reasonably regarded as strangely + imperfect. And when we consider that the instruction and training which + are lacking are exactly; those which are of most importance for the great + mass of our population, the fault becomes almost a crime, the more that + there is no practical difficulty in making good these defects. There + really is no reason why drawing should not be universally taught, and it + is an admirable training for both eye and hand. Artists are born, not + made; but everybody may be taught to draw elevations, plans, and sections; + and pots and pans are as good, indeed better, models for <span + class="pagenum">221</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink221" id="link221"></a> this purpose than the Apollo + Belvedere. The plant is not expensive; and there is this excellent quality + about drawing of the kind indicated, that it can be tested almost as + easily and severely as arithmetic. Such drawings are either right or + wrong, and if they are wrong the pupil can be made to see that they are + wrong. From the industrial point of view, drawing has the further merit + that there is hardly any trade in which the power of drawing is not of + daily and hourly utility. In the next place, no good reason, except the + want of capable teachers, can be assigned why elementary notions of + science should not be an element in general instruction. In this case, + again, no expensive or elaborate apparatus is necessary. The commonest + thing—a candle, a boy's squirt, a piece of chalk—in the hands + of a teacher who knows his business, may be made the starting-point whence + children may be led into the regions of science as far as their capacity + permits, with efficient exercise of their observational and reasoning + faculties on the road. If object lessons often prove trivial failures, it + is not the fault of object lessons, but that of the teacher, who has not + found out how much the power of teaching a little depends on knowing a + great deal, and that thoroughly; and that he has not made that discovery + is not the fault of the teachers, but of the detestable system of training + them which is widely prevalent.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Training in the use of simple tools is no doubt desirable, + on all grounds. From the point of view of "culture," the + man whose "fingers are all thumbs" is but a stunted + creature. But the practical difficulties in the way of + introducing handiwork of this kind into elementary schools + appear to me to be considerable. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">222</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink222" id="link222"></a> As I have said, I do not regard + the proposal to add these to the present subjects of universal instruction + as made merely in the interests of industry. Elementary science and + drawing are just as needful at Eton (where I am happy to say both are now + parts of the regular course) as in the lowest primary school. But their + importance in the education of the artisan is enhanced, not merely by the + fact that the knowledge and skill thus gained—little as they may + amount to—will still be of practical utility to him; but, further, + because they constitute an introduction to that special training which is + commonly called "technical education." + </p> + <p> + I conceive that our wants in this last direction may be grouped under + three heads: (1) Instruction in the principles of those branches of + science and of art which are peculiarly applicable to industrial pursuits, + which may be called preliminary scientific education. (2) Instruction in + the special branches of such applied science and art, as technical + education proper. (3) Instruction of teachers in both these branches. (4) + Capacity-catching machinery. + </p> + <p> + A great deal has already been done in each of these directions, but much + remains to be done. If elementary education is amended in the way <span + class="pagenum">223</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink223" id="link223"></a> that has been suggested, I think + that the school boards will have quite as much on their hands as they are + capable of doing well. The influences under which the members of these + bodies are elected do not tend to secure fitness for dealing with + scientific or technical education; and it is the less necessary to burden + them with an uncongenial task as there are other organizations, not only + much better fitted to do the work, but already actually doing it. + </p> + <p> + In the matter of preliminary scientific education, the chief of these is + the Science and Art Department, which has done more during the last + quarter of a century for the teaching of elementary science among the + masses of the people than any organization which exists either in this or + in any other country. It has become veritably a people's university, so + far as physical science is concerned. At the foundation of our old + universities they were freely open to the poorest, but the poorest must + come to them. In the last quarter of a century, the Science and Art + Department, by means of its classes spread all over the country and open + to all, has conveyed instruction to the poorest. The University Extension + movement shows that our older learned corporations have discovered the + propriety of following suit. + </p> + <p> + Technical education, in the strict sense, has become a necessity for two + reasons. The old apprenticeship system has broken down, partly by <span + class="pagenum">224</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink224" id="link224"></a> reason of the changed conditions + of industrial life, and partly because trades have ceased to be "crafts," + the traditional secrets whereof the master handed down to his apprentices. + Invention is constantly changing the face of our industries, so that "use + and wont," "rule of thumb," and the like, are gradually losing their + importance, while that knowledge of principles which alone can deal + successfully with changed conditions is becoming more and more valuable. + Socially, the "master" of four or five apprentices is disappearing in + favour of the "employer" of forty, or four hundred, or four thousand, + "hands," and the odds and ends of technical knowledge, formerly picked up + in a shop, are not, and cannot be, supplied in the factory. The + instruction formerly given by the master must therefore be more than + replaced by the systematic teaching of the technical school. + </p> + <p> + Institutions of this kind on varying scales of magnitude and completeness, + from the splendid edifice set up by the City and Guilds Institute to the + smallest local technical school, to say nothing of classes, such as those + in technology instituted by the Society of Arts (subsequently taken over + by the City Guilds), have been established in various parts of the + country, and the movement in favour of their increase and multiplication + is rapidly growing in breadth and intensity. But there is much difference + of opinion as to the best <span class="pagenum">225</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink225" id="link225"></a> way in which the technical + instruction, so generally desired, should be given. Two courses appear to + be practicable: the one is the establishment of special technical schools + with a systematic and lengthened course of instruction demanding the + employment of the whole time of the pupils. The other is the setting afoot + of technical classes, especially evening classes, comprising a short + series of lessons on some special topic, which may be attended by persons + already earning wages in some branch of trade or commerce. + </p> + <p> + There is no doubt that technical schools, on the plan indicated under the + first head, are extremely costly; and, so far as the teaching of artisans + is concerned, it is very commonly objected to them that, as the learners + do not work under trade conditions, they are apt to fall into amateurish + habits, which prove of more hindrance than service in the actual business + of life. When such schools are attached to factories under the direction + of an employer who desires to train up a supply of intelligent workmen, of + course this objection does not apply; nor can the usefulness of such + schools for the training of future employers and for the higher grade of + the employed be doubtful; but they are clearly out of the reach of the + great mass of the people, who have to earn their bread as soon as + possible. We must therefore look to the classes, and especially to evening + classes, as the great instrument for the technical <span class="pagenum">226</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink226" id="link226"></a> education of the artisan. The + utility of such classes has now been placed beyond all doubt; the only + question which remains is to find the ways and means of extending them. + </p> + <p> + We are here, as in all other questions of social organization, met by two + diametrically opposed views. On the one hand, the methods pursued in + foreign countries are held up as our example. The State is exhorted to + take the matter in hand and establish a great system of technical + education. On the other hand, many economists of the individualist school + exhaust the resources of language in condemning and repudiating, not + merely the interference of the general government in such matters, but the + application of a farthing of the funds raised by local taxation to these + purposes. I entertain a strong conviction that, in this country, at any + rate, the State had much better leave purely technical and trade + instruction alone. But, although my personal leanings are decidedly + towards the individualists, I have arrived at that conclusion on merely + practical grounds. In fact, my individualism is rather of a sentimental + sort, and I sometimes think I should be stronger in the faith if it were + less vehemently advocated.* I am unable to see that civil society is + anything but a corporation established <span class="pagenum">227</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink227" id="link227"></a> for a moral object only—namely, + the good of its members—and therefore that it may take such measures + as seem fitting for the attainment of that which the general voice decides + to be the general good. That the suffrage of the majority is by no means a + scientific test of social good and evil is unfortunately too true; but, in + practice, it is the only test we can apply, and the refusal to abide by it + means anarchy. The purest despotism that ever existed is as much based + upon that will of the majority (which is usually submission to the will of + a small minority) as the freest republic. Law is the expression of the + opinion of the majority; and it is law, and not mere opinion, because the + many are strong enough to enforce it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In what follows I am only repeating and emphasizing + opinions which I expressed seventeen years ago, in an + Address to the members of the Midland Institute + (republished in Critiques and Addresses in 1873, and in Vol. + I. of these Essays ). I have seen no reason to modify them, + notwithstanding high authority on the other side. +</pre> + <p> + I am as strongly convinced as the most pronounced individualist can be, + that it is desirable that every man should be free to act in every way + which does not limit the corresponding freedom of his fellow-man. But I + fail to connect that great induction of political science with the + practical corollary which is frequently drawn from it: that the State—that + is, the people in their corporate capacity—has no business to meddle + with anything but the administration of justice and external defence. It + appears to me that the <span class="pagenum">228</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink228" id="link228"></a> amount of freedom which + incorporate society may fitly leave to its members is not a fixed + quantity, to be determined a priori by deduction from the fiction called + "natural rights"; but that it must be determined by, and vary with, + circumstances. I conceive it to be demonstrable that the higher and the + more complex the organization of the social body, the more closely is the + life of each member bound up with that of the whole; and the larger + becomes the category of acts which cease to be merely self-regarding, and + which interfere with the freedom of others more or less seriously. + </p> + <p> + If a squatter, living ten miles away from any neighbour, chooses to burn + his house down to get rid of vermin, there may be no necessity (in the + absence of insurance offices) that the law should interfere with his + freedom of action; his act can hurt nobody but himself. But, if the + dweller in a street chooses to do the same thing, the State very properly + makes such a proceeding a crime, and punishes it as such. He does meddle + with his neighbour's freedom, and that seriously. So it might, perhaps, be + a tenable doctrine, that it would be needless, and even tyrannous, to make + education compulsory in a sparse agricultural population, living in + abundance on the produce of its own soil; but, in a densely populated + manufacturing country, struggling for existence with competitors, every + ignorant person tends to <span class="pagenum">229</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink229" id="link229"></a> become a burden upon, and, so far, + an infringer of the liberty of, his fellows, and an obstacle to their + success. Under such circumstances an education rate is, in fact, a war + tax, levied for purposes of defence. + </p> + <p> + That State action always has been more or less misdirected, and always + will be so, is, I believe, perfectly true. But I am not aware that it is + more true of the action of men in their corporate capacity than it is of + the doings of individuals. The wisest and most dispassionate man in + existence, merely wishing to go from one stile in a field to the opposite, + will not walk quite straight—he is always going a little wrong, and + always correcting himself; and I can only congratulate the individualist + who is able to say that his general course of life has been of a less + undulatory character. To abolish State action, because its direction is + never more than approximately correct, appears to me to be much the same + thing as abolishing the man at the wheel altogether, because, do what he + will, the ship yaws more or less. "Why should I be robbed of my property + to pay for teaching another man's children?" is an individualist question, + which is not unfrequently put as if it settled the whole business. Perhaps + it does, but I find difficulties in seeing why it should. The parish in + which I live makes me pay my share for the paving and lighting of a great + many streets that I never pass through; <span class="pagenum">230</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink230" id="link230"></a> and I might plead that I am robbed + to smooth the way and lighten the darkness of other people. But I am + afraid the parochial authorities would not let me off on this plea; and I + must confess I do not see why they should. + </p> + <p> + I cannot speak of my own knowledge, but I have every reason to believe + that I came into this world a small reddish person, certainly without a + gold spoon in my mouth, and in fact with no discernible abstract or + concrete "rights" or property of any description. If a foot was not set + upon me, at once, as a squalling nuisance, it was either the natural + affection of those about me, which I certainly had done nothing to + deserve, or the fear of the law which, ages before my birth, was painfully + built up by the society into which I intruded, that prevented that + catastrophe. If I was nourished, cared for, taught, saved from the + vagabondage of a wastrel, I certainly am not aware that I did anything to + deserve those advantages. And, if I possess anything now, it strikes me + that, though I may have fairly earned my day's wages for my day's work, + and may justly call them my property—yet, without that organization + of society, created out of the toil and blood of long generations before + my time, I should probably have had nothing but a flint axe and an + indifferent hut to call my own; and even those would be mine only so long + as no stronger savage came my way. + </p> + <p> + So that if society, having, quite gratuitously, <span class="pagenum">231</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink231" id="link231"></a> done all these things for me, asks + me in turn to do something towards its preservation—even if that + something is to contribute to the teaching of other men's children—I + really in spite of all my individualist leanings, feel rather ashamed to + say no. And if I were not ashamed, I cannot say that I think that society + would be dealing unjustly with me in converting the moral obligation into + a legal one. There is a manifest unfairness in letting all the burden be + borne by the willing horse. + </p> + <p> + It does not appear to me, then, that there is any valid objection to + taxation for purposes of education; but, in the case of technical schools + and classes, I think it is practically expedient that such a taxation + should be local. Our industrial population accumulates in particular towns + and districts; these districts are those which immediately profit by + technical education; and it is only in them that we can find the men + practically engaged in industries, among whom some may reasonably be + expected to be competent judges of that which is wanted, and of the best + means of meeting the want. + </p> + <p> + In my belief, all methods of technical training are at present tentative, + and, to be successful, each must be adapted to the special peculiarities + of its locality. This is a case in which we want twenty years, not of + "strong government," but of cheerful and hopeful blundering; and we may be + <span class="pagenum">232</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink232" id="link232"></a> thankful if we get things straight + in that time. + </p> + <p> + The principle of the Bill introduced, but dropped, by the Government last + session, appears to me to be wise, and some of the objections to it I + think are due to a misunderstanding. The bill proposed in substance to + allow localities to tax themselves for purposes of technical education—on + the condition that any scheme for such purpose should be submitted to the + Science and Art Department, and declared by that department to be in + accordance with the intention of the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + A cry was raised that the Bill proposed to throw technical education into + the hands of the Science and Art Department. But, in reality, no power of + initiation, nor even of meddling with details, was given to that + Department—the sole function of which was to decide whether any plan + proposed did or did not come within the limits of "technical education." + The necessity for such control, somewhere, is obvious. No legislature, + certainly not ours, is likely to grant the power of self-taxation without + setting limits to that power in some way; and it would neither have been + practicable to devise a legal definition of technical education, nor + commendable to leave the question to the Auditor-General, to be fought out + in the law-courts. The only alternative was to leave the decision to an + appropriate State authority. If it is <span class="pagenum">233</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink233" id="link233"></a> asked what is the need of such + control if the people of the localities are the best judges, the obvious + reply is that there are localities and localities, and that while + Manchester, or Liverpool, or Birmingham, or Glasgow might, perhaps, be + safely left to do as they thought fit, smaller towns, in which there is + less certainty of full discussion by competent people of different ways of + thinking, might easily fall a prey to crocheteers. + </p> + <p> + Supposing our intermediate science teaching and our technical schools and + classes are established, there is yet a third need to be supplied, and + that is the want of good teachers. And it is necessary not only to get + them, but to keep them when you have got them. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the fact that the efficient + teachers of science and of technology are not to be made by the processes + in vogue at ordinary training colleges. The memory loaded with mere + bookwork is not the thing wanted—is, in fact, rather worse than + useless—in the teacher of scientific subjects. It is absolutely + essential that his mind should be full of knowledge and not of mere + learning, and that what he knows should have been learned in the + laboratory rather than in the library. There are happily already, both in + London and in the provinces, various places in which such training is to + be had, and the main thing at present is to make it in the first place + accessible, and in the next <span class="pagenum">234</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink234" id="link234"></a> indispensable, to those who + undertake the business of teaching. But when the well-trained men are + supplied, it must be recollected that the profession of teacher is not a + very lucrative or otherwise tempting one, and that it may be advisable to + offer special inducements to good men to remain in it. These, however, are + questions of detail into which it is unnecessary to enter further. + </p> + <p> + Last, but not least, comes the question of providing the machinery for + enabling those who are by nature specially qualified to undertake the + higher branches of industrial work, to reach the position in which they + may render that service to the community. If all our educational + expenditure did nothing but pick one man of scientific or inventive + genius, each year, from amidst the hewers of wood and drawers of water, + and give him the chance of making the best of his inborn faculties, it + would be a very good investment. If there is one such child among the + hundreds of thousands of our annual increase, it would be worth any money + to drag him either from the slough of misery, or from the hotbed of + wealth, and teach him to devote himself to the service of his people. + Here, again, we have made a beginning with our scholarships and the like, + and need only follow in the tracks already worn. + </p> + <p> + The programme of industrial development briefly set forth in the preceding + pages is not what Kant calls a "Hirngespinnst," a cobweb <span + class="pagenum">235</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink235" id="link235"></a> spun in the brain of a Utopian + philosopher. More or less of it has taken bodily shape in many parts of + the country, and there are towns of no great size or wealth in the + manufacturing districts (Keighley, for example) in which almost the whole + of it has, for some time, been carried out, so far as the means at the + disposal of the energetic and public-spirited men who have taken the + matter in hand permitted. The thing can be done; I have endeavoured to + show good grounds for the belief that it must be done, and that speedily, + if we wish to hold our own in the war of industry. I doubt not that it + will be done, whenever its absolute necessity becomes as apparent to all + those who are absorbed in the actual business of industrial life as it is + to some of the lookers on. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it is necessary for me to add that technical education is not here + proposed as a panacea for social diseases, but simply as a medicament + which will help the patient to pass through an imminent crisis. + </p> + <p> + An ophthalmic surgeon may recommend an operation for cataract in a man who + is going blind, without being supposed to undertake that it will cure him + of gout. And I may pursue the metaphor so far as to remark, that the + surgeon is justified in pointing out that a diet of pork-chops and + burgundy will probably kill his patient, though he may be quite able to + suggest a mode of living <span class="pagenum">236</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink236" id="link236"></a> which will free him from his + constitutional disorder. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Booth asks me, Why do you not propose some plan of your own? Really, + that is no answer to my argument that his treatment will make the patient + very much worse. [Note added in Social Diseases and Worse Remedies, + January, 1891.] + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">237</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink237" id="link237"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + LETTERS TO THE "Times" + + ON THE + + "DARKEST ENGLAND SCHEME." + + I. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 1st, 1890 + </p> + <p> + SIR: A short time ago a generous and philanthropic friend wrote to me, + placing at my disposal a large sum of money for the furtherance of the + vast scheme which the "General" of the Salvation Army has propounded, if I + thought it worthy of support. The responsibility of advising my benevolent + correspondent has weighed heavily upon me, but I felt that it would be + cowardly, as well as ungracious, to refuse to accept it. I have therefore + studied Mr. Booth's book with some care, for the purpose of separating the + essential from the accessory features of his project, and I have based my + judgment—I am sorry to say an unfavourable one—upon the data + thus obtained. Before communicating my conclusions to my friend, however, + I am desirous to know what there may be to be said in arrest of that + judgment; <span class="pagenum">238</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink238" id="link238"></a> and the matter is of such vast + public importance that I trust you will aid me by publishing this letter, + notwithstanding its length. + </p> + <p> + There are one or two points upon which I imagine all thinking men have + arrived at the same convictions as those from which Mr. Booth starts. It + is certain that there is an immense amount of remediable misery among us, + that, in addition to the poverty, disease, and degradation which are the + consequences of causes beyond human control, there is a vast, probably a + very much larger, quantity of misery which is the result of individual + ignorance, or misconduct, and of faulty social arrangements. Further, I + think it is not to be doubted that, unless this remediable misery is + effectually dealt with, the hordes of vice and pauperism will destroy + modern civilization as effectually as uncivilized tribes of another kind + destroyed the great social organization which preceded ours. Moreover, I + think all will agree that no reforms and improvements will go to the root + of the evil unless they attack it in its ultimate source—namely, the + motives of the individual man. Honest, industrious, and self-restraining + men will make a very bad social organization prosper; while vicious, idle, + and reckless citizens will bring to ruin the best that ever was, or ever + will be, invented. + </p> + <p> + The leading propositions which are peculiar to Mr. Booth I take to be + these:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">239</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink239" id="link239"></a> (1) That the only adequate means + to such reformation of the individual man is the adoption of that form of + somewhat corybantic Christianity of which the soldiers of the Salvation + Army are the militant missionaries. This implies the belief that the + excitement of the religious emotions (largely by processes described by + their employers as "rousing" and "convivial") is a desirable and + trustworthy method of permanently amending the conduct of mankind. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I demur to these propositions. I am of opinion that the testimony of +history, no less than the cool observation of that which lies within +the personal experience of many of us, is wholly adverse to it. + + (2) That the appropriate instrument for the propagation and +maintenance of this peculiar sacramental enthusiasm is the Salvation +Army—a body of devotees, drilled and disciplined as a military +organization, and provided with a numerous hierarchy of officers, +every one of whom is pledged to blind and unhesitating obedience to +the "General," who frankly tells us that the first condition of the +service is "implicit, unquestioning obedience." "A telegram from me +will send any of them to the uttermost parts of the earth"; every one +"has taken service on the express condition that he or she will obey, +without questioning, or gainsaying, the orders from headquarters" +("Darkest England," p. 243). +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +<span class="pagenum">240</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink240" id="link240"></a> This proposition seems to me to be + indisputable. History confirms it. Francis of Assisi and Ignatius Loyola + made their great experiments on the same principle. Nothing is more + certain than that a body of religious enthusiasts (perhaps we may even say + fanatics) pledged to blind obedience to their chief, is one of the most + efficient instruments for effecting any purpose that the wit of man has + yet succeeded in devising. And I can but admire the insight into human + nature which has led Mr. Booth to leave his unquestioning and unhesitating + instruments unbound by vows. A volunteer slave is worth ten sworn + bondsmen. +</p> +<p>(3) That the success of the Salvation Army, with its present + force of 9416 officers "wholly engaged in the work," its capital of three + quarters of a million, its income of the same amount, its 1375 corps at + home, and 1499 in the colonies and foreign countries (Appendix, pp. 3 and + 4), is a proof that Divine assistance has been vouchsafed to its efforts. + </p> + <p> + Here I am not able to agree with the sanguine Commander-in-chief of the + new model, whose labours in creating it have probably interfered with his + acquisition of information respecting the fate of previous enterprises of + like kind. + </p> + <p> + It does not appear to me that his success is in any degree more remarkable + than that of Francis of Assisi or that of Ignatius Loyola, than that <span + class="pagenum">241</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink241" id="link241"></a> of George Fox, or even than that + of the Mormons, in our own time. When I observe the discrepancies of the + doctrinal foundations from which each of these great movements set out, I + find it difficult to suppose that supernatural aid has been given to all + of them; still more, that Mr. Booth's smaller measure of success is + evidence that it has been granted to him. + </p> + <p> + But what became of the Franciscan experiment?* If there was one rule + rather than another on which the founder laid stress, it was that his army + of friars should be absolute mendicants, keeping themselves sternly apart + from all worldly entanglements. Yet, even before the death of Francis, in + 1226, a strong party, headed by Elias of Cortona, the deputy of his own + appointment, began to hanker after these very things; and, within thirty + years of that time, the Franciscans had become one of the most powerful, + wealthy, and worldly corporations in Christendom, with their fingers in + every sink of political and social corruption, if so be profit for the + order could be fished out of it; their principal interest being to fight + their rivals, the Dominicans, and to persecute such of their own brethren + as were honest enough to try to carry out their founder's plainest + injunctions. We also know what has become of Loyola's experiment. For two + centuries the Jesuits have been the hope of the enemies of the Papacy; + whenever it becomes too prosperous, they are sure to bring about a + catastrophe by their corrupt use of the political and social influence + which their organization and their wealth secure. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See note pp. 245-247} +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">242</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink242" id="link242"></a> With these examples of that which + may happen to institutions founded by noble men, with high aims, in the + hands of successors of a different stamp, armed with despotic authority, + before me, common prudence surely requires that, before advising the + handing over of a large sum of money to the general of a new order of + mendicants, I should ask what guarantee there is that, thirty years hence, + the "General" who then autocratically controls the action, say, of 100,000 + officers pledged to blind obedience, distributed through the whole length + and breadth of the poorer classes, and each with his finger on the trigger + of a mine charged with discontent and religious fanaticism; with the + absolute control, say, of eight or ten millions sterling of capital and as + many of income; with barracks in every town, with estates scattered over + the country, and with settlements in the colonies—will exercise his + enormous powers, not merely honestly, but wisely? What shadow of security + is there that the person who wields this uncontrolled authority over many + thousands of men shall use it solely for those philanthropic and religious + objects which, I do not doubt, are alone in the mind of Mr. Booth? Who is + to say that the Salvation Army, in the year <span class="pagenum">243</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink243" id="link243"></a> 1920, shall not be a replica of + what the Franciscan order had become in the year 1260? + </p> + <p> + The personal character and the intentions of the founders of such + organizations as we are considering count for very little in the formation + of a forecast of their future; and if they did, it is no disrespect to Mr. + Booth to say that he is not the peer of Francis of Assisi. But if + Francis's judgment of men was so imperfect as to permit him to appoint an + ambitious intriguer of the stamp of Brother Elias his deputy, we have no + right to be sanguine about the perspicacity of Mr. Booth in a like matter. + </p> + <p> + Adding to all these considerations the fact that Mr. Llewelyn Davies, the + warmth of whose philanthropy is beyond question, and in whose competency + and fairness I, for one, place implicit reliance, flatly denies the + boasted success of the Salvation Army in its professed mission, I have + arrived at the conclusion that, as at present advised, I cannot be the + instrument of carrying out my friend's proposal. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Booth has pithily characterized certain benevolent schemes as doing + sixpennyworth of good and a shilling's worth of harm. I grieve to say + that, in my opinion, the definition exactly fits his own project. Few + social evils are of greater magnitude than uninstructed and unchastened + religious fanaticism; no personal habit more surely degrades the + conscience and the intellect than <span class="pagenum">244</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink244" id="link244"></a> blind and unhesitating obedience + to unlimited authority. Undoubtedly, harlotry and intemperance are sore + evils, and starvation is hard to bear, or even to know of; but the + prostitution of the mind, the soddening of the conscience, the dwarfing of + manhood are worse calamities. It is a greater evil to have the intellect + of a nation put down by organized fanaticism; to see its political and + industrial affairs at the mercy of a despot whose chief thought is to make + that fanaticism prevail; to watch the degradation of men, who should feel + themselves individually responsible for their own and their country's + fates, to mere brute instruments, ready to the hand of a master for any + use to which he may put them. + </p> + <p> + But that is the end to which, in my opinion, all such organizations as + that to which kindly people, who do not look to the consequences of their + acts, are now giving their thousands, inevitably tend. Unless clear proof + that I am wrong is furnished, another thousand shall not be added by my + instrumentality. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">245</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink245" id="link245"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + NOTE. +</pre> + <p> + An authoritative contemporary historian, Matthew Paris, writes thus of the + Minorite, or Franciscan, Friars in England in 1235, just nine years after + the death of Francis of Assisi:— + </p> + <p> + "At this time some of the Minorite brethren, as well as some of the Order + of Preachers, unmindful of their profession and the restrictions of their + order, impudently entered the territories of some noble monasteries, under + pretense of fulfilling their duties of preaching, as if intending to + depart after preaching the next day. Under pretence of sickness, or on + some other pretext, however, they remained, and, constructing an altar of + wood, they placed on it a consecrated stone altar, which they had brought + with them, and clandestinely and in a low voice performed mass, and even + received the confessions of many of the parishioners, to the prejudice of + the priests. And if by chance they were not satisfied with this, they + broke forth in insults and threats, reviling every other order except + their own, and asserting that all the rest were doomed to damnation, and + that they would not spare the soles of their feet till they had exhausted + the wealth of their opposers, however great it might be. The religious + men, therefore, gave way to them in many points, yielding to avoid + scandal, and offending those in power. For they were the councillors and + messengers of the nobles, and even secretaries of the Pope, and therefore + obtained much <span class="pagenum">246</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink246" id="link246"></a> secular favour. Some, however, + finding themselves opposed by the Court of Rome, were restrained by + obvious reasons, and went away in confusion; for the Supreme Pontiff, with + a scowling look, said to them, 'What means this, my brethren? To what + lengths are you going? Have you not professed voluntary poverty, and that + you would traverse towns and castles and distant places, as the case + required, barefooted and unostentatiously, in order to preach the word of + God in all humility? And do you now presume to usurp these estates to + yourselves against the will of the lords of these fees? Your religion + appears to be in a great measure dying away, and your doctrines to be + confuted." + </p> + <p> + Under date of 1243, Matthew writes:— + </p> + <p> + "For three or four hundred years or more the monastic order did not hasten + to destruction so quickly as their order [Minorites and Preachers] of whom + now the brothers, twenty-four years having scarcely elapsed, had first + built in England dwellings which rivalled regal palaces in height. These + are they who daily expose to view their inestimable treasures, in + enlarging their sumptuous edifices, and erecting lofty walls, thereby + impudently transgressing the limits of their original poverty and + violating the basis of their religion, according to the prophecy of German + Hildegarde. When noblemen and rich men are at the point of death, whom + they know to be possessed of great riches, they, in their love of gain, + diligently urge them, to the injury and loss of the ordinary pastors, and + extort confessions and hidden wills, lauding themselves and their own + order only, <span class="pagenum">247</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink247" id="link247"></a> and placing themselves before all + others. So no faithful man now believes he can be saved, except he is + directed by the counsels of the Preachers and Minorites."—Matthew + Paris's English History. Translated by the Rev. J. A. Giles, 1889, Vol. I. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + II +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 9th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + Sir,—The purpose of my previous letter about Mr. Booth's scheme was + to arouse the contributors to the military chest of the Salvation Army to + a clear sense of what they are doing. I thought it desirable that they + should be distinctly aware that they are setting up and endowing a sect, + in many ways analogous to the "Ranters" and "Revivalists" of undesirable + notoriety in former times; but with this immensely important difference, + that it possesses a strong, far-reaching, centralized organization, the + disposal of the physical, moral, and financial strength of which rests + with an irresponsible chief, who, according to his own account, is assured + of the blind obedience of nearly 10,000 subordinates. I wish them to ask + themselves, Ought prudent men and good citizens to aid in the + establishment of an organization which, under sundry, by no means + improbable, contingencies, may easily become a worse and more <span + class="pagenum">248</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink248" id="link248"></a> dangerous nuisance than the + mendicant friars of the middle ages? If this is an academic question, I + really do not know what questions deserve to be called practical. As you + divined, I purposely omitted any consideration of the details of the + Salvationist scheme, and of the principles which animate those who work + it, because I desired that the public appreciation of the evils, + necessarily inherent in all such plans of despotic social and religious + regimentation should not be obscured by the raising of points of less + comparative, however great absolute, importance. + </p> + <p> + But it is now time to undertake a more particular criticism of "Darkest + England." At the outset of my examination of that work, I was startled to + find that Mr. Booth had put forward his scheme with an almost incredibly + imperfect knowledge of what had been done and is doing in the same + direction. A simple reader might well imagine that the author of "Darkest + England" posed as the Columbus, or at any rate the Cortez, of that region. + "Go to Mudie's," he tells us, and you will be surprised to see how few + books there are upon the social problem. That may or may not be correct; + but if Mr. Booth had gone to a certain reading-room not far from Mudie's, + I undertake to say that the well-informed and obliging staff of the + national library in Bloomsbury would have provided him with more books on + this topic, in almost all European languages, than he would <span + class="pagenum">249</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink249" id="link249"></a> read in three months. Has + socialism no literature? And what is socialism but an incarnation of the + social question? Moreover, I am persuaded that even "Mudie's" resources + could have furnished Mr. Booth with the "Life of Lord Shaftesbury" and + Carlyle's works. Mr. Booth seems to have undertaken to instruct the world + without having heard of "Past and Present" or of "Latter-Day Pamphlets"; + though, somewhat late in the day, a judicious friend calls his attention + to them. To those of my contemporaries on whom, as on myself, Carlyle's + writings on this topic made an ineffaceable impression forty years ago, + who know that, for all that time, hundreds of able and devoted men, both + clerical and lay, have worked heart and soul for the permanent amendment + of the condition of the poor, Mr. Booth's "Go to Mudie's" affords an apt + measure of the depth of his preliminary studies. However, I am bound to + admit that these earlier labourers in the field laboured in such a + different fashion, that the originality of the plan started by Mr. Booth + remains largely unaffected. For them no drums have beat, no trombones + brayed; no sanctified buffoonery, after the model of the oration of the + Friar in Wallenstein's camp dear to the readers of Schiller, has tickled + the ears of the groundlings on their behalf. Sadly behind the great age of + rowdy self-advertisement in which their lot has fallen, they seem not to + have advanced one whit <span class="pagenum">250</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink250" id="link250"></a> beyond John the Baptist and the + Apostles, 1800 years ago, in their notions of the way in which the + metanoia, the change of mind of the ill-doer, is to be brought about. Yet + the new model was there, ready for the imitation of those ancient savers + of souls. The ranting and roaring mystagogues of some of the most + venerable of Greek and Syrian cults also had their processions and + banners, their fifes and cymbals and holy chants, their hierarchy of + officers to whom the art of making collections was not wholly unknown; and + who, as freely as their modern imitators, promised an Elysian future to + contributory converts. The success of these antique Salvation armies was + enormous. Simon Magus was quite as notorious a personage, and probably had + as strong a following as Mr. Booth. Yet the Apostles, with their + old-fashioned ways, would not accept such a success as a satisfactory sign + of the Divine sanction, nor depart from their own methods of leading the + way to the higher life. + </p> + <p> + I deem it unessential to verify Mr. Booth's statistics. The exact strength + of the population of the realm of misery, be it one, two, or three + millions, has nothing to do with the efficacy of any means proposed for + the highly desirable end of reducing it to a minimum. The sole question + for consideration at present is whether the scheme, keeping specially in + view the spirit in which it is to be worked, is likely to do more good + than harm. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">251</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink251" id="link251"></a> Mr. Booth tells us, with + commendable frankness, that "it is primarily and mainly for the sake of + saving the soul that I seek the salvation of the body" (p. 45), which + language, being interpreted, means that the propagation of the special + Salvationist creed comes first, and the promotion of the physical, + intellectual, and purely moral welfare of mankind second in his + estimation. Men are to be made sober and industrious, mainly, that, as + washed, shorn, and docile sheep, they may be driven into the narrow + theological fold which Mr. Booth patronizes. If they refuse to enter, for + all their moral cleanliness, they will have to take their place among the + goats as sinners, only less dirty than the rest. + </p> + <p> + I have been in the habit of thinking (and I believe the opinion is largely + shared by reasonable men) that self-respect and thrift are the rungs of + the ladder by which men may most surely climb out of the slough of despond + of want; and I have regarded them as perhaps the most eminent of the + practical virtues. That is not Mr. Booth's opinion. For him they are mere + varnished sins—nothing better than "Pride re-baptised" (p. 46). + Shutting his eyes to the necessary consequences of the struggle for life, + the existence of which he accepts as fully as any Darwinian,* Mr. Booth + tells men, whose evil case is one of those consequences, that envy is a + corner-stone of our <span class="pagenum">252</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink252" id="link252"></a> competitive system. With thrift + and self-respect denounced as sin, with the suffering of starving men + referred to the sins of the capitalist, the gospel according to Mr. Booth + may save souls, but it will hardly save society. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See p. 100 +</pre> + <p> + In estimating the social and political influence which the Salvation Army + is likely to exert, it is important to reflect that the officers (pledged + to blind obedience to their "General") are not to confine themselves to + the functions of mere deacons and catechists (though, under a "General" + like Cyril, Alexandria knew to her cost what even they could effect); they + are to be "tribunes of the people," who are to act as their gratuitous + legal advisers; and, when law is not sufficiently effective, the whole + force of the army is to obtain what the said tribunes may conceive to be + justice, by the practice of ruthless intimidation. Society, says Mr. + Booth, needs "mothering"; and he sets forth, with much complacency, a + variety of "cases," by which we may estimate the sort of "mothering" to be + expected at his parental hands. Those who study the materials thus set + before them will, I think, be driven to the conclusion that the "mother" + has already proved herself a most unscrupulous meddler, even if she has + not fallen within reach of the arm of the law. + </p> + <p> + Consider this "case." A, asserting herself to have been seduced twice, + "applied to our people. We hunted up the man, followed him to the country, + <span class="pagenum">253</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink253" id="link253"></a> threatened him with public + exposure, and forced from him the payment to his victim of [Pounds] 60 + down, an allowance of [Pounds] 1 a week, and an insurance policy on his + life for [Pounds] 450 in her favour" (p. 222) . + </p> + <p> + Jedburgh justice this. We "constitute ourselves prosecutor, judge, jury, + sheriff's officer, all in one;" we "practice intimidation as deftly as if + we were a branch of another League; and, under threat of exposure," we + "extort a tolerably heavy hush-money in payment of our silence. " + </p> + <p> + Well, really, my poor moral sense is unable to distinguish these + remarkable proceedings of the new popular tribunate from what, in French, + is called chantage and, in plain English, blackmailing. And when we + consider that anybody, for any reason of jealousy, or personal spite, or + party hatred, might be thus "hunted," "followed," "threatened," and + financially squeezed or ruined, without a particle of legal investigation, + at the will of a man whom the familiar charged with the inquisitorial + business dare not hesitate to obey, surely it is not unreasonable to ask + how far does the Salvation Army, in its "tribune of the people" aspect, + differ from a Sicilian Mafia? I am no apologist of men guilty of the acts + charged against the person who yet, I think, might be as fairly called a + "victim," in this case, as his partner in wrong-doing. It is possible + that, in so peculiar a case, Solomon himself might have been puzzled <span + class="pagenum">254</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink254" id="link254"></a> to apportion the relative moral + delinquency of the parties. However that may be, the man was morally and + legally bound to support his child, and any one would have been justified + in helping the woman to her legal rights, and the man to the legal + consequences (in which exposure is included) of his fault. + </p> + <p> + The action of the "General" of the Salvation Army in extorting the heavy + fine he chose to impose as the price of his silence, however excellent his + motives, appears to me to be as immoral as, I hope, it is illegal. + </p> + <p> + So much for the Salvation Army as a teacher of questionable ethics and of + eccentric economics, as the legal adviser who recommends and practices the + extraction of money by intimidation, as the fairy godmother who proposes + to "mother" society, in a fashion which is not to my taste, however much + it may commend itself to some of Mr. Booth's supporters. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">255</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink255" id="link255"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + III + + The "Times," December 11th, 1890 +</pre> + <p> + Sir,—When I first addressed you on the subject of the projected + operations of the Salvation Army, all that I knew about that body was + derived from the study of Mr. Booth's book, from common repute, and from + occasional attention to the sayings and doings of his noisy squadrons, + with which my walks about London, in past years, have made me familiar. I + was quite unaware of the existence of evidence respecting the present + administration of the Salvation forces, which would have enabled me to act + upon the sagacious maxim of the American humourist, "Don't prophesy unless + you know." The letter you were good enough to publish has brought upon me + a swarm of letters and pamphlets. Some favour me with abuse; some + thoughtful correspondents warmly agree with me, and then proceed to point + out how much worthier certain schemes of their own are of my friend's + support; some send valuable encouragement, for which I offer my hearty + thanks, and ask them to excuse any more special acknowledgment. But that + which I find most to the purpose, just now, is the revelation made by some + of the documents which have reached me, of a fact of which I was wholly + ignorant—namely, that <span class="pagenum">256</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink256" id="link256"></a> persons who have faithfully and + zealously served in the Salvation Army, who express unchanged attachment + to its original principles and practice, and who have been in close + official relations with the "General" have publicly declared that the + process of degradation of the organization into a mere engine of fanatical + intolerance and personal ambition, which I declared was inevitable, has + already set in and is making rapid progress. + </p> + <p> + It is out of the question, Sir, that I should occupy the columns of the + "Times" with a detailed exposition and criticism of these pieces + justificatives of my forecast. I say criticism, because the assertions of + persons who have quitted any society must, in fairness, be taken with the + caution that is required in the case of all ex parte statements of hostile + witnesses. But it is, at any rate, a notable fact that there are parts of + my first letter, indicating the inherent and necessary evil consequences + of any such organization, which might serve for abstracts of portions of + this evidence, long since printed and published under the public + responsibility of the witnesses. + </p> + <p> + Let us ask the attention of your readers, in the first place, to "An + ex-Captain's Experience of the Salvation Army," by J. J. R. Redstone, the + genuineness of which is guaranteed by the preface (dated April 5th, 1888) + which the Rev. Dr. Cunningham Geikie has supplied. Mr. Redstone's story is + well worth reading on its own account. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">257</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink257" id="link257"></a> Told in simple, direct language + such as John Bunyan might have used, it permits no doubt of the + single-minded sincerity of the man, who gave up everything to become an + officer of the Salvation Army, but, exhibiting a sad want of that capacity + for unhesitating and blind obedience on which Mr. Booth lays so much + stress, was thrown aside, penniless—no, I am wrong, with 2s. 4d. for + his last week's salary—to shift, with his equally devoted wife, as + he best might. I wish I could induce intending contributors to Mr. Booth's + army chest to read Mr. Redstone's story. I would particularly ask them to + contrast the pure simplicity of his plain tale with the artificial pietism + and slobbering unction of the letters which Mr. Ballington Booth addresses + to his "dear boy" (a married man apparently older than himself), so long + as the said "dear boy" is facing brickbats and starvation, as per order. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I confess that my opinion of the chiefs of the Salvation Army has been +so distinctly modified by the perusal of this pamphlet that I am glad +to be relieved from the necessity of expressing it. It will be much +better that I should cite a few sentences from the preface written by +Dr. Cunningham Geikie, who expresses warm admiration for the early and +uncorrupted work of the Salvation Army, and cannot possibly be accused +of prejudice against it on religious grounds:— + + (1) "The Salvation Army is emphatically a <span class="pagenum">258</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink258" id="link258"></a> family concern. Mr. Booth, senior, + is General; one son is chief of the staff, and the remaining sons and + daughters engross the other chief positions. It is Booth all over; indeed, + like the sun in your eyes, you can see nothing else wherever you turn. + And, as Dr. Geikie shrewdly remarks, 'to be the head of a widely spread + sect carries with it many advantages—not all exclusively + spiritual.'" +</p> +<p> +(2) "Whoever becomes a Salvation officer is henceforth a + slave, helplessly exposed to the caprice of his superiors." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"Mr. Redstone bore an excellent character both before he entered the +army and when he left it. To join it, though a married man, he gave up +a situation which he had held for five years, and he served Mr. Booth +two years, working hard in most difficult posts. His one fault, Major +Lawley tells us, was, that he was 'too straight'—that is, too honest, +truthful, and manly—or, in other words, too real a Christian. Yet +without trial, without formulated charges, on the strength of secret +complaints which were never, apparently, tested, he was dismissed with +less courtesy than most people would show a beggar—with 2s. 4d. for +his last week's salary. If there be any mistake in this matter, I +shall be glad to learn it." + + (3) Dr. Geikie confirms, on the ground of information given +confidentially by other officers, <span class="pagenum">259</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink259" id="link259"></a> Mr. Redstone's assertion that they + are watched and reported by spies from headquarters. +</p> +<p> +(4) Mr. Booth refuses + to guarantee his officers any fixed amount of salary. While he and his + family of high officials live in comfort, if not in luxury, the pledged + slaves whose devotion is the foundation of any true success the Army has + met with often have "hardly food enough to sustain life. One good fellow + frankly told me that when he had nothing he just went and begged." + </p> + <p> + At this point, it is proper that I should interpose an apology for having + hastily spoken of such men as Francis of Assisi, even for purposes of + warning, in connection with Mr. Booth. Whatever may be thought of the + wisdom of the plans of the founders of the great monastic orders of the + middle ages, they took their full share of suffering and privation, and + never shirked in their own persons the sacrifices they imposed on their + followers. + </p> + <p> + I have already expressed the opinion, that whatever the ostensible purpose + of the scheme under discussion, one of its consequences will be the + setting up and endowment of a new Ranter-Socialist sect. I may now add + that another effect will be—indeed, has been—to set up and + endow the Booth dynasty with unlimited control of the physical, moral, and + financial resources of the sect. Mr. Booth is already a printer and + publisher, who, it is plainly declared, utilizes the officers of the <span + class="pagenum">260</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink260" id="link260"></a> Army as agents for advertising and + selling his publications; and some of them are so strongly impressed with + the belief that active pushing of Mr. Booth's business is the best road to + their master's favour, that when the public obstinately refuse to purchase + his papers they buy them themselves and send the proceeds to headquarters. + Mr. Booth is also a retail trader on a large scale, and the Dean of Wells + has, most seasonably, drawn attention to the very notable banking project + which he is trying to float. Any one who follows Dean Plumptre's clear + exposition of the principles of this financial operation can have little + doubt that, whether they are, or are not, adequate to the attainment of + the first and second of Mr. Booth's ostensible objects, they may be + trusted to effect a wide extension of any kingdom in which worldly + possessions are of no value. We are, in fact, in sight of a financial + catastrophe like that of Law a century ago. Only it is the poor who will + suffer. + </p> + <p> + I have already occupied too much of your space, and yet I have drawn upon + only one of the sources of information about the inner working of the + Salvation Army at my disposition. Far graver charges than any here dealt + with are publicly brought in the others. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">261</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink261" id="link261"></a> P.S.— I have just read Mr. + Buchanan's letter in the Times of to-day. Mr. Buchanan is, I believe, an + imaginative writer. I am not acquainted with his works, but nothing in the + way of fiction he has yet achieved can well surpass his account of my + opinions and of the purport of my writings. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + IV +</pre> + <p> + The "Times" December 20th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + Sir,—In discussing Mr. Booth's projects I have hitherto left in the + background a distinction which must be kept well in sight by those who + wish to form a fair judgment of the influence, for good or evil, of the + Salvation Army. Salvationism, the work of "saving souls" by revivalist + methods, is one thing; Boothism, the utilization of the workers for the + furtherance of Mr. Booth's peculiar projects, is another. Mr. Booth has + captured, and harnessed with sharp bits and effectual blinkers, a + multitude of ultra-Evangelical missionaries of the revivalist school who + were wandering at large. It is this skilfully, if somewhat mercilessly, + driven team which has dragged the "General's" coach-load of projects into + their present position. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">262</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink262" id="link262"></a> Looking, then, at the host of + Salvationists proper, from the "captains" downwards (to whom, in my + judgment, the family hierarchy stands in the relation of the Old Man of + the Sea to Sinbad), as an independent entity, I desire to say that the + evidence before me, whether hostile or friendly to the General and his + schemes, is distinctly favourable to them. It exhibits them as, in the + main, poor, uninstructed, not unfrequently fanatical, enthusiasts, the + purity of whose lives, the sincerity of whose belief, and the cheerfulness + of whose endurance of privation and rough usage, in what they consider a + just cause, command sincere respect. For my part, though I conceive the + corybantic method of soul-saving to be full of dangers, and though the + theological speculations of these good people are to me wholly + unacceptable, yet I believe that the evils which must follow in the track + of such errors, as of all other errors, will be largely outweighed by the + moral and social improvement of the people whom they convert. I would no + more raise my voice against them (so long as they abstain from annoying + their neighbours) than I would quarrel with a man, vigorously sweeping out + a stye, on account of the shape of his broom, or because he made a great + noise over his work. I have always had a strong faith in the principle of + the injunction, "Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn." + If a kingdom is worth a Mass, as a great <span class="pagenum">263</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink263" id="link263"></a> ruler said, surely the reign of + clean living, industry, and thrift is worth any quantity of tambourines + and eccentric doctrinal hypotheses. All that I have hitherto said, and + propose further to say, is directed against Mr. Booth's extremely clever, + audacious, and hitherto successful attempt to utilize the credit won by + all this honest devotion and self-sacrifice for the purposes of his + socialistic autocracy. + </p> + <p> + I now propose to bring forward a little more evidence as to how things + really stand where Mr. Booth's system has had a fair trial. I obtain it, + mainly, from a curious pamphlet, the title of which runs: "The New Papacy. + Behind the Scenes in the Salvation Army," by an ex-Staff Officer. "Make + not my Father's house a house of merchandise" (John ii. 16). 1889. + Published at Toronto, by A. Britnell. On the cover it is stated that "This + is the book which was burned by the authorities of the Salvation Army." I + remind the reader, once more, that the statements which I shall cite must + be regarded as ex parte; all I can vouch for is that, on grounds of + internal evidence and from other concurrent testimony respecting the ways + of the Booth hierarchy, I feel justified in using them. + </p> + <p> + This is the picture the writer draws of the army in the early days of its + invasion of the Dominion of Canada:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">264</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink264" id="link264"></a> "Then, it will be remembered, it + professed to be the humble handmaid of the existing churches; its + professed object was the evangelization of the masses. It repudiated the + idea of building up a separate religious body, and it denounced the + practice of gathering together wealth and the accumulation of property. + Men and women other than its own converts gathered around it and threw + themselves heart and soul into the work, for the simple reason that it + offered, as they supposed, a more extended and widely open field for + evangelical effort. Ministers everywhere were invited and welcomed to its + platforms, majors and colonels were few and far between, and the supremacy + and power of the General were things unknown . . . Care was taken to avoid + anything like proselytism; its converts were never coerced into joining + its ranks... In a word, the organization occupied the position of an + auxiliary mission and recruiting agency for the various religious + bodies.... The meetings were crowded, people professed conversion by the + score, the public liberally supplied the means to carry on the work in + their respective communities; therefore every corps was wholly + self-supporting, its officers were properly, if not luxuriously, cared + for, the local expenditure was amply provided, and, under the supervision + of the secretary, a local member, and the officer in charge, the funds + were disbursed in the towns where they were collected, and the <span + class="pagenum">265</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink265" id="link265"></a> spirit of satisfaction and + confidence was mutual all around" (pp. 4, 5). + </p> + <p> + Such was the army as the green tree. Now for the dry:— + </p> + <p> + "Those who have been daily conversant with the army's machinery are well + aware how entirely and radically the whole system has changed, and how, + from a band of devoted and disinterested workers, united in the bonds of + zeal and charity for the good of their fellows, it has developed into a + colossal and aggressive agency for the building up of a system and a sect, + bound by rules and regulations altogether subversive of religious liberty + and antagonistic to every (other?) branch of Christian endeavour, and + bound hand and foot to the will of one supreme head and ruler.... As the + work has spread through the country, and as the area of its endeavours has + enlarged, each leading position has been filled, one after the other, by + individuals strangers to the country, totally ignorant of the sentiments + and idiosyncrasies of the Canadian people, trained in one school under the + teachings and dominance of a member of the Booth family, and out of whom + every idea has been crushed, except that of unquestioning obedience to the + General, and the absolute necessity of going forward to his bidding + without hesitation or question" (p. 6). + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">266</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink266" id="link266"></a> "What is the result of all this? + In the first place, whilst material prosperity has undoubtedly been + attained, spirituality has been quenched, and, as an evangelical agency, + the army has become almost a dead letter... In seventy-five per cent of + its stations its officers suffer need and privation, chiefly on account of + the heavy taxation that is placed upon them to maintain an imposing + headquarters and a large ornamental staff. The whole financial + arrangements are carried on by a system of inflation and a hand-to-mouth + extravagance and blindness as to future contingencies. Nearly all of its + original workers and members have disappeared" (p. 7). "In reference to + the religious bodies at large the army has become entirely antagonistic. + Soldiers are forbidden by its rules to attend other places of worship + without the permission of their officers... Officers or soldiers who may + conscientiously leave the service or the ranks are looked upon and often + denounced publicly as backsliders... Means of the most despicable + description have been resorted to in order to starve them back to the + service" (p. 8). "In its inner workings the army system is identical with + Jesuitism... That 'the end justifies the means,' if not openly taught, is + as tacitly agreed as in that celebrated order" (p. 9). + </p> + <p> + Surely a bitter, overcharged, anonymous libel, is the reflection which + will occur to many who read <span class="pagenum">267</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink267" id="link267"></a> these passages, especially the + last. Well, I turn to other evidence which, at any rate, is not anonymous. + It is contained in a pamphlet entitled "General Booth, the Family, and the + Salvation Army, showing its Rise, Progress, and Moral and Spiritual + Decline," by S. H. Hodges, LL.B., late Major in the Army, and formerly + private secretary to General Booth (Manchester, 1890). I recommend + potential contributors to Mr. Booth's wealth to study this little work + also. I have learned a great deal from it. Among other interesting + novelties, it tells me that Mr. Booth has discovered "the necessity of a + third step or blessing, in the work of Salvation. He said to me one day, + 'Hodges, you have only two barrels to your gun; I have three'" (p. 31). + And if Mr. Hodges's description of this third barrel is correct—"giving + up your conscience" and, "for God and the army, stooping to do things + which even honourable worldly men would not consent to do" (p. 32)—it + is surely calculated to bring down a good many things, the first + principles of morality among them. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hodges gives some remarkable examples of the army practice with the + "General's" new rifle. But I must refer the curious to his instructive + pamphlet. The position I am about to take up is a serious one; and I + prefer to fortify it by the help of evidence which, though some of it may + be anonymous, cannot be sneered away. And I shall <span class="pagenum">268</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink268" id="link268"></a> be believed, when I say that + nothing but a sense of the great social danger of the spread of Boothism + could induce me to revive a scandal, even though it is barely entitled to + the benefit of the Statute of Limitations. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of July, 1883, you, Sir, did the public a great service by + writing a leading article on the notorious "Eagle" case, from which I take + the following extract:— + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Justice Kay refused the application, but he was induced to refuse it + by means which, as Mr. Justice Stephen justly remarked, were highly + discreditable to Mr. Booth. Mr. Booth filed an affidavit which appears + totally to have misled Mr. Justice Kay, as it would have misled any one + who regarded it as a frank and honest statement by a professed teacher of + religion." + </p> + <p> + When I addressed my first letter to you I had never so much as heard of + the "Eagle" scandal. But I am thankful that my perception of the + inevitable tendency of all religious autocracies towards evil was clear + enough to bring about a provisional condemnation of Mr. Booth's schemes in + my mind. Supposing that I had decided the other way, with what sort of + feeling should I have faced my friend, when I had to confess that the + money had passed into the absolute control of a person about the character + of whose administration this <span class="pagenum">269</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink269" id="link269"></a> concurrence of damnatory evidence + was already extant? + </p> + <p> + I have nothing to say about Mr. Booth personally, for I know nothing. On + that subject, as on several others, I profess myself an agnostic. But, if + he is, as he may be, a saint actuated by the purest of motives, he is not + the first saint who, as you have said, has shown himself "in the ardour of + prosecuting a well-meant object" to be capable of overlooking "the plain + maxims of every-day morality." If I were a Salvationist soldier, I should + cry with Othello, "Cassio, I love thee; but never more be officer of + mine." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + V +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 24th, 1890— + </p> + <p> + Sir,—If I have any strong points, finance is certainly not one of + them. But the financial, or rather fiscal, operations of the General of + the Salvation Army, as they are set forth and exemplified in "The New + Papacy," possess that grand simplicity which is the mark of genius; <span + class="pagenum">270</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink270" id="link270"></a> and even I can comprehend them—or, + to be more modest, I can portray them in such a manner that every + lineament, however harsh, and every shade, however dark, can be verified + by published evidence. + </p> + <p> + Suppose there is a thriving, expanding colonial town, and that, scattered + among its artisans and labourers, there is a sprinkling of Methodists, or + other such ultra-evangelical good people, doing their best, in a quiet + way, to "save souls." Clearly, this is an outpost which it is desirable to + capture. "We," therefore, take measures to get up a Salvation "boom" of + the ordinary pattern. Enthusiasm is roused. A score or two of soldiers are + enlisted into the ranks of the Salvation Army. "We" select the man who + promises to serve our purposes best, make a "captain" of him, and put him + in command of the "corps." He is very pleased and grateful; and indeed he + ought to be. All he has done is that he has given up his trade; that he + has promised to work at least nine hours a day in our service (none of + your eight-hour nonsense for us) as collector, bookseller, general agent, + and anything else we may order him to be. "We," on the other hand, + guarantee him nothing whatever; to do so might weaken his faith and + substitute worldly for spiritual ties between us. Knowing that, if he + exerts himself in a right spirit, his labours will surely be blessed, we + content ourselves with telling him that if, after all <span class="pagenum">271</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink271" id="link271"></a> expenses are paid and our demands + are satisfied each week, 25s. remains, he may take it. And, if nothing + remains, he may take that, and stay his stomach with what the faithful may + give him. With a certain grim playfulness, we add that the value of these + contributions will be reckoned as so much salary. So long as our "captain" + is successful, therefore, a beneficent spring of cash trickles unseen into + our treasury; when it begins to dry up we say, "God bless you, dear boy," + turn him adrift (with or without 2s. 4d. in his pocket), and put some + other willing horse in the shafts. + </p> + <p> + The "General," I believe, proposes, among other things, to do away with + "sweating." May he not as well set a good example by beginning at home? My + little sketch, however, looks so like a monstrous caricature that, after + all, I must produce the original from the pages of my Canadian authority. + He says that a "captain" "has to pay 10 per cent. of all collections and + donations to the divisional fund for the support of his divisional + officer, who has also the privilege of arranging for such special meetings + as he shall think fit, the proceeds of which he takes away for the general + needs of the division. Headquarters, too, has the right to hold such + special meetings at the corps and send around such special attractions as + its wisdom sees fit, and to take away the proceeds for the purposes it + decides upon. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">272</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink272" id="link272"></a> He has to pay the rent of his + building, either to headquarters or a private individual; he has to send + the whole collection of the afternoon meeting of the first Sunday in the + month to the 'Extension Fund' at headquarters; he has to pay for the + heating, lighting, and cleaning of his hall, together with such necessary + repairs as may be needed; he has to provide the food, lodging, and + clothing of his cadet, if he has one; headquarters taxes him with so many + copies of the army papers each week, for which he has to pay, sold or + unsold; and when he has done this, he may take $6 (or $5, being a woman), + or such proportion of it as may be left, with which to clothe and feed + himself and to pay the rent and provide for the heating and lighting of + his quarters. If he has a lieutenant he has to pay him $6 per week, or + such proportion of it as he himself gets, and share the house expenses + with him. Now, it will be easily understood that at least 60 per cent. of + the stations in Canada the officer gets no money at all, and he has to beg + specially amongst his people for his house-rent and food. There are few + places in the Dominion in which the soldiers do not find their officers in + all the food they need; but it must be remembered that the value of the + food so received has to be accounted for at headquarters and entered upon + the books of the corps as cash received, the amount being deducted from + any moneys that the officer is able to take from the <span class="pagenum">273</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink273" id="link273"></a> week's collections. So that, no + matter how much may be specially given, the officer cannot receive more + than the value of $6 per week. The officer cannot collect any arrears of + salary, as each week has to pay its own expenses; and if there is any + surplus cash after all demands are met it must be sent to the 'war chest' + at headquarters."—"The New Papacy" (pp. 35, 36). + </p> + <p> + Evidently, Sir, "headquarters" has taken to heart the injunction about + casting your bread upon the waters. It casts the crumb of a day or two's + work of an emissary, and gets back any quantity of loaves of cash, so long + as "captains" present themselves to be used up and replaced by new + victims. What can be said of these devoted poor fellows except, O sancta + simplicitas! + </p> + <p> + But it would be a great mistake to suppose that the money-gathering + efficacy of Mr. Booth's fiscal agencies is exhausted by the foregoing + enumeration of their regular operations. Consider the following edifying + history of the "Rescue Home" in Toronto:— + </p> + <p> + "It is a fine building in the heart of the city; the lot cost $7,000, and + a building was put up at a cost of $7,000 more, and there is a mortgage on + it amounting to half the cost of the whole. The land to-day would probably + fetch double its original price, and every year enhances its value....In + the first five months of its <span class="pagenum">274</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink274" id="link274"></a> existence this institution + received from the public an income of $1,812 70c.; out of this $600 was + paid to headquarters for rent, $590 52c. was spent upon the building in + various ways, and the balance of $622 18c. paid the salaries of the staff + and supported the inmates" (pp. 24, 25). + </p> + <p> + Said I not truly that Mr. Booth's fisc bears the stamp of genius? Who else + could have got the public to buy him a "corner lot," put a building upon + it, pay all its working expenses: and then, not content with paying him a + heavy rent for the use of the handsome present they had made him, they say + not a word against his mortgaging it to half its value? And, so far as any + one knows, there is nothing to stop headquarters from selling the whole + estate tomorrow, and using the money as the "General" may direct. + </p> + <p> + Once more listen to the author of "The New Papacy," who affirms that "out + of the funds given by the Dominion for the evangelization of the people by + means of the Salvation Army, one sixth had been spent in the extension of + the Kingdom of God, and the other five sixths had been invested in + valuable property, all handed over to Mr. Booth and his heirs and assigns, + as we have already stated" (p. 26). + </p> + <p> + And this brings me to the last point upon which I wish to touch. The + answer to all inquiries as to what has become of the enormous <span + class="pagenum">275</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink275" id="link275"></a> personal and real estate which has + been given over to Mr. Booth is that it is held "in trust." The supporters + of Mr. Booth may feel justified in taking that statement "on trust." I do + not. Anyhow, the more completely satisfactory this "trust" is, the less + can any man who asks the public to put blind faith in his integrity and + his wisdom object to acquaint them exactly with its provisions. Is the + trust drawn up in favour of the Salvation Army? But what is the legal + status of the Salvation Army? Have the soldiers any claim? Certainly not. + Have the officers any legal interest in the "trust"? Surely not. The + "General" has taken good care to insist on their renouncing all claims as + a condition of their appointment. Thus, to all appearance, the army, as a + legal person, is identical with Mr. Booth. And, in that case, any "trust" + ostensibly for the benefit of the army is—what shall we say that is + at once accurate and polite? + </p> + <p> + I conclude with these plain questions—Will Mr. Booth take counsel's + opinion as to whether there is anything in such legal arrangements as he + has at present made which prevents him from disposing of the wealth he has + accumulated at his own will and pleasure? Will anybody be in a position to + set either the civil or the criminal law in motion against him or his + successors if he or they choose to spend every farthing in ways very + different from those contemplated by the donors? + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">276</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink276" id="link276"></a> I may add that a careful study of + the terms of a "Declaration of Trust by William Booth in favour of the + Christian Mission," made in 1878, has not enabled persons of much greater + competence than myself to answer these questions satisfactorily.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + * See Preface to this volume, pp. ix-xiii. +</pre> + <p> + On December 24th a letter appeared in the "Times" signed "J. S. Trotter," + in which the following passages appear:— + </p> + <p> + "It seems a pity to put a damper on the spirits of those who agree with + Professor Huxley in his denunciation of General Booth and all his works. + May I give a few particulars as to the 'book' which was published in + Canada? I had the pleasure of an interview with the author of a book + written in Canada. The book was printed at Toronto, and two copies only + struck off by the printers; one of these copies was stolen from the + printer, and the quotation sent to you by Professor Huxley was inserted in + the book, and is consequently a forgery. The book was published without + the consent and against the will of the author. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">277</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink277" id="link277"></a> "So the quotation is not only 'a + bitter, overcharged anonymous libel,' as Professor Huxley intimates, but a + forgery as well. As to Mr. Hodges, it seems to me to be simply trifling + with your readers to bring him in as an authority. He was turned out of + the army, out of kindness taken on again, and again dismissed. If this had + happened to one of your staff, would his opinion of the 'Times' as a + newspaper be taken for gospel?" + </p> + <p> + But in the "Times" of December 29th Mr. J. S. Trotter writes:— + </p> + <p> + "I find I was mistaken in saying, in my letter of Wednesday, to the + 'Times' that Mr. Hodges was dismissed from the service of General Booth, + and regret any inconvenience the statement may have caused to Mr. Hodges." + </p> + <p> + And on December 30th the "Times" published a letter from Mr. Hodges in + which he says that Mr. Trotter's statements as they regard himself "are + the very reverse of truth.—I was never turned out of the Salvation + Army. Nor, so far as I was made acquainted with General Booth's motives, + was I taken on again out of kindness. In order to rejoin the Salvation + Army, I resigned the position of manager in a mill where I was in <span + class="pagenum">278</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink278" id="link278"></a> receipt of a salary of [Pounds] + 250 per annum, with house-rent and one third of the profits. Instead of + this Mr. Booth allowed me [Pounds] 2 per week and house-rent." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + VI +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 26th, 1890 + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Sir,—I am much obliged to Mr. J. S. Trotter for the letter which you +published this morning. It furnishes evidence, which I much desired to +possess on the following points:— + + 1. The author of "The New Papacy" is a responsible, trustworthy +person; otherwise Mr. Trotter would not speak of having had "the +pleasure of an interview" with him. + + 2. After this responsible person had taken the trouble to write a +pamphlet of sixty-four closely printed pages, some influence was +brought to bear upon him, the effect of which was that he refused his +consent to its publication. Mr. Trotter's excellent information will +surely enable him to tell us what influence that was. + + 3. How does Mr. Trotter know that any passage I have quoted is an +interpolation? Does he possess that other copy of the "two" which +alone, as he affirms, were printed? +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">279</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink279" id="link279"></a> 4. If so, he will be able to say + which of the passages I have cited is genuine and which is not; and + whether the tenor of the whole uninterpolated copy differs in any + important respect from that of the copy I have quoted. + </p> + <p> + It will be interesting to hear what Mr. J. S. Trotter has to say upon + these points. But the really important thing which he has done is that he + has testified, of his own knowledge, that the anonymous author of "The New + Papacy" is no mere irresponsible libeller, but a person of whom even an + ardent Salvationist has to speak with respect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + [I may add that the unfortunate Mr. Trotter did me the further service of + eliciting the letter from Mr. Hodges referred to on p. 277—which + sufficiently establishes that gentleman's credit, and leads me to attach + full weight to his evidence about the third barrel.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + January, 1891. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">280</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink280" id="link280"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + VII +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 27th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—In making use of the only evidence of the actual working of Mr. + Booth's autocratic government accessible to me, I was fully aware of the + slippery nature of the ground upon which I was treading. For, as I pointed + out in my first letter, "no personal habit more surely degrades the + conscience and the intellect than blind and unhesitating obedience to + unlimited authority." Now we have it, on Mr. Booth's own showing that + every officer of his has undertaken to "obey without questioning or + gainsaying the orders from headquarters." And the possible relations of + such orders to honour and veracity are demonstrated not only by the + judicial deliverance on Mr. Booth's affidavit in the "Eagle" case, which I + have already cited; not only by Mr. Bramwell Booth's admission before Mr. + Justice Lopes that he had stated what was "not quite correct" because he + had "promised Mr. Stead not to divulge" the facts of the case (the + "Times," November 4th, 1885); but by the following passage in Mr. Hodges's + account of the reasons of his withdrawal from the Salvation Army:— + </p> + <p> + "The general and Chief did not and could <span class="pagenum">281</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink281" id="link281"></a> not deny doing these things; the + only question was this, Was it right to practise this deception? These + points of difference were fully discussed between myself and the Chief of + the Staff on my withdrawal, especially the Leamington incident, which was + the one that finally drove me to decision. I had come to the conclusion, + from the first, that they had acted as they supposed with a single eye to + the good of God's cause, and had persuaded myself that the things were, as + against the devil, right to be done, that as in battle one party captured + and turned the enemy's own guns upon them, so, as they were fighting + against the devil, it would be fair to use against him his weapons. And I + wrote to this effect to the "General" (p. 63)." + </p> + <p> + Now, I do not wish to say anything needlessly harsh, but I ask any prudent + man these questions. Could I, under these circumstances, trust any + uncorroborated statement emanating from headquarters, or made by the + General's order? Had I any reason to doubt the truth of Mr. Hodges's naive + confession of the corrupting influence of Mr. Booth's system? And did it + not behove me to pick my way carefully through the mass of statements + before me, many of them due to people whose moral sense might, by + possibility, have been as much blunted by the army discipline in the <span + class="pagenum">282</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink282" id="link282"></a> use of the weapons of the devil as + Mr. Hodges affirms that his was? + </p> + <p> + Therefore, in my third letter, I commenced my illustrations of the + practical working of Boothism with the evidence of Mr. Redstone, fortified + and supplemented by that of a non-Salvationist, Dr. Cunningham Geikie. + That testimony has not been challenged, and, until it is, I shall assume + that it cannot be. In my fourth letter, I cited a definite statement by + Mr. Hodges in evidence of the Jesuitical principles of headquarters. What + sort of answer is it to tell us that Mr. Hodges was dismissed the army? A + child might expect that some such red herring would be drawn across the + trail; and, in anticipation of the stale trick, I added the strong prima + facie evidence of the trustworthiness of my witness, in this particular, + which is afforded by the "Eagle" case. It was not until I wrote my fourth + letter to you, Sir—until the exploitation of the "captains" and the + Jesuitry of headquarters could be proved up to the hilt—that I + ventured to have recourse to "The New Papacy." So far as the pamphlet + itself goes, this is an anonymous work; and, for sufficient reasons, I did + not choose to go beyond what was to be found between its covers. To any + one accustomed to deal with the facts of evolution, the Boothism of "The + New Papacy" was merely the natural and necessary development of the + Boothism of Mr. Redstone's case and of the <span class="pagenum">283</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink283" id="link283"></a> "Eagle" case. Therefore, I felt + fully justified in using it, at the same time carefully warning my readers + that it must be taken with due caution. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Mr. Trotter's useful letter admits that such a book was written by a +person with whom he had the "pleasure of an interview," and that a +version of it (interpolated, according to his assertion) was published +against the will of the author. Hence I am justified in believing that +there is a foundation of truth in certain statements, some of which +have long been in my possession, but which for lack of Mr. Trotter's +valuable corroboration I have refrained from using. The time is come +when I can set forth some of the heads of this information, with the +request that Mr. Trotter, who knows all about the business, will be so +good as to point out any error that there may be in them. I am bound +to suppose that his sole object, like mine, is the elucidation of the +truth, and to assume his willingness to help me therein to the best of +his ability. + + 1. "The author of 'The New Papacy' is a Mr. Sumner, a person of +perfect respectability, and greatly esteemed in Toronto, who held a +high position in the Army. When he left, a large public meeting, +presided over by a popular Methodist minister, passed a vote of +sympathy with him." +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">284</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink284" id="link284"></a> Is this true or false? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 2. "On Saturday last, about noon, Mr. Sumner, the author of the +book, and Mr. Fred Perry, the Salvation Army printer, accompanied by a +lawyer, went down to Messrs. Imrie and Graham's establishment, and +asked for all the manuscript, stereotype plates, &c., of the book. Mr. +Sumner explained that the book had been sold to the Army, and, on a +cheque for the amount due being given, the printing material was +delivered up." +</pre> + <p> + Did these paragraphs appear in the "Toronto Telegram" of April 24th, 1889, + or did they not? Are the statements they contain true or false? + </p> + <p> + 3. "Public interest in the fate or probable outcome of that mysterious + book called 'The New Papacy; or, Behind the Scenes in the Salvation Army,' + continues unabated, though the line of proceedings by the publisher and + his solicitor, Mr. Smoke, of Watson, Thorne, Smoke, and Masten, has not + been altered since yesterday. The book, no doubt, will be issued in some + form. So far as known, only one complete copy remains, and the whereabouts + of this is a secret which will be profoundly kept. It is safe to say that + if the Commissioner kept on guessing until the next anniversary, he would + not strike the secluded <span class="pagenum">285</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink285" id="link285"></a> location of the one volume among + five thousand which escaped, when he and his assistant, Mr. Fred Perry, + believed they had cast every vestige of the forbidden work into the fiery + furnace. On Tuesday last, when the discovery was made that a copy of 'The + New Papacy' was in existence, Publisher Britnell, of Yonge Street, was at + once the suspected holder, and in a short time his book-store was the + resort of army agents sent to reconnoitre" ("Toronto News," April 28th, + 1889). + </p> + <p> + Is this a forgery, or is it not? Is it in substance true or false? + </p> + <p> + When Mr. Trotter has answered these inquiries categorically, we may + proceed to discuss the question of interpolations in Mr. Sumner's book. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + [On the 26th of December a letter, signed J. T. Cunningham, late Fellow of + University College, Oxford, called forth the following commentary.] + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">286</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink286" id="link286"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + VIII +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 29th, 1890— + </p> + <p> + Sir,—If Mr. Cunningham doubts the efficacy of the struggle for + existence, as a factor in social conditions, he should find fault with Mr. + Booth and not with me. + </p> + <p> + "I am labouring under no delusion as to the possibility of inaugurating + the millennium by my social specific. In the struggle of life the weakest + will go to the wall, and there are so many weak. The fittest in tooth and + claw will survive. All that we can do is to soften the lot of the unfit, + and make their suffering less horrible than it is at present" ("In Darkest + England," p. 44). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +That is what Mr. Cunningham would have found if he had read Mr. Booth's +book with attention. And, if he will bestow equal pains on my second +letter, he will discover that he has interpolated the word "wilfully" +in his statement of my "argument," which runs thus: "Shutting his eyes +to the necessary consequences of the struggle for life, the existence +of which he admits as fully as any Darwinian, Mr. Booth tells men +whose evil case is one of those consequences that envy is a +corner-stone of our competitive system." Mr. <span class="pagenum">287</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink287" id="link287"></a> Cunningham's physiological studies + will have informed him that the process of "shutting the eyes," in the + literal sense of the words, is not always wilful; and I propose to + illustrate, by the crucial instance his own letter furnishes, that the + "shutting of the eyes" of the mind to the obvious consequences of accepted + propositions may also be involuntary. At least, I hope so. 1. "Sooner or + later," says Mr. Cunningham, "the population problem will block the way + once more." What does this mean, except that multiplication, excessive in + relation to the contemporaneous means of support, will create a severe + competition for those means? And this seems to me to be a pretty accurate + "reflection of the conceptions of Malthus" and the other poor benighted + folks of a past generation at whom Mr. Cunningham sneers. 2. By way of + leaving no doubt upon this subject, Mr. Cunningham further tells us, "The + struggle for existence is always going on, of course; let us thank Darwin + for making us realize it." It is pleasant to meet with a little gratitude + to Darwin among the epigoni who are squabbling over the heritage he + conquered for them, but Mr. Cunningham's personal expression of that + feeling is hasty. For it is obvious that he has not "realized" the + significance of Darwin's teaching—indeed, I fail to discover in Mr. + Cunningham's letter any sign that he has even "realized" what <span + class="pagenum">288</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink288" id="link288"></a> he would be at. If the "struggle + for existence is always going on"; and if, as I suppose will be granted, + industrial competition is one phase of that struggle, I fail to see how my + conclusion that it is sheer wickedness to tell ignorant men that "envy" is + a corner-stone of competition can be disputed. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Cunningham has followed the lead of that polished and instructed + person, Mr. Ben Tillett, in rebuking me for (as the associates say) + attacking Mr. Booth's personal character. Of course, when I was writing, I + did not doubt that this very handy, though not too clean, weapon would be + used by one or other of Mr. Booth's supporters. And my action was finally + decided by the following considerations: I happen to be a member of one of + the largest life insurance societies. There is a vacancy in the directory + at present, for which half a dozen gentlemen are candidates. Now, I said + to myself, supposing that one of these gentlemen (whose pardon I humbly + beg for starting the hypothesis), say Mr. A., in his administrative + capacity and as a man of business, has been the subject of such + observations as a Judge on the Bench bestowed upon Mr. Booth, is he a + person for whom I can properly vote? And, if I find, when I go to the + meeting of the policy-holders, that most of them know nothing of this and + other evidences of what, by the mildest judgment, must be termed Mr. A.'s + unfitness for administrative <span class="pagenum">289</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink289" id="link289"></a> responsibilities, am I to let them + remain in their ignorance? I leave the answer and its application to men + of sense and integrity. + </p> + <p> + The mention of Mr. Cunningham's ally reminds me that I have omitted to + thank Mr. Tillett for his very useful and instructive letter; and I hasten + to repair a neglect which I assure Mr. Tillett was more apparent than + real. Mr. Tillett's letter is dated December 20th. On the 21st the + following pregnant (however unconscious) commentary upon it appeared in + "Reynolds's Newspaper":- + </p> + <p> + "I have always maintained that the Salvation Army is one of the mightiest + Socialistic agencies in the country; and now Professor Huxley comes in to + confirm that view. How could it be otherwise? The fantastic religious side + of Salvationism will disappear in the course of time, and what will be + left? A large number of men and women who have been organized, + disciplined, and taught to look for something better than their present + condition, and who have become public speakers and not afraid of ridicule. + There you have the raw materials for a Socialist army." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Ben Tillett evidently knows Latin enough to construe proximus ardet. + </p> + <p> + I trust that the public will not allow themselves to be led away by the + false issues which are <span class="pagenum">290</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink290" id="link290"></a> dangled before them. A man really + may love his fellow-men; cherish any form of Christianity he pleases; and + hold not only that Darwinism is "tottering to its fall," but, if he + pleases, the equally sane belief that it never existed; and yet may feel + it his duty to oppose, to the best of his capacity, despotic Socialism in + all its forms, and, more particularly, in its Boothian disguise. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T.H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + [Persons who have not had the advantage of a classical education might + fairly complain of my use of the word epigoni. To say truth, I had been + reading Droysen's "Geschichte des Hellenismus," and the familiar + historical title slipped out unawares. In replying to me, however, the + late "Fellow of University College," Oxford, declares he had to look the + word out in a Lexicon. I commend the fact to the notice of the combatants + over the desirability of retaining the present compulsory modicum of Greek + in our Universities.] + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">291</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink291" id="link291"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + IX. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 30th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + Sir,—I am much obliged to Messrs. Ranger, Burton, and Matthews for + their prompt answer to my questions. I presume it applies to all money + collected by the agency of the Salvation Army, though not specifically + given for the purposes of the "Christian Mission" named in the deed of + 1878; to all sums raised by mortgage upon houses and land so given; and, + further, to funds subscribed for Mr. Booth's various projects, which have + no apparent reference to the objects of the "Christian Mission" as defined + in the deed. Otherwise, to use a phrase which has become classical, "it + does not assist us much." But I must leave these points to persons learned + in the law. + </p> + <p> + And, indeed, with many thanks to you, Sir, for the amount of valuable + space which you have allowed me to occupy, I now propose to leave the + whole subject. My sole purpose in embarking upon an enterprise which was + extremely distasteful to me was to prevent the skilful "General," or + rather "Generals," who devised the plan of campaign from sweeping all + before them with a rush. I found the pass already held by such stout + defenders as Mr. Loch and the Dean <span class="pagenum">292</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink292" id="link292"></a> of Wells, and, with your powerful + help, we have given time for the reinforcements, sure to be sent by the + abundant, though somewhat slowly acting, common sense of our countrymen, + to come up. + </p> + <p> + I can no longer be useful, and I return to more congenial occupations. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + The following letter appeared in the "Times" of January 2nd, 1891:— + </p> + <p> + "Dear Mr. Tillett,—I have not had patience to read Professor + Huxley's letters. The existence of hunger, nakedness, misery, 'death from + insufficient food,' even of starvation, is certain, and no agency as yet + reaches it. How can any man hinder or discourage the giving of food or + help? Why is the house called a workhouse? Because it is for those who + cannot work? No, because it was the house to give work or bread. The very + name is an argument. I am very sure what Our Lord and His Apostles would + do if they were in London. Let us be thankful even to have a will to do + the same. + </p> + <p> + "Yours faithfully, Henry E. Card. Manning." + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">293</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink293" id="link293"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + X. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," January 3rd, 1891 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—In my old favourite, "The Arabian Nights," the motive of the + whole series of delightful narratives is that the sultan, who refuses to + attend to reason, can be got to listen to a story. May I try whether + Cardinal Manning is to be reached in the same way? When I was attending + the meeting of the British Association in Belfast nearly forty years ago, + I had promised to breakfast with the eminent scholar Dr. Hincks. Having + been up very late the previous night, I was behind time; so, hailing an + outside car, I said to the driver as I jumped on, "Now drive fast, I am in + a hurry." Whereupon he whipped up his horse and set off at a hand-gallop. + Nearly jerked off my seat, I shouted, "My good friend, do you know where I + want to go?" "No, yer honner," said the driver, "but, any way, I am + driving fast." I have never forgotten this object-lesson in the dangers of + ill-regulated enthusiasm. We are all invited to jump on to the Salvation + Army car, which Mr. Booth is undoubtedly driving very fast. Some of us + have a firm conviction, not only that he is taking a very different + direction from that in which we wish to go, but that, before long, car and + driver will come to grief. Are we to accept <span class="pagenum">294</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink294" id="link294"></a> the invitation, even at the + bidding of the eminent person who appears to think himself entitled to + pledge the credit of "Our Lord and His Apostles" in favour of Boothism? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + XI. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," January 13th, 1891 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—A letter from Mr. Booth-Clibborn, dated January 3rd, appeared + in the "Times" of yesterday. This elaborate document occupies three + columns of small print—space enough, assuredly, for an effectual + reply to the seven letters of mine to which the writer refers, if any such + were forthcoming. Mr. Booth-Clibborn signs himself "Commissioner of the + Salvation Army for France and Switzerland," but he says that he accepts my + "challenge" without the knowledge of his chiefs. Considering the + self-damaging character of his letter, it was, perhaps, hardly necessary + to make that statement. + </p> + <p> + Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn speaks of my "challenge." I presume that + he refers to my request for information about the authorship and fate of + "The New Papacy," in the letter <span class="pagenum">295</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink295" id="link295"></a> published in the "Times" on + December 27th, 1890. The "Commissioner" deals with this matter in + paragraph No. 4 of his letter; and I observe, with no little satisfaction, + that he does not venture to controvert any one of the statements of my + witnesses. He tacitly admits that the author of "The New Papacy" was a + person "greatly esteemed in Toronto," and that he held "a high position in + the army"; further, that the Canadian "Commissioner" thought it worth + while to pay the printer's bill, in order that the copies already printed + off might be destroyed and the pamphlet effectually suppressed. Thus the + essential facts of the case are admitted and established beyond question. + </p> + <p> + How does Mr. Booth-Clibborn try to explain them away? + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Sumner, who wrote the little book in a hot fit, soon regretted it (as + any man would do whose conscience showed him in a calmer moment when his + 'respectability' returned with his repentance, that he had grossly + misrepresented), and just before it appeared offered to order its + suppression if the army would pay the costs already incurred, and which he + was unable to bear." + </p> + <p> + "The New Papacy" fills sixty closely printed duodecimo pages. It is + carefully written, and for the most part in studiously moderate language; + moreover, it contains many precise details and <span class="pagenum">296</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink296" id="link296"></a> figures, the ascertainment of + which must have taken much time and trouble. Yet, forsooth, it was written + in "a hot fit." + </p> + <p> + I sincerely hope, for the sake of his own credit, that Mr. "Commissioner" + Booth-Clibborn does not know as much about this melancholy business as I + do. My hands are unfortunately tied, and I am not at liberty to use all + the information in my possession. I must content myself with quoting the + following passage from the preface to "The New Papacy":— + </p> + <p> + "It has not been without considerable thought and a good deal of urging + that the following pages have been given to the public. But though we + would have shrunk from a labour so distasteful, and have gladly avoided a + notoriety anything but pleasant to the feelings, or conducive to our + material welfare, we have felt that in the interests of the benevolent + public, in the interests of religion, in the interests of a band of + devoted men and women whose personal ends are being defeated, and the + fruit of whose labour is being destroyed, and, above all, in the interests + of that future which lies before the Salvation Army itself, if purged and + purified in its executive and returned to its original position in the + ranks of Canadian Christian effort, it is no more than our duty to throw + such light as we are able upon its true inwardness, and with that object + and for the <span class="pagenum">297</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink297" id="link297"></a> furtherance of those ends we offer + our pages to the public view." + </p> + <p> + The preface is dated April 1889. According to the statement in the + "Toronto Telegram" which Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn does not dare + to dispute, his Canadian fellow-"Commissioner" bought and destroyed the + whole edition of "The New Papacy" about the end of the third week in + April. It is clear that the writer of the paragraph quoted from the + preface was well out of a "hot fit," if he had ever been in one, while he + had not entered on the stage of repentance within three weeks of that + time. Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn's scandalous insinuations that Mr. + Sumner was bribed by "a few sovereigns," and that he was "bought off," in + the face of his own admission that Mr. Sumner "offered to order its + suppression if the army would pay the costs already incurred, and which he + was unable to bear" is a crucial example of that Jesuitry with which the + officials of the army have been so frequently charged. + </p> + <p> + Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn says that when "London headquarters + heard of the affair, it disapproved of the action of the Commissioner." + That circumstance indicates that headquarters is not wholly devoid of + intelligence; but it has nothing to do with the value of Mr. Sumner's + evidence, which is all I am concerned about. Very likely London + headquarters will disapprove of its French <span class="pagenum">298</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink298" id="link298"></a> "Commissioner's" present action. + But what then? The upshot of all this is that Mr. Booth-Clibborn has made + as great a blunder as simple Mr. Trotter did. The pair of Balaams greatly + desired to curse, but have been compelled to bless. They have, between + them, completely justified my reliance on Mr. Sumner as a perfectly + trustworthy witness; and neither of them has dared to challenge the + accuracy of one solitary statement made by that worthy gentleman, whose + full story I hope some day or other to see set before the public. Then the + true causes of his action will be made known. + </p> + <p> + Paragraph 2 of the "Commissioner's" letter says many things, but not much + about Mr. Hodges. The columns of the "Times" recently showed that Mr. + Hodges was able to compel an apology from Mr. Trotter. I leave it to him + to deal with the "Commissioner." + </p> + <p> + As to the "Eagle" case, treated of in paragraph No. 3, a gentleman well + versed in the law, who was in court during the hearing of the appeal, has + assured me that the argument was purely technical; that the facts were + very slightly gone into; and that, so far as he knows, no dissenting + comment was made on the strictures of the Judge before whom the case first + came. Moreover, in the judgment of the Master of the Rolls, fully recorded + in the "Times" of February 14th, 1884, the following passages occur:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">299</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink299" id="link299"></a> "The case had been heard by a + learned Judge, who had exercised his discretion upon it, and the Court + would not interfere with his discretion unless they could see that he was + wrong. The learned Judge had taken a strong view of the conduct of the + defendant, but nevertheless had said that he would have given relief if he + could have seen how far protection and compensation could be given. And if + this Court differed from him in that view, and could give relief without + forfeiture, they would be acting on his own principle in doing so. Certain + suggestions had been made with that view, and the Court had to consider + the case under all the circumstances.... He himself (the Master of the + Rolls) considered that it was probable the defendant, with his principles, + had intended to destroy the property as a public-house, and that it was + not right thus to take property under a covenant to keep it up as a + public-house, intending to destroy it as such. He did not, however, think + this was enough to deprive him of all relief. The defendant could only + expect severe terms." + </p> + <p> + Yet, Sir, Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn, this high official of the + Salvation Army, has the audacity to tell the public that if I had made + inquiries I should have found that "in the Court of Appeal the Judge + reversed the decision of his predecessor as regards seven eighths of the + property, and the General was declared to have acted <span class="pagenum">300</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink300" id="link300"></a> all along with straight + forwardness and good faith." + </p> + <p> + But the nature of Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn's conceptions of + straightforwardness and good faith is so marvellously illustrated by the + portions of his letter with which I have dealt that I doubt not his + statements are quite up to the level of the "Army" Regulations and + Instructions in regard to those cardinal virtues. As I pointed out must be + the case, the slave is subdued to that he works in. + </p> + <p> + For myself, I must confess that the process of wading through Mr. + "Commissioner's" verbose and clumsy pleadings has given me a "hot fit," + which, I undertake to say, will be followed by not so much as a passing + shiver of repentance. And it is under the influence of the genial warmth + diffused through the frame, on one of those rare occasions when one may be + "angry and sin not," that I infringe my resolution to trouble you with no + more letters. On reflection, I am convinced that it is undesirable that + the public should be misled, for even a few days, by misrepresentations so + serious. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I am copiously abused for speaking of the Jesuitical methods of the +superior officials of the Salvation Army. But the following facts have +not been, and, I believe, cannot be, denied:— + + 1. Mr. Booth's conduct in the "Eagle" case has been censured by two +of the Judges. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">301</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink301" id="link301"></a> 2. Mr. Bramwell Booth admitted + before Mr. Justice Lopes that he had made an untrue statement because of a + promise he had made to Mr. Stead.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This statement has been disputed, but not yet publicly. (See p. 305.) +</pre> + <p> + And I have just proved that Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn asserts the + exact contrary of that which your report of the judgment of the Master of + the Rolls tells us that distinguished judge said. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, I think that my politeness in applying no + harder adjective than "Jesuitical" to these proceedings is not properly + appreciated. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + XII. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," January 22nd, 1891 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—I think that your readers will be interested in the + accompanying opinion, written in consultation with an eminent Chancery + Queen's Counsel, with which I have been favoured. It will be observed that + this important legal deliverance <span class="pagenum">302</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink302" id="link302"></a> justifies much stronger language + than any which I have applied to the only security (?) for the proper + administration of the funds in Mr. Booth's hands which appears to be in + existence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + 1, Dr. Johnson's Buildings, Temple, E.C., + January 14, 1891. +</pre> + <h3> + MR. BOOTH'S DECLARATION OF TRUST DEED, 1878. + </h3> + <p> + "I am of opinion, subject to the question whether there may be any + provision in the Charitable Trusts Acts which can be made available for + enforcing some scheme for the appropriation of the property, and with + regard to the real and leasehold properties whether the conveyances and + leases are not altogether void, as frauds on the Mortmain Acts, that + nothing can be done to control or to interfere with Booth in the + disposition or application of the properties or moneys purported to be + affected by the deed. + </p> + <p> + "As to the properties vested in Booth himself, it appears to me that such + are placed absolutely under his power and control both as to the disposal + and application thereof, and that there are no trusts for any specific + purposes declared which <span class="pagenum">303</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink303" id="link303"></a> could be enforced, and that there + are no defined persons nor classes of persons who can claim to be entitled + to the benefits of them, or at whose instance they could be enforced by + any legal process. + </p> + <p> + "As to the properties (if any) vested in trustees appointed by Booth, it + appears to me that the only person who has a locus standi to enforce these + trusts is Booth himself, and that he would have absolute power over the + trusts and the property, and might deal with the property as he pleased, + and that, as in the former case, nothing could be done in the way of + enforcing any trusts against him. + </p> + <p> + "As to the moneys contributed or raised by mortgage for the general + purposes of the mission, it appears to me that Booth may expend them as he + pleases, without being subject to any legal control, and that he cannot + even be compelled to publish any balance-sheets. + </p> + <p> + "Whether there are any provisions in the Charitable Trusts Acts which + could be made available for enforcing some scheme for the application of + the property or funds is a question to which I should require to give a + closer consideration should it become necessary to go into it; but at + present, after perusing these Acts, and especially 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137 + and 18 and 19 Vict. c. 124, I cannot see how they could be made applicable + to the trusts as declared in this deed. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">304</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink304" id="link304"></a> "As to the Mortmain Acts, the + matter is clearly charitable, and unless in the conveyances and leases to + Booth, or to the trustees (if any) named by him, all the provisions of the + Acts have been complied with, and the deeds have been enrolled under the + Acts, they would be void. It is probable, however, that every conveyance + and lease has been taken without disclosing any charitable trust, for the + purpose of preventing it from being void on the face of it. It is to be + noted that the deed is a mere deed poll by Booth himself, without any + other party to it, who, as a contracting party, would have a right to + enforce it. + </p> + <p> + "Whether there are any objects of the trust I cannot say. If there is, as + the recital indicates, a society of enrolled members called 'The Christian + Mission,' those members would be objects of the trust, but then, it + appears to me, Booth has entire control and determination of the + application. And, as to the trusts enuring for the benefit of the + 'Salvation Army,' I am not aware what is the constitution of the + 'Salvation Army,' but there is no reference whatever to any such body in + the deed. I have understood the army as being merely the missionaries, and + not the society of worshippers. + </p> + <p> + "If there is no Christian Mission Society of enrolled members, then there + are no objects of the trust. The trusts are purely religious, and trading + is entirely beyond its purposes. Booth can <span class="pagenum">305</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink305" id="link305"></a> 'give away' the property, simply + because there is no one who has any right to prevent his doing so. + </p> + <p> + "Ernest Hatton." + </p> + <p> + It is probably my want of legal knowledge which prevents me from + appreciating the value of the professed corrections of Mr. Hatton's + opinion contained in the letters of Messrs. Ranger, Burton, and Matthews, + "Times," January 28th and 29th, 1891. + </p> + <p> + The note on page 301 refers to a correspondence, incomplete at the time + fixed for the publication of my pamphlet, the nature of which is + sufficiently indicated by the subjoined extracts from Mr. Stead's letter + in the "Times" of January 20th, and from my reply in the "Times" of + January 24th. Referring to the paragraphs numbered 1, 2, at the end of my + letter XI., Mr. Stead says:— + </p> + <p> + "On reading this, I at once wrote to Professor Huxley, stating that, as he + had mentioned my name, I was justified in intervening to explain that, so + far as the second count in his indictment went—for the Eagle dispute + is no concern of mine—he had been misled by an error in the reports + of the case which appeared in the daily papers <span class="pagenum">306</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink306" id="link306"></a> of November 4, 1885. I have his + reply to-day, saying that I had better write to you direct. May I ask you, + then, seeing that my name has been brought into the affair, to state that, + as I was in the dock when Mr. Bramwell Booth was in the witness-box, I am + in a position to give the most unqualified denial to the statement as to + the alleged admission on his part of falsehood? Nothing was heard in Court + of any such admission. Neither the prosecuting counsel nor the Judge who + tried the case ever referred to it, although it would obviously have had a + direct bearing on the credit of the witness; and the jury, by acquitting + Mr. Bramwell Booth, showed that they believed him to be a witness of + truth. But fortunately the facts can be verified beyond all gainsaying by + a reference to the official shorthand-writer's report of the evidence. + During the hearing of the case for the prosecution, Inspector Borner was + interrupted by the Judge, who said:— + </p> + <p> + "'I want to ask you a question. During the whole of that conversation, did + Booth in any way suggest that that child had been sold?' Borner replied:— + </p> + <p> + "'Not at that interview, my Lord.' + </p> + <p> + "It was to this that Mr. Bramwell Booth referred when, after examination, + cross-examination, <span class="pagenum">307</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink307" id="link307"></a> and re-examination, during which + no suggestion had been made that he had ever made the untrue statement now + alleged against him, he asked and received leave from the Judge to make + the following explanation, which I quote from the official report:— + </p> + <p> + "'Will you allow me to explain a matter mentioned yesterday in reference + to a question asked by your Lordship some days ago with respect to one + matter connected with my conduct? Your Lordship asked, I think it was + Inspector Borner, whether I had said to him at either of our interviews + that the child was sold by her parents, and he replied "No." That is quite + correct; I did not say so to him, and what I wish to say now is that I had + been specially requested by Mr. Stead, and had given him a promise, that I + would not under any circumstances divulge the fact of that sale to any + person which would ma ke it at all probable that any trouble would be + brought upon the persons who had taken part in this investigation.' + (Central Criminal Court Reports, Vol. CII., part 612, pp. 1,035-6.) + </p> + <p> + "In the daily papers of the following day this statement was misreported + as follows:— + </p> + <p> + "'I wish to explain, in regard to your Lordship's condemnation of my + having said "No" to <span class="pagenum">308</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink308" id="link308"></a> Inspector Borner when he asked me + whether the child had been sold by her parents—the reason why I + stated what was not correct was that I had promised Mr. Stead not to + divulge the fact of the sale to any person which would make it probable + that any trouble should be brought on persons taking part in this + proceeding.' + </p> + <p> + "Hence the mistake into which Professor Huxley has unwittingly fallen. + </p> + <p> + "I may add that, so far from the statement never having been challenged + for five years, it was denounced as 'a remarkably striking lie' in the + 'War Cry' of November 14th, and again the same official organ of the + Salvation Army of November 18th specifically adduced this misreport as an + instance of 'the most disgraceful way' in which the reports of the trial + were garbled by some of the papers. What, then, becomes of one of the two + main pillars of Professor Huxley's argument?" + </p> + <p> + In my reply, I point out that, on the 10th of January, Mr. Stead addressed + to me a letter, which commences thus: "I see in the 'Times' of this + morning that you are about to republish your letters on Booth's book." + </p> + <p> + I replied to this letter on the 12th of January:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">309</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink309" id="link309"></a> "Dear Mr. Stead,—I charge + Mr. Bramwell Booth with nothing. I simply quote the 'Times' report, the + accuracy of which, so far as I know, has never been challenged by Mr. + Booth. I say I quote the 'Times' and not Mr. Hodges,* because I took some + pains about the verification of Mr. Hodges's citation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is a slip of the pen. Mr. Hodges had nothing to do + with the citation of which I made use. +</pre> + <p> + "I should have thought it rather appertained to Mr. Bramwell Booth to + contradict a statement which refers, not to what you heard, but to what he + said. However, I am the last person to wish to give circulation to a story + which may not be quite correct; and I will take care, if you have no + objection (your letter is marked 'private'), to make public as much of + your letter as relates to the point to which you have called my attention. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I am, yours very faithfully, + T. H. Huxley." +</pre> + <p> + To this Mr. Stead answered, under date of January 13th, 1891:— + </p> + <p> + "Dear Professor Huxley,—I thank you for your letter of the 12th + inst. I am quite sure you would not wish to do any injustice in this + matter. But, instead of publishing any extract from my letter, might I ask + you to read the passage as it <span class="pagenum">310</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink310" id="link310"></a> appears in the verbatim report of + the trial which was printed day by day, and used by counsel on both sides, + and by the Judge during the case? I had hoped to have got you a copy + to-day, but find that I was too late. I shall have it first thing + to-morrow morning. You will find that it is quite clear, and conclusively + disposes of the alleged admission of untruthfulness. Again thanking you + for your courtesy, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I am, yours faithfully, + W. T. Stead." +</pre> + <p> + Thus it appears that the letter which Mr. Stead wrote to me on the 13th of + January does not contain one word of that which he ways it contains, in + the statement which appears in the "Times" to-day. Moreover, the letter of + mine to which Mr. Stead refers in his first communication to me is not the + letter which appeared on the 13th, as he states, but that which you + published on December 27th, 1890. Therefore, it is not true that Mr. Stead + wrote "at once." On the contrary, he allowed nearly a fortnight to elapse + before he addressed me on the 10th of January 1891. Furthermore, Mr. Stead + suppresses the fact that, since the 13th of January, he has had in his + possession my offer to publish his version of the story; and he leads the + reader to suppose that my only answer was that he "had better write to + <span class="pagenum">311</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink311" id="link311"></a> you direct. All the while, Mr. + Stead knows perfectly well that I was withheld from making public use of + his letter of the 10th by nothing but my scruples about using a document + which was marked "private"; and that he did not give me leave to quote his + letter of the 10th of January until after he had written that which + appeared yesterday. + </p> + <p> + And I add:— + </p> + <p> + As to the subject-matter of Mr. Stead's letter, the point which he wishes + to prove appears to be this—that Mr. Bramwell Booth did not make a + false statement, but that he withheld from the officers of justice, + pursuing a most serious criminal inquiry, a fact of grave importance, + which lay within his own knowledge. And this because he had promised Mr. + Stead to keep the fact secret. In short, Mr. Bramwell Booth did not say + what was wrong; but he did what was wrong. + </p> + <p> + I will take care to give every weight to the correction. Most people, I + think, will consider that one of the "main pillars of my argument," as Mr. + Stead is pleased to call them, has become very much strengthened. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">312</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink312" id="link312"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + LEGAL OPINIONS RESPECTING + "GENERAL" BOOTH'S ACTS. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +In referring to the course of action adopted by "General" Booth and +Mr. Bramwell Booth in respect of their legal obligations to other +persons, or to the criminal and civil law, I have been as careful as I +was bound to be, to put any difficulties suggested by mere lay +commonsense in an interrogative or merely doubtful form; and to +confine myself, for any positive expressions, to citations from +published declarations of the judges before whom the acts of "General" +Booth came; from reports of the Law Courts; and from the deliberate +opinions of legal experts. I have now some further remarks to make on +these topics. + + I. The observations at p. 305 express, with due reserve, the +impression which the counsel's opinions, quoted by "General" Booth's +solicitors, made on my mind. They were written and sent to the printer +before I saw the letter from a "Barrister NOT Practising on the Common +Law Side," and those from Messrs. Clarke and Calkin and Mr. George +Kebbell, which appeared in the "Times" of February 3rd and 4th. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +These letters fully bear out the conclusion which I had formed, but +which it would have <span class="pagenum">313</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink313" id="link313"></a> been presumptuous on my part to + express, that the opinions cited by "General" Booth's solicitors were like + the famous broken tea-cups "wisely ranged for show"; and that, as Messrs. + Clarke and Calkin say, they "do not at all meet the main points on which + Mr. Hatton advised." I do not think that any one who reads attentively the + able letter of "A Barrister NOT Practicing on the Common Law Side" will + arrive at any other conclusion; or who will not share the very natural + desire of Mr. Kebbell to be provided with clear and intelligible answers + to the following inquiries:— (1) Does the trust deed by its + operation empower any one legally to call upon Mr. Booth to account for + the application of the funds? (2) In the event of the funds not being + properly accounted for, is any one, and, if so, who, in a position to + institute civil or criminal proceedings against any one, and whom, in + respect of such refusal or neglect to account? (3) In the event of the + proceedings, civil or criminal, failing to obtain restitution of + misapplied funds, is or are any other person or persons liable to make + good the loss? + </p> + <p> + On December 24th, 1890, a letter of mine appeared in the "Times" (No. V. + above) in which I put questions of the same import, and asked Mr. Booth if + he would not be so good as to take counsel's opinion on the "trusts" of + which so <span class="pagenum">314</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink314" id="link314"></a> much has been heard and so little + seen, not as they stood in 1878, or in 1888, but as they stand now? Six + weeks have elapsed, and I wait for a reply. + </p> + <p> + It is true that Dr. Greenwood has been authorized by Mr. Booth to publish + what he calls a "Rough outline of the intended Trust Deed" ("General Booth + and His Critics," p. 120), but unfortunately we are especially told that + it "does not profess to be an absolutely accurate analysis." Under these + circumstances I am afraid that neither lawyers nor laymen of moderate + intelligence will pay much attention to the assertion, that "it gives a + fair idea of the general effect of the draft," even although "the words in + quotation marks are taken from it verbatim." + </p> + <p> + These words, which I give in italics, (1) define the purposes of the + scheme to be "for the social and moral regeneration and improvement of + persons needy, destitute, degraded, or criminal, in some manner indicated, + implied, or suggested in the book called 'In Darkest England.'" Whence I + apprehend that, if the whole funds collected are applied to "mothering + society" by the help of speculative attorney "tribunes of the people," the + purposes of the trust will be unassailably fulfilled. (2) The name is to + be "Darkest England Scheme," (3) the General of the Salvation Army is to + be "Director of the Scheme." Truly valuable information all this! But + taking it for what it is worth, the <span class="pagenum">315</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink315" id="link315"></a> public must not be misled into + supposing that it has the least bearing upon the questions to which + neither I, nor anybody else, has yet been able to obtain an intelligible + answer, and that is, where are the vast funds which have been obtained, in + one way or another, during the last dozen years in the name of the + Salvation Army? Where is the presumably amended Trust Deed of 1888? I ask + once more: Will Mr. Booth submit to competent and impartial legal scrutiny + the arrangements by which he and his successors are prevented from dealing + with the funds of the so-called "army chest" exactly as he or they may + please? + </p> + <p> + II. With respect to the "Eagle" case, I am advised that Dr. Greenwood, + whose good faith I do not question, has been misled into misrepresenting + it in the appendix to his pamphlet. And certainly, the evidence of + authoritative records which I have had the opportunity of perusing, + appears to my non-legal mind to be utterly at variance with the statement + to which Dr. Greenwood stands committed. I may observe, further, that the + excuse alleged on behalf of Mr. Booth, that he signed the affidavit set + before him by his solicitors without duly considering its contents, is one + which I should not like to have put forward were the case my own. It may + be, and often is, necessary for a person to sign an affidavit without + <span class="pagenum">316</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink316" id="link316"></a> being able fully to appreciate the + technical language in which it is couched. But his solicitor will always + instruct him as to the effect of these terms. And, in this particular case + where the whole matter turns on Mr. Booth's personal intentions, it was + his plainest duty to inquire, very seriously, whether the legal + phraseology employed would convey neither more nor less than such + intentions to those who would act on the affidavit, before he put his name + to it. + </p> + <p> + III. With respect to Mr. Bramwell Booth's case, I refer the reader to p. + 311. + </p> + <p> + IV. As to Mr. Booth-Clibborn's misrepresentations, see above, pp. 298, + 299. + </p> + <p> + This much for the legal questions which have been raised by various + persons since the first edition of the pamphlet was published. + </p> + <h3> + DR. GREENWOOD'S "GENERAL BOOTH AND HIS CRITICS" + </h3> + <p> + So far as I am concerned, there is little or nothing in this brochure + beyond a reproduction of the vituperative stuff which has been going the + round of those newspapers which favour "General" Booth for some weeks. + Those who do not want to see the real worth of it all will not read <span + class="pagenum">317</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink317" id="link317"></a> the preceding pages; and those who + do will need no help from me. + </p> + <p> + I fear, however, that in justice to other people I must put one of Dr. + Greenwood's paragraphs in the pillory. He says that I have "built up, on + the flimsy foundation of stories told by three or four deserters from the + Army" (p. 114), a sweeping indictment against General Booth. This is the + sort of thing to which I am well accustomed at the hands of anonymous + newspaper writers. But in view of the following easily verifiable + statements, I do not think that an educated and, I have no doubt, highly + respectable gentleman like Dr. Greenwood can, in cold blood, contemplate + that assertion with satisfaction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The persons here alluded to as "three or four deserters from the army" +are:— + + (1) Mr. Redstone, for whose character Dr. Cunningham Geikie is +guarantee, and whom it has been left to Dr. Greenwood to attempt to +besmirch. + + (2) Mr. Sumner, who is a gentleman quite as worthy of respect as +Dr. Greenwood, and whose published evidence not one of the champions +of the Salvation Army has yet ventured to impugn. + + (3) Mr. Hodges, similarly libelled by that unhappy meddler Mr. +Trotter, who was compelled to the prompt confession of his error (see +p. 277). + + (4) Notwithstanding this evidence of Mr. Trotter's claims to +attention, Dr. Greenwood quotes a <span class="pagenum">318</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink318" id="link318"></a> statement of his as evidence that + a statement quoted by me from Mr. Sumner's work is a "forgery." But Dr. + Greenwood unfortunately forgets to mention that on the 27th of December + 1890 (Letter No. VII. above) Mr. Trotter was publicly required to produce + proof of his assertion; and that he has not thought fit to produce that + proof. + </p> + <p> + If I were disposed to use to Dr. Greenwood language of the sort he so + freely employs to me, I think that he could not complain of a handsome + scolding. For what is the real state of the case? Simply this—that + having come to the conclusion, from the perusal of "In Darkest England," + that "General" Booth's colossal scheme (as apart from the local action of + Salvationists) was bad in principle and must produce certain evil + consequences, and having warned the public to that effect, I quite + unexpectedly found my hands full of evidence that the exact evils + predicted had, in fact, already shown themselves on a great scale; and, + carefully warning the public to criticize this evidence, I produced a + small part of it. When Dr. Greenwood talks about my want of "regard to the + opinion of the nine thousand odd who still remain among the faithful" (p. + 114), he commits an imprudence. He would obviously be surprised to learn + the extent of the support, encouragement, and information which I have + received from active and sincere members of the Salvation Army <span + class="pagenum">319</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink319" id="link319"></a> —but of which I can make no + use, because of the terroristic discipline and systematic espionage which + my correspondents tell me is enforced by its chief. Some of these days, + when nobody can be damaged by their use, a curious light may be thrown + upon the inner workings of the organization which we are bidden to regard + as a happy family, by these documents. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">320</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink320" id="link320"></a> (blank page) <span class="pagenum">321</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink321" id="link321"></a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0027" id="link2H_4_0027"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SALVATION ARMY ARTICLES OF WAR, + </h2> + <h3> + To be signed by all who wish to be entered on the roll as soldiers. + </h3> + <p> + Having received with all my heart the Salvation offered to me by the + tender mercy of Jehovah, I do here and now publicly acknowledge God to be + my Father and King, Jesus Christ to be my Saviour, and the Holy Spirit to + be my Guide, Comforter, and Strength; and that I will, by His help, love, + serve, worship, and obey this glorious God through all time and through + all eternity. + </p> + <p> + Believing solemnly that The Salvation Army has been raised up by God, and + is sustained and directed by Him, I do here declare my full determination, + by God's help, to be a true soldier of the Army till I die. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am thoroughly convinced of the truth of the Army's teaching. + + I believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus +Christ, and conversion by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to Salvation, +and that all men may be saved. + + I believe that we are saved by grace, through faith in our Lord +Jesus Christ, and he that believeth hath the witness of it in himself. +I have got it. Thank God! + + I believe that the Scriptures were given by inspiration of God, and +that they teach that not only does continuance in the favour of God +depend upon continued faith in, and obedience to, Christ, <span class="pagenum">322</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink322" id="link322"></a> but that it is possible for those + who have been truly converted to fall away and be eternally lost. I + believe that it is the privilege of all God's people to be "wholly + sanctified," and that "their whole spirit and soul and body" may "be + preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ." That is to + say, I believe that after conversion there remain in the heart of the + believer inclinations to evil, or roots of bitterness, which, unless + overpowered by Divine grace, produce actual sin; but these evil tendencies + can be entirely taken away by the Spirit of God, and the whole heart thus + cleansed from anything contrary to the will of God, or entirely + sanctified, will then produce the fruit of the Spirit only. And I believe + that persons thus entirely sanctified may, by the power of God, be kept + unblamable and unreprovable before Him. I believe in the immortality of + the soul; in the resurrection of the body; in the general judgment at the + end of the world; in the eternal happiness of the righteous; and in the + everlasting punishment of the wicked. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +THEREFORE, I do here, and now, and for ever, renounce the world with +all its sinful pleasures, companionship treasures, and objects, and +declare my full determination boldly to show myself a Soldier of Jesus +Christ in all places and companies, no matter what I may have to +suffer, do, or lose, by so doing. + + I do here and now declare that I will abstain from the use of all +intoxicating liquors, and also from the habitual use of opium, +laudanum, morphia, and all other baneful drugs, except when in illness +such drugs shall be ordered for me by a doctor. + + I do here and now declare that I will abstain from <span class="pagenum">323</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink323" id="link323"></a> the use of all low or profane + language; from the taking of the name of God in vain; and from all + impurity, or from taking part in any unclean conversation or the reading + of any obscene book or paper at any time, in any company, or in any place. + I do here declare that I will not allow myself in any falsehood, deceit, + misrepresentation, or dishonesty; neither will I practise any fraudulent + conduct, either in my business, my home, or in any other relation in which + I may stand to my fellow men, but that I will deal truthfully, fairly, + honourably, and kindly with all those who may employ me or whom I may + myself employ. I do here declare that I will never treat any woman, child, + or other person, whose life, comfort, or happiness may be placed within my + power, in an oppressive, cruel, or cowardly manner, but that I will + protect such from evil and danger so far as I can, and promote, to the + utmost of my ability, their present welfare and eternal salvation. I do + here declare that I will spend all the time, strength, money, and + influence I can in supporting and carrying on this War, and that I will + endeavour to lead my family, friends, neighbours, and all others whom I + can influence, to do the same, believing that the sure and only way to + remedy all the evils in the world is by bringing men to submit themselves + to the government of the Lord Jesus Christ. I do here declare that I will + always obey the lawful orders of my Officers, and that I will carry out to + the utmost of my power all the Orders and Regulations of The Army; and + further, that I will be an example of faithfulness to its principles, + advance to the utmost of my ability its operations, and never allow, where + I can prevent it, any injury to its interests or hindrance to its success. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">324</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink324" id="link324"></a> And I do here and now call upon + all present to witness that I enter into this undertaking and sign these + Articles of War of my own free will, feeling that the love of Christ who + died to save me requires from me this devotion of my life to His service + for the Salvation of the whole world, and therefore wish now to be + enrolled as a Soldier of the Salvation Army. + </p> + <h3> + ________________________________________ + </h3> + <h3> + _____________CORPS______________ 18___ + </h3> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ____________________________________ + ______________________________ Corps + ___________________________ Division + _____________________ 18____ + + (SINGLE) + + FORM OF APPLICATION + FOR AN APPOINTMENT AS AN + OFFICER IN THE SALVATION ARMY +</pre> + <p> + Name _____________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + Address __________________________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +1. What was your AGE last birthday? ___________________ + What is the date of your birthday? _________________ +</pre> + <p> + 2. What is your height? __________________ + </p> + <p> + 3. Are you free from bodily defect or disease? ____ + </p> + <p> + 4. What serious illnesses have you had, and when? ________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 5. Have you ever had fits of any kind? __________________ If so how long, + and what kind? ___________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 6. Do you consider your health good, and that you are strong enough for + the work of an officer? __________________________________________________ + If not, or if you are doubtful, write a letter and explain the matter. + </p> + <p> + 7. Is your doctor's certificate a full and correct statement so far as you + know? ___________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 8. Are you, or have you ever been, married? ___________ + </p> + <p> + 9. When and where CONVERTED? ____________________________ + </p> + <p> + 10. What other Religious Societies have you belonged to? _________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 11. Were you ever a Junior Soldier? _____________________ If so, how long? + ________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 12. How long have you been enrolled as a SOLDIER? _______ and signed + Articles of War? ____________________ + </p> + <p> + 13. If you hold any office in your Corps, say what and how long held? ____ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 14. Do you intend to live and die in the ranks of the Salvation Army? ____ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +</pre> + <p> + 15. Have you ever been an open BACKSLIDER? ______________ If so, how long? + ________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 16. Why? _________________________________________________________________ + Date of your Restoration? ___________________ + </p> + <p> + 17. Are you in DEBT? __________________ If so, how much? + ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 18. How long owing? ______________________________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 19. Did you ever use Intoxicating Drink? _____________ If so, how long is + it since you entirely gave up its use? ________________ + </p> + <p> + 20. Did you ever use Tobacco or Snuff? _________ If so, how long is it + since you gave up using either? ____________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ———————————— +</pre> + <p> + 21. What UNIFORM do you wear? ____________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 22. How long have you worn it? ___________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 23. Do you agree to dress in accordance with the direction of + Headquarters? _________________ + </p> + <p> + 24. Can you provide your own uniform and "List of Necessaries" before + entering the Service? ____________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ———————————————— +</pre> + <p> + 25. Are you in a Situation? _____________ If so, how long? + ________________________ + </p> + <p> + 26. Nature of duties, and salary _________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 27. Name and address of employer? ________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 28. If out, date of leaving last situation? _________________________ How + long there? _____________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 29. Why did you leave? ___________________________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 30. Name and address of last employer? ___________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 31. Can you start the SINGING? __________ + </p> + <p> + 32. Can you play any musical instrument? _________________ If so, what? + _____________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 33. Is this form filled up by you? ________________________ Can you read + well at first sight? _________________________ + </p> + <p> + 34. Can you write SHORTHAND? _________________________ If so, what speed + and system? ____________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 35. Can you speak any language other than English? _______________________ + If so, what? _____________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 36. Have you had any experience and success in the JUNIOR SOLDIERS' WAR? + <i> </i> + </p> + <p> + 37. If so, what? _________________________________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 38. Are you willing to sell the "WAR CRY" on Sundays? ____________ + </p> + <p> + 39. Do you engage not to publish any books, songs, or music except for the + benefit of the Salvation Army, and then only with the consent of + Headquarters? ________________ + </p> + <p> + 40. Do you promise not to engage in any trade, profession, or other money- + making occupation, except for the benefit of the Salvation Army, and then + only with the consent of Headquarters? _________________________ + </p> + <p> + 41. Would you be willing to go ABROAD if required? _______________________ + </p> + <p> + 42. Do you promise to do your utmost to help forward the Junior Soldiers' + work if accepted? _____________ + </p> + <p> + 43. Do you pledge yourself to spend not less than nine hours every day in + the active service of the Army, of which not less than three hours of each + week day shall be spent in VISITATION? ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 44. Do you pledge yourself to fill up and send to Headquarters forms as to + how your day is spent? ______________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —————————————— +</pre> + <p> + 45. Have you read, and do you believe, the DOCTRINES printed on the other + side? ____________________ + </p> + <p> + 46. Have you read the "Orders and Regulations for Field Officers" of the + Army? ________________________________ + </p> + <p> + If you have not got a copy of "Orders and Regulations," get one from + Candidates' Department at once. The price to Candidates is 2s. 6d. + </p> + <p> + 47. Do you pledge yourself to study and carry out and to endeavour to + train others to carry out all Orders and Regulations of the Army? ________ + </p> + <p> + 48. Have you read the Order on page 3 of this Form as to PRESENTS and + TESTIMONIALS, and do you engage to carry it out? _________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +49. Do you pledge yourself never to receive any sum in the form of pay +beyond the amount of allowances granted under the scale which follows? +___________ + + ALLOWANCES— From the day of arrival at his station, each officer is +entitled to draw the following allowances, provided the amount remains in +hand after meeting all local expenses, namely: +</pre> + <p> + — For Single Men: Lieutenants, 16s. weekly, and Captains, 18s. + </p> + <p> + — for Single Women: Lieutenants, 12s. weekly, and Captains, 15s. + weekly. + </p> + <p> + — Married Men, 27s. per week, and ls. per week for each child under + 14 years of age; in all cases without house-rent. + </p> + <p> + 50. Do you perfectly understand that no salary or allowance is guaranteed + to you, and that you will have no claim against the Salvation Army, or + against any one connected therewith, on account of salary or allowances + not received by you? _____________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——————————————- +</pre> + <p> + 51. Have you ever APPLIED BEFORE? ___ If so, when? ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 52. With what result? ____________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 53. If you have ever been in the service of the Salvation Army in any + position, say what? ______________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 54. Why did you leave? ___________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 55. Are you willing to come into TRAINING that we may see whether you have + the necessary goodness and ability for an Officer in the Salvation Army, + and should we conclude that you have not the necessary qualifications, do + you pledge yourself to return home and work in your Corps without creating + any dissatisfaction? ____________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 56. Will you pay your own travelling expenses if we decide to receive you + in Training? _____________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 57. How much can you pay for your maintenance while in Training? _________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 58. Can you deposit [Pound] 1 so that we can provide you with a suit of + Uniform when you are Commissioned? + ______________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 59. What is the shortest NOTICE you require should we want you? __________ + </p> + <p> + 60. Are your PARENTS willing that you should become an Officer? __________ + </p> + <p> + 61. Does any one depend upon you for support? _________ If so, who? ______ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 62. To what extent? ______________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 63. Give your parents', or nearest living relatives', full address _______ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————————————————- +</pre> + <p> + 64. Are you COURTING? ________ If so, give name and address of the person: + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 65. How long have you been engaged? _____________ What is the person's + age? __________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 66. What is the date of Birthday? _______________________ How long + enrolled as a SOLDIER? _________________________ + </p> + <p> + 67. What Uniform does the person wear? ___________________________________ + How long worn? ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 68. What does the person do in the Corps? ________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 69. Has the person applied for the work? _________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 70. If not, when does the person intend doing so? ________________________ + </p> + <p> + 71. Do the parents agree to the person coming into Training? _____________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————————————————- +</pre> + <p> + 72. Do you understand that you may not be allowed to marry until three + years after your appointment as an Officer, and do you engage to abide by + this? __________________ + </p> + <p> + 73. If you are not courting, do you pledge yourself to abstain from + anything of the kind during Training and for at least twelve months after + your appointment as a Commissioned Field Officer? __________________ + </p> + <p> + 74. Do you pledge yourself not to carry on courtship with any one at the + station to which you are at the time appointed? __________________________ + </p> + <p> + 75. Do you pledge yourself never to commence, or allow to commence, or + break off anything of the sort, without first informing your Divisional + Officer, or Headquarters, of your intention to do so? ____________________ + </p> + <p> + 76. Do you pledge yourself never to marry any one marriage with whom would + take you out of the Army altogether? _____________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 77. Have you read, and do you agree to carry out, the following + Regulations as to Courtship and Marriage? ___________________ + </p> + <p> + (a) "Officers must inform their Divisional Officer or Headquarters of + their desire to enter into or break off any engagement, and no Officer is + permitted to enter into or break off an engagement without the consent of + his or her D.O. + </p> + <p> + (b) "Officers will not be allowed to carry on any courtship in the Town in + which they are appointed; nor until twelve months after the date of their + Commission. + </p> + <p> + (c) "Headquarters cannot consent to the engagement of Male Lieutenants, + until their Divisional Officer is prepared to recommend them for command + of a Station as Captain. + </p> + <p> + (d) "Before Headquarters can consent to the marriage of any Officer, the + Divisional Officer must be prepared to give him three stations as a + married man. + </p> + <p> + (e) "No Officer accepted will be allowed to marry until he or she has been + at least three years in the field, except in cases of long-standing + engagements before application for the work. + </p> + <p> + (f) "No Male Officer will, under any circumstances, be allowed to marry + before he is twenty-two years of age, unless required by Headquarters for + special service. + </p> + <p> + (g) "Headquarters will not agree to the Marriage of any Male Officer + (except under extraordinary circumstances) until twelve months after + consenting to his engagement. + </p> + <p> + (h) "Consent will not be given to the engagement of any male Officer + unless the young woman is likely to make a suitable wife for an Officer, + and (if not already an Officer) is prepared to come into Training at once. + </p> + <p> + (i) "Consent will be given to engagements between Female Officers and + Soldiers, on condition that the latter are suitable for Officers, and are + willing to come into Training if called upon. + </p> + <p> + (j) "Consent will never be given to any engagement or marriage which would + take an Officer out of the Army. + </p> + <p> + (k) "Every Officer must sign before marriage the Articles of Marriage, + contained in the Orders and Regulations for Field Officers." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —————————————— + + PRESENTS AND TESTIMONIALS. +</pre> + <p> + 1. Officers are expected to refuse utterly, and to prevent, if possible, + even the proposal of any present or testimonial to them. + </p> + <p> + 2. Of course, an Officer who is receiving no salary, or only part salary, + may accept food or other gifts, such as are needed to meet his wants; but + it is dishonourable for any one who is receiving their salary to accept + gifts of food also. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + THE DOCTRINES OF THE SALVATION ARMY. +</pre> + <p> + The principal Doctrines taught in the Army are as follows: — + </p> + <p> + 1. We believe that the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament were given + by inspiration of God, and that they only constitute the Divine rule of + Christian faith and practice. + </p> + <p> + 2. We believe there is only one God, who is infinitely perfect, the + Creator, Preserver, and Governor of all things. + </p> + <p> + 3. We believe that there are three persons in the Godhead—the + Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, undivided in essence, coequal in + power and glory, and the only proper object of religious worship. + </p> + <p> + 4. We believe that, in the person of Jesus Christ, the Divine and human + natures are united, so that He is truly and properly God, and truly and + properly man. + </p> + <p> + 5. We believe that our first parents were created in a state of innocency, + but by their disobedience they lost their purity and happiness; and that, + in consequence of their fall, all men have become sinners, totally + depraved, and as such are justly exposed to the wrath of God. + </p> + <p> + 6. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ has, by His suffering and death, + made an atonement for the whole world, so that whosoever will may be + saved. + </p> + <p> + 7. We believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, + and regeneration by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to Salvation. + </p> + <p> + 8. We believe that we are justified by grace, through faith in our Lord + Jesus Christ, and that he that believeth hath the witness in himself. + </p> + <p> + 9. We believe the Scriptures teach that not only does continuance in the + favour of God depend upon continued faith in, and obedience to, Christ, + but that it is possible for those who have been truly converted to fall + away and be eternally lost. + </p> + <p> + 10. We believe that it is the privilege of all believers to be "wholly + sanctified," and that "the whole spirit and soul and body" may "be + preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ." That is to + say, we believe that after conversion there remain in the heart of the + believer inclinations to evil, or roots of bitterness, which, unless + overpowered by Divine grace, produce actual sin; but that these evil + tendencies can be entirely taken away by the Spirit of God, and the whole + heart, thus cleansed from everything contrary to the will of God, or + entirely sanctified, will then produce the fruit of the Spirit only. And + we believe that persons thus entirely sanctified may, by the power of God, + be kept unblamable and unreprovable before Him. + </p> + <p> + 11. We believe in the immortality of the soul; in the resurrection of the + body; in the general judgment at the end of the world; in the eternal + happiness of the righteous; and in the everlasting punishment of the + wicked. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——————————————- + + DECLARATION. +</pre> + <p> + I HEREBY DECLARE that I will never, on any consideration, do anything + calculated to injure The Salvation Army, and especially, that I will + never, without first having obtained the consent of The General, take any + part in any religious services or in carrying on services held in + opposition to the Army. + </p> + <p> + I PLEDGE MYSELF to make true records, daily, on the forms supplied to me, + of what I do, and to confess, as far as I am concerned, and to report, as + far as I may see in others, any neglect or variation from the orders or + directions of The General. + </p> + <p> + I FULLY UNDERSTAND that he does not undertake to employ or to retain in + the service of The Army any one who does not appear to him to be fitted + for the work, or faithful and successful in it, and I solemnly pledge + myself quietly to leave any Army Station to which I may be sent, without + making any attempt to disturb or annoy The Army in any way, should The + General desire me to do so. And I hereby discharge The Army and The + General from all liability, and pledge myself to make no claim on account + of any situation, property, or interest I may give up in order to secure + an engagement in The Army. + </p> + <p> + I understand that The General will not be responsible in any way for any + loss I may suffer in consequence of being dismissed from Training; as I am + aware that the Cadets are received into Training for the very purpose of + testing their suitability for the work of Salvation Army Officers. + </p> + <p> + I hereby declare that the foregoing answers appear to me to fully express + the truth as to the questions put to me, and that I know of no other facts + which would prevent my engagement by The General, if they were known to + him. + </p> + <p> + Candidate to sign here......................................... + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————————————— + + NOTICE TO CANDIDATES. +</pre> + <p> + 1. All Candidates are expected to fill up and sign this form themselves, + if they can write at all. + </p> + <p> + 2. You are expected to have obtained and read "Orders and Regulations for + Field Officers" before you make this application. + </p> + <p> + 3. Making this application does NOT imply that we can receive you as an + officer, and you are, therefore, NOT to leave your home, or give notice to + leave your situation, until you hear again from us. + </p> + <p> + 4. If you are appointed as an Officer, or received into Training and it is + afterwards discovered that any of the questions in this form have not been + truthfully answered, you will be instantly dismissed. + </p> + <p> + 5. If you do not understand any question in this form, or if you do not + agree to any of the requirements stated upon it, return it to + Headquarters, and say so in a straightforward manner. + </p> + <p> + 6. Make the question for this appointment a matter of earnest prayer, as + it is the most important step you have taken since your conversion. + </p> + <p> + We must have your Photo. Please enclose it with your forms, and address + them to "Candidate Department," 101, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + </body> +</html> diff --git a/old/old-2024-02-10/2940-h.zip b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..40e8acc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940-h.zip diff --git a/old/old-2024-02-10/2940-h/2940-h.htm b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940-h/2940-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ea4092 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940-h/2940-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12498 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title></title> + <meta content="pg2html (binary v0.17)" /> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; text-align: justify; font-size: 80%; font-style: italic;} + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + .xx-small {font-size: 60%;} + .x-small {font-size: 75%;} + .small {font-size: 85%;} + .large {font-size: 115%;} + .x-large {font-size: 130%;} + .indent5 { margin-left: 5%;} + .indent10 { margin-left: 10%;} + .indent15 { margin-left: 15%;} + .indent20 { margin-left: 20%;} + .indent25 { margin-left: 25%;} + .indent30 { margin-left: 30%;} + .indent35 { margin-left: 35%;} + .indent40 { margin-left: 40%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: 0.6em; + font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; + text-align: right; background-color: #FFFACD; + border: 1px solid; padding: 0.3em;text-indent: 0em;} + .side { float: left; font-size: 75%; width: 15%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + .head { float: left; font-size: 90%; width: 98%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + p.pfirst, p.noindent {text-indent: 0} + span.dropcap { float: left; margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; line-height: 0.8 } + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +Project Gutenberg Etext of Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays +#30 in our series by Thomas H. Huxley + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the laws for your country before redistributing these files!!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. + +Please do not remove this. + +This should be the first thing seen when anyone opens the book. +Do not change or edit it without written permission. The words +are carefully chosen to provide users with the information they +need about what they can legally do with the texts. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + +Presently, contributions are only being solicited from people in: +Texas, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, +Iowa, Indiana, and Vermont. As the requirements for other states +are met, additions to this list will be made and fund raising will +begin in the additional states. These donations should be made to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655 + + +Title: Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays + +EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. PROLEGOMENA +EVOLUTION AND ETHICS +SCIENCE AND MORALS +CAPITAL--THE MOTHER OF LABOUR +SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES +The Struggle for Existence in Human Society +Letters to the Times +Legal Opinions +The Articles of War of the Salvation Army + + +Author: Thomas H. 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Dave Gowan for Project Gutenberg + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + EVOLUTION AND ETHICS<br /> AND OTHER ESSAYS + </h1> + <h2> + By Thomas H. Huxley + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> I. <b>EVOLUTION AND ETHICS</b>. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0016"> XIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0017"> XIV. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> II. <b>EVOLUTION AND ETHICS</b>. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_NOTE"> NOTES. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0020"> III. <b>SCIENCE AND MORALS</b> (1886) </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0021"> I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0022"> II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0023"> III </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0024"> V. <b>SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES</b> + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF2"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0026"> INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0027"> <b>THE SALVATION ARMY ARTICLES OF WAR</b> </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + THE discourse on "Evolution and Ethics," reprinted in the first half of + the present volume, was delivered before the University of Oxford, as the + second of the annual lectures founded by Mr. Romanes: whose name I may not + write without deploring the untimely death, in the flower of his age, of a + friend endeared to me, as to so many others, by his kindly nature; and + justly valued by all his colleagues for his powers of investigation and + his zeal for the advancement of knowledge. I well remember, when Mr. + Romanes' early work came into my hands, as one of the secretaries of the + Royal Society, how much I rejoiced in the accession to the ranks of the + little army of workers in science of a recruit so well qualified to take a + high place among us. + </p> + <p> + It was at my friend's urgent request that I agreed to undertake the + lecture, should I be honoured with an official proposal to give it, though + I confess not without misgivings, if only on account of the serious + fatigue and hoarseness which public speaking has for some years caused me; + while I knew that it would be my fate to follow the most accomplished and + facile orator of our time, whose indomitable youth is in no matter more + manifest than in his penetrating and musical voice. A certain saying about + comparisons intruded itself somewhat importunately. + </p> + <p> + And even if I disregarded the weakness of my body in the matter of voice, + and that of my mind in the matter of vanity, there remained a third + difficulty. For several reasons, my attention, during a number of years, + has been much directed to the bearing of modern scientific thought on the + problems of morals and of politics, and I did not care to be diverted from + that topic. Moreover, I thought it the most important and the worthiest + which, at the present time, could engage the attention even of an ancient + and renowned University. + </p> + <p> + But it is a condition of the Romanes foundation that the lecturer shall + abstain from treating of either Religion or Politics; and it appeared to + me that, more than most, perhaps, I was bound to act, not merely up to the + letter, but in the spirit, of that prohibition. Yet Ethical Science is, on + all sides, so entangled with Religion and Politics that the lecturer who + essays to touch the former without coming into contact with either of the + latter, needs all the dexterity of an egg-dancer; and may even discover + that his sense of clearness and his sense of propriety come into conflict, + by no means to the advantage of the former. + </p> + <p> + I had little notion of the real magnitude of these difficulties when I + set about my task; but I am consoled for my pains and anxiety by observing + that none of the multitudinous criticisms with which I have been favoured + and, often, instructed, find fault with me on the score of having strayed + out of bounds. + </p> + <p> + Among my critics there are not a few to whom I feel deeply indebted for + the careful attention which they have given to the exposition thus + hampered; and further weakened, I am afraid, by my forgetfulness of a + maxim touching lectures of a popular character, which has descended to me + from that prince of lecturers, Mr. Faraday. He was once asked by a + beginner, called upon to address a highly select and cultivated audience, + what he might suppose his hearers to know already. Whereupon the past + master of the art of exposition emphatically replied "Nothing!" + </p> + <p> + To my shame as a retired veteran, who has all his life profited by this + great precept of lecturing strategy, I forgot all about it just when it + would have been most useful. I was fatuous enough to imagine that a number + of propositions, which I thought established, and which, in fact, I had + advanced without challenge on former occasions, needed no repetition. + </p> + <p> + I have endeavoured to repair my error by prefacing the lecture with some + matter—chiefly elementary or recapitulatory—to which I have + given the title of "Prolegomena" I wish I could have hit upon a heading of + less pedantic aspect which would have served my purpose; and if it be + urged that the new building looks over large for the edifice to which it + is added, I can only plead the precedent of the ancient architects, who + always made the adytum the smallest part of the temple. + </p> + <p> + If I had attempted to reply in full to the criticisms to which I have + referred, I know not what extent of ground would have been covered by my + pronaos. All I have endeavoured to do, at present, is to remove that which + seems to have proved a stumbling-block to many—namely, the apparent + paradox that ethical nature, while born of cosmic nature, is necessarily + at enmity with its parent. Unless the arguments set forth in the + Prolegomena, in the simplest language at my command, have some flaw which + I am unable to discern, this seeming paradox is a truth, as great as it is + plain, the recognition of which is fundamental for the ethical + philosopher. + </p> + <p> + We cannot do without our inheritance from the forefathers who were the + puppets of the cosmic process; the society which renounces it must be + destroyed from without. Still less can we de with too much of it; the + society in which it dominates must be destroyed from within. + </p> + <p> + The motive of the drama of human life is the necessity, laid upon every + man who comes into the world, of discovering the mean between + self-assertion and self-restraint suited to his character and his + circumstances. And the eternally tragic aspect of the drama lies in this: + that the problem set before us is one the elements of which can be but + imperfectly known, and of which even an approximately right solution + rarely presents itself, until that stern critic, aged experience, has been + furnished with ample justification for venting his sarcastic humour upon + the irreparable blunders we have already made. + </p> + <p> + I have reprinted the letters on the "Darkest England" scheme, published in + the "Times" of December, 1890, and January, 1891; and subsequently issued, + with additions, as a pamphlet, under the title of "Social Diseases and + Worse Remedies," because, although the clever attempt to rush the country + on behalf of that scheme has been balked, Booth's standing army remains + afoot, retaining all the capacities for mischief which are inherent in its + constitution. I am desirous that this fact should be kept steadily in + view; and that the moderation of the clamour of the drums and trumpets + should not lead us to forget the existence of a force, which, in bad + hands, may, at any time, be used for bad purposes. + </p> + <p> + In 1892, a Committee was "formed for the purpose of investigating the + manner in which the moneys, subscribed in response to the appeal made in + the book entitled 'In Darkest England and the Way out,' have been + expended." The members of this body were gentlemen in whose competency and + equity every one must have complete confidence; and in December, 1892, + they published a report in which they declare that, "with the exception of + the sums expended on the 'barracks' at Hadleigh," the moneys in question + have been "devoted only to the objects and expended in the methods set out + in that appeal, and to and in no others." + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, their final conclusion runs as follows: "(4) That whilst the + invested property, real and personal, resulting from such Appeal is so + vested and controlled by the Trust of the Deed of January 30th, 1891, that + any application of it to purposes other than those declared in the deed by + any 'General' of the Salvation Army would amount to a breach of trust, and + would subject him to the proceedings of a civil and criminal character, + before mentioned in the Report, ADEQUATE LEGAL SAFEGUARDS DO NOT AT + PRESENT EXIST TO PREVENT THE MISAPPLICATION OF SUCH PROPERTY." + </p> + <p> + The passage I have italicised forms part of a document dated December + 19th, 1892. It follows, that, even after the Deed of January 30th, 1891, + was executed, "adequate legal safeguards" "to prevent the misapplication + of the property" did not exist. What then was the state of things, up to a + week earlier, that is on January 22nd, 1891, when my twelfth and last + letter appeared in the "Times"? A better justification for what I have + said about the want of adequate security for the proper administration of + the funds intrusted to Mr. Booth could not be desired, unless it be that + which is to be found in the following passages of the Report (pp. 36 and + 37):— + </p> + <p> + "It is possible that a 'General' may be forgetful of his duty, and sell + property and appropriate the proceeds to his own use, or to meeting the + general liabilities of the Salvation Army. As matters now stand, he, and + he alone, would have control over such a sale. Against such possibilities + it appears to the Committee to be reasonable that some check should be + imposed." + </p> + <p> + Once more let it be remembered that this opinion given under the hand of + Sir Henry James, was expressed by the Committee, with the Trust Deed of + 1891, which has been so sedulously flaunted before the public, in full + view. + </p> + <p> + The Committee made a suggestion for the improvement of this very + unsatisfactory state of things; but the exact value set upon it by the + suggestors should be carefully considered (p.37). + </p> + <p> + "The Committee are fully aware that if the views thus expressed are + carried out, the safeguards and checks created will not be sufficient for + all purposes absolutely to prevent possible dealing with the property and + moneys inconsistent with the purposes to which they are intended to be + devoted." + </p> + <p> + In fact, they are content to express the very modest hope that "if the + suggestion made be acted upon, some hindrance will thereby be placed in + the way of any one acting dishonestly in respect of the disposal of the + property and moneys referred to." + </p> + <p> + I do not know, and, under the circumstances, I cannot say I much care, + whether the suggestions of the Committee have, or have not, been acted + upon. Whether or not, the fact remains that an unscrupulous "General" will + have a pretty free hand, notwithstanding "some" hindrance. + </p> + <p> + Thus, the judgment of the highly authoritative, and certainly not hostile, + Committee of 1892, upon the issues with which they concerned themselves is + hardly such as to inspire enthusiastic confidence. And it is further to be + borne in mind that they carefully excluded from their duties "any + examination of the principles, government, teaching, or methods of the + Salvation Army as a religious organization, or of its affairs" except so + far as they related to the administration of the moneys collected by the + "Darkest England" appeal. + </p> + <p> + Consequently, the most important questions discussed in my letters were + not in any way touched by the Committee. Even if their report had been far + more favourable to the "Darkest England" scheme than it is; if it had + really assured the contributors that the funds raised were fully secured + against malversation; the objections, on social and political grounds, to + Mr. Booth's despotic organization, with its thousands of docile satellites + pledged to blind obedience, set forth in the letters, would be in no + degree weakened. The "sixpennyworth of good" would still be out-weighed by + the "shillingsworth of harm"; if indeed the relative worth, or unworth, of + the latter should not be rated in pounds rather than in shillings. + </p> + <p> + What would one not give for the opinion of the financial members of the + Committee about the famous Bank; and that of the legal experts about the + proposed "tribunes of the people"? + </p> + <h3> + HODESLEA, EASTBOURNE, + </h3> + <p> + July, 1894. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I. EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. + </h2> + <h3> + PROLEGOMENA. + </h3> + <h4> + (1894) + </h4> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I. + </h2> + <p> + IT may be safely assumed that, two thousand years ago, before Caesar set + foot in southern Britain, the whole country-side visible from the windows + of the room in which I write, was in what is called "the state of nature." + Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as those which + still, here and there, break the flowing contours of the downs, man's + hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin veil of vegetation which + overspread the broad-backed heights and the shelving sides of the coombs + was unaffected by his industry. The native grasses and weeds, the + scattered patches of gorse, contended with one another for the possession + of the scanty surface soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, + the frosts of winter, and the furious gales which swept, with unbroken + force, now from the <span class="pagenum">2</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink2" id="link2"></a> Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, + at all times of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps + made in their ranks by all sorts of underground and overground animal + ravagers. One year with another, an average population, the floating + balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the indigenous + plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be doubted, that an + essentially similar state of nature prevailed, in this region, for many + thousand years before the coming of Caesar; and there is no assignable + reason for denying that it might continue to exist through an equally + prolonged futurity, except for the intervention of man. + </p> + <p> + Reckoned by our customary standards of duration, the native vegetation, + like the "everlasting hills" which it clothes, seems a type of permanence. + The little Amarella Gentians, which abound in some places to-day, are the + descendants of those that were trodden underfoot, by the prehistoric + savages who have left their flint tools, about, here and there; and they + followed ancestors which, in the climate of the glacial epoch, probably + flourished better than they do now. Compared with the long past of this + humble plant, all the history of civilized men is but an episode. + </p> + <p> + Yet nothing is more certain than that, measured by the liberal scale of + time-keeping of the universe, this present state of nature, however it may + seem to have gone and to go on for ever, is <span class="pagenum">3</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink3" id="link3"></a> but a fleeting phase of her infinite + variety; merely the last of the series of changes which the earth's + surface has undergone in the course of the millions of years of its + existence. Turn back a square foot of the thin turf, and the solid + foundation of the land, exposed in cliffs of chalk five hundred feet high + on the adjacent shore, yields full assurance of a time when the sea + covered the site of the "everlasting hills"; and when the vegetation of + what land lay nearest, was as different from the present Flora of the + Sussex downs, as that of Central Africa now is.* No less certain is it + that, between the time during which the chalk was formed and that at which + the original turf came into existence, thousands of centuries elapsed, in + the course of which, the state of nature of the ages during which the + chalk was deposited, passed into that which now is, by changes so slow + that, in the coming and going of the generations of men, had such + witnessed them, the contemporary conditions would have seemed to be + unchanging and unchangeable. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "On a piece of Chalk" in the preceding volume of these + Essays (vol. viii. p. 1). +</pre> + <p> + But it is also certain that, before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly + longer period had elapsed; throughout which it is easy to follow the + traces of the same process of ceaseless modification and of the + internecine struggle for existence of living things; and that even when we + can get no further <span class="pagenum">4</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink4" id="link4"></a> back, it is not because there is any + reason to think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail of + the most ancient life remains hidden, or has become obliterated. + </p> + <p> + Thus that state of nature of the world of plants which we began by + considering, is far from possessing the attribute of permanence. Rather + its very essence is impermanence. It may have lasted twenty or thirty + thousand years, it may last for twenty or thirty thousand years more, + without obvious change; but, as surely as it has followed upon a very + different state, so it will be followed by an equally different condition. + That which endures is not one or another association of living forms, but + the process of which the cosmos is the product, and of which these are + among the transitory expressions. And in the living world, one of the most + characteristic features of this cosmic process is the struggle for + existence, the competition of each with all, the result of which is the + selection, that is to say, the survival of those forms which, on the + whole, are best adapted, to the conditions which at any period obtain; and + which are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the + fittest.* The acme reached by the cosmic <span class="pagenum">5</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink5" id="link5"></a> process in the vegetation of the downs + is seen in the turf, with its weeds and gorse. Under the conditions, they + have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by surviving, have proved + that they are the fittest to survive. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * That every theory of evolution must be consistent not merely + with progressive development, but with indefinite persistence + in the same condition and with retrogressive modification, is a + point which I have insisted upon repeatedly from the year 1862 + till now. See Collected Essays, vol. ii. pp. 461-89; vol. iii. + p. 33; vol. viii. p. 304. In the address on "Geological + Contemporaneity and Persistent Types" (1862), the + paleontological proofs of this proposition were, I believe, + first set forth. +</pre> + <p> + That the state of nature, at any time, is a temporary phase of a process + of incessant change, which has been going on for innumerable ages, appears + to me to be a proposition as well established as any in modern history. + </p> + <p> + Paleontology assures us, in addition, that the ancient philosophers who, + with less reason, held the same doctrine, erred in supposing that the + phases formed a cycle, exactly repeating the past, exactly foreshadowing + the future, in their rotations. On the contrary, it furnishes us with + conclusive reasons for thinking that, if every link in the ancestry of + these humble indigenous plants had been preserved and were accessible to + us, the whole would present a converging series of forms of gradually + diminishing complexity, until, at some period in the history of the earth, + far more remote than any of which organic remains have yet been + discovered, they would merge in those low groups among which the + Boundaries between animal and vegetable life become effaced.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "On the Border Territory between the Animal and the Vegetable + Kingdoms," Essays, vol. viii. p. 162 +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">6</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink6" id="link6"></a> The word "evolution," now generally + applied to the cosmic process, has had a singular history, and is used in + various senses.* Taken in its popular signification it means progressive + development, that is, gradual change from a condition of relative + uniformity to one of relative complexity; but its connotation has been + widened to include the phenomena of retrogressive metamorphosis, that is, + of progress from a condition of relative complexity to one of relative + uniformity. + </p> + <p> + As a natural process, of the same character as the development of a tree + from its seed, or of a fowl from its egg, evolution excludes creation and + all other kinds of supernatural intervention. As the expression of a fixed + order, every stage of which is the effect of causes operating according to + definite rules, the conception of evolution no less excludes that of + chance. It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not an + explanation of the cosmic process, but merely a generalized statement of + the method and results of that process. And, further, that, if there is + proof that the cosmic process was set going by any agent, then that agent + will be, the creator of it and of all its products, although supernatural + intervention may remain strictly excluded from its further course. + </p> + <p> + So far as that limited revelation of the nature of things, which we call + scientific knowledge, has <span class="pagenum">7</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink7" id="link7"></a> yet gone, it tends, with constantly + increasing emphasis, to the belief that, not merely the world of plants, + but that of animals; not merely living things, but the whole fabric of the + earth; not merely our planet, but the whole solar system; not merely our + star and its satellites, but the millions of similar bodies which bear + witness to the order which pervades boundless space, and has endured + through boundless time; are all working out their predestined courses of + evolution. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "Evolution in Biology," Essays, vol. ii. p. 187 +</pre> + <p> + With none of these have I anything to do, at present, except with that + exhibited by the forms of life which tenant the earth. All plants and + animals exhibit the tendency to vary, the causes of which have yet to be + ascertained; it is the tendency of the conditions of life, at any given + time, while favouring the existence of the variations best adapted to + them, to oppose that of the rest and thus to exercise selection; and all + living things tend to multiply without limit, while the means of support + are limited; the obvious cause of which is the production of offspring + more numerous than their progenitors, but with equal expectation of life + in the actuarial sense. Without the first tendency there could be no + evolution. Without the second, there would be no good reason why one + variation should disappear and another take its place; that is to say + there would be no selection. Without the <span class="pagenum">8</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink8" id="link8"></a> third, the struggle for existence, the + agent of the selective process in the state of nature, would vanish.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. ii. passim. +</pre> + <p> + Granting the existence of these tendencies, all the known facts of the + history of plants and of animals may be brought into rational correlation. + And this is more than can be said for any other hypothesis that I know of. + Such hypotheses, for example, as that of the existence of a primitive, + orderless chaos; of a passive and sluggish eternal matter moulded, with + but partial success, by archetypal ideas; of a brand-new world-stuff + suddenly created and swiftly shaped by a supernatural power; receive no + encouragement, but the contrary, from our present knowledge. That our + earth may once have formed part of a nebulous cosmic magma is certainly + possible, indeed seems highly probable; but there is no reason to doubt + that order reigned there, as completely as amidst what we regard as the + most finished works of nature or of man.** The faith which is born of + knowledge, finds its object in an eternal order, bringing forth ceaseless + change, through endless time, in endless space; the manifestations of the + cosmic energy alternating between phases of potentiality and phases of + explication. It may be that, as Kant suggests,*** every cosmic <span + class="pagenum">9</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink9" id="link9"></a> magma predestined to evolve into a new + world, has been the no less predestined end of a vanished predecessor. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + **Ibid., vol. iv. p. 138; vol. v. pp. 71-73. + ***Ibid., vol. viii. p. 321. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. + </h2> + <p> + Three or four years have elapsed since the state of nature, to which I + have referred, was brought to an end, so far as a small patch of the soil + is concerned, by the intervention of man. The patch was cut off from the + rest by a wall; within the area thus protected, the native vegetation was, + as far as possible, extirpated; while a colony of strange plants was + imported and set down in its place. In short, it was made into a garden. + At the present time, this artificially treated area presents an aspect + extraordinarily different from that of so much of the land as remains in + the state of nature, outside the wall. Trees, shrubs, and herbs, many of + them appertaining to the state of nature of remote parts of the globe, + abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable quantities of vegetables, + fruits, and flowers are produced, of kinds which neither now exist, nor + have ever existed, except under conditions such as obtain in the garden; + and which, therefore, are as much works of the art of man as the frames + and glasshouses in which some of them are raised. That the "state of Art," + thus created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and dependent + on him, would at once become <span class="pagenum">10</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink10" id="link10"></a> apparent, if the watchful + supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic + influences of the general cosmic process were no longer sedulously warded + off, or counteracted. The walls and gates would decay; quadrupedal and + bipedal intruders would devour and tread down the useful and beautiful + plants; birds, insects, blight, and mildew would work their will; the + seeds of the native plants, carried by winds or other agencies, would + immigrate, and in virtue of their long-earned special adaptation to the + local conditions, these despised native weeds would soon choke their + choice exotic rivals. A century or two hence, little beyond the + foundations of the wall and of the houses and frames would be left, in + evidence of the victory of the cosmic powers at work in the state of + nature, over the temporary obstacles to their supremacy, set up by the art + of the horticulturist. + </p> + <p> + It will be admitted that the garden is as much a work of art,* or + artifice, as anything that can be mentioned. The energy localised in + certain human bodies, directed by similarly localised intellects, has + produced a collocation of other material bodies which could not be brought + about in the state of nature. The same proposition is true of all the + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The sense of the term "Art" is becoming narrowed; "work of + Art" to most people means a picture, a statue, or a piece of + bijouterie; by way of compensation "artist" has included in its + wide embrace cooks and ballet girls, no less than painters and + sculptors. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">11</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink11" id="link11"></a> works of man's hands, from a flint + implement to a cathedral or a chronometer; and it is because it is true, + that we call these things artificial, term them works of art, or artifice, + by way of distinguishing them from the products of the cosmic process, + working outside man, which we call natural, or works of nature. The + distinction thus drawn between the works of nature and those of man, is + universally recognized; and it is, as I conceive, both useful and + justifiable. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. + </h2> + <p> + No doubt, it may be properly urged that the operation of human energy and + intelligence, which has brought into existence and maintains the garden, + by what I have called "the horticultural process," is, strictly speaking, + part and parcel of the cosmic process. And no one could more readily agree + to that proposition than I. In fact, I do not know that any one has taken + more pains than I have, during the last thirty years, to insist upon the + doctrine, so much reviled in the early part of that period, that man, + physical, intellectual, and moral, is as much a part of nature, as purely + a product of the cosmic process, as the humblest weed.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "Man's Place in Nature," Collected Essays, vol. vii., and + "On the Struggle for Existence in Human Society" (1888), below. +</pre> + <p> + But if, following up this admission, it is urged <span class="pagenum">12</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink12" id="link12"></a> that, such being the case, the + cosmic process cannot be in antagonism with that horticultural process + which is part of itself—I can only reply, that if the conclusion + that the two are antagonistic is logically absurd, I am sorry for logic, + because, as we have seen, the fact is so. The garden is in the same + position as every other work of man's art; it is a result of the cosmic + process working through and by human energy and intelligence; and, as is + the case with every other artificial thing set up in the state of nature, + the influences of the latter, are constantly tending to break it down and + destroy it. No doubt, the Forth bridge and an ironclad in the offing, are, + in ultimate resort, products of the cosmic process; as much so as the + river which flows under the one, or the seawater on which the other + floats. Nevertheless, every breeze strains the bridge a little, every tide + does something to weaken its foundations; every change of temperature + alters the adjustment of its parts, produces friction and consequent wear + and tear. From time to time, the bridge must be repaired, just as the + ironclad must go into dock; simply because nature is always tending to + reclaim that which her child, man, has borrowed from her and has arranged + in combinations which are not those favoured by the general cosmic + process. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it is not only true that the cosmic energy, working through man upon + a portion of <span class="pagenum">13</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink13" id="link13"></a> the plant world, opposes the same + energy as it works through the state of nature, but a similar antagonism + is everywhere manifest between the artificial and the natural. Even in the + state of nature itself, what is the struggle for existence but the + antagonism of the results of the cosmic process in the region of life, one + to another?* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Or to put the case still more simply. When a man lays hold of + the two ends of a piece of string and pulls them, with intent + to break it, the right arm is certainly exerted in antagonism + to the left arm; yet both arms derive their energy from the + same original source. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV. + </h2> + <p> + Not only is the state of nature hostile to the state of art of the garden; + but the principle of the horticultural process, by which the latter is + created and maintained, is antithetic to that of the cosmic process. The + characteristic feature of the latter is the intense and unceasing + competition of the struggle for existence. The characteristic of the + former is the elimination of that struggle, by the removal of the + conditions which give rise to it. The tendency of the cosmic process is to + bring about the adjustment of the forms of plant life to the current + conditions; the tendency of the horticultural process is the adjustment of + the conditions to the needs of the forms of plant life which the gardener + desires to raise. + </p> + <p> + The cosmic process uses unrestricted multiplication <span class="pagenum">14</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink14" id="link14"></a> as the means whereby hundreds + compete for the place and nourishment adequate for one; it employs frost + and drought to cut off the weak and unfortunate; to survive, there is need + not only of strength, but of flexibility and of good fortune. + </p> + <p> + The gardener, on the other hand, restricts multiplication; provides that + each plant shall have sufficient space and nourishment; protects from + frost and drought; and, in every other way, attempts to modify the + conditions, in such a manner as to bring about the survival of those forms + which most nearly approach the standard of the useful or the beautiful, + which he has in his mind. + </p> + <p> + If the fruits and the tubers, the foliage and the flowers thus obtained, + reach, or sufficiently approach, that ideal, there is no reason why the + status quo attained should not be indefinitely prolonged. So long as the + state of nature remains approximately the same, so long will the energy + and intelligence which created the garden suffice to maintain it. However, + the limits within which this mastery of man over nature can be maintained + are narrow. If the conditions of the cretaceous epoch returned, I fear the + most skilful of gardeners would have to give up the cultivation of apples + and gooseberries; while, if those of the glacial period once again + obtained, open asparagus beds would be superfluous, and the training of + fruit <span class="pagenum">15</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink15" id="link15"></a> trees against the most favourable of + South walls, a waste of time and trouble. + </p> + <p> + But it is extremely important to note that, the state of nature remaining + the same, if the produce does not satisfy the gardener, it may be made to + approach his ideal more closely. Although the struggle for existence may + be at end, the possibility of progress remains. In discussions on these + topics, it is often strangely forgotten that the essential conditions of + the modification, or evolution, of living things are variation and + hereditary transmission. Selection is the means by which certain + variations are favoured and their progeny preserved. But the struggle for + existence is only one of the means by which selection may be effected. The + endless varieties of cultivated flowers, fruits, roots, tubers, and bulbs + are not products of selection by means of the struggle for existence, but + of direct selection, in view of an ideal of utility or beauty. Amidst a + multitude of plants, occupying the same station and subjected to the same + conditions, in the garden, varieties arise. The varieties tending in a + given direction are preserved, and the rest are destroyed. And the same + process takes place among the varieties until, for example, the wild kale + becomes a cabbage, or the wild Viola tricolor, a prize pansy. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">16</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink16" id="link16"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. + </h2> + <p> + The process of colonisation presents analogies to the formation of a + garden which are highly instructive. Suppose a shipload of English + colonists sent to form a settlement, in such a country as Tasmania was in + the middle of the last century. On landing, they find themselves in the + midst of a state of nature, widely different from that left behind them in + everything but the most general physical conditions. The common plants, + the common birds and quadrupeds, are as totally distinct as the men from + anything to be seen on the side of the globe from which they come. The + colonists proceed to put an end to this state of things over as large an + area as they desire to occupy. They clear away the native vegetation, + extirpate or drive out the animal population, so far as may be necessary, + and take measures to defend themselves from the re-immigration of either. + In their place, they introduce English grain and fruit trees; English + dogs, sheep, cattle, horses; and English men; in fact, they set up a new + Flora and Fauna and a new variety of mankind, within the old state of + nature. Their farms and pastures represent a garden on a great scale, and + themselves the gardeners who have to keep it up, in watchful antagonism to + the old regime. Considered as a whole, the colony is a composite unit + introduced into the old state of nature; and, <span class="pagenum">17</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink17" id="link17"></a> thenceforward, a competitor in the + struggle for existence, to conquer or be vanquished. + </p> + <p> + Under the conditions supposed, there is no doubt of the result, if the + work of the colonists be carried out energetically and with intelligent + combination of all their forces. On the other hand, if they are slothful, + stupid, and careless; or if they waste their energies in contests with one + another, the chances are that the old state of nature will have the best + of it. The native savage will destroy the immigrant civilized man; of the + English animals and plants some will be extirpated by their indigenous + rivals, others will pass into the feral state and themselves become + components of the state of nature. In a few decades, all other traces of + the settlement will have vanished. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VI. + </h2> + <p> + Let us now imagine that some administrative authority, as far superior in + power and intelligence to men, as men are to their cattle, is set over the + colony, charged to deal with its human elements in such a manner as to + assure the victory of the settlement over the antagonistic influences of + the state of nature in which it is set down. He would proceed in the same + fashion as that in which the gardener dealt with his garden. In the first + place, he would, as far as possible, put a <span class="pagenum">18</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink18" id="link18"></a> stop to the influence of external + competition by thoroughly extirpating and excluding the native rivals, + whether men, beasts, or plants. And our administrator would select his + human agents, with a view to his ideal of a successful colony, just as the + gardener selects his plants with a view to his ideal of useful or + beautiful products. + </p> + <p> + In the second place, in order that no struggle for the means of existence + between these human agents should weaken the efficiency of the corporate + whole in the battle with the state of nature, he would make arrangements + by which each would be provided with those means; and would be relieved + from the fear of being deprived of them by his stronger or more cunning + fellows. Laws, sanctioned by the combined force of the colony, would + restrain the self-assertion of each man within the limits required for the + maintenance of peace. In other words, the cosmic struggle for existence, + as between man and man, would be rigorously suppressed; and selection, by + its means, would be as completely excluded as it is from the garden. + </p> + <p> + At the same time, the obstacles to the full development of the capacities + of the colonists by other conditions of the state of nature than those + already mentioned, would be removed by the creation of artificial + conditions of existence of a more favourable character: Protection against + extremes of heat and cold would <span class="pagenum">19</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink19" id="link19"></a> be afforded by houses and clothing; + drainage and irrigation works would antagonise the effects of excessive + rain and excessive drought; roads, bridges, canals, carriages, and ships + would overcome the natural obstacles to locomotion and transport; + mechanical engines would supplement the natural strength of men and of + their draught animals; hygienic precautions would check, or remove, the + natural causes of disease. With every step of this progress in + civilization, the colonists would become more and more independent of the + state of nature; more and more, their lives would be conditioned by a + state of art. In order to attain his ends, the administrator would have to + avail himself of the courage, industry, and co-operative intelligence of + the settlers; and it is plain that the interest of the community would be + best served by increasing the proportion of persons who possess such + qualities, and diminishing that of persons devoid of them. In other words, + by selection directed towards an ideal. + </p> + <p> + Thus the administrator might look to the establishment of an earthly + paradise, a true garden of Eden, in which all things should work together + towards the well-being of the gardeners: within which the cosmic process, + the coarse struggle for existence of the state of nature, should be + abolished; in which that state should be replaced by a state of art; <span + class="pagenum">20</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink20" id="link20"></a> where every plant and every lower + animal should be adapted to human wants, and would perish if human + supervision and protection were withdrawn; where men themselves should + have been selected, with a view to their efficiency as organs for the + performance of the functions of a perfected society. And this ideal polity + would have been brought about, not by gradually adjusting the men to the + conditions around them, but by creating artificial conditions for them; + not by allowing the free play of the struggle for existence, but by + excluding that struggle; and by substituting selection directed towards + the administrator's ideal for the selection it exercises. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VII. + </h2> + <p> + But the Eden would have its serpent, and a very subtle beast too. Man + shares with the rest of the living world the mighty instinct of + reproduction and its consequence, the tendency to multiply with great + rapidity. The better the measures of the administrator achieved their + object, the more completely the destructive agencies of the state of + nature were defeated, the less would that multiplication be checked. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, within the colony, the enforcement of peace, which + deprives every man of the power to take away the means of existence from + another, simply because he is the stronger, <span class="pagenum">21</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink21" id="link21"></a> would have put an end to the + struggle for existence between the colonists, and the competition for the + commodities of existence, which would alone remain, is no check upon + population. + </p> + <p> + Thus, as soon as the colonists began to multiply, the administrator would + have to face the tendency to the reintroduction of the cosmic struggle + into his artificial fabric, in consequence of the competition, not merely + for the commodities, but for the means of existence. When the colony + reached the limit of possible expansion, the surplus population must be + disposed of somehow; or the fierce struggle for existence must recommence + and destroy that peace, which is the fundamental condition of the + maintenance of the state of art against the state of nature. + </p> + <p> + Supposing the administrator to be guided by purely scientific + considerations, he would, like the gardener, meet this most serious + difficulty by systematic extirpation, or exclusion, of the superfluous. + The hopelessly diseased, the infirm aged, the weak or deformed in body or + in mind, the excess of infants born, would be put away, as the gardener + pulls up defective and superfluous plants, or the breeder destroys + undesirable cattle. Only the strong and the healthy, carefully matched, + with a view to the progeny best adapted to the purposes of the + administrator, would be permitted to perpetuate their kind. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">22</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink22" id="link22"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VIII. + </h2> + <p> + Of the more thoroughgoing of the multitudinous attempts to apply the + principles of cosmic evolution, or what are supposed to be such, to social + and political problems, which have appeared of late years, a considerable + proportion appear to me to be based upon the notion that human society is + competent to furnish, from its own resources, an administrator of the kind + I have imagined. The pigeons, in short, are to be their own Sir John + Sebright.* A despotic government, whether individual or collective, is to + be endowed with the preternatural intelligence, and with what, I am + afraid, many will consider the preternatural ruthlessness, required for + the purpose of carrying out the principle of improvement by selection, + with the somewhat drastic thoroughness upon which the success of the + method depends. Experience certainly does not justify us in limiting the + ruthlessness of individual "saviours of society"; and, on the well-known + grounds of the aphorism which denies both body and soul to corporations, + it seems probable (indeed the belief is not without support in history) + that a collective despotism, a mob got to believe in its own divine right + by demagogic missionaries, would be capable of more thorough <span + class="pagenum">23</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink23" id="link23"></a> work in this direction than any + single tyrant, puffed up with the same illusion, has ever achieved. But + intelligence is another affair. The fact that "saviours of society" take + to that trade is evidence enough that they have none to spare. And such as + they possess is generally sold to the capitalists of physical force on + whose resources they depend. However, I doubt whether even the keenest + judge of character, if he had before him a hundred boys and girls under + fourteen, could pick out, with the least chance of success, those who + should be kept, as certain to be serviceable members of the polity, and + those who should be chloroformed, as equally sure to be stupid, idle, or + vicious. The "points" of a good or of a bad citizen are really far harder + to discern than those of a puppy or a short-horn calf; many do not show + themselves before the practical difficulties of life stimulate manhood to + full exertion. And by that time the mischief is done. The evil stock, if + it be one, has had time to multiply, and selection is nullified. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Not that the conception of such a society is necessarily based + upon the idea of evolution. The Platonic state testifies to the + contrary. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IX. + </h2> + <p> + I have other reasons for fearing that this logical ideal of evolutionary + regimentation—this pigeon-fanciers' polity—is unattainable. In + the absence of any such a severely scientific administrator as we have + been dreaming of, human society <span class="pagenum">24</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink24" id="link24"></a> is kept together by bonds of such a + singular character, that the attempt to perfect society after his fashion + would run serious risk of loosening them. Social organization is not + peculiar to men. Other societies, such as those constituted by bees and + ants, have also arisen out of the advantage of co-operation in the + struggle for existence; and their resemblances to, and their differences + from, human society are alike instructive. The society formed by the hive + bee fulfils the ideal of the communistic aphorism "to each according to + his needs, from each according to his capacity." Within it, the struggle + for existence is strictly limited. Queen, drones, and workers have each + their allotted sufficiency of food; each performs the function assigned to + it in the economy of the hive, and all contribute to the success of the + whole cooperative society in its competition with rival collectors of + nectar and pollen and with other enemies, in the state of nature without. + In the same sense as the garden, or the colony, is a work of human art, + the bee polity is a work of apiarian art, brought about by the cosmic + process, working through the organization of the hymenopterous type. + </p> + <p> + Now this society is the direct product of an organic necessity, impelling + every member of it to a course of action which tends to the good of the + whole. Each bee has its duty and none <span class="pagenum">25</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink25" id="link25"></a> has any rights. Whether bees are + susceptible of feeling and capable of thought is a question which cannot + be dogmatically answered. As a pious opinion, I am disposed to deny them + more than the merest rudiments of consciousness.* But it is curious to + reflect that a thoughtful drone (workers and queens would have no leisure + for speculation) with a turn for ethical philosophy, must needs profess + himself an intuitive moralist of the purest water. He would point out, + with perfect justice, that the devotion of the workers to a life of + ceaseless toil for a mere subsistence wage, cannot be accounted for either + by enlightened selfishness, or by any other sort of utilitarian motives; + since these bees begin to work, without experience or reflection, as they + emerge from the cell in which they are hatched. Plainly, an eternal and + immutable principle, innate in each bee, can alone account for the + phenomena. On the other hand, the biologist, who traces out all the extant + stages of gradation between solitary and hive bees, as clearly sees in the + latter, simply the perfection of an automatic mechanism, hammered out by + the blows of the struggle for existence upon the progeny of the former, + during long ages of constant variation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. i., "Animal Automatism"; vol. v., + "Prologue," pp. 45 et seq. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">26</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink26" id="link26"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + X. + </h2> + <p> + I see no reason to doubt that, at its origin, human society was as much a + product of organic necessity as that of the bees.* The human family, to + begin with, rested upon exactly the same conditions as those which gave + rise to similar associations among animals lower in the scale. Further, it + is easy to see that every increase in the duration of the family ties, + with the resulting co-operation of a larger and larger number of + descendants for protection and defence, would give the families in which + such modification took place a distinct advantage over the others. And, as + in the hive, the progressive limitation of the struggle for existence + between the members of the family would involve increasing efficiency as + regards outside competition. + </p> + <p> + But there is this vast and fundamental difference between bee society and + human society. In the former, the members of the society are each + organically predestined to the performance of one particular class of + functions only. If they were endowed with desires, each could desire to + perform none but those offices for which its organization specially fits + it; and which, in view of the good of the whole, it is proper it should + do. So long as a new queen does not make her appearance, rivalries, and + competition are absent from the bee polity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol v., Prologue, pp. 50-54, +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">27</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink27" id="link27"></a> Among mankind, on the contrary, + there is no such predestination to a sharply defined place in the social + organism. However much men may differ in the quality of their intellects, + the intensity of their passions, and the delicacy of their sensations, it + cannot be said that one is fitted by his organization to be an + agricultural labourer and nothing else, and another to be a landowner and + nothing else. Moreover, with all their enormous differences in natural + endowment, men agree in one thing, and that is their innate desire to + enjoy the pleasures and to escape the pains of life; and, in short, to do + nothing but that which it pleases them to do, without the least reference + to the welfare of the society into which they are born. That is their + inheritance (the reality at the bottom of the doctrine of original sin) + from the long series of ancestors, human and semi-human and brutal, in + whom the strength of this innate tendency to self-assertion was the + condition of victory in the struggle for existence. That is the reason of + the aviditas vitae*—the insatiable hunger for enjoyment—of all + mankind, which is one of the essential conditions of success in the war + with the state of nature outside; and yet the sure agent of the + destruction of society if allowed free play within. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See below. Romanes' Lecture, note 7. +</pre> + <p> + The check upon this free play of self-assertion, or natural liberty, which + is the necessary condition for the origin of human society, is the product + <span class="pagenum">28</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink28" id="link28"></a> of organic necessities of a + different kind from those upon which the constitution of the hive depends. + One of these is the mutual affection of parent and offspring, intensified + by the long infancy of the human species. But the most important is the + tendency, so strongly developed in man, to reproduce in himself actions + and feelings similar to, or correlated with, those of other men. Man is + the most consummate of all mimics in the animal world; none but himself + can draw or model; none comes near him in the scope, variety, and + exactness of vocal imitation; none is such a master of gesture; while he + seems to be impelled thus to imitate for the pure pleasure of it. And + there is no such another emotional chameleon. By a purely reflex operation + of the mind, we take the hue of passion of those who are about us, or, it + may be, the complementary colour. It is not by any conscious "putting + one's self in the place" of a joyful or a suffering person that the state + of mind we call sympathy usually arises; * indeed, it is often contrary to + one's sense of <span class="pagenum">29</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink29" id="link29"></a> right, and in spite of one's will, + that "fellow-feeling makes us wondrous kind," or the reverse. However + complete may be the indifference to public opinion, in a cool, + intellectual view, of the traditional sage, it has not yet been my fortune + to meet with any actual sage who took its hostile manifestations with + entire equanimity. Indeed, I doubt if the philosopher lives, or ever has + lived who could know himself to be heartily despised by a street boy + without some irritation. And, though one cannot justify Haman for wishing + to hang Mordecai on such a very high gibbet, yet, really, the + consciousness of the Vizier of Ahasuerus, as he went in and out of the + gate, that this obscure Jew had no respect for him, must have been very + annoying.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Adam Smith makes the pithy observation that the man who + sympathises with a woman in childbed, cannot be said to put + himself in her place. ("The Theory of the Moral Sentiments," + Part vii. sec. iii. chap. i.) Perhaps there is more humour than + force in the example; and, in spite of this and other + observations of the same tenor, I think that the one defect of + the remarkable work in which it occurs is that it lays too much + stress on conscious substitution, too little on purely reflex + sympathy. + + ** Esther v. 9-13. ". . . but when Haman saw Mordecai in the + king's gate, that he stood not up, nor moved for him, he was + full of indignation against Mordecai. . . . And Haman told them + of the glory of his riches . . . and all the things wherein the + king had promoted him . . . Yet all this availeth me nothing, + so long as I see Mordecai the Jew sitting at the king's gate." + What a shrewd exposure of human weakness it is! +</pre> + <p> + It is needful only to look around us, to see that the greatest restrainer + of the anti-social tendencies of men is fear, not of the law, but of the + opinion of their fellows. The conventions of honour bind men who break + legal, moral, and religious bonds; and, while people endure the extremity + of physical pain rather than part with life, shame drives the weakest to + suicide. + </p> + <p> + Every forward step of social progress brings <span class="pagenum">30</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink30" id="link30"></a> men into closer relations with their + fellows, and increases the importance of the pleasures and pains derived + from sympathy. We judge the acts of others by our own sympathies, and we + judge our own acts by the sympathies of others, every day and all day + long, from childhood upwards, until associations, as indissoluble as those + of language, are formed between certain acts and the feelings of + approbation or disapprobation. It becomes impossible to imagine some acts + without disapprobation, or others without approbation of the actor, + whether he be one's self, or any one else. We come to think in the + acquired dialect of morals. An artificial personality, the "man within," + as Adam Smith* calls conscience, is built up beside the natural + personality. He is the watchman of society, charged to restrain the + anti-social tendencies of the natural man within the limits required by + social welfare. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Theory of the Moral Sentiments," Part iii. chap. 3. On the + Influence and Authority of Conscience. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XI. + </h2> + <p> + I have termed this evolution of the feelings out of which the primitive + bonds of human society are so largely forged, into the organized and + personified sympathy we call conscience, the ethical process.* So far as + it tends to + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Worked out, in its essential features, chiefly by Hartley and + Adam Smith, long before the modern doctrine of evolution was + thought of. See Note below, p. 45. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">31</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink31" id="link31"></a> make any human society more + efficient in the struggle for existence with the state of nature, or with + other societies, it works in harmonious contrast with the cosmic process. + But it is none the less true that, since law and morals are restraints + upon the struggle for existence between men in society, the ethical + process is in opposition to the principle of the cosmic process, and tends + to the suppression of the qualities best fitted for success in that + struggle.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the essay "On the Struggle for Existence in Human Society" + below; and Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 276, for Kant's + recognition of these facts. +</pre> + <p> + It is further to be observed that, just as the self-assertion, necessary + to the maintenance of society against the state of nature, will destroy + that society if it is allowed free operation within; so the + self-restraint, the essence of the ethical process, which is no less an + essential condition of the existence of every polity, may, by excess, + become ruinous to it. + </p> + <p> + Moralists of all ages and of all faiths, attending only to the relations + of men towards one another in an ideal society, have agreed upon the + "golden rule," "Do as you would be done by." In other words, let sympathy + be your guide; put yourself in the place of the man towards whom your + action is directed; and do to him what you would like to have done to + yourself under the circumstances. However much one may admire the + generosity of such a rule of <span class="pagenum">32</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink32" id="link32"></a> conduct; however confident one may + be that average men may be thoroughly depended upon not to carry it out to + its full logical consequences; it is nevertheless desirable to recognise + the fact that these consequences are incompatible with the existence of a + civil state, under any circumstances of this world which have obtained, + or, so far as one can see, are, likely to come to pass. + </p> + <p> + For I imagine there can be no doubt that the great desire of every + wrongdoer is to escape from the painful consequences of his actions. If I + put myself in the place of the man who has robbed me, I find that I am + possessed by an exceeding desire not to be fined or imprisoned; if in that + of the man who has smitten me on one cheek, I contemplate with + satisfaction the absence of any worse result than the turning of the other + cheek for like treatment. Strictly observed, the "golden rule" involves + the negation of law by the refusal to put it in motion against + law-breakers; and, as regards the external relations of a polity, it is + the refusal to continue the struggle for existence. It can be obeyed, even + partially, only under the protection of a society which repudiates it. + Without such shelter, the followers of the "golden rule" may indulge in + hopes of heaven, but they must reckon with the certainty that other people + will be masters of the earth. + </p> + <p> + What would become of the garden if the <span class="pagenum">33</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink33" id="link33"></a> gardener treated all the weeds and + slugs, and birds and trespassers as he would like to be treated, if he + were in their place? + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XII. + </h2> + <p> + Under the preceding heads, I have endeavoured to represent in broad, but I + hope faithful, outlines the essential features of the state of nature and + of that cosmic process of which it is the outcome, so far as was needful + for my argument; I have contrasted with the state of nature the state of + art, produced by human intelligence and energy, as it is exemplified by a + garden; and I have shown that the state of art, here and elsewhere, can be + maintained only by the constant counteraction of the hostile influences of + the state of nature. Further, I have pointed out that the "horticultural + process," which thus sets itself against the "cosmic process" is opposed + to the latter in principle, in so far as it tends to arrest the struggle + for existence, by restraining the multiplication which is one of the chief + causes of that struggle, and by creating artificial conditions of life, + better adapted to the cultivated plants than are the conditions of the + state of nature. And I have dwelt upon the fact that, though the + progressive modification, which is the consequence of the struggle for + existence in the state of nature, is at an end, such modification may + still be effected <span class="pagenum">34</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink34" id="link34"></a> by that selection, in view of an + ideal of usefulness, or of pleasantness, to man, of which the state of + nature knows nothing. + </p> + <p> + I have proceeded to show that a colony, set down in a country in the state + of nature, presents close analogies with a garden; and I have indicated + the course of action which an administrator, able and willing to carry out + horticultural principles, would adopt, in order to secure the success of + such a newly formed polity, supposing it to be capable of indefinite + expansion. In the contrary case, I have shown that difficulties must + arise; that the unlimited increase of the population over a limited area + must, sooner or later, reintroduce into the colony that struggle for the + means of existence between the colonists, which it was the primary object + of the administrator to exclude, insomuch as it is fatal to the mutual + peace which is the prime condition of the union of men in society. + </p> + <p> + I have briefly described the nature of the only radical cure, known to me, + for the disease which would thus threaten the existence of the colony; + and, however regretfully, I have been obliged to admit that this + rigorously scientific method of applying the principles of evolution to + human society hardly comes within the region of practical politics; not + for want of will on the part of a great many people; but because, for one + reason, there is no hope that mere human beings will ever possess enough + intelligence to select the fittest. And I <span class="pagenum">35</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink35" id="link35"></a> have adduced other grounds for + arriving at the same conclusion. + </p> + <p> + I have pointed out that human society took its rise in the organic + necessities expressed by imitation and by the sympathetic emotions; and + that, in the struggle for existence with the state of nature and with + other societies, as part of it, those in which men were thus led to close + co-operation had a great advantage.* But, since each man retained more or + less of the faculties common to all the rest, and especially a full share + of the desire for unlimited self-gratification, the struggle for existence + within society could only be gradually eliminated. So long as any of it + remained, society continued to be an imperfect instrument of the struggle + for existence and, consequently, was improvable by the selective influence + of that struggle. Other things being alike, the tribe of savages in which + order was best maintained; in which there was most security within the + tribe and the most loyal mutual support outside it, would be the + survivors. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. v., Prologue, p. 52. +</pre> + <p> + I have termed this gradual strengthening of the social bond, which, though + it arrest the struggle for existence inside society, up to a certain point + improves the chances of society, as a corporate whole, in the cosmic + struggle—the ethical process. I have endeavoured to show that, when + the ethical process has advanced so far as to secure <span class="pagenum">36</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink36" id="link36"></a> every member of the society in the + possession of the means of existence, the struggle for existence, as + between man and man, within that society is, ipso facto, at an end. And, + as it is undeniable that the most highly civilized societies have + substantially reached this position, it follows that, so far as they are + concerned, the struggle for existence can play no important part within + them.* In other words, the kind of evolution which is brought about in the + state of nature cannot take place. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Whether the struggle for existence with the state of nature + and with other societies, so far as they stand in the relation + of the state of nature with it, exerts a selective influence + upon modern society, and in what direction, are questions not + easy to answer. The problem of the effect of military and + industrial warfare upon those who wage it is very complicated. +</pre> + <p> + I have further shown cause for the belief that direct selection, after the + fashion of the horticulturist and the breeder, neither has played, nor can + play, any important part in the evolution of society; apart from other + reasons, because I do not see how such selection could be practised + without a serious weakening, it may be the destruction, of the bonds which + hold society together. It strikes me that men who are accustomed to + contemplate the active or passive extirpation of the weak, the + unfortunate, and the superfluous; who justify that conduct on the ground + that it has the sanction of the cosmic process, and is the only way of + ensuring the progress of the race; who, if <span class="pagenum">37</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink37" id="link37"></a> they are consistent, must rank + medicine among the black arts and count the physician a mischievous + preserver of the unfit; on whose matrimonial undertakings the principles + of the stud have the chief influence; whose whole lives, therefore, are an + education in the noble art of suppressing natural affection and sympathy, + are not likely to have any large stock of these commodities left. But, + without them, there is no conscience, nor any restraint on the conduct of + men, except the calculation of self-interest, the balancing of certain + present gratifications against doubtful future pains; and experience tells + us how much that is worth. Every day, we see firm believers in the hell of + the theologians commit acts by which, as they believe when cool, they risk + eternal punishment; while they hold back from those which are opposed to + the sympathies of their associates. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0016" id="link2H_4_0016"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIII. + </h2> + <p> + That progressive modification of civilization which passes by the name of + the "evolution of society," is, in fact, a process of an essentially + different character, both from that which brings about the evolution of + species, in the state of nature, and from that which gives rise to the + evolution of varieties, in the state of art. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that vast changes have taken place in English + civilization since the reign <span class="pagenum">38</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink38" id="link38"></a> of the Tudors. But I am not aware of + a particle of evidence in favour of the conclusion that this evolutionary + process, has been accompanied by any modification of the physical, or the + mental, characters of the men who have been the subjects of it. I have not + met with any grounds for suspecting that the average Englishmen of to-day + are sensibly different from those that Shakspere knew and drew. We look + into his magic mirror of the Elizabethan age, and behold, nowise darkly, + the presentment of ourselves. + </p> + <p> + During these three centuries, from the reign of Elizabeth to that of + Victoria, the struggle for existence between man and man has been so + largely restrained among the great mass of the population (except for one + or two short intervals of civil war), that it can have had little, or no, + selective operation. As to anything comparable to direct selection, it has + been practised on so small a scale that it may also be neglected. The + criminal law, in so far as by putting to death or by subjecting to long + periods of imprisonment, those who infringe its provisions, prevents the + propagation of hereditary criminal tendencies; and the poor-law, in so far + as it separates married couples, whose destitution arises from hereditary + defects of character, are doubtless selective agents operating in favour + of the non-criminal and the more effective members of society. But the + proportion of the population which they influence <span class="pagenum">39</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink39" id="link39"></a> is very small; and, generally, the + hereditary criminal and the hereditary pauper have propagated their kind + before the law affects them. In a large proportion of cases, crime and + pauperism have nothing to do with heredity; but are the consequence, + partly, of circumstances and, partly, of the possession of qualities, + which, under different conditions of life, might have excited esteem and + even admiration. It was a shrewd man of the world who, in discussing + sewage problems, remarked that dirt is riches in the wrong place; and that + sound aphorism has moral applications. The benevolence and open-handed + generosity which adorn a rich man, may make a pauper of a poor one; the + energy and courage to which the successful soldier owes his rise, the cool + and daring subtlety to which the great financier owes his fortune, may + very easily, under unfavourable conditions, lead their possessors to the + gallows, or to the hulks. Moreover, it is fairly probable that the + children of a "failure" will receive from their other parent just that + little modification of character which makes all the difference. I + sometimes wonder whether people, who talk so freely about extirpating the + unfit, ever dispassionately consider their own history. Surely, one must + be very "fit," indeed, not to know of an occasion, or perhaps two, in + one's life, when it would have been only too easy to qualify for a place + among the "unfit." + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">40</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink40" id="link40"></a> In my belief the innate qualities, + physical, intellectual, and moral, of our nation have remained + substantially the same for the last four or five centuries. If the + struggle for existence has affected us to any serious extent (and I doubt + it) it has been, indirectly, through our military and industrial wars with + other nations. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0017" id="link2H_4_0017"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIV. + </h2> + <p> + What is often called the struggle for existence in society (I plead guilty + to having used the term too loosely myself), is a contest, not for the + means of existence, but for the means of enjoyment. Those who occupy the + first places in this practical competitive examination are the rich and + the influential; those who fail, more or less, occupy the lower places, + down to the squalid obscurity of the pauper and the criminal. Upon the + most liberal estimate, I suppose the former group will not amount to two + per cent. of the population. I doubt if the latter exceeds another two per + cent.; but let it be supposed, for the sake of argument, that it is as + great as five per cent.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Those who read the last Essay in this volume will not accuse + me of wishing to attenuate the evil of the existence of this + group, whether great or small. +</pre> + <p> + As it is only in the latter group that any thing comparable to the + struggle for existence in the state of nature can take place; as it is + <span class="pagenum">41</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink41" id="link41"></a> only among this twentieth of the + whole people that numerous men, women, and children die of rapid or slow + starvation, or of the diseases incidental to permanently bad conditions of + life; and as there is nothing to prevent their multiplication before they + are killed off, while, in spite of greater infant mortality, they increase + faster than the rich; it seems clear that the struggle for existence in + this class can have no appreciable selective influence upon the other 95 + per cent. of the population. + </p> + <p> + What sort of a sheep breeder would he be who should content himself with + picking out the worst fifty out of a thousand, leaving them on a barren + common till the weakest starved, and then letting the survivors go back to + mix with the rest? And the parallel is too favourable; since in a large + number of cases, the actual poor and the convicted criminals are neither + the weakest nor the worst. + </p> + <p> + In the struggle for the means of enjoyment, the qualities which ensure + success are energy, industry, intellectual capacity, tenacity of purpose, + and, at least, as much sympathy as is necessary to make a man understand + the feelings of his fellows. Were there none of those artificial + arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top of society + instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom,* the struggle for + the means <span class="pagenum">42</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink42" id="link42"></a> of enjoyment would ensure a constant + circulation of the human units of the social compound, from the bottom to + the top and from the top to the bottom. The survivors of the contest, + those who continued to form the great bulk of the polity, would not be + those "fittest" who got to the very top, but the great body of the + moderately "fit," whose numbers and superior propagative power, enable + them always to swamp the exceptionally endowed minority. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have elsewhere lamented the absence from society of a + machinery for facilitating the descent of incapacity. + "Administrative Nihilism." Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 54. +</pre> + <p> + I think it must be obvious to every one, that, whether we consider the + internal or the external interests of society, it is desirable they should + be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest share of energy, + of industry, of intellectual capacity, of tenacity of purpose, while they + are not devoid of sympathetic humanity; and, in so far as the struggle for + the means of enjoyment tends to place such men in possession of wealth and + influence, it is a process which tends to the good of society. But the + process, as we have seen, has no real resemblance to that which adapts + living beings to current conditions in the state of nature; nor any to the + artificial selection of the horticulturist. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">43</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink43" id="link43"></a> To return, once more, to the + parallel of horticulture. In the modern world, the gardening of men by + themselves is practically restricted to the performance, not of selection, + but of that other function of the gardener, the creation of conditions + more favourable than those of the state of nature; to the end of + facilitating the free expansion of the innate faculties of the citizen, so + far as it is consistent with the general good. And the business of the + moral and political philosopher appears to me to be the ascertainment, by + the same method of observation, experiment, and ratiocination, as is + practised in other kinds of scientific work, of the course of conduct + which will best conduce to that end. + </p> + <p> + But, supposing this course of conduct to be scientifically determined and + carefully followed out, it cannot put an end to the struggle for existence + in the state of nature; and it will not so much as tend, in any way, to + the adaptation of man to that state. Even should the whole human race be + absorbed in one vast polity, within which "absolute political justice" + reigns, the struggle for existence with the state of nature outside it, + and the tendency to the return to the struggle within, in consequence of + over-multiplication, will remain; and, unless men's inheritance from the + ancestors who fought a good fight in the state of <span class="pagenum">44</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink44" id="link44"></a> nature, their dose of original sin, + is rooted out by some method at present unrevealed, at any rate to + disbelievers in supernaturalism, every child born into the world will + still bring with him the instinct of unlimited self-assertion. He will + have to learn the lesson of self-restraint and renunciation. But the + practice of self-restraint and renunciation is not happiness, though it + may be something much better. + </p> + <p> + That man, as a "political animal," is susceptible of a vast amount of + improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of his + intelligence to the adaptation of the conditions of life to his higher + needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But so long as he remains + liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is compelled to be + perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose ends are not his + ends, without and within himself; so long as he is haunted by inexpugnable + memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as the recognition of his + intellectual limitations forces him to acknowledge his incapacity to + penetrate the mystery of existence; the prospect of attaining untroubled + happiness, or of a state which can, even remotely, deserve the title of + perfection, appears to me to be as misleading an illusion as ever was + dangled before the eyes of poor humanity. And there have been many of + them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +That which lies before the human race is a <span class="pagenum">45</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink45" id="link45"></a> constant struggle to maintain and + improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State of Art of an + organized polity; in which, and by which, man may develop a worthy + civilization, capable of maintaining and constantly improving itself, + until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far upon its + downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; and, once more, + the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our planet. Note: (See p. + 30).—It seems the fashion nowadays to ignore Hartley; though, a + century and a half ago, he not only laid the foundations but built up much + of the superstructure of a true theory of the Evolution of the + intellectual and moral faculties. He speaks of what I have termed the + ethical process as "our Progress from Self-interest to Self-annihilation." + Observations on Man (1749), vol. ii p. 281. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">46</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink46" id="link46"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. + </h2> + <h3> + [The Romanes Lecture, 1893.] + </h3> + <p> + <i>Soleo enim et in aliena castra transire, non tanquam transfuga sed + tanquam explorator</i>. (L. ANNAEI SENECAE EPIST. II. 4.) + </p> + <p> + THERE is a delightful child's story, known by the title of "Jack and the + Bean-stalk," with which my contemporaries who are present will be + familiar. But so many of our grave and reverend Juniors have been brought + up on severer intellectual diet, and, perhaps, have become acquainted with + fairyland only through primers of comparative mythology, that it may be + needful to give an outline of the tale. It is a legend of a bean-plant, + which grows and grows until it reaches the high heavens and there spreads + out into a vast canopy of foliage. The hero, being moved to climb the + stalk, discovers that the leafy expanse supports a world composed of the + same elements as that below but yet strangely new; and his adventures + there, on which I may not dwell, must <span class="pagenum">47</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink47" id="link47"></a> have completely changed his views of + the nature of things; though the story, not having been composed by, or + for, philosophers, has nothing to say about views. + </p> + <p> + My present enterprise has a certain analogy to that of the daring + adventurer. I beg you to accompany me in an attempt to reach a world + which, to many, is probably strange, by the help of a bean. It is, as you + know, a simple, inert-looking thing. Yet, if planted under proper + conditions, of which sufficient warmth is one of the most important, it + manifests active powers of a very remarkable kind. A small green seedling + emerges, rises to the surface of the soil, rapidly increases in size and, + at the same time, undergoes a series of metamorphoses which do not excite + our wonder as much as those which meet us in legendary history, merely + because they are to be seen every day and all day long. + </p> + <p> + By insensible steps, the plant builds itself up into a large and various + fabric of root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit, every one moulded within + and without in accordance with an extremely complex but, at the same time, + minutely defined pattern. In each of these complicated structures, as in + their smallest constituents, there is an immanent energy which, in harmony + with that resident in all the others, incessantly works towards the + maintenance ,of the whole and the efficient performance of the part which + it has to play in the economy of nature. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">48</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink48" id="link48"></a> But no sooner has the edifice, + reared with such exact elaboration, attained completeness, than it begins + to crumble. By degrees, the plant withers and disappears from view, + leaving behind more or fewer apparently inert and simple bodies, just like + the bean from which it sprang; and, like it, endowed with the potentiality + of giving rise to a similar cycle of manifestations. Neither the poetic + nor the scientific imagination is put to much strain in the search after + analogies with this process of going forth and, as it were, returning to + the starting-point. It may be likened to the ascent and descent of a slung + stone, or the course of an arrow along its trajectory. Or we may say that + the living energy takes first an upward and then a downward road. Or it + may seem preferable to compare the expansion of the germ into the + full-grown plant, to the unfolding of a fan, or to the rolling forth and + widening of a stream; and thus to arrive at the conception of + "development," or "evolution." Here, as elsewhere, names are "noise and + smoke"; the important point is to have a clear and adequate conception of + the fact signified by a name. And, in this case, the fact is the + Sisyphaean process, in the course of which, the living and growing plant + passes from the relative simplicity and latent potentiality of the seed to + the full epiphany of a highly differentiated type, thence to fall back to + simplicity and potentiality. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">49</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink49" id="link49"></a> The value of a strong intellectual + grasp of the nature of this process lies in the circumstance that what is + true of the bean is true of living things in general. From very low forms + up to the highest—in the animal no less than in the vegetable + kingdom—the process of life presents the same appearance [Note 1} of + cyclical evolution. Nay, we have but to cast our eyes over the rest of the + world and cyclical change presents itself on all sides. It meets us in the + water that flows to the sea and returns to the springs; in the heavenly + bodies that wax and wane, go and return to their places; in the inexorable + sequence of the ages of man's life; in that successive rise, apogee, and + fall of dynasties and of states which is the most prominent topic of civil + history. + </p> + <p> + As no man fording a swift stream can dip his foot twice into the same + water, so no man can, with exactness, affirm of anything in the sensible + world that it is.[Note 2} As he utters the words, nay, as he thinks them, + the predicate ceases to be applicable; the present has become the past; + the "is" should be "was." And the more we learn of the nature of things, + the more evident is it that what we call rest is only unperceived + activity; that seeming peace is silent but strenuous battle. In every + part, at every moment, the state of the cosmos is the expression of a + transitory adjustment of contending forces; a scene, of strife, in which + all the combatants fall in turn. What is <span class="pagenum">50</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink50" id="link50"></a> true of each part, is true of the + whole. Natural knowledge tends more and more to the conclusion that "all + the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth" are the transitory forms + of parcels of cosmic substance wending along the road of evolution, from + nebulous potentiality, through endless growths of sun and planet and + satellite; through all varieties of matter; through infinite diversities + of life and thought; possibly, through modes of being of which we neither + have a conception, nor are competent to form any, back to the indefinable + latency from which they arose. Thus the most obvious attribute of the + cosmos is its impermanence. It assumes the aspect not so much of a + permanent entity as of a changeful process in which naught endures save + the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades it. + </p> + <p> + We have climbed our bean-stalk and have reached a wonderland in which the + common and the familiar become things new and strange. In the exploration + of the cosmic process thus typified, the highest intelligence of man finds + inexhaustible employment; giants are subdued to our service; and the + spiritual affections of the contemplative philosopher are engaged by + beauties worthy of eternal constancy. + </p> + <p> + But there is another aspect of the cosmic process, so perfect as a + mechanism, so beautiful as a work of art. Where the cosmopoietic energy + <span class="pagenum">51</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink51" id="link51"></a> works through sentient beings, there + arises, among its other manifestations, that which we call pain or + suffering. This baleful product of evolution increases in quantity and in + intensity, with advancing grades of animal organization, until it attains + its highest level in man. Further, the consummation is not reached in man, + the mere animal; nor in man, the whole or half savage; but only in man, + the member of an organized polity. And it is a necessary consequence of + his attempt to live in this way; that is, under those conditions which are + essential to the full development of his noblest powers. + </p> + <p> + Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the + sentient world, and has become the superb animal which he is, in virtue of + his success in the struggle for existence. The conditions having been of a + certain order, man's organization has adjusted itself to them better than + that of his competitors in the cosmic strife. In the case of mankind, the + self-assertion, the unscrupulous seizing upon all that can be grasped, the + tenacious holding of all that can be kept, which constitute the essence of + the struggle for existence, have answered. For his successful progress, + throughout the savage state, man has been largely indebted to those + qualities which he shares with the ape and the tiger; his exceptional + physical organization; his cunning, his sociability, his curiosity, and + his imitativeness; his ruthless and <span class="pagenum">52</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink52" id="link52"></a> ferocious destructiveness when his + anger is roused by opposition. + </p> + <p> + But, in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social organization, + and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth, these deeply + ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects. After the manner of + successful persons, civilized man would gladly kick down the ladder by + which he has climbed. He would be only too pleased to see "the ape and + tiger die." But they decline to suit his convenience; and the unwelcome + intrusion of these boon companions of his hot youth into the ranged + existence of civil life adds pains and griefs, innumerable and + immeasurably great, to those which the cosmic process necessarily brings + on the mere animal. In fact, civilized man brands all these ape and tiger + promptings with the name of sins; he punishes many of the acts which flow + from them as crimes; and, in extreme cases, he does his best to put an end + to the survival of the fittest of former days by axe and rope. + </p> + <p> + I have said that civilized man has reached this point; the assertion is + perhaps too broad and general; I had better put it that ethical man has + attained thereto. The science of ethics professes to furnish us with a + reasoned rule of life; to tell us what is right action and why it is so. + Whatever differences of opinion may exist among experts there is a general + consensus that the ape and <span class="pagenum">53</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink53" id="link53"></a> tiger methods of the struggle for + existence are not reconcilable with sound ethical principles. + </p> + <p> + The hero of our story descended the bean-stalk, and came back to the + common world, where fare and work were alike hard; where ugly competitors + were much commoner than beautiful princesses; and where the everlasting + battle with self was much less sure to be crowned with victory than a + turn-to with a giant. We have done the like. Thousands upon thousands of + our fellows, thousands of years ago, have preceded us in finding + themselves face to face with the same dread problem of evil. They also + have seen that the cosmic process is evolution; that it is full of wonder, + full of beauty, and, at the same time, full of pain. They have sought to + discover the bearing of these great facts on ethics; to find out whether + there is, or is not, a sanction for morality in the ways of the cosmos. + </p> + <p> + Theories of the universe, in which the conception of evolution plays a + leading part, were extant at least six centuries before our era. Certain + knowledge of them, in the fifth century, reaches us from localities as + distant as the valley of the Ganges and the Asiatic coasts of the Aegean. + To the early philosophers of Hindostan, no less than to those of Ionia, + the salient and characteristic feature of the phenomenal world was its + <span class="pagenum">54</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink54" id="link54"></a> changefulness; the unresting flow of + all things, through birth to visible being and thence to not being, in + which they could discern no sign of a beginning and for which they saw no + prospect of an ending. It was no less plain to some of these antique + forerunners of modern philosophy that suffering is the badge of all the + tribe of sentient things; that it is no accidental accompaniment, but an + essential constituent of the cosmic process. The energetic Greek might + find fierce joys in a world in which "strife is father and king;" but the + old Aryan spirit was subdued to quietism in the Indian sage; the mist of + suffering which spread over humanity hid everything else from his view; to + him life was one with suffering and suffering with life. + </p> + <p> + In Hindostan, as in Ionia, a period of relatively high and tolerably + stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi-barbarism and + struggle. Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement, and, + close at their heels, had followed the malady of thought. To the struggle + for bare existence, which never ends, though it may be alleviated and + partially disguised for a fortunate few, succeeded the struggle to make + existence intelligible and to bring the order of things into harmony with + the moral sense of man, which also never ends, but, for the thinking few, + becomes keen er with every increase of knowledge and with every step + towards the realization of a worthy ideal of life. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">55</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink55" id="link55"></a> Two thousand five hundred years ago, + the value of civilization was as apparent as it is now; then, as now, it + was obvious that only in the garden of an orderly polity can the finest + fruits humanity is capable of bearing be produced. But it had also become + evident that the blessings of culture were not unmixed. The garden was apt + to turn into a hothouse. The stimulation of the senses, the pampering of + the emotions, endlessly multiplied the sources of pleasure. The constant + widening of the intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of that + especially human faculty of looking before and after, which adds to the + fleeting present those old and new worlds of the past and the future, + wherein men dwell the more the higher their culture. But that very + sharpening of the sense and that subtle refinement of emotion, which + brought such a wealth of pleasures, were fatally attended by a + proportional enlargement of the capacity for suffering; and the divine + faculty of imagination, while it created new heavens and new earths, + provided them with the corresponding hells of futile regret for the past + and morbid anxiety for the future. [Note 3} Finally, the inevitable + penalty of over-stimulation, exhaustion, opened the gates of civilization + to its great enemy, ennui; the stale and flat weariness when man + delights-not, nor woman neither; when all things are vanity and vexation; + and life seems not worth living except to escape the bore of dying. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">56</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink56" id="link56"></a> Even purely intellectual progress + brings about its revenges. Problems settled in a rough and ready way by + rude men, absorbed in action, demand renewed attention and show themselves + to be still unread riddles when men have time to think. The beneficent + demon, doubt, whose name is Legion and who dwells amongst the tombs of old + faiths, enters into mankind and thenceforth refuses to be cast out. Sacred + customs, venerable dooms of ancestral wisdom, hallowed by tradition and + professing to hold good for all time, are put to the question. Cultured + reflection asks for their credentials; judges them by its own standards; + finally, gathers those of which it approves into ethical systems, in which + the reasoning is rarely much more than a decent pretext for the adoption + of foregone conclusions. + </p> + <p> + One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the + conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are + associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one another; + its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide by that + agreement; and, so far as they waver, that mutual trust which is the bond + of society is weakened or destroyed. Wolves could not hunt in packs except + for the real, though unexpressed, understanding that they should not + attack one another during the chase. The most rudimentary polity is a pack + of men living under the like tacit, or expressed, <span class="pagenum">57</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink57" id="link57"></a> understanding; and having made the + very important advance upon wolf society, that they agree to use the force + of the whole body against individuals who violate it and in favour of + those who observe it. This observance of a common understanding, with the + consequent distribution of punishments and rewards according to accepted + rules, received the name of justice, while the contrary was called + injustice. Early ethics did not take much note of the animus of the + violator of the rules. But civilization could not advance far, without the + establishment of a capital distinction between the case of involuntary and + that of wilful misdeed; between a merely wrong action and a guilty one. + And, with increasing refinement of moral appreciation, the problem of + desert, which arises out of this distinction, acquired more and more + theoretical and practical importance. If life must be given for life, yet + it was recognized that the unintentional slayer did not altogether deserve + death; and, by a sort of compromise between the public and the private + conception of justice, a sanctuary was provided in which he might take + refuge from the avenger of blood. + </p> + <p> + The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from punishment + and reward according to acts, to punishment and reward according to + desert; or, in other words, according to motive. Righteousness, that is, + action from right motive, <span class="pagenum">58</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink58" id="link58"></a> not only became synonymous with + justice, but the positive constituent of innocence and the very heart of + goodness. + </p> + <p> + Now when the ancient sage, whether Indian or Greek, who had attained to + this conception of goodness, looked the world, and especially human life, + in the face, he found it as hard as we do to bring the course of evolution + into harmony with even the elementary requirement of the ethical ideal of + the just and the good. + </p> + <p> + If there is one thing plainer than another, it is that neither the + pleasures nor the pains of life, in the merely animal world, are + distributed according to desert; for it is admittedly impossible for the + lower orders of sentient beings, to deserve either the one or the other. + If there is a generalization from the facts of human life which has the + assent of thoughtful men in every age and country, it is that the violator + of ethical rules constantly escapes the punishment which he deserves; that + the wicked flourishes like a green bay tree, while, the righteous begs his + bread; that the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children; that, + in the realm of nature, ignorance is punished just as severely as wilful + wrong; and that thousands upon thousands of innocent beings suffer for the + crime, or the unintentional trespass of one. + </p> + <p> + Greek and Semite and Indian are agreed upon <span class="pagenum">59</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink59" id="link59"></a> this subject. The book of Job is at + one with the "Works and Days" and the Buddhist Sutras; the Psalmist and + the Preacher of Israel, with the Tragic Poets of Greece. What is a more + common motive of the ancient tragedy in fact, than the unfathomable + injustice of the nature of things; what is more deeply felt to be true + than its presentation of the destruction of the blameless by the work of + his own hands, or by the fatal operation of the sins of others? Surely + Oedipus was pure of heart; it was the natural sequence of events—the + cosmic process—which drove him, in all innocence, to slay his father + and become the husband of his mother, to the desolation of his people and + his own headlong ruin. Or to step, for a moment, beyond the chronological + limits I have set myself, what constitutes the sempiternal attraction of + Hamlet but the appeal to deepest experience of that history of a no less + blameless dreamer, dragged, in spite of himself, into a world out of joint + involved in a tangle of crime and misery, created by one of the prime + agents of the cosmic process as it works in and through man? + </p> + <p> + Thus, brought before the tribunal of ethics, the cosmos might well seem to + stand condemned. The conscience of man revolted against the moral + indifference of nature, and the microcosmic atom should have found the + illimitable macrocosm guilty. But few, or none, ventured to record that + verdict. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">60</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink60" id="link60"></a> In the great Semitic trial of this + issue, Job takes refuge in silence and submission; the Indian and the + Greek, less wise perhaps, attempt to reconcile the irreconcilable and + plead for the defendant. To this end, the Greeks invented Theodicies; + while the Indians devised what, in its ultimate form, must rather be + termed a Cosmodicy. For, although Buddhism recognizes gods many and lords + many, they are products of the cosmic process; and transitory, however + long enduring, manifestations of its eternal activity. In the doctrine of + transmigration, whatever its origin, Brahminical and Buddhist speculation + found, ready to hand[Note 4} the means of constructing a plausible + vindication of the ways of the cosmos to man. If this world is full of + pain and sorrow; if grief and evil fall, like the rain, upon both the just + and the unjust; it is because, like the rain, they are links in the + endless chain of natural causation by which past, present, and future are + indissolubly connected; and there is no more injustice in the one case + than in the other. Every sentient being is reaping as it has sown; if not + in this life, then in one or other of the infinite series of antecedent + existences of which it is the latest term. The present distribution of + good and evil is, therefore, the algebraical sum of accumulated positive + and negative deserts; or, rather, it depends on the floating balance of + the account. For it was not thought necessary that a complete settlement + <span class="pagenum">61</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink61" id="link61"></a> should ever take place. Arrears + might stand over as a sort of "hanging gale;" a period of celestial + happiness just earned might be succeeded by ages of torment in a hideous + nether world, the balance still overdue for some remote ancestral error. + [Note 5} + </p> + <p> + Whether the cosmic process looks any more moral than at first, after such + a vindication, may perhaps be questioned. Yet this plea of justification + is not less plausible than others; and none but very hasty thinkers will + reject it on the ground of inherent absurdity. Like the doctrine of + evolution itself, that of transmigration has its roots in the world of + reality; and it may claim such support as the great argument from analogy + is capable of supplying. + </p> + <p> + Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped under + the name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious marks of his + parentage, perhaps of remoter relationships. More particularly, the sum of + tendencies to act in a certain way, which we call "character," is often to + be traced through a long series of progenitors and collaterals. So we may + justly say that this "character"—this moral and intellectual essence + of a man—does veritably pass over from one fleshly tabernacle to + another, and does really transmigrate from generation to generation. In + the new-born infant, the character of the stock lies latent, and the Ego + is little more <span class="pagenum">62</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink62" id="link62"></a> than a bundle of potentialities. + But, very early, these become acutalities; from childhood to age they + manifest themselves in dulness or brightness, weakness or strength, + viciousness or uprightness; and with each feature modified by confluence + with another character, if by nothing else, the character passed on to its + incarnation in new bodies. + </p> + <p> + The Indian philosophers called character, as thus defined, "karma."[Note + 6} It is this karma which passed from life to life and linked them in the + chain of transmigrations; and they held that it is modified in each life, + not merely by confluence of parentage, but by its own acts. They were, in + fact, strong believers in the theory, so much disputed just at present, of + the hereditary transmission of acquired characters. That the manifestation + of the tendencies of a character may be greatly facilitated, or impeded, + by conditions, of which self-discipline, or the absence of it, are among + the most important, is indubitable; but that the character itself is + modified in this way is by no means so certain; it is not so sure that the + transmitted character of an evil liver is worse, or that of a righteous + man better, than that which he received. Indian philosophy, however, did + not admit of any doubt on this subject; the belief in the influence of + conditions, notably of self-discipline, on the karma was not merely a + necessary postulate of its theory of retribution, but it presented <span + class="pagenum">63</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink63" id="link63"></a> the only way of escape from the + endless round of transmigrations. + </p> + <p> + The earlier forms of Indian philosophy agreed with those prevalent in our + own times, in supposing the existence of a permanent reality, or + "substance," beneath the shifting series of phenomena, whether of matter + or of mind. The substance of the cosmos was "Brahma," that of the + individual man "Atman;" and the latter was separated from the former only, + if I may so speak, by its phenomenal envelope, by the casing of + sensations, thoughts and desires, pleasures and pains, which make up the + illusive phantasmagoria of life. This the ignorant take for reality; their + "Atman" therefore remains eternally imprisoned in delusions, bound by the + fetters of desire and scourged by the whip of misery. But the man who has + attained enlightenment sees that the apparent reality is mere illusion, + or, as was said a couple of thousand years later, that there is nothing + good nor bad but thinking makes it so. If the cosmos is just "and of our + pleasant vices makes instruments to scourge us," it would seem that the + only way to escape from our heritage of evil is to destroy that fountain + of desire whence our vices flow; to refuse any longer to be the + instruments of the evolutionary process, and withdraw from the struggle + for existence. If the karma is modifiable by self-discipline, if its + coarser desires, one after another, can be extinguished, the ultimate + <span class="pagenum">64</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink64" id="link64"></a> fundamental desire of + self-assertion, or the desire to be, may also be destroyed. [Note 7} Then + the bubble of illusion will burst, and the freed individual "Atman" will + lose itself in the universal "Brahma." + </p> + <p> + Such seems to have been the pre-Buddhistic conception of salvation, and of + the way to be followed by those who would attain thereto. No more thorough + mortification of the flesh has ever been attempted than-that achieved by + the Indian ascetic anchorite; no later monachism has so nearly succeeded + in reducing the human mind to that condition of impassive + quasi-somnambulism, which, but for its acknowledged holiness, might run + the risk of being confounded with idiocy. + </p> + <p> + And this salvation, it will be observed, was to be attained through + knowledge, and by action based on that knowledge; just as the + experimenter, who would obtain a certain physical or chemical result, must + have a knowledge of the natural laws involved and the persistent + disciplined will adequate to carry out all the various operations + required. The supernatural, in our sense of the term, was entirely + excluded. There was no external power which could affect the sequence of + cause and effect which gives rise to karma; none but the will of the + subject of the karma which could put an end to it. + </p> + <p> + Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of + which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline. It was folly to + continue <span class="pagenum">65</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink65" id="link65"></a> to exist when an overplus of pain + was certain; and the probabilities in favour of the increase of misery + with the prolongation of existence, were so overwhelming. Slaying the body + only made matters worse; there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by + the voluntary arrest of all its activities. Property, social ties, family + affections, common companionship, must be abandoned; the most natural + appetites, even that for food, must be suppressed, or at least minimized; + until all that remained of a man was the impassive, extenuated, mendicant + monk, self-hypnotised into cataleptic trances, which the deluded mystic + took for foretastes of the final union with Brahma. + </p> + <p> + The founder of Buddhism accepted the chief postulates demanded by his + predecessors. But he was not satisfied with the practical annihilation + involved in merging the individual existence in the unconditioned—the + Atman in Brahma. It would seem that the admission of the existence of any + substance whatever—even of the tenuity of that which has neither + quality nor energy and of which no predicate whatever can be asserted—appeared + to him to be a danger and a snare. Though reduced to a hypostatized + negation, Brahma was not to be trusted; so long as entity was there, it + might conceivably resume the weary round of evolution, with all its train + of immeasurable miseries. Gautama got rid of even that <span + class="pagenum">66</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink66" id="link66"></a> shade of a shadow of permanent + existence by a metaphysical tour de force of great interest to the student + of philosophy, seeing that it supplies the wanting half of Bishop + Berkeley's well-known idealistic argument. + </p> + <p> + Granting the premises, I am not aware of any escape from Berkeley's + conclusion, that the "substance" of matter is a metaphysical unknown + quantity, of the existence of which there is no proof. What Berkeley does + not seem to have so clearly perceived is that the non-existence of a + substance of mind is equally arguable; and that the result of the + impartial applications of his reasonings is the reduction of the All to + coexistences and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond which there is + nothing cognoscible. It is a remarkable indication of the subtlety of + Indian speculation that Gautama should have seen deeper than the greatest + of modern idealists; though it must be admitted that, if some of + Berkeley's reasonings respecting the nature of spirit are pushed home, + they reach pretty much the same conclusion. [Note 8} + </p> + <p> + Accepting the prevalent Brahminical doctrine that the whole cosmos, + celestial, terrestrial, and infernal, with its population of gods and + other celestial beings, of sentient animals, of Mara and his devils, is + incessantly shifting through recurring cycles of production and + destruction, in each of which every human being has his transmigratory + <span class="pagenum">67</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink67" id="link67"></a> representative, Gautama proceeded to + eliminate substance altogether; and to reduce the cosmos to a mere flow of + sensations, emotions, volitions, and thoughts, devoid of any substratum. + As, on the surface of a stream of water, we see ripples and whirlpools, + which last for a while and then vanish with the causes that gave rise to + them, so what seem individual existences are mere temporary associations + of phenomena circling round a centre, "like a dog tied to a post." In the + whole universe there is nothing permanent, no eternal substance either of + mind or of matter. Personality is a metaphysical fancy; and in very truth, + not only we, but all things, in the worlds without end of the cosmic + phantasmagoria, are such stuff as dreams are made of. + </p> + <p> + What then becomes of karma? Karma remains untouched. As the peculiar form + of energy we call magnetism may be transmitted from a loadstone to a piece + of steel, from the steel to a piece of nickel, as it may be strengthened + or weakened by the conditions to which it is subjected while resident in + each piece, so it seems to have been conceived that karma might be + transmitted from one phenomenal association to another by a sort of + induction. However this may be, Gautama doubtless had a better guarantee + for the abolition of transmigration, when no wrack of substance, either of + Atman or of Brahma, was left behind; when, in short, a man had but to + <span class="pagenum">68</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink68" id="link68"></a> dream that he willed not to dream, + to put an end to all dreaming. + </p> + <p> + This end of life's dream is Nirvana. What Nirvana is the learned do not + agree. But, since the best original authorities tell us there is neither + desire nor activity, nor any possibility of phenomenal reappearance for + the sage who has entered Nirvana, it may be safely said of this acme of + Buddhistic philosophy—"the rest is silence." + </p> + <p> + [Note 9} Thus there is no very great practical disagreement between + Gautama and his predecessors with respect to the end of action; but it is + otherwise as regards the means to that end. With just insight into human + nature, Gautama declared extreme ascetic practices to be useless and + indeed harmful. The appetites and the passions are not to be abolished by + mere mortification of the body; they must, in addition, be attacked on + their own ground and conquered by steady cultivation of the mental habits + which oppose them; by universal benevolence; by the return of good for + evil; by humility; by abstinence from evil thought; in short, by total + renunciation of that self-assertion which is the essence of the cosmic + process. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless, it is to these ethical qualities that Buddhism owes its + marvellous success.[Note 10} A system which knows no God in the western + sense; which denies a soul to man; which counts the belief in immortality + a blunder and the hope of it a sin; <span class="pagenum">69</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink69" id="link69"></a> which refuses any efficacy to prayer + and sacrifice; which bids men look to nothing but their own efforts for + salvation; which, in its original purity, knew nothing of vows of + obedience, abhorred intolerance, and never sought the aid of the secular + arm; yet spread over a considerable moiety of the Old World with + marvellous rapidity, and is still, with whatever base admixture of foreign + superstitions, the dominant creed of a large fraction of mankind. + </p> + <p> + Let us now set our faces westwards, towards Asia Minor and Greece and + Italy, to view the rise and progress of another philosophy, apparently + independent, but no less pervaded by the conception of evolution.[Note 11} + </p> + <p> + The sages of Miletus were pronounced evolutionists; and, however dark may + be some of the sayings of Heracleitus of Ephesus, who was probably a + contemporary of Gautama, no better expressions of the essence of the + modern doctrine of evolution can be found than are presented by some of + his pithy aphorisms and striking metaphors. [Note 12} Indeed, many of my + present auditors must have observed that, more than once, I have borrowed + from him in the brief exposition of the theory of evolution with which + this discourse commenced. + </p> + <p> + But when the focus of Greek intellectual activity shifted to Athens, the + leading minds <span class="pagenum">70</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink70" id="link70"></a> concentrated their attention upon + ethical problems. Forsaking the study of the macrocosm for that of the + microcosm, they lost the key to the thought of the great Ephesian, which, + I imagine, is more intelligible to us than it was to Socrates, or to + Plato. Socrates, more especially, set the fashion of a kind of inverse + agnosticism, by teaching that the problems of physics lie beyond the reach + of the human intellect; that the attempt to solve them is essentially + vain; that the one worthy object of investigation is the problem of + ethical life; and his example was followed by the Cynics and the later + Stoics. Even the comprehensive knowledge and the penetrating intellect of + Aristotle failed to suggest to him that in holding the eternity of the + world, within its present range of mutation, he was making a retrogressive + step. The scientific heritage of Heracleitus passed into the hands neither + of Plato nor of Aristotle, but into those of Democritus. But the world was + not yet ready to receive the great conceptions of the philosopher of + Abdera. It was reserved for the Stoics to return to the track marked out + by the earlier philosophers; and, professing themselves disciples of + Heracleitus, to develop the idea of evolution systematically. In doing + this, they not only omitted some characteristic features of their master's + teaching, but they made additions altogether foreign to it. One of the + most influential of these importations was the transcendental <span + class="pagenum">71</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink71" id="link71"></a> theism which had come into vogue. + The restless, fiery energy, operating according to law, out of which all + things emerge and into which they return, in the endless successive cycles + of the great year; which creates and destroys worlds as a wanton child + builds up, and anon levels, sand castles on the seashore; was + metamorphosed into a material world-soul and decked out with all the + attributes of ideal Divinity; not merely with infinite power and + transcendent wisdom, but with absolute goodness. + </p> + <p> + The consequences of this step were momentous. For if the cosmos is the + effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent cause, the + existence in it of real evil, still less of necessarily inherent evil, is + plainly inadmissible. [Note 13} Yet the universal experience of mankind + testified then, as now, that, whether we look within us or without us, + evil stares us in the face on all sides; that if anything is real, pain + and sorrow and wrong are realities. + </p> + <p> + It would be a new thing in history if a priori philosophers were daunted + by the factious opposition of experience; and the Stoics were the last men + to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts. "Give me a doctrine and I + will find the reasons for it," said Chrysippus. So they perfected, if they + did not invent, that ingenious and plausible form of pleading, the + Theodicy; for the purpose of showing firstly, that there is no such <span + class="pagenum">72</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink72" id="link72"></a> thing as evil; secondly, that if + there is, it is the necessary correlate of good; and, moreover, that it is + either due to our own fault, or inflicted for our benefit. Theodicies have + been very popular in their time, and I believe that a numerous, though + somewhat dwarfed, progeny of them still survives. So far as I know, they + are all variations of the theme set forth in those famous six lines of the + "Essay on Man," in which Pope sums up Bolingbroke's reminiscences of + stoical and other speculations of this kind— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "All nature is but art, unknown to thee; + All chance, direction which thou canst not see; + All discord, harmony not understood; + All partial evil, universal good; + And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, + One truth is clear: whatever is is right." +</pre> + <p> + Yet, surely, if there are few more important truths than those enunciated + in the first triad, the second is open to very grave objections. That + there is a "soul of good in things evil" is unquestionable; nor will any + wise man deny the disciplinary value of pain and sorrow. But these + considerations do not help us to see why the immense multitude of + irresponsible sentient beings, which cannot profit by such discipline, + should suffer; nor why, among the endless possibilities open to + omnipotence—that of sinless, happy existence among the rest—the + actuality in which sin and misery abound should be that selected. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">73</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink73" id="link73"></a> Surely it is mere cheap rhetoric to + call arguments which have never yet been answered by even the meekest and + the least rational of Optimists, suggestions of the pride of reason. As to + the concluding aphorism, its fittest place would be as an inscription in + letters of mud over the portal of some "stye of Epicurus"[Note 14}; for + that is where the logical application of it to practice would land men, + with every aspiration stifled and every effort paralyzed. Why try to set + right what is right already? Why strive to improve the best of all + possible worlds? Let us eat and drink, for as today all is right, so + to-morrow all will be. + </p> + <p> + But the attempt of the Stoics to blind themselves to the reality of evil, + as a necessary concomitant of the cosmic process, had less success than + that of the Indian philosophers to exclude the reality of good from their + purview. Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut one's eyes to good than + to evil. Pain and sorrow knock at our doors more loudly than pleasure and + happiness; and the prints of their heavy footsteps are less easily + effaced. Before the grim realities of practical life the pleasant fictions + of optimism vanished. If this were the best of all possible worlds, it + nevertheless proved itself a very inconvenient habitation for the ideal + sage. + </p> + <p> + The stoical summary of the whole duty of man, "Live according to nature," + would seem to imply that the cosmic process is an exemplar for human <span + class="pagenum">74</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink74" id="link74"></a> conduct. Ethics would thus become + applied Natural History. In fact, a confused employment of the maxim, in + this sense, has done immeasurable mischief in later times. It has + furnished an axiomatic foundation for the philosophy of philosophasters + and for the moralizing of sentimentalists. But the Stoics were, at bottom, + not merely noble, but sane, men; and if we look closely into what they + really meant by this ill-used phrase, it will be found to present no + justification for the mischievous conclusions that have been deduced from + it. + </p> + <p> + In the language of the Stoa, "Nature" was a word of many meanings. There + was the "Nature" of the cosmos and the "Nature" of man. In the latter, the + animal "nature," which man shares with a moiety of the living part of the + cosmos, was distinguished from a higher "nature." Even in this higher + nature there were grades of rank. The logical faculty is an instrument + which may be turned to account for any purpose. The passions and the + emotions are so closely tied to the lower nature that they may be + considered to be pathological, rather than normal, phenomena. The one + supreme, hegemonic, faculty, which constitutes the essential "nature" of + man, is most nearly represented by that which, in the language of a later + philosophy, has been called the pure reason. It is this "nature" which + holds up the ideal of the supreme good and demands absolute submission of + the will to its behests. It is <span class="pagenum">75</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink75" id="link75"></a> which commands all men to love one + another, to return good for evil, to regard one another as fellow-citizens + of one great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress towards perfection of + a civilized state, or polity, depends on the obedience of its members to + these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed the pure reason the + "political" nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the adjective has + undergone so much modification, that the application of it to that which + commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would now sound almost + grotesque. [Note 15} + </p> + <p> + But what part is played by the theory of evolution in this view of ethics? + So far as I can discern, the ethical system of the Stoics, which is + essentially intuitive, and reverences the categorical imperative as + strongly as that of any later moralists, might have been just what it was + if they had held any other theory; whether that of special creation, on + the one side, or that of the eternal existence of the present order, on + the other.[Note 16} To the Stoic, the cosmos had no importance for the + conscience, except in so far as he chose to think it a pedagogue to + virtue. The pertinacious optimism of our philosophers hid from them the + actual state of the case. It prevented them from seeing that cosmic nature + is no school of virtue, but the headquarters of the enemy of ethical + nature. The logic of facts was necessary to convince them <span + class="pagenum">76</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink76" id="link76"></a> that the cosmos works through the + lower nature of man, not for righteousness, but against it. And it finally + drove them to confess that the existence of their ideal "wise man" was + incompatible with the nature of things; that even a passable approximation + to that ideal was to be attained only at the cost of renunciation of the + world and mortification, not merely of the flesh, but of all human + affections. The state of perfection was that "apatheia"[Note 17} in which + desire, though it may still be felt, is powerless to move the will, + reduced to the sole function of executing the commands of pure reason. + Even this residuum of activity was to be regarded as a temporary loan, as + an efflux of the divine world-pervading spirit, chafing at its + imprisonment in the flesh, until such time as death enabled it to return + to its source in the all-pervading logos. + </p> + <p> + I find it difficult to discover any very great difference between Apatheia + and Nirvana, except that stoical speculation agrees with pre-Buddhistic + philosophy, rather than with the teachings of Gautama, in so far as it + postulates a permanent substance equivalent to "Brahma" and "Atman;" and + that, in stoical practice, the adoption of the life of the mendicant cynic + was held to be more a counsel of perfection than an indispensable + condition of the higher life. + </p> + <p> + Thus the extremes touch. Greek thought and <span class="pagenum">77</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink77" id="link77"></a> Indian thought set out from ground + common to both, diverge widely, develop under very different physical and + moral conditions, and finally converge to practically the same end. + </p> + <p> + The Vedas and the Homeric epos set before us a world of rich and vigorous + life, full of joyous fighting men + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + That ever with a frolic welcome took + The thunder and the sunshine .... +</pre> + <p> + and who were ready to brave the very Gods themselves when their blood was + up. A few centuries pass away, and under the influence of civilization the + descendants of these men are "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought"—frank + pessimists, or, at best, make-believe optimists. The courage of the + warlike stock may be as hardly tried as before, perhaps more hardly, but + the enemy is self. The hero has become a monk. The man of action is + replaced by the quietist, whose highest aspiration is to be the passive + instrument of the divine Reason. By the Tiber, as by the Ganges, ethical + man admits that the cosmos is too strong for him; and, destroying every + bond which ties him to it by ascetic discipline, he seeks salvation in + absolute renunciation.[Note 18} + </p> + <p> + Modern thought is making a fresh start from the base whence Indian and + Greek philosophy set out; and, the human mind being very much what <span + class="pagenum">78</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink78" id="link78"></a> it was six-and-twenty centuries ago, + there is no ground for wonder if it presents indications of a tendency to + move along the old lines to the same results. + </p> + <p> + We are more than sufficiently familiar with modern pessimism, at least as + a speculation; for I cannot call to mind that any of its present votaries + have sealed their faith by assuming the rags and the bowl of the mendicant + Bhikku, or the cloak and the wallet of the Cynic. The obstacles placed in + the way of sturdy vagrancy by an unphilosophical police have, perhaps, + proved too formidable for philosophical consistency. We also know modern + speculative optimism, with its perfectibility of the species, reign of + peace, and lion and lamb transformation scenes; but one does not hear so + much of it as one did forty years ago; indeed, I imagine it is to be met + with more commonly at the tables of the healthy and wealthy, than in the + congregations of the wise. The majority of us, I apprehend, profess + neither pessimism nor optimism. We hold that the world is neither so good, + nor so bad, as it conceivably might be; and, as most of us have reason, + now and again, to discover that it can be. Those who have failed to + experience the joys that make life worth living are, probably, in as small + a minority as those who have never known the griefs that rob existence of + its savour and turn its richest fruits into mere dust and ashes. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">79</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink79" id="link79"></a> Further, I think I do not err in + assuming that, however diverse their views on philosophical and religious + matters, most men are agreed that the proportion of good and evil in life + may be very sensibly affected by human action. I never heard anybody doubt + that the evil may be thus increased, or diminished; and it would seem to + follow that good must be similarly susceptible of addition or subtraction. + Finally, to my knowledge, nobody professes to doubt that, so far forth as + we possess a power of bettering things, it is our paramount duty to use it + and to train all our intellect and energy to this supreme service of our + kind. + </p> + <p> + Hence the pressing interest of the question, to what extent modern + progress in natural knowledge, and, more especially, the general outcome + of that progress in the doctrine of evolution, is competent to help us in + the great work of helping one another? + </p> + <p> + The propounders of what are called the "ethics of evolution," when the + "evolution of ethics" would usually better express the object of their + speculations, adduce a number of more or less interesting facts and more + or less sound arguments in favour of the origin of the moral sentiments, + in the same way as other natural phenomena, by a process of evolution. I + have little doubt, for my own part, that they are on the right track; but + as the immoral sentiments have no less been evolved, there is, so far, as + much natural sanction for the <span class="pagenum">80</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink80" id="link80"></a> one as the other. The thief and the + murderer follow nature just as much as the philanthropist. Cosmic + evolution may teach us how the good and the evil tendencies of man may + have come about; but, in itself, it is incompetent to furnish any better + reason why what we call good is preferable to what we call evil than we + had before. Some day, I doubt not, we shall arrive at an understanding of + the evolution of the æsthetic faculty; but all the understanding in the + world will neither increase nor diminish the force of the intuition that + this is beautiful and that is ugly. + </p> + <p> + There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called + "ethics of evolution." It is the notion that because, on the whole, + animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by means of + the struggle for existence and the consequent "survival of the fittest;" + therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must look to the same + process to help them towards perfection. I suspect that this fallacy has + arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the phrase "survival of the + fittest." "Fittest" has a connotation of "best;" and about "best" there + hangs a moral flavour. In cosmic nature, however, what is "fittest" + depends upon the conditions. Long since [Note 19}, I ventured to point out + that if our hemisphere were to cool again, the survival of the fittest + might bring about, in the vegetable kingdom, a population of more and more + stunted and humbler <span class="pagenum">81</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink81" id="link81"></a> and humbler organisms, until the + "fittest" that survived might be nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such + microscopic organisms as those which give red snow its colour; while, if + it became hotter, the pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might be + uninhabitable by any animated beings save those that flourish in a + tropical jungle. They, as the fittest, the best adapted to the changed + conditions, would survive. + </p> + <p> + Men in society are undoubtedly subject to the cosmic process. As among + other animals, multiplication goes on without cessation, and involves + severe competition for the means of support. The struggle for existence + tends to eliminate those less fitted to adapt themselves to the + circumstances of their existence. The strongest, the most self-assertive, + tend to tread down the weaker. But the influence of the cosmic process on + the evolution of society is the greater the more rudimentary its + civilization. Social progress means a checking of the cosmic, process at + every step and the substitution for it of another, which may be called the + ethical process; the end of which is not the survival of those who may + happen to be the fittest, in respect of the whole of the conditions which + obtain, but of those who are ethically the best.[Note 20} + </p> + <p> + As I have already urged, the practice of that which is ethically best—what + we call goodness or virtue—involves a course of conduct which, in + all <span class="pagenum">82</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink82" id="link82"></a> respects, is opposed to that which + leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of + ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting + aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that the individual + shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its influence is + directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as to the fitting of + as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the gladiatorial theory of + existence. It demands that each man who enters into the enjoyment of the + advantages of a polity shall be mindful of his debt to those who have + laboriously constructed it; and shall take heed that no act of his weakens + the fabric in which he has been permitted to live. Laws and moral precepts + are directed to the end of curbing the cosmic process and reminding the + individual of his duty to the community, to the protection and influence + of which he owes, if not existence itself, at least the life of something + better than a brutal savage. + </p> + <p> + It is from neglect of these plain considerations that the fanatical + individualism [Note 21} of our time attempts to apply the analogy of + cosmic nature to society. Once more we have a misapplication of the + stoical injunction to follow nature; the duties of the individual to the + state are forgotten, and his tendencies to self-assertion are dignified by + the name of rights. It is seriously debated whether the members of a + community are justified in using <span class="pagenum">83</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink83" id="link83"></a> their combined strength to constrain + one of their number to contribute his share to the maintenance of it; or + even to prevent him from doing his best to destroy it. The struggle for + existence which has done such admirable work in cosmic nature, must, it + appears, be equally beneficent in the ethical sphere. Yet if that which I + have insisted upon is true; if the cosmic process has no sort of relation + to moral ends; if the imitation of it by man is inconsistent with the + first principles of ethics; what becomes of this surprising theory? + </p> + <p> + Let us understand, once for all, that the ethical progress of society + depends, not on imitating the cosmic process, still less in running away + from it, but in combating it. It may seem an audacious proposal thus to + pit the microcosm against the macrocosm and to set man to subdue nature to + his higher ends; but I venture to think that the great intellectual + difference between the ancient times with which we have been occupied and + our day, lies in the solid foundation we have acquired for the hope that + such an enterprise may meet with a certain measure of success. + </p> + <p> + The history of civilization details the steps by which men have succeeded + in building up an artificial world within the cosmos. Fragile reed as he + may be, man, as Pascal says, is a thinking reed: [Note 22} there lies + within him a fund of energy operating intelligently and so far akin to + that which pervades the universe, that it is competent <span + class="pagenum">84</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink84" id="link84"></a> to influence and modify the cosmic + process. In virtue of his intelligence, the dwarf bends the Titan to his + will. In every family, in every polity that has been established, the + cosmic process in man has been restrained and otherwise modified by law + and custom; in surrounding nature, it has been similarly influenced by the + art of the shepherd, the agriculturist, the artisan. As civilization has + advanced, so has the extent of this interference increased; until the + organized and highly developed sciences and arts of the present day have + endowed man with a command over the course of non-human nature greater + than that once attributed to the magicians. The most impressive, I might + say startling, of these changes have been brought about in the course of + the last two centuries; while a right comprehension of the process of life + and of the means of influencing its manifestations is only just dawning + upon us. We do not yet see our way beyond generalities; and we are + befogged by the obtrusion of false analogies and crude anticipations. But + Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, have all had to pass through similar + phases, before they reached the stage at which their influence became an + important factor in human affairs. Physiology, Psychology, Ethics, + Political Science, must submit to the same ordeal. Yet it seems to me + irrational to doubt that, at no distant period, they will work as great a + revolution in the sphere of practice. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">85</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink85" id="link85"></a> The theory of evolution encourages + no millennial anticipations. If, for millions of years, our globe has + taken the upward road, yet, some time, the summit will be reached and the + downward route will be commenced. The most daring imagination will hardly + venture upon the suggestion that the power and the intelligence of man can + ever arrest the procession of the great year. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent, necessary + for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of severe + training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries will + suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. Ethical nature + may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and powerful enemy as + long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I see no limit to the + extent to which intelligence and will, guided by sound principles of + investigation, and organized in common effort, may modify the conditions + of existence, for a period longer than that now covered by history. And + much may be done to change the nature of man himself. [Note 23} The + intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the faithful + guardian of the flock ought to be able to do something towards curbing the + instincts of savagery in civilized men. + </p> + <p> + But if we may permit ourselves at larger hope of abatement of the + essential evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the infancy + of <span class="pagenum">86</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink86" id="link86"></a> exact knowledge, faced the problem + of existence more than a score of centuries ago, I deem it an essential + condition of the realization of that hope that we should cast aside the + notion that the escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life. + </p> + <p> + We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when + good and evil could be met with the same "frolic welcome;" the attempts to + escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in flight from the + battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the youthful overconfidence + and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage. We are grown men, and + must play the man + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "...strong in will + To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield," +</pre> + <p> + cherishing the good that falls in our way, and bearing the evil, in and + around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. So far, we all may + strive in one faith towards one hope: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "... It may be that the gulfs will wash us down, + It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, + + ... but something ere the end, + Some work of noble note may yet be done." [Note 24} +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">187</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink187" id="link187"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_NOTE" id="link2H_NOTE"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + NOTES. + </h2> + <h3> + Note 1 (p. 49). + </h3> + <p> + I have been careful to speak of the "appearance" of cyclical evolution + presented by living things; for, on critical examination, it will be found + that the course of vegetable and of animal life is not exactly represented + by, the figure of a cycle which returns into itself. What actually + happens, in all but the lowest organisms, is that one part of the growing + germ (A) gives rise to tissues and organs; while another part (B) remains + in its primitive condition, or is but slightly modified. The moiety A + becomes the body of the adult and, sooner or later, perishes, while + portions of the moiety B are detached and, as offspring, continue the life + of the species. Thus, if we trace back an organism along the direct line + of descent from its remotest ancestor, B, as a whole, has never suffered + death; portions of it, only, have been cast off and died in each + individual offspring. + </p> + <p> + Everybody is familiar with the way in which the "suckers" of a strawberry + plant behave. A thin cylinder of living tissue keeps on growing at its + free end, until it attains a considerable length. At <span class="pagenum">88</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink88" id="link88"></a> successive intervals, it develops + buds which grow into strawberry plants; and these become independent by + the death of the parts of the sucker which connect them. The rest of the + sucker, however, may go on living and growing indefinitely, and, + circumstances remaining favourable, there is no obvious reason why it + should ever die. The living substance B, in a manner, answers to the + sucker. If we could restore the continuity which was once possessed by the + portions of B, contained in all the individuals of a direct line of + descent, they would form a sucker, or stolon, on which these individuals + would be strung, and which would never have wholly died. + </p> + <p> + A species remains unchanged so long as the potentiality of development + resident in B remains unaltered; so long, e.g., as the buds of the + strawberry sucker tend to become typical strawberry plants. In the case of + the progressive evolution of a species, the developmental potentiality of + B becomes of a higher and higher order. In retrogressive evolution, the + contrary would be the case. The phenomena of atavism seem to show that + retrogressive evolution that is, the return of a species to one or other + of its earlier forms, is a possibility to be reckoned with. The + simplification of structure, which is so common in the parasitic members + of a group, however, does not properly come under this head. The + worm-like, limbless Lernoea has no resemblance to any of the stages of + development of the many-limbed active animals of the group to which it + belongs. <span class="pagenum">89</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink89" id="link89"></a> Note 2 (p. 49). + </p> + <p> + Heracleitus says,[Greek phrase Potamo gar ouk esti dis embenai to suto] + but, to be strictly accurate, the river remains, though the water of which + it is composed changes—just as a man retains his identity though the + whole substance of his body is constantly shifting. + </p> + <p> + This is put very well by Seneca (Ep. lvii. i. 20, Ed. Ruhkopf): "Corpora + nostra rapiuntur fluminum more, quidquid vides currit cum tempore; nihil + ex his quae videmus manet. Ego ipse dum loquor mutari ista, mutatus sum. + Hoc est quod ait Heraclitus 'In idem flumen bis non descendimus.' Manet + idem fluminis nomen, aqua transmissa est. Hoc in amne manifestius est quam + in homine, sed nos quoque non minus velox cursus praetervehit." + </p> + <p> + Note 3 (p. 55). + </p> + <p> + "Multa bona nostra nobis nocent, timoris enim tormentum memorin reducit, + providentia anticipat. Nemo tantum praesentibus miser est." (Seneca, Ed. + v. 7.) + </p> + <p> + Among the many wise and weighty aphorisms of the Roman Bacon, few sound + the realities of life more deeply than "Multa bona nostra nobis nocent." + If there is a soul of good in things evil, it is at least equally true + that there is a soul of evil in things good: for things, like men, have + "les defauts de leurs qualites." It is one of the last lessons one learns + from experience, but not the least important, that a <span class="pagenum">90</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink90" id="link90"></a> heavy tax is levied upon all forms + of success, and that failure is one of the commonest disguises assumed by + blessings. + </p> + <p> + Note 4 (p. 60). + </p> + <p> + "There is within the body of every man a soul which, at the death of the + body, flies away from it like a bird out of a cage, and enters upon a new + life ... either in one of the heavens or one of the hells or on this + earth. The only exception is the rare case of a man having in this life + acquired a true knowledge of God. According to the pre-Buddhistic theory, + the soul of such a man goes along the path of the Gods to God, and, being + united with Him, enters upon an immortal life in which his individuality + is not extinguished. In the latter theory his soul is directly absorbed + into the Great Soul, is lost in it, and has no longer any independent + existence. The souls of all other men enter, after the death of the body, + upon a new existence in one or other of the many different modes of being. + If in heaven or hell, the soul itself becomes a god or demon without + entering a body; all superhuman beings, save the great gods, being looked + upon as not eternal, but merely temporary creatures. If the soul returns + to earth it may or may not enter a new body; and this either of a human + being, an animal, a plant, or even a material object. For all these are + possessed of souls, and there is no essential difference between these + souls and the souls of men—all being alike mere sparks of the Great + Spirit, who is <span class="pagenum">91</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink91" id="link91"></a> the only real existence." (Rhys + Davids, Hibbert Lectures, 1881, p. 83.) + </p> + <p> + For what I have said about Indian Philosophy, I am particularly indebted + to the luminous exposition of primitive Buddhism and its relations to + earlier Hindu thought, which is given by Prof. Rhys Davids in his + remarkable Hibbert Lectures for 1881, and Buddhism (1890). The only + apology I can offer for the freedom with which I have borrowed from him in + these notes, is my desire to leave no doubt as to my indebtedness. I have + also found Dr. Oldenberg's Buddha (Ed. 2, 1890) very helpful. The origin + of the theory of transmigration stated in the above extract is an unsolved + problem. That it differs widely from the Egyptian metempsychosis is clear. + In fact, since men usually people the other world with phantoms of this, + the Egyptian doctrine would seem to presuppose the Indian as a more + archaic belief. + </p> + <p> + Prof. Rhys Davids has fully insisted upon the ethical importance of the + transmigration theory. "One of the latest speculations now being put + forward among ourselves would seek to explain each man's character, and + even his outward condition in life, by the character he inherited from his + ancestors, a character gradually formed during a practically endless + series of past existences, modified only by the conditions into which he + was born, those very conditions being also, in like manner, the last + result of a practically endless series of past causes. Gotama's; + speculation might be stated in the same words. But it attempted also to + explain, in a way different from <span class="pagenum">92</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink92" id="link92"></a> that which would be adopted by the + exponents of the modern theory, that strange problem which it is also the + motive of the wonderful drama of the book of Job to explain—the fact + that the actual distribution here of good fortune, or misery, is entirely + independent of the moral qualities which men call good or bad. We cannot + wonder that a teacher, whose whole system was so essentially an ethical + reformation, should have felt it incumbent upon him to seek an explanation + of this apparent injustice. And all the more so, since the belief he had + inherited, the theory of the transmigration of souls, had provided a + solution perfectly sufficient to any one who could accept that belief." + (Hibbert Lectures, p. 93.) I should venture to suggest the substitution of + "largely" for "entirely" in the foregoing passage. Whether a ship makes a + good or a bad voyage is largely independent of the conduct of the captain, + but it is largely affected by that conduct. Though powerless before a + hurricane he may weather a bad gale. + </p> + <p> + Note 5 (P. 61). + </p> + <p> + The outward condition of the soul is, in each new birth, determined by its + actions in a previous birth; but by each action in succession, and not by + the balance struck after the evil has been reckoned off against the good. + A good man who has once uttered a slander may spend a hundred thousand + years as a god, in consequence of his goodness, and when the power of his + good actions is exhausted, may be born <span class="pagenum">93</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink93" id="link93"></a> as a dumb man on account of his + transgression; and a robber who has once done an act of mercy, may come to + life in a king's body as the result of his virtue, and then suffer + torments for ages in hell or as a ghost without a body, or be re-born many + times as a slave or an outcast, in consequence of his evil life. + </p> + <p> + "There is no escape, according to this theory, from the result of any act; + though it is only the consequences of its own acts that each soul has to + endure. The force has been set in motion by itself and can never stop; and + its effect can never be foretold. If evil, it can never be modified or + prevented, for it depends on a cause already completed, that is now for + ever beyond the soul's control. There is even no continuing consciousness, + no memory of the past that could guide the soul to any knowledge of its + fate. The only advantage open to it is to add in this life to the sum of + its good actions, that it may bear fruit with the rest. And even this can + only happen in some future life under essentially them same conditions as + the present one: subject, like the present one, to old age, decay, and + death; and affording opportunity, like the present one, for the commission + of errors, ignorances, or sins, which in their turn must inevitably + produce their due effect of sickness, disability, or woe. Thus is the soul + tossed about from life to life, from billow to billow in the great ocean + of transmigration. And there is no escape save for the very few, who, + during their birth as men, attain to a right knowledge of the Great + Spirit: and thus enter into immortality, or, as the later <span + class="pagenum">94</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink94" id="link94"></a> philosophers taught, are absorbed + into the Divine Essence." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 85, 86.) + </p> + <p> + The state after death thus imagined by the Hindu philosophers has a + certain analogy to the purgatory of the Roman Church; except that escape + from it is dependent, not on a divine decree modified, it may be, by + sacerdotal or saintly intercession, but by the acts of the individual + himself; and that while ultimate emergence into heavenly bliss of the + good, or well-prayed for, Catholic is professedly assured, the chances in + favour of the attainment of absorption, or of Nirvana, by any individual + Hindu are extremely small. + </p> + <p> + Note 6 (P. 62). + </p> + <p> + "That part of the then prevalent transmigration theory which could not be + proved false seemed to meet a deeply felt necessity, seemed to supply a + moral cause which would explain the unequal distribution here of happiness + or woe, so utterly inconsistent with the present characters of men." + Gautama "still therefore talked of men's previous existence, but by no + means in the way that he is generally represented to have done." What he + taught was "the transmigration of character." He held that after the death + of any being, whether human or not, there survived nothing at all but that + being's "Karma," the result, that is, of its mental and bodily actions. + Every individual, whether human or divine, was the last inheritor and the + last result of the Karma of a long series of past individuals—"a + series <span class="pagenum">95</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink95" id="link95"></a> so long that its beginning is beyond + the reach of calculation, and its end will be coincident with the + destruction of the world." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, p. 92.) + </p> + <p> + In the theory of evolution, the tendency of a germ to develop according to + a certain specific type, e.g. of the kidney bean seed to grow into a plant + having all the characters of Phaseolus vulgaris, is its "Karma." It is the + "last inheritor and the last result" of all the conditions that have + affected a line of ancestry which goes back for many millions of years to + the time when life first appeared on the earth. The moiety B of the + substance of the bean plant (see Note 1) is the last link in a once + continuous chain extending from the primitive living substance: and the + characters of the successive species to which it has given rise are the + manifestations of its gradually modified Karma. As Prof. Rhys Davids aptly + says, the snowdrop "is a snowdrop and not an oak, and just that kind of + snowdrop, because it is the outcome of the Karma of an endless series of + past existences." (Hibbert Lectures, p. 114.) + </p> + <p> + Note 7 (p. 64). + </p> + <p> + "It is interesting to notice that the very point which is the weakness of + the theory—the supposed concentration of the effect of the Karma in + one new being—presented itself to the early Buddhists themselves as + a difficulty. They avoided it, partly by explaining that it was a + particular thirst in the creature dying (a craving, Tanha, which plays + other <span class="pagenum">96</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink96" id="link96"></a> wise a great part in the Buddhist + theory) which actually caused the birth of the new individual who was to + inherit the Karma of the former one. But, how this too place, how the + craving desire produced this effect, was acknowledged to be a mystery + patent only to a Buddha." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, P. 95.) + </p> + <p> + Among the many parallelisms of Stoicism and Buddhism, it is curious to + find one for this Tanha, "thirst," or "craving desire" for life. Seneca + writes (Epist. lxxvi. 18): "Si enim ullum aliud est bonum quam honestum, + sequetur nos aviditas vitae aviditas rerum vitam instruentium: quod est + intolerabile infinitum, vagum." + </p> + <p> + Note 8 (P. 66). + </p> + <p> + "The distinguishing characteristic of Buddhism was that it started a new + line, that it looked upon the deepest questions men have to solve from an + entirely different standpoint. It swept away from the field of its vision + the whole of the great soul theory which had hitherto so completely filled + and dominated the minds of the superstitious and the thoughtful alike. For + the first time in the history of the world, it proclaimed a salvation + which each man could gain for himself and by himself, in this world, + during this life, without any the least reference to God, or to Gods, + either great or small. Like the Upanishads, it placed the first importance + on knowledge; but it was no longer a knowledge of God, it was a clear + perception of the real nature, as <span class="pagenum">97</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink97" id="link97"></a> they supposed it to be, of men and + things. And it added to the necessity of knowledge, the necessity of + purity, of courtesy, of uprightness, of peace and of a universal love far + reaching, grown great and beyond measure." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, + p. 29.) + </p> + <p> + The contemporary Greek philosophy takes an analogous direction. According + to Heracleitus, the universe was made neither by Gods nor men; but, from + all eternity, has been, and to all eternity, will be, immortal fire, + glowing and fading in due measure. (Mullach, Heracliti Fragmenta, 27.) And + the part assigned by his successors, the Stoics, to the knowledge and the + volition of the "wise man" made their Divinity (for logical thinkers) a + subject for compliments, rather than a power to be reckoned with. In Hindu + speculation the "Arahat," still more the "Buddha," becomes the superior of + Brahma; the stoical "wise man" is, at least, the equal of Zeus. + </p> + <p> + Berkeley affirms over and over again that no idea can be formed of a soul + or spirit—"If any man shall doubt of the truth of what is here + delivered, let him but reflect and try if he can form any idea of power or + active being; and whether he hath ideas of two principal powers marked by + the names of will and understanding distinct from each other, as well as + from a third idea of substance or being in general, with a relative notion + of its supporting or being the subject of the aforesaid power, which is + signified by the name soul or spirit. This is what some hold but, so far + as I can see, the words will, soul, spirit, do not stand for different + ideas or, in truth, for any idea at all, but for something which is very + different from ideas, and which, being an agent, cannot be like unto or + represented by Any idea whatever [though it must be owned at the same + time, that we have some notion of soul, spirit, and the operations of the + mind, such as willing, loving, hating, inasmuch as we know or understand + the meaning of these words". (The Principles of Human Knowledge, lxxvi. + See also sections lxxxix., cxxxv., cxlv.) + </p> + <p> + It is open to discussion, I think, whether it is possible to have "some + notion" of that of which we can form no "idea." + </p> + <p> + Berkeley attaches several predicates to the "perceiving active being mind, + spirit, soul or myself" (Parts I. II.) It is said, for example, to be + "indivisible, incorporeal, unextended, and incorruptible." The predicate + indivisible, though negative in form, has highly positive consequences. + For, if "perceiving active being" is strictly indivisible, man's soul must + be one with the Divine spirit: which is good Hindu or Stoical doctrine, + but hardly orthodox Christian philosophy. If, on the other hand, the + "substance" of active perceiving "being" is actually divided into the one + Divine and innumerable human entities, how can the predicate "indivisible" + be rigorously applicable to it? + </p> + <p> + Taking the words cited, as they stand, the amount to the denial of the + possibility of any knowledge of substance. "Matter" having been resolved + into mere affections of "spirit", "spirit" melts away into an admittedly + inconceivable and unknowable <span class="pagenum">99</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink99" id="link99"></a> hypostasis of thought and power—consequently + the existence of anything in the universe beyond a flow of phenomena is a + purely hypothetical assumption. Indeed a pyrrhonist might raise the + objection that if "esse" is "percipi" spirit itself can have no existence + except as a perception, hypostatized into a "self," or as a perception of + some other spirit. In the former case, objective reality vanishes; in the + latter, there would seem to be the need of an infinite series of spirits + each perceiving the others. + </p> + <p> + It is curious to observe how very closely the phraseology of Berkeley + sometimes approaches that of the Stoics: thus (cxlviii.) "It seems to be a + general pretence of the unthinking herd that they cannot see God. . . But, + alas, we need only open our eyes to see the Sovereign Lord of all things + with a more full and clear view, than we do any of our fellow-creatures . + . . we do at all times and in all places perceive manifest tokens of the + Divinity: everything we see, hear, feel, or any wise perceive by sense, + being a sign or effect of the power of God" . . . cxlix. "It is therefore + plain, that nothing can be more evident to any one that is capable of the + least reflection, than the existence of God, or a spirit who is intimately + present to our minds, producing in them all that variety of ideas or + sensations which continually affect us, on whom we have an absolute and + entire dependence, in short, in whom we live and move and have our being." + cl. "[But you will say hath Nature no share in the production of natural + things, and must they all be ascribed to the immediate and sole operation + of God? ... if by Nature is <span class="pagenum">100</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink100" id="link100"></a> meant some being distinct from + God, as well as from the laws of nature and things perceived by sense, I + must confess that word is to me an empty sound, without any intelligible + meaning annexed to it.] Nature in this acceptation is a vain Chimaera + introduced by those heathens, who had not just notions of the omnipresence + and infinite perfection of God." + </p> + <p> + Compare Seneca (De Beneficiis, iv. 7): + </p> + <p> + "Natura, inquit, haec mihi praestat. Non intelligis te, quum hoc dicis, + mutare Nomen Deo? Quid enim est aliud Natura quam Deus, et divina ratio, + toti mundo et partibus ejus inserta? Quoties voles tibi licet aliter hunc + auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare, et Jovem illum optimum et maximum + rite dices, et tonantem, et statorem: qui non, ut historici tradiderunt, + ex eo quod post votum susceptum acies Romanorum fugientum stetit, sed quod + stant beneficio ejus omnina, stator, stabilitorque est: hunc eundem et + fatum si dixeris, non mentieris, nam quum fatum nihil aliud est, quam + series implexa causarum, ille est prima omnium causa, ea qua caeterae + pendent." It would appear, therefore, that the good Bishop is somewhat + hard upon the "heathen," of whose words his own might be a paraphrase. + </p> + <p> + There is yet another direction in which Berkeley's philosophy, I will not + say agrees with Gautama's, but at any rate helps to make a fundamental + dogma of Buddhism intelligible. + </p> + <p> + "I find I can excite ideas in my mind at pleasure, and vary and shift the + scene as often as I think fit. It is no more than willing, and straightway + this or that idea arises in my fancy: and by the same power <span + class="pagenum">101</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink101" id="link101"></a> it is obliterated, and makes way + for another. This making and unmaking of ideas doth very properly + denominate the mind active. This much is certain and grounded on + experience. . ." (Principles, xxviii.) + </p> + <p> + A good many of us, I fancy, have reason to think that experience tells + them very much the contrary; and are painfully familiar with the obsession + of the mind by ideas which cannot be obliterated by any effort of the will + and steadily refuse to make way for others. But what I desire to point out + is that if Gautama was equally confident that he could "make and unmake" + ideas—then, since he had resolved self into a group of ideal + phantoms—the possibility of abolishing self by volition naturally + followed. + </p> + <p> + Note 9 (P. 68). + </p> + <p> + According to Buddhism, the relation of one life to the next is merely that + borne by the flame of one lamp to the flame of another lamp which is set + alight by it. To the "Arahat" or adept "no outward form, no compound + thing, no creature, no creator, no existence of any kind, must appear to + be other than a temporary collocation of its component parts, fated + inevitably to be dissolved."—(Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, p. + 211.) + </p> + <p> + The self is nothing but a group of phenomena held together by the desire + of life; when that desire shall have ceased, "the Karma of that particular + chain of lives will cease to influence any longer any distinct individual, + and there will be no more birth; <span class="pagenum">102</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink102" id="link102"></a> for birth, decay, and death, + grief, lamentation, and despair will have come, so far as regards that + chain of lives, for ever to an end." + </p> + <p> + The state of mind of the Arahat in which the desire of life has ceased is + Nirvana. Dr. Oldenberg has very acutely and patiently considered the + various interpretations which have been attached to "Nirvana" in the work + to which I have referred (pp. 285 et seq.). The result of his and other + discussions of the question may I think be briefly stated thus: + </p> + <p> + 1. Logical deduction from the predicates attached to the term "Nirvana" + strips it of all reality, conceivability, or perceivability, whether by + Gods or men. For all practical purposes, therefore, it comes to exactly + the same thing as annihilation. + </p> + <p> + 2. But it is not annihilation in the ordinary sense, inasmuch as it could + take place in the living Arahat or Buddha. + </p> + <p> + 3. And, since, for the faithful Buddhist, that which was abolished in the + Arahat was the possibility of further pain, sorrow, or sin; and that which + was attained was perfect peace; his mind directed itself exclusively to + this joyful consummation, and personified the negation of all conceivable + existence and of all pain into a positive bliss. This was all the more + easy, as Gautama refused to give any dogmatic definition of Nirvana. There + is something analogous in the way in which people commonly talk of the + "happy release" of a man who has been long suffering from mortal disease. + According to their own views, it must always be extremely doubtful whether + the man will be any happier after the "release" <span class="pagenum">103</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink103" id="link103"></a> than before. But they do not + choose to look at the matter in this light. + </p> + <p> + The popular notion that, with practical, if not metaphysical, annihilation + in view, Buddhism must needs be a sad and gloomy faith seems to be + inconsistent with fact; on the contrary, the prospect of Nirvana fills the + true believer, not merely with cheerfulness, but with an ecstatic desire + to reach it. + </p> + <p> + Note 10 (P. 68.) + </p> + <p> + The influence of the picture of the personal qualities of Gautama, + afforded by the legendary anecdotes which rapidly grew into a biography of + the Buddha; and by the birth stories, which coalesced with the current + folk-lore, and were intelligible to all the world, doubtless played a + great part. Further, although Gautama appears not to have meddled with the + caste system, he refused to recognize any distinction, save that of + perfection in the way of salvation, among his followers; and by such + teaching, no less than by the inculcation of love and benevolence to all + sentient beings, he practically levelled every social, political, and + racial barrier. A third important condition was the organization of the + Buddhists into monastic communities for the stricter professors, while the + laity were permitted a wide indulgence in practice and were allowed to + hope for accommodation in some of the temporary abodes of bliss. With a + few hundred thousand years of immediate paradise in sight, the average man + could be content to shut his eyes to what might follow. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">104</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink104" id="link104"></a> + </p> + <p> + Note 11 (P. 69). + </p> + <p> + In ancient times it was the fashion, even among the Greeks themselves, to + derive all Greek wisdom from Eastern sources; not long ago it was as + generally denied that Greek philosophy had any connection, with Oriental + speculation; it seems probable, however, that the truth lies between these + extremes. + </p> + <p> + The Ionian intellectual movement does not stand alone. It is only one of + several sporadic indications of the working of some powerful mental + ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the Aegean and + Northern Hindostan during the eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries before + our era. In these three hundred years, prophetism attained its apogee + among the Semites of Palestine; Zoroasterism grew and became the creed of + a conquering race, the Iranic Aryans; Buddhism rose and spread with + marvellous rapidity among the Aryans of Hindostan; while scientific + naturalism took its rise among the Aryans of Ionia. It would be difficult + to find another three centuries which have given birth to four events of + equal importance. All the principal existing religions of mankind have + grown out of the first three: while the fourth is the little spring, now + swollen into the great stream of positive science. So far as physical + possibilities go, the prophet Jeremiah and the oldest Ionian philosopher + might have met and conversed. If they had done so, they would probably + have disagreed a good deal; and it is interesting to reflect that their + discussions might have <span class="pagenum">105</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink105" id="link105"></a> embraced Questions which, at the + present day, are still hotly controverted. + </p> + <p> + The old Ionian philosophy, then, seems to be only one of many results of a + stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the Aryan and the Semitic + populations of Western Asia. The conditions of this general awakening were + doubtless manifold; but there is one which modern research has brought + into great prominence. This is the existence of extremely ancient and + highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + It is now known that, more than a thousand—perhaps more than two + thousand—years before the sixth century B.C., civilization had + attained a relatively high pitch among the Babylonians and the Egyptians. + Not only had painting, sculpture, architecture, and the industrial arts + reached a remarkable development; but in Chaldaea, at any rate, a vast + amount of knowledge had been accumulated and methodized, in the + departments of grammar, mathematics, astronomy, and natural history. Where + such traces of the scientific spirit are visible, naturalistic speculation + is rarely far off, though, so far as I know, no remains of an Accacian, or + Egyptian, philosophy, properly so called, have yet been recovered. + </p> + <p> + Geographically, Chaldaea occupied a central position among the oldest + seats of civilization. Commerce, largely aided by the intervention of + those colossal pedlars, the Phoenicians, had brought Chaldaea into + connection with all of them, for a thousand years before the epoch at + present under consideration. And in the ninth, eighth and seventh <span + class="pagenum">106</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink106" id="link106"></a> centuries, the Assyrian, the + depositary of Chaldaean civilization, as the Macedonian and the Roman, at + a later date, were the depositories of Greek culture, had added + irresistible force to the other agencies for the wide distribution of + Chaldaean literature, art, and science. + </p> + <p> + I confess that I find it difficult to imagine that the Greek immigrant—who + stood in somewhat the same relation to the Babylonians and the Egyptians + as the later Germanic barbarians to the Romans of the Empire—should + not have been immensely influenced by the new life with which they became + acquainted. But there is abundant direct evidence of the magnitude of this + influence in certain spheres. I suppose it is not doubted that the Greek + went to school with the Oriental for his primary instruction in reading, + writing, and arithmetic; and that Semitic theology supplied him with some + of his mythological lore. Nor does there now seem to be any question about + the large indebtedness of Greek art to that of Chaldaea and that of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + But the manner of that indebtedness is very instructive. The obligation is + clear, but its limits are no less definite. Nothing better exemplifies the + indomitable originality of the Greeks than the relations of their art to + that of the Orientals. Far from being subdued into mere imitators by the + technical excellence of their teachers, they lost no time in bettering the + instruction they received, using their models as mere stepping stones on + the way to those unsurpassed and unsurpassable achievements which are all + their own. The shibboleth of Art is <span class="pagenum">107</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink107" id="link107"></a> the human figure. The ancient + Chaldaeans and Egyptians, like the modern Japanese, did wonders in the + representation of birds and quadrupeds; they even attained to something + more than respectability in human portraiture. But their utmost efforts + never brought them within range of the best Greek embodiments of the grace + of womanhood, or of the severer beauty of manhood. + </p> + <p> + It is worth while to consider the probable effect upon the acute and + critical Greek mind of the conflict of ideas, social, political, and + theological, which arose out of the conditions of life in the Asiatic + colonies. The Ionian polities had passed through the whole gamut of social + and political changes, from patriarchal and occasionally oppressive + kingship to rowdy and still more burdensome mobship—no doubt with + infinitely eloquent and copious argumentation, on both sides, at every + stage of their progress towards that arbitrament of force which settles + most political questions. The marvellous speculative faculty, latent in + the Ionian, had come in contact with Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Phoenician + theologies and cosmogonies; with the illuminati of Orphism and the + fanatics and dreamers of the Mysteries; possibly with Buddhism and + Zoroasterism; possibly even with Judaism. And it has been observed that + the mutual contradictions of antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to play + a large part among the generative agencies of naturalism. + </p> + <p> + Thus, various external influences may have contributed to the rise of + philosophy among the Ionian Greeks of the sixth century. But the + assimilative <span class="pagenum">108</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink108" id="link108"></a> capacity of the Greek mind—its + power of Hellenizing whatever it touched—has here worked so + effectually, that, so far as I can learn, no indubitable traces of such + extraneous contributions are now allowed to exist by the most + authoritative historians of Philosophy. Nevertheless, I think it must be + admitted that the coincidences between the Heracleito-stoical doctrines + and those of the older Hindu philosophy are extremely remarkable. In both, + the cosmos pursues an eternal succession of cyclical changes. The great + year, answering to the Kalpa, covers an entire cycle from the origin of + the universe as a fluid to its dissolution in fire—"Humor initium, + ignis exitus mundi," as Seneca has it. In both systems, there is immanent + in the cosmos a source of energy, Brahma, or the Logos, which works + according to fixed laws. The individual soul is an efflux of this + world-spirit, and returns to it. Perfection is attainable only by + individual effort, through ascetic discipline, and is rather a state of + painlessness than of happiness; if indeed it can be said to be a state of + anything, save the negation of perturbing emotion. The hatchment motto "In + Coelo Quies" would serve both Hindu and Stoic; and absolute quiet is not + easily distinguishable from annihilation. + </p> + <p> + Zoroasterism, which, geographically, occupies a position intermediate + between Hellenism and Hinduism, agrees with the latter in recognizing the + essential evil of the cosmos; but differs from both in its intensely + anthropomorphic personification of the two antagonistic principles, to the + one of which it ascribes all the good; and, to the other, all the evil. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">109</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink109" id="link109"></a> In fact, it assumes the existence + of two worlds, one good and one bad; the latter created by the evil power + for the purpose of damaging the former. The existing cosmos is a mere + mixture of the two, and the "last judgment" is a root-and-branch + extirpation of the work of Ahriman. + </p> + <p> + Note 12 (p. 69). + </p> + <p> + There is no snare in which the feet of a modern student of ancient lore + are more easily entangled, than that which is spread by the similarity of + the language of antiquity to modern modes of expression. I do not presume + to interpret the obscurest of Greek philosophers; all I wish is to point + out, that his words, in the sense accepted by competent interpreters, fit + modern ideas singularly well. + </p> + <p> + So far as the general theory of evolution goes there is no difficulty. The + aphorism about the river; the figure of the child playing on the shore; + the kingship and fatherhood of strife, seem decisive. The [Greek phrase + osod ano kato mie] expresses, with singular aptness, the cyclical aspect + of the one process of organic evolution in individual plants and animals: + yet it may be a question whether the Heracleitean strife included any + distinct conception of the struggle for existence. Again, it is tempting + to compare the part played by the Heracleitean "fire" with that ascribed + by the moderns to heat, or rather to that cause of motion of which heat is + one expression; and a little ingenuity might find a foreshadowing of the + doctrine of the conservation of energy, in the saying <span class="pagenum">110</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink110" id="link110"></a> that all the things are changed + into fire and fire into all things, as gold into goods and goods into + gold. + </p> + <p> + Note 13 (p. 71). + </p> + <p> + Pope's lines in the Essay on Man(Ep. i. 267-8), + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + All are but parts of one stupendous whole, + Whose body Nature is, and God the soul," +</pre> + <p> + simply paraphrase Seneca's "quem in hoc mundo locum deus obtinet, hunc in + homine animus: quod est illic materia, id nobis corpus est."—(Ep. + lxv. 24); which again is a Latin version of the old Stoical doctrine, + [Greek phrase eis apan tou kosou meros diekei o nous, kataper aph emon e + psuche]. + </p> + <p> + So far as the testimony for the universality of what ordinary people call + "evil" goes, there is nothing better than the writings of the Stoics + themselves. They might serve, as a storehouse for the epigrams of the + ultra-pessimists. Heracleitus (circa 500 B.C.) says just as hard things + about ordinary humanity as his disciples centuries later; and there really + seems no need to seek for the causes of this dark view of life in the + circumstances of the time of Alexander's successors or of the early + Emperors of Rome. To the man with an ethical ideal, the world, including + himself, will always seem full of evil. + </p> + <p> + Note 14 (P. 73). + </p> + <p> + I use the well-known phrase, but decline responsibility for the libel upon + Epicurus, whose doctrines <span class="pagenum">111</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink111" id="link111"></a> were far less compatible with + existence in a stye than those of the Cynics. If it were steadily borne + in mind that the conception of the "flesh" as the source of evil, and the + great saying "Initium est salutis notitia peccati," are the property of + Epicurus, fewer illusions about Epicureanism would pass muster for + accepted truth. + </p> + <p> + Note 15 (P. 75). + </p> + <p> + The Stoics said that man was a [Greek phrase zoon logikon politikon + philallelon], or a rational, a political, and an altruistic or + philanthropic animal. In their view, his higher nature tended to develop + in these three directions, as a plant tends to grow up into its typical + form. Since, without the introduction of any consideration of pleasure or + pain, whatever thwarted the realization of its type by the plant might be + said to be bad, and whatever helped it good; so virtue, in the Stoical + sense, as the conduct which tended to the attainment of the rational, + political, and philanthropic ideal, was good in itself, and irrespectively + of its emotional concomitants. + </p> + <p> + Man is an "animal sociale communi bono genitum." The safety of society + depends upon practical recognition of the fact. "Salva autem esse societas + nisi custodia et amore partium non possit," says Seneca. (De. Ira, ii. + 31.) + </p> + <p> + Note 16 (P. 75). + </p> + <p> + The importance of the physical doctrine of the Stoics lies in its clear + recognition of the universality <span class="pagenum">112</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink112" id="link112"></a> of the law of causation, with its + corollary, the order of nature: the exact form of that order is an + altogether secondary consideration. + </p> + <p> + Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the incompatibility of + pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt about the immortality of the + soul, with religion and morality, is to be held as an axiomatic truth. I + confess that I have a certain difficulty in accepting this dogma. For the + Stoics were notoriously materialists and pantheists of the most extreme + character; and while no strict Stoic believed in the eternal duration of + the individual soul, some even denied its persistence after death. Yet it + is equally certain that of all gentile philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the + highest ethical development, is animated by the most religious spirit, and + has exerted the profoundest influence upon the moral and religious + development not merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the + moderns down to our own day. + </p> + <p> + Seneca was claimed as a Christian and placed among the saints by the + fathers of the early Christian Church; and the genuineness of a + correspondence between him and the apostle Paul has been hotly maintained + in our own time, by orthodox writers. That the letters, as we possess + them, are worthless forgeries is obvious; and writers as wide apart as + Baur and Lightfoot agree that the whole story is devoid of foundation. + </p> + <p> + The dissertation of the late Bishop of Durham (Epistle to the Philippians) + is particularly worthy of study, apart from this question, on account of + <span class="pagenum">113</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink113" id="link113"></a> evidence which it supplies of the + numerous similarities of thought between Seneca and the writer of the + Pauline epistles. When it is remembered that the writer of the Acts puts a + quotation from Aratus, or Cleanthes, into the mouth of the apostle; and + that Tarsus was a great seat of philosophical and especially stoical + learning (Chrysippus himself was a native of the adjacent town of Soli), + there is no difficulty in understanding the origin of these resemblances. + See, on this subject, Sir Alexander Grant's dissertation in his edition of + The Ethics of Aristotle (where there is an interesting reference to the + stoical character of Bishop Butler's ethics), the concluding pages of Dr. + Weygoldt's instructive little work Die Philosophie der Stoa, and + Aubertin's Seneque et Saint Paul. + </p> + <p> + It is surprising that a writer of Dr. Lightfoot's stamp should speak of + Stoicism as a philosophy of "despair." Surely, rather, it was a philosophy + of men who, having cast off all illusions, and the childishness of despair + among them, were minded to endure in patience whatever conditions the + cosmic process might create, so long as those conditions were compatible + with the progress towards virtue, which alone, for them, conferred a + worthy object on existence. There is no note of despair in the stoical + declaration that the perfected "wise man" is the equal of Zeus in + everything but the duration of his existence. And, in my judgment, there + is as little pride about it, often as it serves for the text of discourses + on stoical arrogance. Grant the stoical postulate that there is no good + except virtue; grant that <span class="pagenum">114</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink114" id="link114"></a> the perfected wise man is + altogether virtuous, in consequence of being guided in all things by the + reason, which is an effluence of Zeus, and there seems no escape from the + stoical conclusion. + </p> + <p> + Note 17 (p. 76). + </p> + <p> + Our "Apathy" carries such a different set of connotations from its Greek + original that I have ventured on using the latter as a technical term. + </p> + <p> + Note 18 (P. 77). + </p> + <p> + Many of the stoical philosophers recommended their disciples to take an + active share in public affairs; and in the Roman world, for several + centuries, the best public men were strongly inclined to Stoicism. + Nevertheless, the logical tendency of Stoicism seems to me to be fulfilled + only in such men as Diogenes and Epictetus. + </p> + <p> + Note 19 (P. 80). + </p> + <p> + "Criticisms on the Origin of Species," 1864. Collected Essays, vol. ii. p. + 91.{1894.] + </p> + <p> + Note 20 (P. 81). + </p> + <p> + Of course, strictly speaking, social life, and the ethical process in + virtue of which it advances towards perfection, Are part and parcel of the + general process of evolution, just as the gregarious habit of in <span + class="pagenum">115</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink115" id="link115"></a> numerable plants and animals, + which has been of immense advantage to them, is so. A hive of bees is an + organic polity, a society in which the part played by each member is + determined by organic necessities. Queens, workers, and drones are, so to + speak, castes, divided from one another by marked physical barriers. Among + birds and mammals, societies are formed, of which the bond in many cases + seems to be purely psychological; that is to say, it appears to depend + upon the liking of the individuals for one another's company. The tendency + of individuals to over self-assertion is kept down by fighting. Even in + these rudimentary forms of society, love and fear come into play, and + enforce a greater or less renunciation of self-will. To this extent the + general cosmic process begins to be checked by a rudimentary ethical + process, which is, strictly speaking, part of the former, just as the + "governor" in a steam-engine is part of the mechanism of the engine. + </p> + <p> + Note 21 (p. 82). + </p> + <p> + See "Government: Anarchy or Regimentation," Collected Essays, vol. i. pp. + 413-418. It is this form of political philosophy to which I conceive the + epithet of "reasoned savagery" to be strictly applicable.{1894.] + </p> + <p> + Note 22 (p. 83). + </p> + <p> + "L'homme n'est qu'un roseau, le plus faible de la nature, mais c'est un + roseau pensant. Il ne faut <span class="pagenum">116</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink116" id="link116"></a> pas que l'univers entier s'arme + pour l'ecraser. Une vapour, une goutte d'eau, suffit pour le tuer. Mais + quand l'univers l'ecraserait, l'homme serait encore plus noble que ce qui + le tue, parce qu'il sait qu'il muert; et l'avantage que l'univers a sur + lui, l'univers n'en sait rien."—Pensees de Pascal. + </p> + <p> + Note 23 (p. 85). + </p> + <p> + The use of the word "Nature" here may be criticised. Yet the manifestation + of the natural tendencies of men is so profoundly modified by training + that it is hardly too strong. Consider the suppression of the sexual + instinct between near relations. + </p> + <p> + Note 24 (p. 86). + </p> + <p> + A great proportion of poetry is addressed by the young to the young; only + the great masters of the art are capable of divining, or think it worth + while to enter into, the feelings of retrospective age. The two great + poets whom we have so lately lost, Tennyson and Browning, have done this, + each in his own inimitable way; the one in the Ulysses, from which I have + borrowed; the other in that wonderful fragment "Childe Roland to the dark + Tower came." + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">117</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink117" id="link117"></a> + </p> + <p> + (Note: Section III belowcame from a different source than the other sections + and thus does not have page numbers. + +Section III of the volume, "Science and Theology", is not Huxley's text +and is not by Huxley. It reprints instead an entirely different essay, +one by Asa Gray on Darwin, published in the Atlantic in 1860 as +specified in a note before the text here; what looks like a subheading, +"NATURAL SELECTION NOT INCONSISTENT WITH NATURAL THEOLOGY", is the title +given to Gray's essay in some reprints.) + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0020" id="link2H_4_0020"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. SCIENCE AND MORALS (1886) + </h2> + <h3> + NATURAL SELECTION NOT INCONSISTENT WITH NATURAL THEOLOGY + </h3> + <p> + (Atlantic Monthly for July, August, and October, 1860, reprinted in 1861) + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0021" id="link2H_4_0021"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I + </h2> + <p> + Novelties are enticing to most people; to us they are simply annoying. We + cling to a long-accepted theory, just as we cling to an old suit of + clothes. A new theory, like a new pair of breeches (the Atlantic still + affects the older type of nether garment), is sure to have hard-fitting + places; or, even when no particular fault can be found with the article, + it oppresses with a sense of general discomfort. New notions and new + styles worry us, till we get well used to them, which is only by slow + degrees. + </p> + <p> + Wherefore, in Galileos time, we might have helped to proscribe, or to burn—had + he been stubborn enough to warrant cremation—even the great pioneer + of inductive research; although, when we had fairly recovered our + composure, and bad leisurely excogitated the matter, we might have come to + conclude that the new doctrine was better than the old one, after all, at + least for those who had nothing to unlearn. + </p> + <p> + Such being our habitual state of mind, it may well be believed that the + perusal of the new book "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural + Selection" left an uncomfortable impression, in spite of its plausible and + winning ways. We were not wholly unprepared for it, as many of our + contemporaries seem to have been. The scientific reading in which we + indulge as a relaxation from severer studies had raised dim forebodings. + Investigations about the succession of species in time, and their actual + geographical distribution over the earths surface, were leading up from + all sides and in various ways to the question of their origin. Now and + then we encountered a sentence, like Prof. Owens "axiom of the continuous + operation of the ordained becoming of living things," which haunted us + like an apparition. For, dim as our conception must needs be as to what + such oracular and grandiloquent phrases might really mean, we felt + confident that they presaged no good to old beliefs. Foreseeing, yet + deprecating, the coming time of trouble, we still hoped that, with some + repairs and makeshifts, the old views might last out our days. Apres nous + le deluge. Still, not to lag behind the rest of the world, we read the + book in which the new theory is promulgated. We took it up, like our + neighbors, and, as was natural, in a somewhat captious frame of mind. + </p> + <p> + Well, we found no cause of quarrel with the first chapter. Here the author + takes us directly to the barn-yard and the kitchen-garden. Like an + honorable rural member of our General Court, who sat silent until, near + the close of a long session, a bill requiring all swine at large to wear + pokes was introduced, when he claimed the privilege of addressing the + house, on the proper ground that he had been "brought up among the pigs, + and knew all about them"—so we were brought up among cows and + cabbages; and the lowing of cattle, the cackle of hens, and the cooing of + pigeons, were sounds native and pleasant to our ears. So "Variation under + Domestication" dealt with familiar subjects in a natural way, and gently + introduced "Variation under Nature," which seemed likely enough. Then + follows "Struggle for Existence"—a principle which we experimentally + know to be true and cogent—bringing the comfortable assurance, that + man, even upon Leviathan Hobbess theory of society, is no worse than the + rest of creation, since all Nature is at war, one species with another, + and the nearer kindred the more internecine—bringing in thousandfold + confirmation and extension of the Malthusian doctrine that population + tends far to outrun means of subsistence throughout the animal and + vegetable world, and has to be kept down by sharp preventive checks; so + that not more than one of a hundred or a thousand of the individuals whose + existence is so wonderfully and so sedulously provided for ever comes to + anything, under ordinary circumstances; so the lucky and the strong must + prevail, and the weaker and ill-favored must perish; and then follows, as + naturally as one sheep follows another, the chapter on "Natural + Selection," Darwins cheval de bataille, which is very much the Napoleonic + doctrine that Providence favors the strongest battalions—that, since + many more individuals are born than can possibly survive, those + individuals and those variations which possess any advantage, however + slight, over the rest, are in the long-run sure to survive, to propagate, + and to occupy the limited field, to the exclusion or destruction of the + weaker brethren. All this we pondered, and could not much object to. In + fact, we began to contract a liking for a system which at the outset + illustrates the advantages of good breeding, and which makes the most "of + every creatures best." + </p> + <p> + Could we "let by-gones be by-gones," and, beginning now, go on improving + and diversifying for the future by natural selection, could we even take + up the theory at the introduction of the actually existing species, we + should be well content; and so, perhaps, would most naturalists be. It is + by no means difficult to believe that varieties are incipient or possible + species, when we see what trouble naturalists, especially botanists, have + to distinguish between them—one regarding as a true species what + another regards as a variety; when the progress of knowledge continually + increases, rather than diminishes, the number of doubtful instances; and + when there is less agreement than ever among naturalists as to what is the + basis in Nature upon which our idea of species reposes, or how the word is + to be defined. Indeed, when we consider the endless disputes of + naturalists and ethnologists over the human races, as to whether they + belong to one species or to more, and, if to more, whether to three, or + five, or fifty, we can hardly help fancying that both may be right—or + rather, that the uni-humanitarians would have been right many thousand + years ago, and the multi-humanitarians will be several thousand years + later; while at present the safe thing to say is, that probably there is + some truth on both sides. + </p> + <p> + "Natural selection," Darwin remarks, "leads to divergence of character; + for the more living beings can be supported on the same area, the more + they diverge in structure, habits, and constitution" (a principle which, + by-the-way, is paralleled and illustrated by the diversification of human + labor); and also leads to much extinction of intermediate or unimproved + forms. Now, though this divergence may "steadily tend to increase," yet + this is evidently a slow process in Nature, and liable to much + counteraction wherever man does not interpose, and so not likely to work + much harm for the future. And if natural selection, with artificial to + help it, will produce better animals and better men than the present, and + fit them better to the conditions of existence, why, let it work, say we, + to the top of its bent There is still room enough for improvement. Only + let us hope that it always works for good: if not, the divergent lines on + Darwin's lithographic diagram of "Transmutation made Easy," ominously show + what small deviations from the straight path may come to in the end. + </p> + <p> + The prospect of the future, accordingly, is on the whole pleasant and + encouraging. It is only the backward glance, the gaze up the long vista of + the past, that reveals anything alarming. Here the lines converge as they + recede into the geological ages, and point to conclusions which, upon the + theory, are inevitable, but hardly welcome. The very first step backward + makes the negro and the Hottentot our blood-relations—not that + reason or Scripture objects to that, though pride may. The next suggests a + closer association of our ancestors of the olden time with "our poor + relations" of the quadrumanous family than we like to acknowledge. + Fortunately, however—even if we must account for him scientifically + —man with his two feet stands upon a foundation of his own. + Intermediate links between the Bimana and the Quadrumana are lacking + altogether; so that, put the genealogy of the brutes upon what footing you + will, the four-handed races will not serve for our forerunners—at + least, not until some monkey, live or fossil, is producible with + great-toes, instead of thumbs, upon his nether extremities; or until some + lucky geologist turns up the bones of his ancestor and prototype in France + or England, who was so busy "napping the chuckie-stanes" and chipping out + flint knives and arrow-heads in the time of the drift, very many ages ago—before + the British Channel existed, says Lyell [III-1}—and until these men + of the olden time are shown to have worn their great-toes in the divergent + and thumblike fashion. That would be evidence indeed: but, until some + testimony of the sort is produced, we must needs believe in the separate + and special creation of man, however it may have been with the lower + animals and with plants. + </p> + <p> + No doubt, the full development and symmetry of Darwin's hypothesis + strongly suggest the evolution of the human no less than the lower animal + races out of some simple primordial animal—that all are equally + "lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first + bed of the Silurian system was deposited." But, as the author speaks + disrespectfully of spontaneous generation, and accepts a supernatural + beginning of life on earth, in some form or forms of being which included + potentially all that have since existed and are yet to be, he is thereby + not warranted to extend his inferences beyond the evidence or the fair + probability. There seems as great likelihood that one special origination + should be followed by another upon fitting occasion (such as the + introduction of man), as that one form should be transmuted into another + upon fitting occasion, as, for instance, in the succession of species + which differ from each other only in some details. To compare small things + with great in a homely illustration: man alters from time to time his + instruments or machines, as new circumstances or conditions may require + and his wit suggest. Minor alterations and improvements he adds to the + machine he possesses; he adapts a new rig or a new rudder to an old boat: + this answers to Variation. "Like begets like," being the great rule in + Nature, if boats could engender, the variations would doubtless be + propagated, like those of domestic cattle. In course of time the old ones + would be worn out or wrecked; the best sorts would be chosen for each + particular use, and further improved upon; and so the primordial boat be + developed into the scow, the skiff, the sloop, and other species of + water-craft—the very diversification, as well as the successive + improvements, entailing the disappearance of intermediate forms, less + adapted to any one particular purpose; wherefore these go slowly out of + use, and become extinct species: this is Natural Selection. Now, let a + great and important advance be made, like that of steam navigation: here, + though the engine might be added to the old vessel, yet the wiser and + therefore the actual way is to make a new vessel on a modified plan: this + may answer to Specific Creation. Anyhow, the one does not necessarily + exclude the other. Variation and natural selection may play their part, + and so may specific creation also. Why not? + </p> + <p> + This leads us to ask for the reasons which call for this new theory of + transmutation. The beginning of things must needs lie in obscurity, beyond + the bounds of proof, though within those of conjecture or of analogical + inference. Why not hold fast to the customary view, that all species were + directly, instead of indirectly, created after their respective kinds, as + we now behold them—and that in a manner which, passing our + comprehension, we intuitively refer to the supernatural? Why this + continual striving after "the unattained and dim?" why these anxious + endeavors, especially of late years, by naturalists and philosophers of + various schools and different tendencies, to penetrate what one of them + calls "that mystery of mysteries," the origin of species? + </p> + <p> + To this, in general, sufficient answer may be found in the activity of the + human intellect, "the delirious yet divine desire to know," stimulated as + it has been by its own success in unveiling the laws and processes of + inorganic Nature; in the fact that the principal triumphs of our age in + physical science have consisted in tracing connections where none were + known before, in reducing heterogeneous phenomena to a common cause or + origin, in a manner quite analogous to that of the reduction of supposed + independently originated species to a common ultimate origin—thus, + and in various other ways, largely and legitimately extending the domain + of secondary causes. Surely the scientific mind of an age which + contemplates the solar system as evolved from a common revolving fluid + mass—which, through experimental research, has come to regard light, + heat, electricity, magnetism, chemical affinity, and mechanical power as + varieties or derivative and convertible forms of one force, instead of + independent species—which has brought the so-called elementary kinds + of matter, such as the metals, into kindred groups, and pertinently raised + the question, whether the members of each group may not be mere varieties + of one species—and which speculates steadily in the direction of the + ultimate unity of matter, of a sort of prototype or simple element which + may be to the ordinary species of matter what the Protozoa or what the + component cells of an organism are to the higher sorts of animals and + plants—the mind of such an age cannot be expected to let the old + belief about species pass unquestioned. It will raise the question, how + the diverse sorts of plants and animals came to be as they are and where + they are and will allow that the whole inquiry transcends its powers only + when all endeavors have failed Granting the origin to be super natural or + miraculous even, will not arrest the inquiry All real origination the + philosophers will say, is supernatural, their very question is, whether we + have yet gone back to the origin and can affirm that the present forms of + plants and animals are the primordial, the miraculously created ones. And, + even if they admit that, they will still inquire into the order of the + phenomena, into the form of the miracle You might as well expect the child + to grow up content with what it is told about the advent of its infant + brother Indeed, to learn that the new comer is the gift of God, far from + lulling inquiry, only stimulates speculation as to how the precious gift + was bestowed That questioning child is father to the man—is + philosopher in short-clothes. + </p> + <p> + Since, then questions about the origin of species will be raised, and have + been raised—and since the theorizings, however different in + particulars, all proceed upon the notion that one species of plant or + animal is somehow derived from another, that the different sorts which now + flourish are lineal (or unlineal) descendants of other and earlier sorts—it + now concerns us to ask, What are the grounds in Nature, the admitted + facts, which suggest hypotheses of derivation in some :shape or other? + Reasons there must be, and plausible ones, for the persistent recurrence + of theories upon this genetic basis. A study of Darwins book, and a + general glance at the present state of the natural sciences, enable us to + gather the following as among the most suggestive and influential. We can + only enumerate them here, without much indication of their particular + bearing. There is— + </p> + <p> + 1. The general fact of variability, and the general tendency of the + variety to propagate its like—the patent facts that all species vary + more or less; that domesticated plants and animals, being in conditions + favorable to the production and preservation of varieties, are apt to vary + widely; and that, by interbreeding, any variety may be fixed into a race, + that is, into a variety which comes true from seed. Many such races, it is + allowed, differ from each other in structure and appearance as widely as + do many admitted species; and it is practically very difficult, even + impossible, to draw a clear line between races and species. Witness the + human races, for instance. Wild species also vary, perhaps about as widely + as those of domestication, though in different ways. Some of them + apparently vary little, others moderately, others immoderately, to the + great bewilderment of systematic botanists and zoologists, and increasing + disagreement as to whether various forms shall be held to be original + species or strong varieties. Moreover, the degree to which the descendants + of the same stock, varying in different directions, may at length diverge, + is unknown. All we know is, that varieties are themselves variable, and + that very diverse forms have been educed from one stock. + </p> + <p> + 2. Species of the same genus are not distinguished from each other by + equal amounts of difference. There is diversity in this respect analogous + to that of the varieties of a polymorphous species, some of them slight, + others extreme. And in large genera the unequal resemblance shows itself + in the clustering of the species around several types or central species, + like satellites around their respective planets. Obviously suggestive this + of the hypothesis that they were satellites, not thrown off by revolution, + like the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and our own solitary moon, but + gradually and peacefully detached by divergent variation. That such + closely-related species may be only varieties of higher grade, earlier + origin, or more favored evolution, is not a very violent supposition. + Anyhow, it was a supposition sure to be made. + </p> + <p> + 3. The actual geographical distribution of species upon the earths surface + tends to suggest the same notion. For, as a general thing, all or most of + the species of a peculiar genus or other type are grouped in the same + country, or occupy continuous, proximate, or accessible areas. So well + does this rule hold, so general is the implication that kindred species + are or were associated geographically, that most trustworthy naturalists, + quite free from hypotheses of transmutation, are constantly inferring + former geographical continuity between parts of the world now widely + disjoined, in order to account thereby for certain generic similarities + among their inhabitants; just as philologists infer former connection of + races, and a parent language, to account for generic similarities among + existing languages. Yet no scientific explanation has been offered to + account for the geographical association of kindred species, except the + hypothesis of a common origin. + </p> + <p> + 4. Here the fact of the antiquity of creation, and in particular of the + present kinds of the earths inhabitants, or of a large part of them, comes + in to rebut the objection that there has not been time enough for any + marked diversification of living things through divergent variation—not + time enough for varieties to have diverged into what we call species. + </p> + <p> + So long as the existing species of plants and animals were thought to have + originated a few thousand years ago, and without predecessors, there was + no room for a theory of derivation of one sort from another, nor time + enough even to account for the establishment of the races which are + generally believed to have diverged from a common stock. Not so much that + five or six thousand years was a short allowance for this; but because + some of our familiar domesticated varieties of grain, of fowls, and of + other animals, were pictured and mummified by the old Egyptians more than + half that number of years ago, if not earlier. Indeed, perhaps the + strongest argument for the original plurality of human species was drawn + from the identification of some of the present races of men upon these + early historical monuments and records. + </p> + <p> + But this very extension of the current chronology, if we may rely upon the + archaeologists, removes the difficulty by opening up a longer vista. So + does the discovery in Europe of remains and implements of prehistoric + races of men, to whom the use of metals was unknown—men of the stone + age, as the Scandinavian archaeologists designate them. And now, "axes and + knives of flint, evidently wrought by human skill, are found in beds of + the drift at Amiens (also in other places, both in France and England), + associated with the bones of extinct species of animals." These + implements, indeed, were noticed twenty years ago; at a place in Suffolk + they have been exhumed from time to time for more than a century; but the + full confirmation, the recognition of the age of the deposit in which the + implements occur, their abundance, and the appreciation of their bearings + upon most interesting questions, belong to the present time. To complete + the connection of these primitive people with the fossil ages, the French + geologists, we are told, have now "found these axes in Picardy associated + with remains of Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus + fossilis, and an extinct species of Bos."[III-2} In plain language, these + workers in flint lived in the time of the mammoth, of a rhinoceros now + extinct, and along with horses and cattle unlike any now existing—specifically + different, as naturalists say, from those with which man is now + associated. Their connection with existing human races may perhaps be + traced through the intervening people of the stone age, who were succeeded + by the people of the bronze age, and these by workers in iron.[III-3} Now, + various evidence carries back the existence of many of the present lower + species of animals, and probably of a larger number of plants, to the same + drift period. All agree that this was very many thousand years ago. + Agassiz tells us that the same species of polyps which are now building + coral walls around the present peninsula of Florida actually made that + peninsula, and have been building there for many thousand centuries. + </p> + <p> + 5. The overlapping of existing and extinct species, and the seemingly + gradual transition of the life of the drift period into that of the + present, may be turned to the same account. Mammoths, mastodons, and Irish + elks, now extinct, must have lived down to human, if not almost to + historic times. Perhaps the last dodo did not long outlive his huge New + Zealand kindred. The aurochs, once the companion of mammoths, still + survives, but owes his present and precarious existence to mans care. Now, + nothing that we know of forbids the hypothesis that some new species have + been independently and supernaturally created within the period which + other species have survived. Some may even believe that man was created in + the days of the mammoth, became extinct, and was recreated at a later + date. But why not say the same of the aurochs, contemporary both of the + old man and of the new? Still it is more natural, if not inevitable, to + infer that, if the aurochs of that olden time were the ancestors of the + aurochs of the Lithuanian forests, so likewise were the men of that age + the ancestors of the present human races. Then, whoever concludes that + these primitive makers of rude flint axes and knives were the ancestors of + the better workmen of the succeeding stone age, and these again of the + succeeding artificers in brass and iron, will also be likely to suppose + that the Equus and Bos of that time, different though they be, were the + remote progenitors of our own horses and cattle. In all candor we must at + least concede that such considerations suggest a genetic descent from the + drift period down to the present, and allow time enough—if time is + of any account— for variation and natural selection to work out some + appreciable results in the way of divergence into races, or even into + so-called species. Whatever might have been thought, when geological time + was supposed to be separated from the present era by a clear line, it is + now certain that a gradual replacement of old forms by new ones is + strongly suggestive of some mode of origination which may still be + operative. When species, like individuals, were found to die out one by + one, and apparently to come in one by one, a theory for what Owen + sonorously calls "the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of + living things" could not be far off. + </p> + <p> + That all such theories should take the form of a derivation of the new + from the old seems to be inevitable, perhaps from our inability to + conceive of any other line of secondary causes in this connection. Owen + himself is apparently in travail with some transmutation theory of his own + conceiving, which may yet see the light, although Darwins came first to + the birth. Different as the two theories will probably be, they cannot + fail to exhibit that fundamental resemblance in this respect which + betokens a community of origin, a common foundation on the general facts + and the obvious suggestions of modern science. Indeed—to turn the + point of a pungent simile directed against Darwin—the difference + between the Darwinian and the Owenian hypotheses may, after all, be only + that between homoeopathic and heroic doses of the same drug. + </p> + <p> + If theories of derivation could only stop here, content with explaining + the diversification and succession of species between the teritiary period + and the present time, through natural agencies or secondary causes still + in operation, we fancy they would not be generally or violently objected + to by the savants of the present day. But it is hard, if not impossible, + to find a stopping-place. Some of the facts or accepted conclusions + already referred to, and several others, of a more general character, + which must be taken into the account, impel the theory onward with + accumulated force. Vires (not to say virus) acquirit eundo. The theory + hitches on wonderfully well to Lyells uniformitarian theory in geology—that + the thing that has been is the thing that is and shall be—that the + natural operations now going on will account for all geological changes in + a quiet and easy way, only give them time enough, so connecting the + present and the proximate with the farthest past by almost imperceptible + gradations—a view which finds large and increasing, if not general, + acceptance in physical geology, and of which Darwins theory is the natural + complement. + </p> + <p> + So the Darwinian theory, once getting a foothold, marches; boldly on, + follows the supposed near ancestors of our present species farther and yet + farther back into the dim past, and ends with an analogical inference + which "makes the whole world kin." As we said at the beginning, this + upshot discomposes us. Several features of the theory have an uncanny + look. They may prove to be innocent: but their first aspect is suspicious, + and high authorities pronounce the whole thing to be positively + mischievous. In this dilemma we are going to take advice. Following the + bent of our prejudices, and hoping to fortify these by new and strong + arguments, we are going now to read the principal reviews which undertake + to demolish the theory—with what result our readers shall be duly + informed. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0022" id="link2H_4_0022"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II + </h2> + <p> + "I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and + dispassionate judgment of which I am capable, that the view which most + naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained, namely, that each + species has been independently created, is erroneous. I am fully convinced + that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are + called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally + extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any + one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am + convinced that Natural Selection has been the main, but not exclusive, + means of modification." + </p> + <p> + This is the kernel of the new theory, the Darwinian creed, as recited at + the close of the introduction to the remarkable book under consideration. + The questions, "What will he do with it?" and "How far will he carry it?" + the author answers at the close of the volume: + </p> + <p> + "I cannot doubt that the theory of descent with modification embraces all + the members of the same class." Furthermore, "I believe that all animals + have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from + an equal or lesser number." + </p> + <p> + Seeing that analogy as strongly suggests a further step in the same + direction, while he protests that "analogy may be a deceitful guide," yet + he follows its inexorable leading to the inference that— + </p> + <p> + "Probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this ear have + descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first + breathed."[III-4} + </p> + <p> + In the first extract we have the thin end of the wedge driven a little + way; in the last, the wedge driven home. + </p> + <p> + We have already sketched some of the reasons suggestive of such a theory + of derivation of species, reasons which gave it plausibility, and even no + small probability, as applied to our actual world and to changes occurring + since the latest tertiary period. We are well pleased at this moment to + find that the conclusions we were arriving at in this respect are + sustained by the very high authority and impartial judgment of Pictet, the + Swiss paleontologist. In his review of Darwins book[III-5} — the + fairest and most admirable opposing one that has appeared—he freely + accepts that ensemble of natural operations which Darwin impersonates + under the now familiar name of Natural Selection, allows that the + exposition throughout the first chapters seems "a la fois prudent et + fort," and is disposed to accept the whole argument in its foundations, + that is, so far as it relates to what is now going on, or has taken place + in the present geological period—which period he carries back + through the diluvial epoch to the borders of the tertiary.[III-6} Pictet + accordingly admits that the theory will very well account for the + origination by divergence of nearly-related species, whether within the + present period or in remoter geological times; a very natural view for him + to take, since he appears to have reached and published, several years + ago, the pregnant conclusion that there most probably was some material + connection between the closely-related species of two successive faunas, + and that the numerous close species, whose limits are so difficult to + determine, were not all created distinct and independent. But while thus + accepting, or ready to accept, the basis of Darwins theory, and all its + legitimate direct inferences, he rejects the ultimate conclusions, brings + some weighty arguments to bear against them, and is evidently convinced + that he can draw a clear line between the sound inferences, which he + favors, and the unsound or unwarranted theoretical deductions, which he + rejects. We hope he can. + </p> + <p> + This raises the question, Why does Darwin press his theory to these + extreme conclusions? Why do all hypotheses of derivation converge so + inevitably to one ultimate point? Having already considered some of the + reasons which suggest or support the theory at its outset—which may + carry it as far as such sound and experienced naturalists as Pictet allow + that it may be true—perhaps as far as Darwin himself unfolds it in + the introductory proposition cited at the beginning of this article—we + may now inquire after the motives which impel the theorist so much + farther. Here proofs, in the proper sense of the word, are not to be had. + We are beyond the region of demonstration, and have only probabilities to + consider. What are these probabilities? What work will this hypothesis do + to establish a claim to be adopted in its completeness? Why should a + theory which may plausibly enough account for the diversification of the + species of each special type or genus be expanded into a general system + for the origination or successive diversification of all species, and all + special types or forms, from four or five remote primordial forms, or + perhaps from one? We accept the theory of gravitation because it explains + all the facts we know, and bears all the tests that we can put it to. We + incline to accept the nebular hypothesis, for similar reasons; not because + it is proved—thus far it is incapable of proof—but because it + is a natural theoretical deduction from accepted physical laws, is + thoroughly congruous with the facts, and because its assumption serves to + connect and harmonize these into one probable and consistent whole. Can + the derivative hypothesis be maintained and carried out into a system on + similar grounds? If so, however unproved, it would appear to be a tenable + hypothesis, which is all that its author ought now to claim. Such + hypotheses as, from the conditions of the case, can neither be proved nor + disproved by direct evidence or experiment, are to be tested only + indirectly, and therefore imperfectly, by trying their power to harmonize + the known facts, and to account for what is otherwise unaccountable. So + the question comes to this: What will an hypothesis of the derivation of + species explain which the opposing view leaves unexplained? + </p> + <p> + Questions these which ought to be entertained before we take up the + arguments which have been advanced against this theory. We can barely + glance at some of the considerations which Darwin adduces, or will be sure + to adduce in the future and fuller exposition which is promised. To + display them in such wise as to indoctrinate the unscientific reader would + require a volume. Merely to refer to them in the most general terms would + suffice for those familiar with scientific matters, but would scarcely + enlighten those who are not. Wherefore let these trust the impartial + Pictet, who freely admits that, "in the absence of sufficient direct + proofs to justify the possibility of his hypothesis, Mr. Darwin relies + upon indirect proofs, the bearing of which is real and incontestable;" who + concedes that "his theory accords very well with the great facts of + comparative anatomy and zoology—comes in admirably to explain unity + of composition of organisms, also to explain rudimentary and + representative organs, and the natural series of genera and species—equally + corresponds with many paleontological data—agrees well with the + specific resemblances which exist between two successive faunas, with the + parallelism which is sometimes observed between the series of + paleontological succession and of embryonal development," etc.; and + finally, although he does not accept the theory in these results, he + allows that "it appears to offer the best means of explaining the manner + in which organized beings were produced in epochs anterior to our own." + </p> + <p> + What more than this could be said for such an hypothesis? Here, probably, + is its charm, and its strong hold upon the speculative mind. Unproven + though it be, and cumbered prima facie with cumulative improbabilities as + it proceeds, yet it singularly accords with great classes of facts + otherwise insulated and enigmatic, and explains many things which are thus + far utterly inexplicable upon any other scientific assumption. + </p> + <p> + We have said that Darwins hypothesis is the natural complement to Lyells + uniformitarian theory in physical geology. It is for the organic world + what that is for the inorganic; and the accepters of the latter stand in a + position from which to regard the former in the most favorable light. + Wherefore the rumor that the cautious Lyell himself has adopted the + Darwinian hypothesis need not surprise us. The two views are made for each + other, and, like the two counterpart pictures for the stereoscope, when + brought together, combine into one apparently solid whole. + </p> + <p> + If we allow, with Pictet, that Darwins theory will very well serve for all + that concerns the present epoch of the worlds history—an epoch in + which this renowned paleontologist includes the diluvial or quaternary + period—then Darwins first and foremost need in his onward course is + a practicable road from this into and through the tertiary period, the + intervening region between the comparatively near and the far remote past. + Here Lyells doctrine paves the way, by showing that in the physical + geology there is no general or absolute break between the two, probably no + greater between the latest tertiary and the quaternary period than between + the latter and the present time. So far, the Lyellian view is, we suppose, + generally concurred in. It is largely admitted that numerous tertiary + species have continued down into the quaternary, and many of them to the + present time. A goodly percentage of the earlier and nearly half of the + later tertiary mollusca, according to Des Hayes, Lye!!, and, if we mistake + not, Bronn, still live. This identification, however, is now questioned by + a naturalist of the very highest authority. But, in its bearings on the + new theory, the point here turns not upon absolute identity so much as + upon close resemblance. For those who, with Agassiz, doubt the specific + identity in any of these cases, and those who say, with Pictet, that "the + later tertiary deposits contain in general the debris of species very + nearly related to those which still exist, belonging to the same genera, + but specifically different," may also agree with Pictet, that the + nearly-related species of successive faunas must or may have had "a + material connection." But the only material connection that we have an + idea of in such a case is a genealogical one. And the supposition of a + genealogical connection is surely not unnatural in such cases—is + demonstrably the natural one as respects all those tertiary species which + experienced naturalists have pronounced to be identical with existing + ones, but which others now deem distinct For to identify the two is the + same thing as to conclude the one to be the ancestor of the other No doubt + there are differences between the tertiary and the present individuals, + differences equally noticed by both classes of naturalists, but + differently estimated By the one these are deemed quite compatible, by the + other incompatible, with community of origin But who can tell us what + amount of difference is compatible with community of origin? This is the + very question at issue, and one to be settled by observation alone Who + would have thought that the peach and the nectarine came from one stock? + But, this being proved is it now very improbable that both were derived + from the almond, or from some common amygdaline progenitor? Who would have + thought that the cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli kale, and kohlrabi are + derivatives of one species, and rape or colza, turnip, and probably + ruta-baga, of another species? And who that is convinced of this can long + undoubtingly hold the original distinctness of turnips from cabbages as an + article of faith? On scientific grounds may not a primordial cabbage or + rape be assumed as the ancestor of all the cabbage races, on much the same + ground that we assume a common ancestry for the diversified human races? + If all Our breeds of cattle came from one stock why not this stock from + the auroch, which has had all the time between the diluvial and the + historic periods in which to set off a variation perhaps no greater than + the difference between some sorts of domestic cattle? + </p> + <p> + That considerable differences are often discernible between tertiary + individuals and their supposed descendants of the present day affords no + argument against Darwins theory, as has been rashly thought, but is + decidedly in its favor. If the identification were so perfect that no more + differences were observable between the tertiary and the recent shells + than between various individuals of either, then Darwins opponents, who + argue the immutability of species from the ibises and cats preserved by + the ancient Egyptians being just like those of the present day, could + triumphantly add a few hundred thousand years more to the length of the + experiment and to the force of their argument. + </p> + <p> + As the facts stand, it appears that, while some tertiary forms are + essentially undistinguishable from existing ones, others are the same with + a difference, which is judged not to be specific or aboriginal; and yet + others show somewhat greater differences, such as are scientifically + expressed by calling them marked varieties, or else doubtful species; + while others, differing a little more, are confidently termed distinct, + but nearly-related species. Now, is not all this a question of degree, of + mere gradation of difference? And is it at all likely that these several + gradations came to be established in two totally different ways—some + of them (though naturalists cant agree which) through natural variation, + or other secondary cause, and some by original creation, without secondary + cause? We have seen that the judicious Pictet answers such questions as + Darwin would have him do, in affirming that, in all probability, the + nearly-related species of two successive faunas were materially connected, + and that contemporaneous species, similarly resembling each other, were + not all created so, but have become so. This is equivalent to saying that + species (using the term as all naturalists do, and must continue to employ + the word) have only a relative, not an absolute fixity; that differences + fully equivalent to what are held to be specific may arise in the course + of time, so that one species may at length be naturally replaced by + another species a good deal like it, or may be diversified into two, + three, or more species, or forms as different as species. This concedes + all that Darwin has a right to ask, all that he can directly infer from + evidence. We must add that it affords a locus standi, more or less + tenable, for inferring more. + </p> + <p> + Here another geological consideration comes in to help on this inference. + The species of the later tertiary period for the most part not only + resembled those of our days—many of them so closely as to suggest an + absolute continuity—but also occupied in general the same regions + that their relatives occupy now. The same may be said, though less + specially, of the earlier tertiary and of the later secondary; but there + is less and less localization of forms as we recede, yet some localization + even in palaeozoic times. While in the secondary period one is struck with + the similarity of forms and the identity of many of the species which + flourished apparently at the same time in all or in the most + widely-separated parts of the world, in the tertiary epoch, on the + contrary, along with the increasing specialization of climates and their + approximation to the present state, we find abundant evidence of + increasing localization of orders, genera and species, and this + localization strikingly accords with the present geographical distribution + of the same groups of species Where the imputed forefathers lived their + relatives and supposed descendants now flourish All the actual classes of + the animal and vegetable kingdoms were represented in the tertiary faunas + and floras and in nearly the same proportions and the same diversities as + at present The faunas of what is now Europe, Asia America and Australia, + differed from each other much as they now differ: in fact—according + to Adolphe Brongniart, whose statements we here condense[III-7}—the + inhabitants of these different regions appear for the most part to have + acquired, before the close of the tertiary period, the characters which + essentially distinguish their existing faunas. The Eastern Continent had + then, as now, its great pachyderms, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus; + South America, its armadillos, sloths, and anteaters; Australia, a crowd + of marsupials; and the very strange birds of New Zealand had predecessors + of similar strangeness. + </p> + <p> + Everywhere the same geographical distribution as now, with a difference in + the particular area, as respects the northern portion of the continents, + answering to a warmer climate then than ours, such as allowed species of + hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant, to range even to the regions now + inhabited by the reindeer and the musk-ox, and with the serious disturbing + intervention of the glacial period within a comparatively recent time. Let + it be noted also that those tertiary species which have continued with + little change down to our days are the marine animals of the lower grades, + especially mollusca. Their low organization, moderate sensibility, and the + simple conditions of an existence in a medium like the ocean, not subject + to great variation and incapable of sudden change, may well account for + their continuance; while, on the other hand, the more intense, however + gradual, climatic vicissitudes on land, which have driven all tropical and + subtropical forms out of the higher latitudes and assigned to them their + actual limits, would be almost sure to extinguish such huge and unwieldy + animals as mastodons, mammoths, and the like, whose power of enduring + altered circumstances must have been small. + </p> + <p> + This general replacement of the tertiary species of a country by others so + much like them is a noteworthy fact. The hypothesis of the independent + creation of all species, irrespective of their antecedents, leaves this + fact just as mysterious as is creation itself; that of derivation + undertakes to account for it. Whether it satisfactorily does so or not, it + must be allowed that the facts well accord with that hypothesis. The same + may be said of another conclusion, namely, that the geological succession + of animals and plants appears to correspond in a general way with their + relative standing or rank in a natural system of classification. It seems + clear that, though no one of the grand types of the animal kingdom can be + traced back farther than the rest, yet the lower classes long preceded the + higher; that there has been on the whole a steady progression within each + class and order; and that the highest plants and animals have appeared + only in relatively modern times. It is only, however, in a broad sense + that this generalization is now thought to hold good. It encounters many + apparent exceptions, and sundry real ones. So far as the rule holds, all + is as it should be upon an hypothesis of derivation. + </p> + <p> + The rule has its exceptions. But, curiously enough, the most striking + class of exceptions, if such they be, seems to us even more favorable to + the doctrine of derivation than is the general rule of a pure and simple + ascending gradation. We refer to what Agassiz calls prophetic and + synthetic types; for which the former name may suffice, as the difference + between the two is evanescent. + </p> + <p> + "It has been noticed," writes our great zoologist, "that certain types, + which are frequently prominent among the representatives of past ages, + combine in their structure peculiarities which at later periods are only + observed separately in different, distinct types. Sauroid fishes before + reptiles, Pterodactyles before birds, Ichthyosauri before dolphins, etc. + There are entire families, of nearly every class of animals, which in the + state of their perfect development exemplify such prophetic relations. + </p> + <p> + The sauroid fishes of the past geological ages are an example of this kind + These fishes which preceded the appearance of reptiles present a + combination of ichthyic and reptilian characters not to be found in the + true members of this class, which form its bulk at present. The + Pterodactyles, which preceded the class of birds, and the Ichthyosauri, + which preceded the Cetacea, are other examples of such prophetic types."—(Agassiz, + "Contributions, Essay on Classification," p. 117.) + </p> + <p> + Now, these reptile-like fishes, of which gar-pikes are the living + representatives, though of earlier appearance, are admittedly of higher + rank than common fishes. They dominated until reptiles appeared, when they + mostly gave place to (or, as the derivationists will insist, were resolved + by divergent variation and natural selection into) common fishes, + destitute of reptilian characters, and saurian reptiles—the + intermediate grades, which, according to a familiar piscine saying, are + "neither fish, flesh, nor good red-herring," being eliminated and + extinguished by natural consequence of the struggle for existence which + Darwin so aptly portrays. And so, perhaps, of the other prophetic types. + Here type and antitype correspond. If these are true prophecies, we need + not wonder that some who read them in Agassizs book will read their + fulfillment in Darwins. + </p> + <p> + Note also, in this connection, that along with a wonderful persistence of + type, with change of species, genera, orders, etc., from formation to + formation, no species and no higher group which has once unequivocally + died out ever afterward reappears. Why is this, but that the link of + generation has been sundered? Why, on the hypothesis of independent + originations, were not failing species recreated, either identically or + with a difference, in regions eminently adapted to their well-being? To + take a striking case. That no part of the world now offers more suitable + conditions for wild horses and cattle than the pampas and other plains of + South America, is shown by the facility with which they have there run + wild and enormously multiplied, since introduced from the Old World not + long ago. There was no wild American stock. Yet in the times of the + mastodon and megatherium, at the dawn of the present period, wild-horses—certainly + very much like the existing horse—roamed over those plains in + abundance. On the principle of original and direct created adaptation of + species to climate and other conditions, why were they not reproduced, + when, after the colder intervening era, those regions became again + eminently adapted to such animals? Why, but because, by their complete + extinction in South America, the line of descent was there utterly broken? + Upon the ordinary hypothesis, there is no scientific explanation possible + of this series of facts, and of many others like them. Upon the new + hypothesis, "the succession of the same types of structure within the same + areas during the later geological periods ceases to be mysterious, and is + simply explained by inheritance." Their cessation is failure of issue. + </p> + <p> + Along with these considerations the fact (alluded to on page 98) should be + remembered that, as a general thing, related species of the present age + are geographically associated. The larger part of the plants, and still + more of the animals, of each separate country are peculiar to it; and, as + most species now flourish over the graves of their by-gone relatives of + former ages, so they now dwell among or accessibly near their kindred + species. + </p> + <p> + Here also comes in that general "parallelism between the order of + succession of animals and plants in geological times, and the gradation + among their living representatives" from low to highly organized, from + simple and general to complex and specialized forms; also "the parallelism + between the order of succession of animals in geological times and the + changes their living representatives undergo during their embryological + growth," as if the world were one prolonged gestation. Modern science has + much insisted on this parallelism, and to a certain extent is allowed to + have made it out. All these things, which conspire to prove that the + ancient and the recent forms of life "are somehow intimately connected + together in one grand system," equally conspire to suggest that the + connection is one similar or analogous to generation. Surely no naturalist + can be blamed for entering somewhat confidently upon a field of + speculative inquiry which here opens so invitingly; nor need former + premature endeavors and failures utterly dishearten him. + </p> + <p> + All these things, it may naturally be said, go to explain the order, not + the mode, of the incoming of species. But they all do tend to bring out + the generalization expressed by Mr. Wallace in the formula that "every + species has come into existence coincident both in time and space with + preexisting closely-allied species." Not, however, that this is proved + even of existing species as a matter of general fact. It is obviously + impossible to prove anything of the kind. But we must concede that the + known facts strongly suggest such an inference. And—since species + are only congeries of individuals, since every individual came into + existence in consequence of preexisting individuals of the same sort, so + leading up to the individuals with which the species began, and since the + only material sequence we know of among plants and animals is that from + parent to progeny—the presumption becomes exceedingly strong that + the connection of the incoming with the preexisting species is a + genealogical one. + </p> + <p> + Here, however, all depends upon the probability that Mr. Wallaces + inference is really true. Certainly it is not yet generally accepted; but + a strong current is setting toward its acceptance. + </p> + <p> + So long as universal cataclysms were in vogue, and all life upon the earth + was thought to have been suddenly destroyed and renewed many times in + succession, such a view could not be thought of. So the equivalent view + maintained by Agassiz, and formerly, we believe, by DOrbigny, that + irrespectively of general and sudden catastrophes, or any known adequate + physical cause, there has been a total depopulation at the close of each + geological period or formation, say forty or fifty times or more, followed + by as many independent great acts of creation, at which alone have species + been originated, and at each of which a vegetable and an animal kingdom + were produced entire and complete, full-fledged, as flourishing, as + wide-spread, and populous, as varied and mutually adapted from the + beginning as ever afterward—such a view, of course, supersedes all + material connection between successive species, and removes even the + association and geographical range of species entirely out of the domain + of physical causes and of natural science. This is the extreme opposite of + Wallaces and Darwin s view, and is quite as hypothetical. The nearly + universal opinion, if we rightly gather it, manifestly is, that the + replacement of the species of successive formations was not complete and + simultaneous, but partial and successive; and that along the course of + each epoch some species probably were introduced, and some, doubtless, + became extinct. If all since the tertiary belongs to our present epoch, + this is certainly true of it: if to two or more epochs, then the + hypothesis of a total change is not true of them. + </p> + <p> + Geology makes huge demands upon time; and we regret to find that it has + exhausted ours—that what we meant for the briefest and most general + sketch of some geological considerations in favor of Darwins hypothesis + has so extended as to leave no room for considering "the great facts of + comparative anatomy and zoology" with which Darwins theory "very well + accords," nor for indicating how "it admirably serves for explaining the + unity of composition of all organisms, the existence of representative and + rudimentary organs, and the natural series which genera and species + compose." Suffice it to say that these are the real strongholds of the new + system on its theoretical side; that it goes far toward explaining both + the physiological and the structural gradations and relations between the + two kingdoms, and the arrangement of all their forms in groups subordinate + to groups, all within a few great types; that it reads the riddle of + abortive organs and of morphological conformity, of which no other theory + has ever offered a scientific explanation, and supplies a ground for + harmonizing the two fundamental ideas which naturalists and philosophers + conceive to have ruled the organic world, though they could not reconcile + them; namely, Adaptation to Purpose and Conditions of Existence, and Unity + of Type. To reconcile these two undeniable principles is the capital + problem in the philosophy of natural history; and the hypothesis which + consistently does so thereby secures a great advantage. + </p> + <p> + We all know that the arm and hand of a monkey, the foreleg and foot of a + dog and of a horse, the wing of a bat, and the fin of a porpoise, are + fundamentally identical; that the long neck of the giraffe has the same + and no more bones than the short one of the elephant; that the eggs of + Surinam frogs hatch into tadpoles with as good tails for swimming as any + of their kindred, although as tadpoles they never enter the water; that + the Guinea-pig is furnished with incisor teeth which it never uses, as it + sheds them before birth; that embryos of mammals and birds have branchial + slits and arteries running in loops, in imitation or reminiscence of the + arrangement which is permanent in fishes; and that thousands of animals + and plants have rudimentary organs which, at least in numerous cases, are + wholly useless to their possessors, etc., etc. Upon a derivative theory + this morphological conformity is explained by community of descent; and it + has not been explained in any other way. + </p> + <p> + Naturalists are constantly speaking of "related species," of the + "affinity" of a genus or other group, and of "family resemblance"—vaguely + conscious that these terms of kinship are something more than mere + metaphors, but unaware of the grounds of their aptness. Mr. Darwin assures + them that they have been talking derivative doctrine all their lives—as + M. Jourdain talked prose—without knowing it. + </p> + <p> + If it is difficult and in many cases practically impossible to fix the + limits of species, it is still more so to fix those of genera; and those + of tribes and families are still less susceptible of exact natural + circumscription. Intermediate forms occur, connecting one group with + another in a manner sadly perplexing to systematists, except to those who + have ceased to expect absolute limitations in Nature. All this blending + could hardly fail to suggest a former material connection among allied + forms, such as that which the hypothesis of derivation demands. + </p> + <p> + Here it would not be amiss to consider the general principle of gradation + throughout organic Nature—a principle which answers in a general way + to the Law of Continuity in the inorganic world, or rather is so analogous + to it that both may fairly be expressed by the Leibnitzian axiom, Natura + non agit saltatim. As an axiom or philosophical principle, used to test + modal laws or hypotheses, this in strictness belongs only to physics. In + the investigation of Nature at large, at least in the organic world, + nobody would undertake to apply this principle as a test of the validity + of any theory or supposed law. But naturalists of enlarged views will not + fail to infer the principle from the phenomena they investigate—to + perceive that the rule holds, under due qualifications and altered forms, + throughout the realm of Nature; although we do not suppose that Nature in + the organic world makes no distinct steps, but only short and serial steps—not + infinitely fine gradations, but no long leaps, or few of them. + </p> + <p> + To glance at a few illustrations out of many that present themselves. It + would be thought that the distinction between the two organic kingdoms was + broad and absolute. Plants and animals belong to two very different + categories, fulfill opposite offices and, as to the mass of them are so + unlike that the difficulty of the ordinary observer would be to find + points of comparison Without entering into details which would fill an + article, we may safely say that the difficulty with the naturalist is all + the other way—that all these broad differences vanish one by one as + we approach the lower confines of the two kingdoms, and that no absolute + distinction whatever is now known between them. It is quite possible that + the same organism may be both vegetable and animal, or may be first the + one and then the other. If some organisms may be said to be at first + vegetables and then animals, others, like the spores and other + reproductive bodies of many of the lower Algae, may equally claim to have + first a characteristically animal, and then an unequivocally vegetable + existence. Nor is the gradation restricted to these simple organisms. It + appears in general functions, as in that of reproduction, which is + reducible to the same formula in both kingdoms, while it exhibits close + approximations in the lower forms; also in a common or similar ground of + sensibility in the lowest forms of both, a common faculty of effecting + movements tending to a determinate end, traces of which pervade the + vegetable kingdom—while, on the other hand, this indefinable + principle, this vegetable + </p> + <p> + "Animula vagula, blandula, Hospes comesque corporis," + </p> + <p> + graduates into the higher sensitiveness of the lower class of animals. Nor + need we hesitate to recognize the fine gradations from simple + sensitiveness and volition to the higher instinctive and to the other + psychical manifestations of the higher brute animals. The gradation is + undoubted, however we may explain it. + </p> + <p> + Again, propagation is of one mode in the higher animals, of two in all + plants; but vegetative propagation, by budding or offshoots, extends + through the lower grades of animals. In both kingdoms there may be + separation of the offshoots, or indifference in this respect, or continued + and organic union with the parent stock; and this either with essential + independence of the offshoots, or with a subordination of these to a + common whole; or finally with such subordination and amalgamation, along + with specialization of function, that the same parts, which in other cases + can be regarded only as progeny, in these become only members of an + individual. + </p> + <p> + This leads to the question of individuality, a subject quite too large and + too recondite for present discussion. The conclusion of the whole matter, + however, is, that individuality—that very ground of being as + distinguished from thing—is not attained in Nature at one leap. If + anywhere truly exemplified in plants, it is only in the lowest and + simplest, where the being is a structural unit, a single cell, member-less + and organless, though organic—the same thing as those cells of which + all the more complex plants are built up, and with which every plant and + (structurally) every animal began its development. In the ascending + gradation of the vegetable kingdom individuality is, so to say, striven + after, but never attained; in the lower animals it is striven after with + greater though incomplete success; it is realized only in animals of so + high a rank that vegetative multiplication or offshoots are out of the + question, where all parts are strictly members and nothing else, and all + subordinated to a common nervous centre—is fully realized only in a + conscious person. + </p> + <p> + So, also, the broad distinction between reproduction by seeds or ova and + propagation by buds, though perfect in some of the lowest forms of life, + becomes evanescent in others; and even the most absolute law we know in + the physiology of genuine reproduction—that of sexual cooperation—has + its exceptions in both kingdoms in parthenogenesis, to which in the + vegetable kingdom a most curious and intimate series of gradations leads. + In plants, likewise, a long and finely graduated series of transitions + leads from bisexual to unisexual blossoms; and so in various other + respects. Everywhere we may perceive that Nature secures her ends, and + makes her distinctions on the whole manifest and real but everywhere + without abrupt breaks We need not wonder therefore that gradations between + species and varieties should occur; the more so, since genera, tribes, and + other groups into which the naturalist collocates species, are far from + being always absolutely limited in Nature, though they are necessarily + represented to be so in systems. From the necessity of the case, the + classifications of the naturalist abruptly define where Nature more or + less blends. Our systems are nothing, if not definite. They express + differences, and some of the coarser gradations. But this evinces not + their perfection, but their imperfection. Even the best of them are to the + system of Nature what consecutive patches of the seven colors are to the + rainbow. + </p> + <p> + Now the principle of gradation throughout organic Nature may, of course, + be interpreted upon other assumptions than those of Darwins hypothesis—certainly + upon quite other than those of a materialistic philosophy, with which we + ourselves have no sympathy. Still we conceive it not only possible, but + probable, that this gradation, as it has its natural ground, may yet have + its scientific explanation. In any case, there is no need to deny that the + general facts correspond well with an hypothesis like Darwins, which is + built upon fine gradations. + </p> + <p> + We have contemplated quite long enough the general presumptions in favor + of an hypothesis of the derivation of species. We cannot forget, however, + while for the moment we overlook, the formidable difficulties which all + hypotheses of this class have to encounter, and the serious implications + which they seem to involve. We feel, moreover, that Darwins particular + hypothesis is exposed to some special objections. It requires no small + strength of nerve steadily to conceive, not only of the diversification, + but of the formation of the organs of an animal through cumulative + variation and natural selection. Think of such an organ as the eye, that + most perfect of optical instruments, as so produced in the lower animals + and perfected in the higher! A friend of ours, who accepts the new + doctrine, confesses that for a long while a cold chill came over him + whenever he thought of the eye. He has at length got over that stage of + the complaint, and is now in the fever of belief, perchance to be + succeeded by the sweating stage, during which sundry peccant humors may be + eliminated from the system. For ourselves, we dread the chill, and have + some misgivings about the consequences of the reaction. We find ourselves + in the "singular position" acknowledged by Pictet—that is, + confronted with a theory which, although it can really explain much, seems + inadequate to the heavy task it so boldly assumes, but which, + nevertheless, appears better fitted than any other that has been broached + to explain, if it be possible to explain, somewhat of the manner in which + organized beings may have arisen and succeeded each other. In this dilemma + we might take advantage of Mr. Darwins candid admission, that he by no + means expects to convince old and experienced people, whose minds are + stocked with a multitude of facts all regarded during a long course of + years from the old point of view. This is nearly our case. So, owning no + call to a larger faith than is expected of us, but not prepared to + pronounce the whole hypothesis untenable, under such construction as we + should put upon it, we naturally sought to attain a settled conviction + through a perusal of several proffered refutations of the theory. At + least, this course seemed to offer the readiest way of bringing to a head + the various objections to which the theory is exposed. On several accounts + some of these opposed reviews especially invite examination. We propose, + accordingly, to conclude our task with an article upon "Darwin and his + Reviewers." + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0023" id="link2H_4_0023"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III + </h2> + <p> + The origin of species, like all origination, like the institution of any + other natural state or order, is beyond our immediate ken. We see or may + learn how things go on; we can only frame hypotheses as to how they began. + </p> + <p> + Two hypotheses divide the scientific world, very unequally, upon the + origin of the existing diversity of the plants and animals which surround + us. One assumes that the actual kinds are primordial; the other, that they + are derivative. One, that all kinds originated supernaturally and directly + as such, and have continued unchanged in the order of Nature; the other, + that the present kinds appeared in some sort of genealogical connection + with other and earlier kinds, that they became what they now are in the + course of time and in the order of Nature. + </p> + <p> + Or, bringing in the word species, which is well defined as "the perennial + succession of individuals," commonly of very like individuals—as a + close corporation of individuals perpetuated by generation, instead of + election—and reducing the question to mathematical simplicity of + statement: species are lines of individuals coming down from the past and + running on to the future; lines receding, therefore, from our view in + either direction. Within our limited observation they appear to be + parallel lines, as a general thing neither approaching to nor diverging + from each other. + </p> + <p> + The first hypothesis assumes that they were parallel from the unknown + beginning and will be to the unknown end. The second hypothesis assumes + that the apparent parallelism is not real and complete, at least + aboriginally, but approximate or temporary; that we should find the lines + convergent in the past, if we could trace them far enough; that some of + them, if produced back, would fall into certain fragments of lines, which + have left traces in the past, lying not exactly in the same direction, and + these farther back into others to which they are equally unparallel. It + will also claim that the present lines, whether on the whole really or + only approximately parallel, sometimes fork or send off branches on one + side or the other, producing new lines (varieties), which run for a while, + and for aught we know indefinitely when not interfered with, near and + approximately parallel to the parent line. This claim it can establish; + and it may also show that these close subsidiary lines may branch or vary + again, and that those branches or varieties which are best adapted to the + existing conditions may be continued, while others stop or die out. And so + we may have the basis of a real theory of the diversification of species + and here indeed, there is a real, though a narrow, established ground to + build upon But as systems of organic Nature, both doctrines are equally + hypotheses, are suppositions of what there is no proof of from experience, + assumed in order to account for the observed phenomena, and supported by + such indirect evidence as can be had. + </p> + <p> + Even when the upholders of the former and more popular system mix up + revelation with scientific discussion—which we decline to do—they + by no means thereby render their view other than hypothetical. Agreeing + that plants and animals were produced by Omnipotent fiat does not exclude + the idea of natural order and what we call secondary causes. The record of + the fiat—"Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed," + etc., "and it was so;" "let the earth bring forth the living creature + after his kind, cattle and creeping thing and beast of the earth after his + kind, and it was so"—seems even to imply them. Agreeing that they + were formed of "the dust of the ground," and of thin air, only leads to + the conclusion that the pristine individuals were corporeally constituted + like existing individuals, produced through natural agencies. To agree + that they were created "after their kinds" determines nothing as to what + were the original kinds, nor in what mode, during what time, and in what + connections it pleased the Almighty to introduce the first individuals of + each sort upon the earth. Scientifically considered, the two opposing + doctrines are equally hypothetical. + </p> + <p> + The two views very unequally divide the scientific world; so that + believers in "the divine right of majorities" need not hesitate which side + to take, at least for the present. Up to a time quite within the memory of + a generation still on the stage, two hypotheses about the nature of light + very unequally divided the scientific world. But the small minority has + already prevailed: the emission theory has gone out; the undulatory or + wave theory, after some fluctuation, has reached high tide, and is now the + pervading, the fully-established system. There was an intervening time + during which most physicists held their opinions in suspense. + </p> + <p> + The adoption of the undulatory theory of light called for the extension of + the same theory to heat, and this promptly suggested the hypothesis of a + correlation, material connection, and transmutability of heat, light, + electricity, magnetism, etc.; which hypothesis the physicists held in + absolute suspense until very lately, but are now generally adopting. If + not already established as a system, it promises soon to become so. At + least, it is generally received as a tenable and probably true hypothesis. + </p> + <p> + Parallel to this, however less cogent the reasons, Darwin and others, + having shown it likely that some varieties of plants or animals have + diverged in time into cognate species, or into forms as different as + species, are led to infer that all species of a genus may have thus + diverged from a common stock, and thence to suppose a higher community of + origin in ages still farther back, and so on. Following the safe example + of the physicists, and acknowledging the fact of the diversification of a + once homogeneous species into varieties, we may receive the theory of the + evolution of these into species, even while for the present we hold the + hypothesis of a further evolution in cool suspense or in grave suspicion. + In respect to very many questions a wise mans mind rests long in a state + neither of belief nor unbelief. But your intellectually short-sighted + people are apt to be preternaturally clear-sighted, and to find their way + very plain to positive conclusions upon one side or the other of every + mooted question. + </p> + <p> + In fact, most people, and some philosophers, refuse to hold questions in + abeyance, however incompetent they may be to decide them. And, curiously + enough, the more difficult, recondite, and perplexing, the questions or + hypotheses are—such, for instance, as those about organic Nature—the + more impatient they are of suspense. Sometimes, and evidently in the + present case, this impatience grows out of a fear that a new hypothesis + may endanger cherished and most important beliefs. Impatience under such + circumstances is not unnatural, though perhaps needless, and, if so, + unwise. + </p> + <p> + To us the present revival of the derivative hypothesis, in a more winning + shape than it ever before had, was not unexpected. We wonder that any + thoughtful observer of the course of investigation and of speculation in + science should not have foreseen it, and have learned at length to take + its inevitable coming patiently; the more so, as in Darwins treatise it + comes in a purely scientific form, addressed only to scientific men. The + notoriety and wide popular perusal of this treatise appear to have + astonished the author even more than the book itself has astonished the + reading world Coming as the new presentation does from a naturalist of + acknowledged character and ability and marked by a conscientiousness and + candor which have not always been reciprocated we have thought it simply + right to set forth the doctrine as fairly and as favorably as we could + There are plenty to decry it and the whole theory is widely exposed to + attack For the arguments on the other side we may look to the numerous + adverse publications which Darwin s volume has already called out and + especially to those reviews which propose directly to refute it. Taking + various lines and reflecting very diverse modes of thought, these hostile + critics may be expected to concentrate and enforce the principal + objections which can be brought to bear against the derivative hypothesis + in general, and Darwins new exposition of it in particular. + </p> + <p> + Upon the opposing side of the question we have read with attention—1. + An article in the North American Review for April last; 2. One in the + Christian Examiner, Boston, for May; 3. M. Pictets article in the + Bibliotheque Universelle, which we have already made considerable use of, + which seems throughout most able and correct, and which in tone and + fairness is admirably in contrast with—4. The article in the + Edinburgh Review for May, attributed—although against a large amount + of internal presumptive evidence—to the most distinguished British + comparative anatomist; 5. An article in the North British Review for May; + 6. Prof. Agassiz has afforded an early opportunity to peruse the + criticisms he makes in the forthcoming third volume of his great work, by + a publication of them in advance in the American Journal of Science for + July. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +In our survey of the lively discussion which has been raised, it +matters little how our own particular opinions may incline. But we may +confess to an impression, thus far, that the doctrine of the permanent +and complete immutability of species has not been established, and may +fairly be doubted. We believe that species vary, and that "Natural +Selection" + works; but we suspect that its operation, like every analogous natural +operation, may be limited by something else. Just as every species by +its natural rate of reproduction would soon completely fill any country +it could live in, but does not, being checked by some other species or +some other condition—so it may be surmised that variation and natural +selection have their struggle and consequent check, or are limited by +something inherent in the constitution of organic beings. +</pre> + <p> + We are disposed to rank the derivative hypothesis in its fullness with the + nebular hypothesis, and to regard both as allowable, as not unlikely to + prove tenable in spite of some strong objections, but as not therefore + demonstrably true. Those, if any there be, who regard the derivative + hypothesis as satisfactorily proved, must have loose notions as to what + proof is. Those who imagine it can be easily refuted and cast aside, must, + we think, have imperfect or very prejudiced conceptions of the facts + concerned and of the questions at issue. + </p> + <p> + We are not disposed nor prepared to take sides for or against the new + hypothesis, and so, perhaps, occupy a good position from which to watch + the discussion and criticise those objections which are seemingly + inconclusive. On surveying the arguments urged by those who have + undertaken to demolish the theory, we have been most impressed with a + sense of their great inequality. Some strike us as excellent and perhaps + unanswerable; some, as incongruous with other views of the same writers; + others, when carried out, as incompatible with general experience or + general beliefs, and therefore as proving too much; still others, as + proving nothing at all; so that, on the whole, the effect is rather + confusing and disappointing. We certainly expected a stronger adverse case + than any which the thoroughgoing opposers of Darwin appear to have made + out. Wherefore, if it be found that the new hypothesis has grown upon our + favor as we proceeded, this must be attributed not so much to the force of + the arguments of the book itself as to the want of force of several of + those by which it has been assailed. Darwins arguments we might resist or + adjourn; but some of the refutations of it give us more concern than the + book itself did. + </p> + <p> + These remarks apply mainly to the philosophical and theological objections + which have been elaborately urged, almost exclusively by the American + reviewers. The North British reviewer, indeed, roundly denounces the book + as atheistical, but evidently deems the case too clear for argument. The + Edinburgh reviewer, on the contrary, scouts all such objections—as + well he may, since he records his belief in "a continuous creative + operation," a constantly operating secondary creational law," through + which species are successively produced; and he emits faint, but not + indistinct, glimmerings of a transmutation theory of his own;[III-8} so + that he is equally exposed to all the philosophical objections advanced by + Agassiz, and to most of those urged by the other American critics, against + Darwin himself. + </p> + <p> + Proposing now to criticise the critics, so far as to see what their most + general and comprehensive objections amount to, we must needs begin with + the American reviewers, and with their arguments adduced to prove that a + derivative hypothesis ought not to be true, or is not possible, + philosophical, or theistic. + </p> + <p> + It must not be forgotten that on former occasions very confident judgments + have been pronounced by very competent persons, which have not been + finally ratified. Of the two great minds of the seventeenth century, + Newton and Leibnitz, both profoundly religious as well as philosophical, + one produced the theory of gravitation, the other objected to that theory + that it was subversive of natural religion. The nebular hypothesis—a + natural consequence of the theory of gravitation and of the subsequent + progress of physical and astronomical discovery—has been denounced + as atheistical even down to our own day. But it is now largely adopted by + the most theistical natural philosophers as a tenable and perhaps + sufficient hypothesis, and where not accepted is no longer objected to, so + far as we know, on philosophical or religious grounds. + </p> + <p> + The gist of the philosophical objections urged by the two Boston reviewers + against an hypothesis of the derivation of species—or at least + against Darwins particular hypothesis— is, that it is incompatible + with the idea of any manifestation of design in the universe, that it + denies final causes. A serious objection this, and one that demands very + serious attention. + </p> + <p> + The proposition, that things and events in Nature were not designed to be + so, if logically carried out, is doubtless tantamount to atheism. Yet most + people believe that some were designed and others were not, although they + fall into a hopeless maze whenever they undertake to define their + position. So we should not like to stigmatize as atheistically disposed a + person who regards certain things and events as being what they are + through designed laws (whatever that expression means), but as not + themselves specially ordained, or who, in another connection, believes in + general, but not in particular Providence. We could sadly puzzle him with + questions; but in return he might equally puzzle us. Then, to deny that + anything was specially designed to be what it is, is one proposition; + while to deny that the Designer supernaturally or immediately made it so, + is another: though the reviewers appear not to recognize the distinction. + </p> + <p> + Also, "scornfully to repudiate" or to "sneer at the idea of any + manifestation of design in the material universe,"[III-9} is one thing; + while to consider, and perhaps to exaggerate, the difficulties which + attend the practical application of the doctrine of final causes to + certain instances, is quite another thing: yet the Boston reviewers, we + regret to say, have not been duly regardful of the difference. Whatever be + thought of Darwins doctrine, we are surprised that he should be charged + with scorning or sneering at the opinions of others, upon such a subject. + Perhaps Darwins view is incompatible with final causes—we will + consider that question presently— but as to the Examiners charge, + that he "sneers at the idea of any manifestation of design in the material + universe," though we are confident that no misrepresentation was intended, + we are equally confident that it is not at all warranted by the two + passages cited in support of it. Here are the passages: + </p> + <p> + "If green woodpeckers alone had existed, or we did not know that there + were many black and pied kinds, I dare say that we should have thought + that the green color was a beautiful adaptation to hide this + tree-frequenting bird from its enemies." + </p> + <p> + "If our reason leads us to admire with enthusiasm a multitude of + inimitable contrivances in Nature, this same reason tells us, though we + may easily err on both sides, that some contrivances are less perfect. Can + we consider the sting of the wasp or of the bee as perfect, which, when + used against many attacking animals, cannot be withdrawn, owing to the + backward serratures, and so inevitably causes the death of the insect by + tearing out its viscera?" + </p> + <p> + If the sneer here escapes ordinary vision in the detached extracts (one of + them wanting the end of the sentence), it is, if possible, more + imperceptible when read with the context. Moreover, this perusal inclines + us to think that the Examiner has misapprehended the particular argument + or object, as well as the spirit, of the author in these passages. The + whole reads more naturally as a caution against the inconsiderate use of + final causes in science, and an illustration of some of the manifold + errors and absurdities which their hasty assumption is apt to involve—considerations + probably equivalent to those which induced Lord Bacon to liken final + causes to "vestal virgins." So, if any one, it is here Bacon that "sitteth + in the seat of the scornful." As to Darwin, in the section from which the + extracts were made, he is considering a subsidiary question, and trying to + obviate a particular difficulty, but, we suppose, is wholly unconscious of + denying "any manifestation of design in the material universe." He + concludes the first sentence: + </p> + <p> + —"and consequently that it was a character of importance, and might + have been acquired through natural selection; as it is, I have no doubt + that the color is due to some quite distinct cause, probably to sexual + selection." + </p> + <p> + After an illustration from the vegetable creation, Darwin adds: + </p> + <p> + "The naked skin on the head of a vulture is generally looked at as a + direct adaptation for wallowing in putridity; and so it may be, or it may + possibly be due to the direct action of putrid matter; but we should be + very cautious in drawing any such inference, when we see that the skin on + the head of the clean-feeding male turkey is likewise naked. The sutures + in the skulls of young mammals have been advanced as a beautiful + adaptation for aiding parturition, and no doubt they facilitate or may be + indispensable for this act; but as sutures occur in the skulls of young + birds and reptiles, which have only to escape from a broken egg, we may + infer that this structure has arisen from the laws of growth, and has been + taken advantage of in the parturition of the higher animals." + </p> + <p> + All this, simply taken, is beyond cavil, unless the attempt to explain + scientifically how any designed result is accomplished savors of + impropriety. + </p> + <p> + In the other place, Darwin is contemplating the patent fact that + "perfection here below" is relative, not absolute—and illustrating + this by the circumstance that European animals, and especially plants, are + now proving to be better adapted for New Zealand than many of the + indigenous ones—that "the correction for the aberration of light is + said, on high authority, not to be quite perfect even in that most perfect + organ, the eye." And then follows the second extract of the reviewer. But + what is the position of the reviewer upon his own interpretation of these + passages? If he insists that green woodpeckers were specifically created + so in order that they might be less liable to capture, must he not equally + hold that the black and pied ones were specifically made of these colors + in order that they might be more liable to be caught? And would an + explanation of the mode in which those woodpeckers came to be green, + however complete, convince him that the color was undesigned? + </p> + <p> + As to the other illustration, is the reviewer so complete an optimist as + to insist that the arrangement and the weapon are wholly perfect (quoad + the insect) the normal use of which often causes the animal fatally to + injure or to disembowel itself? Either way it seems to us that the + argument here, as well as the insect, performs hari-kari. The Examiner + adds: + </p> + <p> + "We should in like manner object to the word favorable, as implying that + some species are placed by the Creator under unfavorable circumstances, at + least under such as might be advantageously modified." + </p> + <p> + But are not many individuals and some races of men placed by the Creator + "under unfavorable circumstances, at least under such as might be + advantageously modified?" Surely these reviewers must be living in an + ideal world, surrounded by "the faultless monsters which our world neer + saw," in some elysium where imperfection and distress were never heard of! + Such arguments resemble some which we often hear against the Bible, + holding that book responsible as if it originated certain facts on the + shady side of human nature or the apparently darker lines of Providential + dealing, though the facts are facts of common observation and have to be + confronted upon any theory. + </p> + <p> + The North American reviewer also has a world of his own—just such a + one as an idealizing philosopher would be apt to devise—that is, + full of sharp and absolute distinctions: such, for instance, as the + "absolute invariableness of instinct;" an absolute want of intelligence in + any brute animal; and a complete monopoly of instinct by the brute + animals, so that this "instinct is a great matter" for them only, since it + sharply and perfectly distinguishes this portion of organic Nature from + the vegetable kingdom on the one hand and from man on the other: most + convenient views for argumentative purposes, but we suppose not borne out + in fact. + </p> + <p> + In their scientific objections the two reviewers take somewhat different + lines; but their philosophical and theological arguments strikingly + coincide. They agree in emphatically asserting that Darwins hypothesis of + the origination of species through variation and natural selection + "repudiates the whole doctrine of final causes," and "all indication of + design or purpose in the organic world . . . is neither more nor less than + a formal denial of any agency beyond that of a blind chance in the + developing or perfecting of the organs or instincts of created beings. . . + . It is in vain that the apologists of this hypothesis might say that it + merely attributes a different mode and time to the Divine agency—that + all the qualities subsequently appearing in their descendants must have + been implanted, and have remained latent in the original pair." Such a + view, the Examiner declares, "is nowhere stated in this book, and would + be, we are sure, disclaimed by the author." + </p> + <p> + We should like to be informed of the grounds of this sureness. The marked + rejection of spontaneous generation—the statement of a belief that + all animals have descended from four or five progenitors, and plants from + an equal or lesser number, or, perhaps, if constrained to it by analogy, + "from some one primordial form into which life was first breathed"—coupled + with the expression, "To my mind it accords better with what we know of + the laws impressed on matter by the Creator, that the production and + extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have + been due to secondary causes," than "that each species has been + independently created"—these and similar expressions lead us to + suppose that the author probably does accept the kind of view which the + Examiner is sure he would disclaim. At least, we charitably see nothing in + his scientific theory to hinder his adoption of Lord Bacons "Confession of + Faith" in this regard— "That, notwithstanding God hath rested and + ceased from creating, yet, nevertheless, he doth accomplish and fulfill + his divine will in all things, great and small, singular and general, as + fully and exactly by providence as he could by miracle and new creation, + though his working be not immediate and direct, but by compass; not + violating Nature, which is his own law upon the creature." + </p> + <p> + However that may be, it is undeniable that Mr. Darwin has purposely been + silent upon the philosophical and theological applications of his theory. + This reticence, under the circumstances, argues design, and raises inquiry + as to the final cause or reason why. Here, as in higher instances, + confident as we are that there is a final cause, we must not be + overconfident that we can infer the particular or true one. Perhaps the + author is more familiar with natural-historical than with philosophical + inquiries, and, not having decided which particular theory about efficient + cause is best founded, he meanwhile argues the scientific questions + concerned—all that relates to secondary causes—upon purely + scientific grounds, as he must do in any case. Perhaps, confident, as he + evidently is, that his view will finally be adopted, he may enjoy a sort + of satisfaction in hearing it denounced as sheer atheism by the + inconsiderate, and afterward, when it takes its place with the nebular + hypothesis and the like, see this judgment reversed, as we suppose it + would be in such event. + </p> + <p> + Whatever Mr. Darwins philosophy may be, or whether he has any, is a matter + of no consequence at all, compared with the important questions, whether a + theory to account for the origination and diversification of animal and + vegetable forms through the operation of secondary causes does or does not + exclude design; and whether the establishment by adequate evidence of + Darwin s particular theory of diversification through variation and + natural selection would essentially alter the present scientific and + philosophical grounds for theistic views of Nature. The unqualified + affirmative judgment rendered by the two Boston reviewers, evidently able + and practised reasoners, "must give us pause." We hesitate to advance our + conclusions in opposition to theirs. But, after full and serious + consideration, we are constrained to say that, in our opinion, the + adoption of a derivative hypothesis, and of Darwins particular hypothesis, + if we understand it, would leave the doctrines of final causes, utility, + and special design, just where they were before. We do not pretend that + the subject is not environed with difficulties. Every view is so + environed; and every shifting of the view is likely, if it removes some + difficulties, to bring others into prominence. But we cannot perceive that + Darwins theory brings in any new kind of scientific difficulty, that is, + any with which philosophical naturalists were not already familiar. + </p> + <p> + Since natural science deals only with secondary or natural causes, the + scientific terms of a theory of derivation of species—no less than + of a theory of dynamics—must needs be the same to the theist as to + the atheist. The difference appears only when the inquiry is carried up to + the question of primary cause—a question which belongs to + philosophy. Wherefore, Darwin s reticence about efficient cause does not + disturb us. He considers only the scientific questions. As already stated, + we think that a theistic view of Nature is implied in his book, and we + must charitably refrain from suggesting the contrary until the contrary is + logically deduced from his premises. If, however, he anywhere maintains + that the natural causes through which species are diversified operate + without an ordaining and directing intelligence, and that the orderly + arrangements and admirable adaptations we see all around us are fortuitous + or blind, undesigned results—that the eye, though it came to see, + was not designed for seeing, nor the hand for handling—then, we + suppose, he is justly chargeable with denying, and very needlessly + denying, all design in organic Nature; otherwise, we suppose not. Why, if + Darwins well-known passage about the eye[III-10} equivocal though some of + the language be—does not imply ordaining and directing intelligence, + then he refutes his own theory as effectually as any of his opponents are + likely to do. He asks: + </p> + <p> + "May we not believe that [under variation proceeding long enough, + generation multiplying the better variations times enough, and natural + selection securing the improvements] a living optical instrument might be + thus formed as superior to one of glass as the works of the Creator are to + those of man?" + </p> + <p> + This must mean one of two things: either that the living instrument was + made and perfected under (which is the same thing as by) an intelligent + First Cause, or that it was not. If it was, then theism is asserted; and + as to the mode of operation, how do we know, and why must we believe, + that, fitting precedent forms being in existence, a living instrument (so + different from a lifeless manufacture) would be originated and perfected + in any other way, or that this is not the fitting way? If it means that it + was not, if he so misuses words that by the Creator he intends an + unintelligent power, undirected force, or necessity, then he has put his + case so as to invite disbelief in it. For then blind forces have produced + not only manifest adaptions of means to specific ends—which is + absurd enough—but better adjusted and more perfect instruments or + machines than intellect (that is, human intellect) can contrive and human + skill execute—which no sane person will believe. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, if Darwin even admits—we will not say adopts—the + theistic view, he may save himself much needless trouble in the endeavor + to account for the absence of every sort of intermediate form. Those in + the line between one species and another supposed to be derived from it he + may be bound to provide; but as to "an infinite number of other varieties + not intermediate, gross, rude, and purposeless, the unmeaning creations of + an unconscious cause," born only to perish, which a relentless reviewer + has imposed upon his theory—rightly enough upon the atheistic + alternative—the theistic view rids him at once of this "scum of + creation." For, as species do not now vary at all times and places and in + all directions, nor produce crude, vague, imperfect, and useless forms, + there is no reason for supposing that they ever did. Good-for-nothing + monstrosities, failures of purpose rather than purposeless, indeed, + sometimes occur; but these are just as anomalous and unlikely upon Darwins + theory as upon any other. For his particular theory is based, and even + over-strictly insists, upon the most universal of physiological laws, + namely, that successive generations shall differ only slightly, if at all, + from their parents; and this effectively excludes crude and impotent + forms. Wherefore, if we believe that the species were designed, and that + natural propagation was designed, how can we say that the actual varieties + of the species were not equally designed? Have we not similar grounds for + inferring design in the supposed varieties of species, that we have in the + case of the supposed species of a genus? When a + </p> + <p> + naturalist comes to regard as three closely related species what he before + took to be so many varieties of one species how has he thereby + strengthened our conviction that the three forms are designed to have the + differences which they actually exhibit? Wherefore so long as gradatory, + orderly, and adapted forms in Nature argue design, and at least while the + physical cause of variation is utterly unknown and mysterious, we should + advise Mr. Darwin to assume in the philosophy of his hypothesis that + variation has been led along certain beneficial lines. Streams flowing + over a sloping plain by gravitation (here the counterpart of natural + selection) may have worn their actual channels as they flowed; yet their + particular courses may have been assigned; and where we see them forming + definite and useful lines of irrigation, after a manner unaccountable on + the laws of gravitation and dynamics, we should believe that the + distribution was designed. + </p> + <p> + To insist, therefore, that the new hypothesis of the derivative origin of + the actual species is incompatible with final causes and design, is to + take a position which we must consider philosophically untenable. We must + also regard it as highly unwise and dangerous, in the present state and + present prospects of physical and physiological science. We should expect + the philosophical atheist or skeptic to take this ground; also, until + better informed, the unlearned and unphilosophical believer; but we should + think that the thoughtful theistic philosopher would take the other side. + Not to do so seems to concede that only supernatural events can be shown + to be designed, which no theist can admit—seems also to misconceive + the scope and meaning of all ordinary arguments for design in Nature. This + misconception is shared both by the reviewers and the reviewed. At least, + Mr. Darwin uses expressions which imply that the natural forms which + surround us, because they have a history or natural sequence, could have + been only generally, but not particularly designed—a view at once + superficial and contradictory; whereas his true line should be, that his + hypothesis concerns the order and not the cause, the how and not the why + of the phenomena, and so leaves the question of design just where it was + before. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate this from the theists point of view: Transfer the question + for a moment from the origination of species to the origination of + individuals, which occurs, as we say, naturally. Because natural, that is, + "stated, fixed, or settled," is it any the less designed on that account? + We acknowledge that God is our maker—not merely the originator of + the race, but our maker as individuals—and none the less so because + it pleased him to make us in the way of ordinary generation. If any of us + were born unlike our parents and grandparents, in a slight degree, or in + whatever degree, would the case be altered in this regard? + </p> + <p> + The whole argument in natural theology proceeds upon the ground that the + inference for a final cause of the structure of the hand and of the valves + in the veins is just as valid now, in individuals produced through natural + generation, as it would have been in the case of the first man, + supernaturally created. Why not, then, just as good even on the + supposition of the descent of men from chimpanzees and gorillas, since + those animals possess these same contrivances? Or, to take a more + supposable case: If the argument from structure to design is convincing + when drawn from a particular animal, say a Newfoundland dog, and is not + weakened by the knowledge that this dog came from similar parents, would + it be at all weakened if, in tracing his genealogy, it were ascertained + that he was a remote descendant of the mastiff or some other breed, or + that both these and other breeds came (as is suspected) from some wolf? If + not, how is the argument for design in the structure of our particular dog + affected by the supposition that his wolfish progenitor came from a + post-tertiary wolf, perhaps less unlike an existing one than the dog in + question is to some other of the numerous existing races of dogs, and that + this post-tertiary came from an equally or more different tertiary wolf? + And if the argument from structure to design is not invalidated by our + present knowledge that our + </p> + <p> + individual dog was developed from a single organic cell, how is it + invalidated by the supposition of an analogous natural descent, through a + long line of connected forms, from such a cell, or from some simple + animal, existing ages before there were any dogs? + </p> + <p> + Again, suppose we have two well-known and apparently most decidedly + different animals or plants, A and D, both presenting, in their structure + and in their adaptations to the conditions of existence, as valid and + clear evidence of design as any animal or plant ever presented: suppose we + have now discovered two intermediate species, B and C, which make up a + series with equable differences from A to D. Is the proof of design or + final cause in A and D, whatever it amounted to, at all weakened by the + discovery of the intermediate forms? Rather does not the proof extend to + the intermediate species, and go to show that all four were equally + designed? Suppose, now, the number of intermediate forms to be much + increased, and therefore the gradations to be closer yet—as close as + those between the various sorts of dogs, or races of men, or of horned + cattle: would the evidence of design, as shown in the structure of any of + the members of the series, be any weaker than it was in the case of A and + D? Whoever contends that it would be, should likewise maintain that the + origination of individuals by generation is incompatible with design, or + an impossibility in Nature. We might all have confidently thought the + latter, antecedently to experience of the fact of reproduction. Let our + experience teach us wisdom. + </p> + <p> + These illustrations make it clear that the evidence of design from + structure and adaptation is furnished complete by the individual animal or + plant itself, and that our knowledge or our ignorance of the history of + its formation or mode of production adds nothing to it and takes nothing + away. We infer design from certain arrangements and results; and we have + no other way of ascertaining it. Testimony, unless infallible, cannot + prove it, and is out of the question here. Testimony is not the + appropriate proof of design: adaptation to purpose is. Some arrangements + in Nature appear to be contrivances, but may leave us in doubt. Many + others, of which the eye and the hand are notable examples, compel belief + with a force not appreciably short of demonstration. Clearly to settle + that such as these must have been designed goes far toward proving that + other organs and other seemingly less explicit adaptations in Nature must + also have been designed, and clinches our belief, from manifold + considerations, that all Nature is a preconcerted arrangement, a + manifested design. A strange contradiction would it be to insist that the + shape and markings of certain rude pieces of flint, lately found in + drift-deposits, prove design, but that nicer and thousand-fold more + complex adaptations to use in animals and vegetables do not a fortiori + argue design. + </p> + <p> + We could not affirm that the arguments for design in Nature are conclusive + to all minds. But we may insist, upon grounds already intimated, that, + whatever they were good for before Darwins book appeared, they are good + for now. To our minds the argument from design always appeared conclusive + of the being and continued operation of an intelligent First Cause, the + Ordainer of Nature; and we do not see that the grounds of such belief + would be disturbed or shifted by the adoption of Darwins hypothesis. We + are not blind to the philosophical difficulties which the thoroughgoing + implication of design in Nature has to encounter, nor is it our vocation + to obviate them It suffices us to know that they are not new nor peculiar + difficulties—that, as Darwin s theory and our reasonings upon it did + not raise these perturbing spirits, they are not bound to lay them. + Meanwhile, that the doctrine of design encounters the very same + difficulties in the material that it does in the moral world is Just what + ought to be expected. + </p> + <p> + So the issue between the skeptic and the theist is only the old one, long + ago argued out—namely, whether organic Nature is a result of design + or of chance. Variation and natural selection open no third alternative; + they concern only the question how the results, whether fortuitous or + designed, may have been brought about. Organic Nature abounds with + unmistakable and irresistible indications of design, and, being a + connected and consistent system, this evidence carries the implication of + design throughout the whole. On the other hand, chance carries no + probabilities with it, can never be developed into a consistent system, + but, when applied to the explanation of orderly or beneficial results, + heaps up improbabilities at every step beyond all computation. To us, a + fortuitous Cosmos is simply inconceivable. The alternative is a designed + Cosmos. + </p> + <p> + It is very easy to assume that, because events in Nature are in one sense + accidental, and the operative forces which bring them to pass are + themselves blind and unintelligent (physically considered, all forces + are), therefore they are undirected, or that he who describes these events + as the results of such forces thereby assumes that they are undirected. + This is the assumption of the Boston reviewers, and of Mr. Agassiz, who + insists that the only alternative to the doctrine, that all organized + beings were supernaturally created just as they are, is, that they have + arisen spontaneously through the omnipotence of matter.[III-11} + </p> + <p> + As to all this, nothing is easier than to bring out in the conclusion what + you introduce in the premises. If you import atheism into your conception + of variation and natural selection, you can readily exhibit it in the + result. If you do not put it in, perhaps there need be none to come out. + While the mechanician is considering a steamboat or locomotive-engine as a + material organism, and contemplating the fuel, water, and steam, the + source of the mechanical forces, and how they operate, he may not have + occasion to mention the engineer. But, the orderly and special results + accomplished, the why the movements are in this or that particular + direction, etc., is inexplicable without him. If Mr. Darwin believes that + the events which he supposes to have occurred and the results we behold + were undirected and undesigned, or if the physicist believes that the + natural forces to which he refers phenomena are uncaused and undirected, + no argument is needed to show that such belief is atheism. But the + admission of the phenomena and of these natural processes and forces does + not necessitate any such belief, nor even render it one whit less + improbable than before. + </p> + <p> + Surely, too, the accidental element may play its part in Nature without + negativing design in the theists view. He believes that the earths surface + has been very gradually prepared for man and the existing animal races, + that vegetable matter has through a long series of generations imparted + fertility to the soil in order that it may support its present occupants, + that even beds of coal have been stored up for mans benefit Yet what is + more accidental, and more simply the consequence of physical agencies than + the accumulation of vegetable matter in a peat bog and its transformation + into coal? No scientific person at this day doubts that our solar system + is a progressive development, whether in his conception he begins with + molten masses, or aeriform or nebulous masses, or with a fluid revolving + mass of vast extent, from which the specific existing worlds have been + developed one by one What theist doubts that the actual results of the + development in the inorganic worlds are not merely compatible with design + but are in the truest sense designed re suits? Not Mr. Agassiz, certainly, + who adopts a remarkable illustration of design directly founded on the + nebular hypothesis drawing from the position and times of the revolution + of the world, so originated direct evidence that the physical world has + been ordained in conformity with laws which obtain also among living + beings But the reader of the interesting exposition[III-12} will notice + that the designed result has been brought to pass through what, speaking + after the manner of men, might be called a chapter of accidents. + </p> + <p> + A natural corollary of this demonstration would seem to be, that a + material connection between a series of created things—such as the + development of one of them from another, or of all from a common stock—is + highly compatible with their intellectual connection, namely, with their + being designed and directed by one mind. Yet upon some ground which is not + explained, and which we are unable to conjecture, Mr. Agassiz concludes to + the contrary in the organic kingdoms, and insists that, because the + members of such a series have an intellectual connection, "they cannot be + the result of a material differentiation of the objects + themselves,"[III-13} that is, they cannot have had a genealogical + connection. But is there not as much intellectual connection between the + successive generations of any species as there is between the several + species of a genus, or the several genera of an order? As the intellectual + connection here is realized through the material connection, why may it + not be so in the case of species and genera? On all sides, therefore, the + implication seems to be quite the other way. + </p> + <p> + Returning to the accidental element, it is evident that the strongest + point against the compatibility of Darwins hypothesis with design in + Nature is made when natural selection is referred to as picking out those + variations which are improvements from a vast number which are not + improvements, but perhaps the contrary, and therefore useless or + purposeless, and born to perish. But even here the difficulty is not + peculiar; for Nature abounds with analogous instances. Some of our race + are useless, or worse, as regards the improvement of mankind; yet the race + may be designed to improve, and may be actually improving. Or, to avoid + the complication with free agency—the whole animate life of a + country depends absolutely upon the vegetation, the vegetation upon the + rain. The moisture is furnished by the ocean, is raised by the suns heat + from the oceans surface, and is wafted inland by the winds. But what + multitudes of raindrops fall back into the ocean—are as much without + a final cause as the incipient varieties which come to nothing! Does it + therefore follow that the rains which are bestowed upon the soil with such + rule and average regularity were not designed to support vegetable and + animal life? Consider, likewise, the vast proportion of seeds and pollen, + of ova and young—a thousand or more to one—which come to + nothing, and are therefore purposeless in the same sense, and only in the + same sense, as are Darwins unimproved and unused slight variations. The + world is full of such cases; and these must answer the argument—for + we cannot, except by thus showing that it proves too much. + </p> + <p> + Finally, it is worth noticing that, though natural selection is + scientifically explicable, variation is not. Thus far the cause of + variation, or the reason why the offspring is sometimes unlike the + parents, is just as mysterious as the reason why it is generally like the + parents. It is now as inexplicable as any other origination; and, if ever + explained, the explanation will only carry up the sequence of secondary + causes one step farther, and bring us in face of a somewhat different + problem, but which will have the same element of mystery that the problem + of variation has now. Circumstances may preserve or may destroy the + variations man may use or direct them but selection whether artificial or + natural no more originates them than man originates the power which turns + a wheel when he dams a stream and lets the water fall upon it The + origination of this power is a question about efficient cause. The + tendency of science in respect to this obviously is not toward the + omnipotence of matter, as some suppose, but to ward the omnipotence of + spirit. + </p> + <p> + So the real question we come to is as to the way in which we are to + conceive intelligent and efficient cause to be exerted, and upon what + exerted. Are we bound to suppose efficient cause in all cases exerted upon + nothing to evoke something into existence—and this thousands of + times repeated, when a slight change in the details would make all the + difference between successive species? Why may not the new species, or + some of them, be designed diversifications of the old? + </p> + <p> + There are, perhaps, only three views of efficient cause which may claim to + be both philosophical and theistic: + </p> + <p> + 1. The view of its exertion at the beginning of time, endowing matter and + created things with forces which do the work and produce the phenomena. + </p> + <p> + 2. This same view, with the theory of insulated interpositions, or + occasional direct action, engrafted upon it—the view that events and + operations in general go on in virtue simply of forces communicated at the + first, but that now and then, and only now and then, the Deity puts his + hand directly to the work. + </p> + <p> + 3. The theory of the immediate, orderly, and constant, however infinitely + diversified, action of the intelligent efficient Cause. + </p> + <p> + It must be allowed that, while the third is preeminently the Christian + view, all three are philosophically compatible with design in Nature. The + second is probably the popular conception. Perhaps most thoughtful people + oscillate from the middle view toward the first or the third—adopting + the first on some occasions, the third on others. Those philosophers who + like and expect to settle all mooted questions will take one or the other + extreme. The Examiner inclines toward, the North American reviewer fully + adopts, the third view, to the logical extent of maintaining that "the + origin of an individual, as well as the origin of a species or a genus, + can be explained only by the direct action of an intelligent creative + cause." To silence his critics, this is the line for Mr. Darwin to take; + for it at once and completely relieves his scientific theory from every + theological objection which his reviewers have urged against it. + </p> + <p> + At present we suspect that our author prefers the first conception, though + he might contend that his hypothesis is compatible with either of the + three. That it is also compatible with an atheistic or pantheistic + conception of the universe, is an objection which, being shared by all + physical, and some ethical or moral science, cannot specially be urged + against Darwins system. As he rejects spontaneous generation, and admits + of intervention at the beginning of organic life, and probably in more + than one instance, he is not wholly excluded from adopting the middle + view, although the interventions he would allow are few and far back. Yet + one interposition admits the principle as well as more. Interposition + presupposes particular necessity or reason for it, and raises the + question, when and how often it may have been necessary. It might be the + natural supposition, if we had only one set of species to account for, or + if the successive inhabitants of the earth had no other connections or + resemblances than those which adaptation to similar conditions, which + final causes in the narrower sense, might explain. But if this explanation + of organic Nature requires one to "believe that, at innumerable periods in + the earths history, certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly + to flash into living tissues," and this when the results are seen to be + strictly connected and systematic, we cannot wonder that such + interventions should at length be considered, not as interpositions or + interferences, but rather—to use the reviewers own language—as + "exertions so frequent and beneficent that we come to regard them as the + ordinary action of Him who laid the foundation of the earth, and without + whom not a sparrow falleth to the ground."[III-14} What does the + difference between Mr. Darwin and his reviewer now amount to? If we say + that according to one view the origination of species is natural, + according to the other miraculous, Mr. Darwin agrees that "what is natural + as much requires and presupposes an intelligent mind to render it so— + that is, to effect it continually or at stated times—as what is + supernatural does to effect it for once."[III-15} He merely inquires into + the form of the miracle, may remind us that all recorded miracles (except + the primal creation of matter) were transformations or actions in and upon + natural things, and will ask how many times and how frequently may the + origination of successive species be repeated before the supernatural + merges in the natural. + </p> + <p> + In short, Darwin maintains that the origination of a species, no less than + that of an individual, is natural; the reviewer, that the natural + origination of an individual, no less than the origination of a species, + requires and presupposes Divine power. A fortiori, then, the origination + of a variety requires and presupposes Divine power. And so between the + scientific hypothesis of the one and the philosophical conception of the + other no contrariety remains. And so, concludes the North American + reviewer, "a proper view of the nature of causation places the vital + doctrine of the being and the providence of a God on ground that can never + be shaken."[III-16} A worthy conclusion, and a sufficient answer to the + denunciations and arguments of the rest of the article, so far as + philosophy and natural theology are concerned. If a writer must needs use + his own favorite dogma as a weapon with which to give coup de grace to a + pernicious theory, he should be careful to seize his edge-tool by the + handle, and not by the blade. + </p> + <p> + We can barely glance at a subsidiary philosophical objection of the North + American reviewer, which the Examiner also raises, though less explicitly. + Like all geologists, Mr. Darwin draws upon time in the most unlimited + manner. He is not peculiar in this regard. Mr. Agassiz tells us that the + conviction is "now universal, among well-informed naturalists, that this + globe has been in existence for innumerable ages, and that the length of + time elapsed since it first became inhabited cannot be counted in years;" + Pictet, that the imagination refuses to calculate the immense number of + years and of ages during which the faunas of thirty or more epochs have + succeeded one another, and developed their long succession of generations. + Now, the reviewer declares that such indefinite succession of ages is + "virtually infinite," "lacks no characteristic of eternity except its + name," at least, that "the difference between such a conception and that + of the strictly infinite, if any, is not appreciable." But infinity + belongs to metaphysics. Therefore, he concludes, Darwin supports his + theory, not by scientific but by metaphysical evidence; his theory is + "essentially and completely metaphysical in character, resting altogether + upon that idea of the infinite which the human mind can neither put aside + nor comprehend."[III-17} And so a theory which will be generally regarded + as much too physical is transferred by a single syllogism to metaphysics. + </p> + <p> + Well, physical geology must go with it: for, even on the soberest view, it + demands an indefinitely long time antecedent to the introduction of + organic life upon our earth. A fortiori is physical astronomy a branch of + metaphysics, demanding, as it does, still larger "instalments of + infinity," as the reviewer calls them, both as to time and number. + Moreover, far the greater part of physical inquiries now relate to + molecular actions, which, a distinguished natural philosopher informs us, + "we have to regard as the results of an infinite number of in finitely + small material particles, acting on each other at infinitely small + distances"—a triad of infinities—and so physics becomes the + most metaphysical of sciences. Verily, if this style of reasoning is to + prevail— + </p> + <p> + "Thinking is but an idle waste of thought, And naught is everything, and + everything is naught." + </p> + <p> + The leading objection of Mr. Agassiz is likewise of a philosophical + character. It is, that species exist only "as categories of thought"—that, + having no material existence, they can have had no material variation, and + no material community of origin. Here the predication is of species in the + subjective sense, the inference in the objective sense. Reduced to plain + terms, the argument seems to be: Species are ideas; therefore the objects + from which the idea is derived cannot vary or blend, and cannot have had a + genealogical connection. + </p> + <p> + The common view of species is, that, although they are generalizations, + yet they have a direct objective ground in Nature, which genera, orders, + etc., have not. According to the succinct definition of Jussieu—and + that of Linnaeus is identical in meaning—a species is the perennial + succession of similar individuals in continued generations. The species is + the chain of which the individuals are the links. The sum of the + genealogically-connected similar individuals constitutes the species, + which thus has an actuality and ground of distinction not shared by genera + and other groups which were not supposed to be genealogically connected. + How a derivative hypothesis would modify this view, in assigning to + species only a temporary fixity, is obvious. Yet, if naturalists adopt + that hypothesis, they will still retain Jussieus definition, which leaves + untouched the question as to how and when the "perennial successions" were + established. The practical question will only be, How much difference + between two sets of individuals entitles them to rank under distinct + species? and that is the practical question now, on whatever theory. The + theoretical question is—as stated at the beginning of this article—whether + these specific lines were always as distinct as now. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Agassiz has "lost no opportunity of urging the idea that, while + species have no material existence, they yet exist as categories of + thought in the same way [and only in the same way] as genera, families, + orders, classes," etc. He + </p> + <p> + "has taken the ground that all the natural divisions in the animal kingdom + are primarily distinct, founded upon different categories of characters, + and that all exist in the same way, that is, as categories of thought, + embodied in individual living forms. I have attempted to show that + branches in the animal kingdom are founded upon different plans of + structure, and for that very reason have embraced from the beginning + representatives between which there could be no community of origin; that + classes are founded upon different modes of execution of these plans, and + therefore they also embrace representatives which could have no community + of origin; that orders represent the different degrees of complication in + the mode of execution of each class, and therefore embrace representatives + which could not have a community of origin any more than the members of + different classes or branches; that families are founded upon different + patterns of form, and embrace, representatives equally independent in + their origin; that genera are founded upon ultimate peculiarities of + structure, embracing representatives which, from the very nature of their + peculiarities, could have no community of origin; and that, finally, + species are based upon relations—and proportions that exclude, as + much as all the preceding distinctions, the idea of a common descent. + </p> + <p> + "As the community of characters among the beings belonging to these + different categories arises from the intellectual connection which shows + them to be categories of thought, they cannot be the result of a gradual + </p> + <p> + material differentiation of the objects themselves. The argument on which + these views are founded may be summed up in the following few words: + Species, genera, families, etc., exist as thoughts, individuals as + facts."[III-18} + </p> + <p> + An ingenious dilemma caps the argument: + </p> + <p> + "It seems to me that there is much confusion of ideas in the general + statement of the variability of species so often repeated lately. If + species do not exist at all, as the supporters of the transmutation theory + maintain, how can they vary? And if individuals alone exist, how can the + differences which may be observed among them prove the variability of + species?" + </p> + <p> + Now, we imagine that Mr. Darwin need not be dangerously gored by either + horn of this curious dilemma. Although we ourselves cherish old-fashioned + prejudices in favor of the probable permanence, and therefore of a more + stable objective ground of species, yet we agree—and Mr. Darwin will + agree fully with Mr. Agassiz—that species, and he will add + varieties, "exist as categories of thought," that is, as cognizable + distinctions—which is all that we can make of the phrase here, + whatever it may mean in the Aristotelian metaphysics. Admitting that + species are only categories of thought, and not facts or things, how does + this prevent the individuals, which are material things, from having + varied in the course of time, so as to exemplify the present almost + innumerable categories of thought, or embodiments of Divine thought in + material forms, or—viewed on the human side—in forms marked + with such orderly and graduated resemblances and differences as to suggest + to our minds the idea of species, genera, orders, etc., and to our reason + the inference of a Divine Original? We have no clear idea how Mr. Agassiz + intends to answer this question, in saying that branches are founded upon + different plans of structure, classes upon different mode of execution of + these plans, orders on different degrees of complication in the mode of + execution, families upon different patterns of form, genera upon ultimate + peculiarities of structure, and species upon relations and proportions. + That is, we do not perceive how these several "categories of thought" + exclude the possibility or the probability that the individuals which + manifest or suggest the thoughts had an ultimate community of origin. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, Mr. Darwin might insinuate that the particular philosophy of + classification upon which this whole argument reposes is as purely + hypothetical and as little accepted as is his own doctrine. If both are + pure hypotheses, it is hardly fair or satisfactory to extinguish the one + by the other. If there is no real contradiction between them, nothing is + gained by the attempt. + </p> + <p> + As to the dilemma propounded, suppose we try it upon that category of + thought which we call chair. This is a genus, comprising a common chair + (Sella vulgaris), arm or easy chair (S. cathedra), the rocking-chair (S. + oscillans)—widely distributed in the United States—and some + others, each of which has sported, as the gardeners say, into many + varieties. But now, as the genus and the species have no material + existence, how can they vary? If only individual chairs exist, how can the + differences which may be observed among them prove the variability of the + species? To which we reply by asking, Which does the question refer to, + the category of thought, or the individual embodiment? If the former, then + we would remark that our categories of thought vary from time to time in + the readiest manner. And, although the Divine thoughts are eternal, yet + they are manifested to us in time and succession, and by their + manifestation only can we know them, how imperfectly! Allowing that what + has no material existence can have had no material connection or + variation, we should yet infer that what has intellectual existence and + connection might have intellectual variation; and, turning to the + individuals, which represent the species, we do not see how all this shows + that they may not vary. Observation shows us that they do. Wherefore, + taught by fact that successive individuals do vary, we safely infer that + the idea must have varied, and that this variation of the individual + representatives proves the variability of the species, whether objectively + or subjectively regarded. + </p> + <p> + Each species or sort of chair, as we have said, has its varieties, and one + species shades off by gradations into another. And—note it well—these + numerous and successively slight variations and gradations, far from + suggesting an accidental origin to chairs and to their forms, are very + proofs of design. + </p> + <p> + Again, edifice is a generic category of thought. Egyptian, Grecian, + Byzantine, and Gothic buildings are well-marked species, of which each + individual building of the sort is a material embodiment. Now, the + question is, whether these categories or ideas may not have been evolved, + one from another in succession, or from some primal, less specialized, + edificial category. What better evidence for such hypothesis could we have + than the variations and grades which connect these species with each + other? We might extend the parallel, and get some good illustrations of + natural selection from the history of architecture, and the origin of the + different styles under different climates and conditions. Two + considerations may qualify or limit the comparison. One, that houses do + not propagate, so as to produce continuing lines of each sort and variety; + but this is of small moment on Agassizs view, he holding that genealogical + connection is not of the essence of a species at all. The other, that the + formation and development of the ideas upon which human works proceed are + gradual; or, as the same great naturalist well states it, "while human + thought is consecutive, Divine thought is simultaneous." But we have no + right to affirm this of Divine action. + </p> + <p> + We must close here. We meant to review some of the more general scientific + objections which we thought not altogether tenable. But, after all, we are + not so anxious just now to know whether the new theory is well founded on + facts, as whether it would be harmless if it were. Besides, we feel quite + unable to answer some of these objections, and it is pleasanter to take up + those which one thinks he can. + </p> + <p> + Among the unanswerable, perhaps the weightiest of the objections, is that + of the absence, in geological deposits, of vestiges of the intermediate + forms which the theory requires to have existed. Here all that Mr. Darwin + can do is to insist upon the extreme imperfection of the geological record + and the uncertainty of negative evidence. But, withal, he allows the force + of the objection almost as much as his opponents urge it—so much so, + indeed, that two of his English critics turn the concession unfairly upon + him, and charge him with actually basing his hypothesis upon these and + similar difficulties—as if he held it because of the difficulties, + and not in spite of them; a handsome return for his candor! + </p> + <p> + As to this imperfection of the geological record, perhaps we should get a + fair and intelligible illustration of it by imagining the existing animals + and plants of New England, with all their remains and products since the + arrival of the Mayflower, to be annihilated; and that, in the coming time, + the geologists of a new colony, dropped by the New Zealand fleet on its + way to explore the ruins of London, undertake, after fifty years of + examination, to reconstruct in a catalogue the flora and fauna of our day, + that is, from the close of the glacial period to the present time. With + all the advantages of a surface exploration, what a beggarly account it + would be! How many of the land animals and plants which are enumerated in + the Massachusetts official reports would it be likely to contain? + </p> + <p> + Another unanswerable question asked by the Boston reviewers is, Why, when + structure and instinct or habit vary— as they must have varied, on + Darwins hypothesis—they vary together and harmoniously, instead of + vaguely? We cannot tell, because we cannot tell why either varies at all. + Yet, as they both do vary in successive generations—as is seen under + domestication—and are correlated, we can only adduce the fact. + Darwin may be precluded from our answer, but we may say that they vary + together because designed to do so. A reviewer says that the chance of + their varying together is inconceivably small; yet, if they do not, the + variant individuals must all perish. Then it is well that it is not left + to chance. To refer to a parallel case: before we were born, nourishment + and the equivalent to respiration took place in a certain way. But the + moment we were ushered into this breathing world, our actions promptly + conformed, both as to respiration and nourishment, to the before unused + structure and to the new surroundings. + </p> + <p> + "Now," says the Examiner, "suppose, for instance, the gills of an aquatic + animal converted into lungs, while instinct still compelled a continuance + under water, would not drowning ensue?" No doubt. But—simply + contemplating the facts, instead of theorizing—we notice that young + frogs do not keep their heads under water after ceasing to be tadpoles. + The instinct promptly changes with the structure, without supernatural + interposition—just as Darwin would have it, if the development of a + variety or incipient species, though rare, were as natural as a + metamorphosis. + </p> + <p> + "Or if a quadruped, not yet furnished with wings, were suddenly inspired + with the instinct of a bird, and precipitated itself from a cliff, would + not the descent be hazardously rapid?" Doubtless the animal would be no + better supported than the objection. But Darwin makes very little indeed + of voluntary efforts as a cause of change, and even poor Lamarck need not + be caricatured. He never supposed that an elephant would take such a + notion into his wise head, or that a squirrel would begin with other than + short and easy leaps; yet might not the length of the leap be increased by + practice? + </p> + <p> + The North American reviewers position, that the higher brute animals have + comparatively little instinct and no intelligence, is a heavy blow and + great discouragement to dogs, horses, elephants, and monkeys. Thus + stripped of their all, and left to shift for themselves as they may in + this hard world, their pursuit and seeming attainment of knowledge under + such peculiar difficulties are interesting to contemplate. However, we are + not so sure as is the critic that instinct regularly increases downward + and decreases upward in the scale of being. Now that the case of the bee + is reduced to moderate proportions,[III-19} we know of nothing in instinct + surpassing that of an animal so high as a bird, the talegal, the male of + which plumes himself upon making a hot-bed in which to batch his partners + eggs—which he tends and regulates the beat of about as carefully and + skillfully as the unplumed biped does an eccaleobion.[III-20} + </p> + <p> + As to the real intelligence of the higher brutes, it has been ably + defended by a far more competent observer, Mr. Agassiz, to whose + conclusions we yield a general assent, although we cannot quite place the + best of dogs "in that respect upon a level with a considerable proportion + of poor humanity," nor indulge the hope, or indeed the desire, of a + renewed acquaintance with the whole animal kingdom in a future life. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The assertion that acquired habitudes or instincts, and acquired +structures, are not heritable, any breeder or good observer can +refute. + That "the human mind has become what it is out of a developed +instinct," is a statement which Mr. Darwin nowhere makes, and, we +presume, would not accept. That he would have us believe that +individual animals acquire their instincts gradually,[III-21} is a +statement which must have been penned in inadvertence both of the very +definition of instinct, and of everything we know of in Mr. Darwins +book. +</pre> + <p> + It has been attempted to destroy the very foundation of Darwins hypothesis + by denying that there are any wild varieties, to speak of, for natural + selection to operate upon. We cannot gravely sit down to prove that wild + varieties abound. We should think it just as necessary to prove that snow + falls in winter. That variation among plants cannot be largely due to + hybridism, and that their variation in Nature is not essentially different + from much that occurs in domestication, and, in the long-run, probably + hardly less in amount, we could show if our space permitted. + </p> + <p> + As to the sterility of hybrids, that can no longer be insisted upon as + absolutely true, nor be practically used as a test between species and + varieties, unless we allow that hares and rabbits are of one species. That + such sterility, whether total or partial, subserves a purpose in keeping + species apart, and was so designed, we do not doubt. But the critics fail + to perceive that this sterility proves nothing whatever against the + derivative origin of the actual species; for it may as well have been + intended to keep separate those forms which have reached a certain amount + of divergence, as those which were always thus distinct. + </p> + <p> + The argument for the permanence of species, drawn from the identity with + those now living of cats, birds, and other animals preserved in Egyptian + catacombs, was good enough as used by Cuvier against St.-Hilaire, that is, + against the supposition that time brings about a gradual alteration of + whole species; but it goes for little against Darwin, unless it be proved + that species never vary, or that the perpetuation of a variety + necessitates the extinction of the parent breed. For Darwin clearly + maintains—what the facts warrant—that the mass of a species + remains fixed so long as it exists at all, though it may set off a variety + now and then. The variety may finally supersede the parent form, or it may + coexist with it; yet it does not in the least hinder the unvaried stock + from continuing true to the breed, unless it crosses with it. The common + law of inheritance may be expected to keep both the original and the + variety mainly true as long as they last, and none the less so because + they have given rise to occasional varieties. The tailless Manx cats, like + the curtailed fox in the fable, have not induced the normal breeds to + dispense with their tails, nor have the Dorkings (apparently known to + Pliny) affected the permanence of the common sort of fowl. + </p> + <p> + As to the objection that the lower forms of life ought, on Darwins theory, + to have been long ago improved out of existence, and replaced by higher + forms, the objectors forget what a vacuum that would leave below, and what + a vast field there is to which a simple organization is best adapted, and + where an advance would be no improvement, but the contrary. To accumulate + the greatest amount of being upon a given space, and to provide as much + enjoyment of life as can be under the conditions, is what Nature seems to + aim at; and this is effected by diversification. + </p> + <p> + Finally, we advise nobody to accept Darwins or any other derivative theory + as true. The time has not come for that, and perhaps never will. We also + advise against a similar credulity on the other side, in a blind faith + that species—that the manifold sorts and forms of existing animals + and vegetables—"have no secondary cause." The contrary is already + not unlikely, and we suppose will hereafter become more and more probable. + But we are confident that, if a derivative hypothesis ever is established, + it will be so on a solid theistic ground. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile an inevitable and legitimate hypothesis is on trial—an + hypothesis thus far not untenable—a trial just now very useful to + science, and, we conclude, not harmful to religion, unless injudicious + assailants temporarily make it so. + </p> + <p> + One good effect is already manifest; its enabling the advocates of the + hypothesis of a multiplicity of human species to perceive the double + insecurity of their ground. When the races of men are admitted to be of + one species, the corollary, that they are of one origin, may be expected + to follow. Those who allow them to be of one species must admit an actual + diversification into strongly-marked and persistent varieties, and so + admit the basis of fact upon which the Darwinian hypothesis is built; + while those, on the other hand, who recognize several or numerous human + species, will hardly be able to maintain that such species were primordial + and supernatural in the ordinary sense of the word. + </p> + <p> + The English mind is prone to positivism and kindred forms of materialistic + philosophy, and we must expect the derivative theory to be taken up in + that interest. We have no predilection for that school, but the contrary. + If we had, we might have looked complacently upon a line of criticism + which would indirectly, but effectively, play into the hands of + positivists and materialistic atheists generally. The wiser and stronger + ground to take is, that the derivative hypothesis leaves the argument for + design, and therefore for a designer, as valid as it ever was; that to do + any work by an instrument must require, and therefore presuppose, the + exertion rather of more than of less power than to do it directly; that + whoever would be a consistent theist should believe that Design in the + natural world is coextensive with Providence, and hold as firmly to the + one as he does to the other, in spite of the wholly similar and apparently + insuperable difficulties which the mind encounters whenever it endeavors + to develop the idea into a system, either in the material and organic, or + in the moral world. It is enough, in the way of obviating objections, to + show that the philosophical difficulties of the one are the same, and only + the same, as of the other. + </p> + <h3> + IV. CAPITAL—THE MOTHER OF LABOUR + </h3> + <h3> + AN ECONOMICAL PROBLEM DISCUSSED FROM A PHYSIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW {1890.] + </h3> + <p> + THE first act of a new-born child is to draw a deep breath. In fact, it + will never draw a deeper, inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the + lungs, once distended with air, do not empty themselves again; it is only + a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the flow and the + ebb of the respiratory tide. Mechanically, this act of drawing breath, or + inspiration, is of the same nature as that by which the handles of a + bellows are separated, in order to fill the bellows with air; and, in like + manner, it involves that expenditure of energy which we call exertion, or + work, or labour. It is, therefore, no mere metaphor to say that man is + destined to a life of toil: the work of respiration which began with his + first breath ends only with his last; nor does one born in the purple get + off with a lighter task than the child who first sees light under a hedge. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">148</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink148" id="link148"></a> How is it that the new-born infant + is enabled to perform this first instalment of the sentence of life-long + labour which no man may escape? Whatever else a child may be, in respect + of this particular question, it is a complicated piece of mechanism, built + up out of materials supplied by its mother; and in the course of such + building-up, provided with a set of motors—the muscles. Each of + these muscles contains a stock of substance capable of yielding energy + under certain conditions, one of which is a change of state in the nerve + fibres connected with it. The powder in a loaded gun is such another stock + of substance capable of yielding energy in consequence of a change of + state in the mechanism of the lock, which intervenes between the finger of + the man who pulls the trigger and the cartridge. If that change is brought + about, the potential energy of the powder passes suddenly into actual + energy, and does the work of propelling the bullet. The powder, therefore, + may be appropriately called work-stuff, not only because it is stuff which + is easily made to yield work in the physical sense, but because a good + deal of work in the economical sense has contributed to its production. + Labour was necessary to collect, transport, and purify the raw sulphur and + saltpetre; to cut wood and convert it into powdered charcoal; to mix these + ingredients in the right proportions; to give the mixture the proper + grain, and so on. The powder <span class="pagenum">149</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink149" id="link149"></a> once formed part of the stock, or + capital, of a powder-maker: and it is not only certain natural bodies + which are collected and stored in the gunpowder, but the labour bestowed + on the operations mentioned may be figuratively said to be incorporated in + it. + </p> + <p> + In principle, the work-stuff stored in the muscles of the new-born child + is comparable to that stored in the gun-barrel. The infant is launched + into altogether new surroundings; and these operate through the mechanism + of the nervous machinery, with the result that the potential energy of + some of the work-stuff in the muscles which bring about inspiration is + suddenly converted into actual energy; and this, operating through the + mechanism of the respiratory apparatus, gives rise to an act of + inspiration. As the bullet is propelled by the "going off" of the powder, + as it might be said that the ribs are raised and the midriff depressed by + the "going off" of certain portions of muscular work-stuff. This + work-stuff is part of a stock or capital of that commodity stored up in + the child's organism before birth, at the expense of the mother; and the + mother has made good her expenditure by drawing upon the capital of + food-stuffs which furnished her daily maintenance. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, it does not appear to me to be open to doubt + that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily + accompany <span class="pagenum">150</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink150" id="link150"></a> the life of man is dependent upon + the pre-existence of a stock of material which is not only of use to him, + but which is disposed in such a manner as to be utilisable with facility. + And I further imagine that the propriety of the application of the term + 'capital' to this stock of useful substance cannot be justly called in + question; inasmuch as it is easy to prove that the essential constituents + of the work-stuff accumulated in the child's muscles have merely been + transferred from the store of food-stuffs, which everybody admits to be + capital, by means of the maternal organism to that of the child, in which + they are again deposited to await use. Every subsequent act of labour, in + like manner, involves an equivalent consumption of the child's store of + work-stuff—its vital capital; and one of the main objects of the + process of breathing is to get rid of some of the effects of that + consumption. It follows, then, that, even if no other than the respiratory + work were going on in the organism, the capital of work-stuff, which the + child brought with it into the world, must sooner or later be used up, and + the movements of breathing must come to an end; just as the see-saw of the + piston of a steam-engine stops when the coal in the fireplace has burnt + away. + </p> + <p> + Milk, however, is a stock of materials which essentially consists of + savings from the food-stuffs supplied to the mother. And these savings are + <span class="pagenum">151</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink151" id="link151"></a> in such a physical and chemical + condition that the organism of the child can easily convert them into + work-stuff. That is to say, by borrowing directly from the vital capital + of the mother, indirectly from the store in the natural bodies accessible + to her, it can make good the loss of its own. The operation of borrowing, + however, involves further work; that is, the labour of sucking, which is a + mechanical operation of much the same nature as breathing. The child thus + pays for the capital it borrows in labour; but as the value in work-stuff + of the milk obtained is very far greater than the value of that labour, + estimated by the consumption of work-stuff it involves, the operation + yields a large profit to the infant. The overplus of food-stuff suffices + to increase the child's capital of work-stuff; and to supply not only the + materials for the enlargement of the "buildings and machinery" which is + expressed by the child's growth, but also the energy required to put all + these materials together, and to carry them to their proper places. Thus, + throughout the years of infancy, and so long thereafter as the youth or + man is not thrown upon his own resources, he lives by consuming the vital + capital provided by others. To use a terminology which is more common than + appropriate, whatever work he performs (and he does a good deal, if only + in mere locomotion) is unproductive. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">152</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink152" id="link152"></a> Let us now suppose the child come + to man's estate in the condition of a wandering savage, dependent for his + food upon what he can pick up or catch, after the fashion of the + Australian aborigines. It is plain that the place of mother, as the + supplier of vital capital, is now taken by the fruits, seeds, and roots of + plants and by various kinds of animals. It is they alone which contain + stocks of those substances which can be converted within the man's + organism into work-stuff; and of the other matters, except air and water, + required to supply the constant consumption of his capital and to keep his + organic machinery going. In no way does the savage contribute to the + production of these substances. Whatever labour he bestows upon such + vegetable and animal bodies, on the contrary, is devoted to their + destruction; and it is a mere matter of accident whether a little labour + yields him a great deal—as in the case, for example, of a stranded + whale; or whether much labour yields next to nothing—as in times of + long-continued drought. The savage, like the child, borrows the capital he + needs, and, at any rate, intentionally, does nothing towards repayment; it + would plainly be an improper use of the word "produce" to say that his + labour in hunting for the roots, or the fruits, or the eggs, or the grubs + and snakes, which he finds and eats, "produces" or contributes to + "produce" them. The same thing is true of more advanced tribes, who <span + class="pagenum">153</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink153" id="link153"></a> are still merely hunters, such as + the Esquimaux. They may expend more labour and skill; but it is spent in + destruction. + </p> + <p> + When we pass from these to men who lead a purely pastoral life, like the + South American Gauchos, or some Asiatic nomads, there is an important + change. Let us suppose the owner of a flock of sheep to live on the milk, + cheese, and flesh which they yield. It is obvious that the flock stands to + him in the economic relation of the mother to the child, inasmuch as it + supplies him with food-stuffs competent to make good the daily and hourly + losses of his capital of workstuff. If we imagine our sheep-owner to have + access to extensive pastures and to be troubled neither by predacious + animals nor by rival shepherds, the performance of his pastoral functions + will hardly involve the expenditure of any more labour than is needful to + provide him with the exercise required to maintain health. And this is + true, even if we take into account the trouble originally devoted to the + domestication of the sheep. It surely would be a most singular pretension + for the shepherd to talk of the flock as the "produce" of his labour in + any but a very limited sense. In truth, his labour would have been a mere + accessory of production of very little consequence. Under the + circumstances supposed, a ram and some ewes, left to themselves for a few + years, would probably generate as large a flock; <span class="pagenum">154</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink154" id="link154"></a> and the superadded labour of the + shepherd would have little more effect upon their production than upon + that of the blackberries on the bushes about the pastures. For the most + part the increment would be thoroughly unearned; and, if it is a rule of + absolute political ethics that owners have no claim upon "betterment" + brought about independently of their own labour, then the shepherd would + have no claim to at least nine-tenths of the increase of the flock. + </p> + <p> + But if the shepherd has no real claim to the title of "producer," who has? + Are the rams and ewes the true "producers"? Certainly their title is + better if, borrowing from the old terminology of chemistry, they only + claim to be regarded as the "proximate principles" of production. And yet, + if strict justice is to be dispensed, even they are to be regarded rather + as collectors and distributors than as "producers." For all that they + really do is to collect, slightly modify, and render easily accessible, + the vital capital which already exists in the green herbs on which they + feed, but in such a form as to be practically out of the reach of man. + </p> + <p> + Thus, from an economic point of view, the sheep are more comparable to + confectioners than to producers. The usefulness of biscuit lies in the raw + flour of which it is made; but raw flour does not answer as an article of + human diet, and biscuit does. So the usefulness of mutton lies mainly in + certain chemical compounds which it <span class="pagenum">155</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink155" id="link155"></a> contains: the sheep gets them out + of grass; we cannot live on grass, but we can on mutton. + </p> + <p> + Now, herbaceous and all other green plants stand alone among terrestrial + natural bodies, in so far as, under the influence of light, they possess + the power to build up, out of the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere, + water and certain nitrogenous and mineral salts, those substances which in + the animal organism are utilised as work-stuff. They are the chief and, + for practical purposes, the sole producers of that vital capital which we + have seen to be the necessary antecedent of every act of labour. Every + green plant is a laboratory in which, so long as the sun shines upon it, + materials furnished by the mineral world, gases, water, saline compounds, + are worked up into those foodstuffs without which animal life cannot be + carried on. And since, up to the present time, synthetic chemistry has not + advanced so far as to achieve this feat, the green plant may be said to be + the only living worker whose labour directly results in the production of + that vital capital which is the necessary antecedent of human labour.* Nor + is this statement a paradox involving perpetual motion, because the energy + by which the plant does its work is supplied by the sun—the + primordial capitalist so far as we are concerned. But <span class="pagenum">156</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink156" id="link156"></a> it cannot be too strongly + impressed upon the mind that sunshine, air, water, the best soil that is + to be found on the surface of the earth, might co-exist; yet without + plants, there is no known agency competent to generate the so-called + "protein compounds," by which alone animal life can be permanently + supported. And not only are plants thus essential; but, in respect of + particular kinds of animals, they must be plants of a particular nature. + If there were no terrestrial green plants but, say, cypresses and mosses, + pastoral and agricultural life would be alike impossible; indeed, it is + difficult to imagine the possibility of the existence of any large animal, + as the labour required to get at a sufficiency of the store of + food-stuffs, contained in such plants as these, could hardly extract from + them an equivalent for the waste involved in that expenditure of work. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It remains to be seen whether the plants which have no + chlorophyll, and flourish in darkness, such as the Fungi, can + live upon purely mineral food. +</pre> + <p> + We are compact of dust and air; from that we set out, and to that + complexion must we come at last. The plant either directly, or by some + animal intermediary, lends us the capital which enables us to carry on the + business of life, as we flit through the upper world, from the one term of + our journey to the other. Popularly, no doubt, it is permissible to speak + of the soil as a "producer," just as we may talk of the daily movement of + the sun. But, as I have elsewhere remarked, propositions which are to bear + any deductive strain that may be put upon them must run the risk of <span + class="pagenum">157</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink157" id="link157"></a> seeming pedantic, rather than that + of being inaccurate. And the statement that land, in the sense of + cultivable soil, is a producer, or even one of the essentials of economic + production, is anything but accurate. The process of water-culture, in + which a plant is not "planted" in any soil, but is merely supported in + water containing in solution the mineral ingredients essential to that + plant, is now thoroughly understood; and, if it were worth while, a crop + yielding abundant food-stuffs could be raised on an acre of fresh water, + no less than on an acre of dry land. In the Arctic regions, again, land + has nothing to do with "production" in the social economy of the + Esquimaux, who live on seals and other marine animals; and might, like + Proteus, shepherd the flocks of Poseidon if they had a mind for pastoral + life. But the seals and the bears are dependent on other inhabitants of + the sea, until, somewhere in the series, we come to the minute green + plants which float in the ocean, and are the real "producers" by which the + whole of its vast animal population is supported.* Thus, when we find set + forth as an "absolute" <span class="pagenum">158</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink158" id="link158"></a> truth the statement that the + essential factors in economic production are land, capital and labour—when + this is offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other important truths may + be deduced—it is needful to remember that the assertion is true only + with a qualification. Undoubtedly "vital capital" is essential; for, as we + have seen, no human work can be done unless it exists, not even that + internal work of the body which is necessary to passive life. But, with + respect to labour (that is, human labour) I hope to have left no doubt on + the reader's mind that, in regard to production, the importance of human + labour may be so small as to be almost a vanishing quantity. Moreover, it + is certain that there is no approximation to a fixed ratio between the + expenditure of labour and the production of that vital capital which is + the foundation of all wealth. For, suppose that we introduce into our + suppositious pastoral paradise beasts of prey and rival shepherds, the + amount of labour thrown upon the sheep-owner may increase almost + indefinitely, and its importance as a condition of production may be + enormously augmented, while the quantity of produce remains stationary. + Compare for a moment the unimportance of the shepherd's labour, under the + circumstances first defined, with its indispensability in countries in + which the water for the sheep has to be drawn from deep <span + class="pagenum">159</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink159" id="link159"></a> wells, or in which the flock has + to be defended from wolves or from human depredators. As to land, it has + been shown that, except as affording mere room and standing ground, the + importance of land, great as it may be, is secondary. The one thing + needful for economic production is the green plant, as the sole producer + of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies. Men might exist without + labour (in the ordinary sense) and without land; without plants they must + inevitably perish. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In some remarkable passages of the Botany of Sir James Ross's + Antarctic voyage, which took place half a century ago, Sir + Joseph Hooker demonstrated the dependence of the animal life of + the sea upon the minute, indeed microscopic, plants which float + in it: a marvellous example of what may be done by + water-culture. One might indulge in dreams of cultivating and + improving diatoms, until the domesticated bore the same + relation to the wild forms, as cauliflowers to the primitive + Brassica oleracea, without passing beyond the limits of fair + scientific speculation. +</pre> + <p> + That which is true of the purely pastoral condition is a fortiori true of + the purely agricultural* condition, in which the existence of the + cultivator is directly dependent on the production of vital capital by the + plants which he cultivates. Here, again, the condition precedent of the + work of each year is vital capital. Suppose that a man lives exclusively + upon the plants which he cultivates. It is obvious that he must have + food-stuffs to live upon, while he prepares the soil for sowing and + throughout the period which elapses between this and harvest. These + food-stuffs must be yielded by the stock remaining over from former crops. + The result is the same as before—the pre-existence of vital capital + is the necessary antecedent of labour. Moreover, the amount of labour + which contributes, as an accessory condition, to the production <span + class="pagenum">160</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink160" id="link160"></a> of the crop varies as widely in + the case of plant-raising as in that of cattle-raising. With favourable + soil, climate and other conditions, it may be very small, with + unfavourable, very great, for the same revenue or yield of food-stuffs. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is a pity that we have no word that signifies plant-culture + exclusively. But for the present purpose I may restrict + agriculture to that sense. +</pre> + <p> + Thus, I do not think it is possible to dispute the following proposition: + the existence of any man, or of any number of men, whether organised into + a polity or not, depends on the production of foodstuffs (that is, vital + capital) readily accessible to man, either directly or indirectly, by + plants. But it follows that the number of men who can exist, say for one + year, on any given area of land, taken by itself, depends upon the + quantity of food-stuffs produced by such plants growing on the area in one + year. If a is that quantity, and b the minimum of food-stuffs required for + each man, A/B=N, the maximum number of men who can exist on the area. Now + the amount of production (a) is limited by the extent of area occupied; by + the quantity of sunshine which falls upon the area; by the range and + distribution of temperature; by the force of the winds; by the supply of + water; by the composition and the physical characters of the soil; by + animal and vegetable competitors and destroyers. The labour of man neither + does, nor can, produce vital capital; all that it can do is to modify, + favourably or unfavourably, the conditions of its production. The most + important of these— <span class="pagenum">161</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink161" id="link161"></a> namely, sunshine, range of daily + and nightly temperature, wind—are practically out of men's reach.* + On the other hand, the supply of water, the physical and chemical + qualities of the soil, and the influences of competitors and destroyers, + can often, though by no means always, be largely affected by labour and + skill. And there is no harm in calling the effect of such labour + "production," if it is clearly understood that "production" in this sense + is a very different thing from the "production" of food-stuffs by a plant. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I do not forget electric lighting, greenhouses and hothouses, + and the various modes of affording shelter against violent + winds: but in regard to production of food-stuffs on the large + scale they may be neglected. Even if synthetic chemistry should + effect the construction of proteids, the Laboratory will + hardly enter into competition with the Farm within any time + which the present generation need trouble itself about. +</pre> + <p> + We have been dealing hitherto with suppositions the materials of which are + furnished by everyday experience, not with mere a priori assumptions. Our + hypothetical solitary shepherd with his flock, or the solitary farmer with + his grain field, are mere bits of such experience, cut out, as it were, + for easy study. Still borrowing from daily experience, let us suppose that + either sheep-owner or farmer, for any reason that may be imagined, desires + the help of one or more other men; and that, in exchange for their labour, + he offers so many sheep, or quarts of milk, or pounds of <span + class="pagenum">162</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink162" id="link162"></a> cheese, or so many measures of + grain, for a year's service. I fail to discover any a priori "rights of + labour" in virtue of which these men may insist on being employed, if they + are not wanted. But, on the other hand, I think it is clear that there is + only one condition upon which the persons to whom the offer of these + "wages" is made can accept it; and that is that the things offered in + exchange for a year's work shall contain at least as much vital capital as + a man uses up in doing the year's work. For no rational man could + knowingly and willingly accept conditions which necessarily involve + starvation. Therefore there is an irreducible minimum of wages; it is such + an amount of vital capital as suffices to replace the inevitable + consumption of the person hired. Now, surely, it is beyond a doubt that + these wages, whether at or above the irreducible minimum, are paid out of + the capital disposable after the wants of the owner of the flock or of the + crop of grain are satisfied; and, from what has been said already, it + follows that there is a limit to the number of men, whether hired, or + brought in any other way, who can be maintained by the sheep owner or + landowner out of his own resources. Since no amount of labour can produce + an ounce of foodstuff beyond the maximum producible by a limited number of + plants, under the most favourable circumstances in regard to those + conditions which are not affected by labour, it follows <span + class="pagenum">163</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink163" id="link163"></a> that, if the number of men to be + fed increases indefinitely, a time must come when some will have to + starve. That is the essence of the so-called Malthusian doctrine; and it + is a truth which, to my mind, is as plain as the general proposition that + a quantity which constantly increases will, some time or other, exceed any + greater quantity the amount of which is fixed. + </p> + <p> + The foregoing considerations leave no doubt about the fundamental + condition of the existence of any polity, or organised society of men, + either in a purely pastoral or purely agricultural state, or in any + mixture of both states. It must possess a store of vital capital to start + with, and the means of repairing the consumption of that capital which + takes place as a consequence of the work of the members of the society. + And, if the polity occupies a completely isolated area of the earth's + surface, the numerical strength of that polity can never exceed the + quotient of the maximum quantity of food-stuffs producible by the green + plants on that area, in each year, divided by the quantity necessary for + the maintenance of each person during the year. But, there is a third mode + of existence possible to a polity; it may, conceivably, be neither purely + pastoral nor purely agricultural, but purely manufacturing. Let us suppose + three islands, like Gran Canaria, Teneriffe and Lanzerote, in the + Canaries, to be quite cut off from the rest of the world. Let Gran Canaria + be <span class="pagenum">164</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink164" id="link164"></a> inhabited by grain-raisers, + Teneriffe by cattle-breeders; while the population of Lanzerote (which we + may suppose to be utterly barren) consists of carpenters, woollen + manufacturers, and shoemakers. Then the facts of daily experience teach us + that the people of Lanzerote could never have existed unless they came to + the island provided with a stock of food-stuffs; and that they could not + continue to exist, unless that stock, as it was consumed, was made up by + contributions from the vital capital of either Gran Canaria, or Teneriffe, + or both. Moreover, the carpenters of Lanzerote could do nothing, unless + they were provided with wood from the other islands; nor could the wool + spinners and weavers or the shoemakers work without wool and skins from + the same sources. The wood and the wool and the skins are, in fact, the + capital without which their work as manufacturers in their respective + trades is impossible—so that the vital and other capital supplied by + Gran Canaria and Teneriffe is most indubitably the necessary antecedent of + the industrial labour of Lanzerote. It is perfectly true that by the time + the wood, the wool, and the skins reached Lanzerote a good deal of labour + in cutting, shearing, skinning, transport, and so on, would have been + spent upon them. But this does not alter the fact that the only + "production" which is essential to the existence of the population of + Teneriffe and Gran Canaria is that effected by the <span class="pagenum">165</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink165" id="link165"></a> green plants in both islands; and + that all the labour spent upon the raw produce useful in manufacture, + directly or indirectly yielded by them—by the inhabitants of these + islands and by those of Lanzerote into the bargain—will not provide + one solitary Lanzerotian with a dinner, unless the Teneriffians and + Canariotes happen to want his goods and to be willing to give some of + their vital capital in exchange for them. + </p> + <p> + Under the circumstances defined, if Teneriffe and Gran Canaria + disappeared, or if their inhabitants ceased to care for carpentry, + clothing, or shoes, the people of Lanzerote must starve. But if they wish + to buy, then the Lanzerotians, by "cultivating" the buyers, indirectly + favour the cultivation of the produce of those buyers. + </p> + <p> + Thus, if the question is asked whether the labour employed in manufacture + in Lanzerote is "productive" or "unproductive" there can be only one + reply. If anybody will exchange vital capital, or that which can be + exchanged for vital capital, for Lanzerote goods, it is productive; if + not, it is unproductive. + </p> + <p> + In the case of the manufacturer, the dependence of labour upon capital is + still more intimate than in that of the herdsman or agriculturist. When + the latter are once started they can go on, without troubling themselves + about the existence of any other people. But the manufacturer depends on + pre-existing capital, not only at the <span class="pagenum">166</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink166" id="link166"></a> beginning, but at the end of his + operations. However great the expenditure of his labour and of his skill, + the result, for the purpose of maintaining his existence, is just the same + as if he had done nothing, unless there is a customer able and willing to + exchange food-stuffs for that which his labour and skill have achieved. + </p> + <p> + There is another point concerning which it is very necessary to have clear + ideas. Suppose a carpenter in Lanzerote to be engaged in making chests of + drawers. Let us suppose that a, the timber, and b, the grain and meat + needful for the man's sustenance until he can finish a chest of drawers, + have to be paid for by that chest. Then the capital with which he starts + is represented by a + b. He could not start at all unless he had it; day + by day, he must destroy more or less of the substance and of the general + adaptability of a in order to work it up into the special forms needed to + constitute the chest of drawers; and, day by day, he must use up at least + so much of b as will replace his loss of vital capital by the work of that + day. Suppose it takes the carpenter and his workmen ten days to saw up the + timber, to plane the boards, and to give them the shape and size proper + for the various parts of the chest of drawers. And suppose that he then + offers his heap of boards to the advancer of a + b as an equivalent for + the wood + ten days' supply of vital capital? The latter will surely say: + "No. <span class="pagenum">167</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink167" id="link167"></a> I did not ask for a heap of + boards. I asked for a chest of drawers. Up to this time, so far as I am + concerned, you have done nothing and are as much in my debt as ever." And + if the carpenter maintained that he had "virtually" created two-thirds of + a chest of drawers, inasmuch as it would take only five days more to put + together the pieces of wood, and that the heap of boards ought to be + accepted as the equivalent of two-thirds of his debt, I am afraid the + creditor would regard him as little better than an impudent swindler. It + obviously makes no sort of difference whether the Canariote or Teneriffian + buyer advanced the wood and the food-stuffs, on which the carpenter had to + maintain himself; or whether the carpenter had a stock of both, the + consumption of which must be recouped by the exchange of a chest of + drawers for a fresh supply. In the latter case, it is even less doubtful + that, if the carpenter offered his boards to the man who wanted a chest of + drawers, the latter would laugh in his face. And if he took the chest of + drawers for himself, then so much of his vital capital would be sunk in it + past recovery. Again, the payment of goods in a lump, for the chest of + drawers, comes to the same thing as the payment of daily wages for the + fifteen days that the carpenter was occupied in making it. If, at the end + of each day, the carpenter chose to say to himself "I have 'virtually' + created, by my day's labour, a fifteenth of what I shall get for the chest + <span class="pagenum">168</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink168" id="link168"></a> of drawers—therefore my + wages are the produce of my day's labour"—there is no great harm in + such metaphorical speech, so long as the poor man does not delude himself + into the supposition that it represents the exact truth. "Virtually" is + apt to cover more intellectual sins than "charity" does moral delicts. + After what has been said, it surely must be plain enough that each day's + work has involved the consumption of the carpenter's vital capital, and + the fashioning of his timber, at the expense of more or less consumption + of those forms of capital. Whether the a + b to be exchanged for the chest + has been advanced as a loan, or is paid daily or weekly as wages, or, at + some later time, as the price of a finished commodity—the essential + element of the transaction, and the only essential element, is, that it + must, at least, effect the replacement of the vital capital consumed. + Neither boards nor chest of drawers are eatable; and, so far from the + carpenter having produced the essential part of his wages by each day's + labour, he has merely wasted that labour, unless somebody who happens to + want a chest of drawers offers to exchange vital capital, or something + that can procure it, equivalent to the amount consumed during the process + of manufacture.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the discussion of this subject further on. +</pre> + <p> + That it should be necessary, at this time of day, to set forth such + elementary truths as these may <span class="pagenum">169</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink169" id="link169"></a> well seem strange; but no one who + consults that interesting museum of political delusions, "Progress and + Poverty," some of the treasures of which I have already brought to light, + will doubt the fact, if he bestows proper attention upon the first book of + that widely-read work. At page 15 it is thus written: + </p> + <p> + "The proposition I shall endeavour to prove is: that wages, instead of + being drawn from capital, are, in reality, drawn from the product of the + labour for which they are paid." + </p> + <p> + Again at page 18:— + </p> + <p> + "In every case in which labour is exchanged for commodities, production + really precedes enjoyment . . . wages are the earnings—that is to + say, the makings—of labour—not the advances of capital." + </p> + <p> + And the proposition which the author endeavours to disprove is the + hitherto generally accepted doctrine + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ..."that labour is maintained and paid out of existing capital, + before the product which constitutes the ultimate object is + secured" (p. 16). +</pre> + <p> + The doctrine respecting the relation of capital and wages, which is thus + opposed in "Progress and Poverty," is that illustrated in the foregoing + pages; the truth of which, I conceive, must be plain to any one who has + apprehended the very simple arguments by which I have endeavoured to <span + class="pagenum">170</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink170" id="link170"></a> demonstrate it. One conclusion or + the other must be hopelessly wrong; and, even at the cost of going once + more over some of the ground traversed in this essay and that on "Natural + and Political Rights,"* I propose to show that the error lies with + "Progress and Poverty"; in which work, so far as political science is + concerned, the poverty is, to my eye, much more apparent than the + progress. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Collected Essays, vol. i. pp. 359-382. +</pre> + <p> + To begin at the beginning. The author propounds a definition of wealth: + "Nothing which nature supplies to man without his labour is wealth" (p. + 28). Wealth consists of "natural substances or products which have been + adapted by human labour to human use or gratification, their value + depending upon the amount of labour which, upon the average, would be + required to produce things of like kind" (p. 27). The following examples + of wealth are given:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "Buildings, cattle, tools, machinery, agricultural and + mineral products, manufactured goods, ships, waggons, + furniture, and the like" (p. 27). +</pre> + <p> + I take it that native metals, coal and brick clay, are "mineral products"; + and I quite believe that they are properly termed "wealth." But when a + seam of coal crops out at the surface, and lumps of coal are to be had for + the picking up; or when native copper lies about in nuggets, or <span + class="pagenum">171</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink171" id="link171"></a> when brick clay forms a + superficial stratum, it appears to me that these things are supplied to, + nay almost thrust upon, man without his labour. According to the + definition, therefore, they are not "wealth." According to the + enumeration, however, they are "wealth": a tolerably fair specimen of a + contradiction in terms. Or does "Progress and Poverty" really suggest that + a coal seam which crops out at the surface is not wealth; but that if + somebody breaks off a piece and carries it away, the bestowal of this + amount of labour upon that particular lump makes it wealth; while the rest + remains "not wealth"? The notion that the value of a thing bears any + necessary relation to the amount of labour (average or otherwise) bestowed + upon it, is a fallacy which needs no further refutation than it has + already received. The average amount of labour bestowed upon warming-pans + confers no value upon them in the eyes of a Gold-Coast negro; nor would an + Esquimaux give a slice of blubber for the most elaborate of ice-machines. + </p> + <p> + So much for the doctrine of "Progress and Poverty" touching the nature of + wealth. Let us now consider its teachings respecting capital as wealth or + a part of wealth. Adam Smith's definition "that part of a man's stock + which he expects to yield him a revenue is called his capital" is quoted + with approval (p. 32); elsewhere capital is said to be that part of wealth + "which <span class="pagenum">172</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink172" id="link172"></a> is devoted to the aid of + production" (p. 28); and yet again it is said to be + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "wealth in course of exchange,* understanding exchange to + include, not merely the passing from hand to hand, but + also such transmutations as occur when the reproductive + or transforming forces of nature are utilised for the + increase of wealth" (p. 32). + + * The italics are the author's. +</pre> + <p> + But if too much pondering over the possible senses and scope of these + definitions should weary the reader, he will be relieved by the following + acknowledgment:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "Nor is the definition of capital I have suggested of + any importance" (p. 33). +</pre> + <p> + The author informs us, in fact, that he is "not writing a text-book," + thereby intimating his opinion that it is less important to be clear and + accurate when you are trying to bring about a political revolution than + when a merely academic interest attaches to the subject treated. But he is + not busy about anything so serious as a textbook: no, he "is only + attempting to discover the laws which control a great social problem"—a + mode of expression which indicates perhaps the high-water mark of + intellectual muddlement. I have heard, in my time, of "laws" which control + other "laws"; but this is the first occasion on which "laws" which + "control a problem" have come under my notice. Even the disquisitions "of + <span class="pagenum">173</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink173" id="link173"></a> those flabby writers who have + burdened the press and darkened counsel by numerous volumes which are + dubbed political economy" (p. 28) could hardly furnish their critics with + a finer specimen of that which a hero of the "Dunciad," by the one flash + of genius recorded of him, called "clotted nonsense." + </p> + <p> + Doubtless it is a sign of grace that the author of these definitions + should attach no importance to any of them; but since, unfortunately, his + whole argument turns upon the tacit assumption that they are important, I + may not pass them over so lightly. The third I give up. Why anything + should be capital when it is "in course of exchange," and not be capital + under other circumstances, passes my understanding. We are told that "that + part of a farmer's crop held for sale or for seed, or to feed his help, in + part payment of wages, would be accounted capital; that held for the care + of his family would not be" (p. 31). But I fail to discover any ground of + reason or authority for the doctrine that it is only when a crop is about + to be sold or sown, or given as wages, that it may be called capital. On + the contrary, whether we consider custom or reason, so much of it as is + stored away in ricks and barns during harvest, and remains there to be + used in any of these ways months or years afterwards, is customarily and + rightly termed capital. Surely, the meaning of the clumsy phrase that + capital is "wealth in the <span class="pagenum">174</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink174" id="link174"></a> course of exchange" must be that + it is "wealth capable of being exchanged" against labour or anything else. + That, in fact, is the equivalent of the second definition, that capital is + "that part of wealth which is devoted to the aid of production." + Obviously, if you possess that for which men will give labour, you can aid + production by means of that labour. And, again, it agrees with the first + definition (borrowed from Adam Smith) that capital is "that part of a + man's stock which he expects to yield him a revenue." For a revenue is + both etymologically and in sense a "return." A man gives his labour in + sowing grain, or in tending cattle, because he expects a "return"—a + "revenue"—in the shape of the increase of the grain or of the herd; + and also, in the latter case, in the shape of their labour and manure + which "aid the production" of such increase. The grain and cattle of which + he is possessed immediately after harvest is his capital; and his revenue + for the twelvemonth, until the next harvest, is the surplus of grain and + cattle over and above the amount with which he started. This is disposable + for any purpose for which he may desire to use it, leaving him just as + well off as he was at the beginning of the year. Whether the man keeps the + surplus grain for sowing more land, and the surplus cattle for occupying + more pasture; whether he exchanges them for other commodities, such as the + use of the land (as rent); or labour (as <span class="pagenum">175</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink175" id="link175"></a> wages); or whether he feeds + himself and his family, in no way alters their nature as revenue, or + affects the fact that this revenue is merely disposable capital. + </p> + <p> + That (even apart from etymology) cattle are typical examples of capital + cannot be denied ("Progress and Poverty," p. 25); and if we seek for that + particular quality of cattle which makes them "capital," neither has the + author of "Progress and Poverty" supplied, nor is any one else very likely + to supply, a better account of the matter than Adam Smith has done. Cattle + are "capital" because they are "stock which yields revenue." That is to + say, they afford to their owner a supply of that which he desires to + possess. And, in this particular case, the "revenue" is not only + desirable, but of supreme importance, inasmuch as it is capable of + maintaining human life. The herd yields a revenue of food-stuffs as milk + and meat; a revenue of skins; a revenue of manure; a revenue of labour; a + revenue of exchangeable commodities in the shape of these things, as well + as in that of live cattle. In each and all of these capacities cattle are + capital; and, conversely, things which possess any or all of these + capacities are capital. + </p> + <p> + Therefore what we find at page 25 of "Progress and Poverty" must be + regarded as a welcome lapse into clearness of apprehension:— + </p> + <p> + "A fertile field, a rich vein of ore, a falling stream which supplies + power, may give the possessor advantages <span class="pagenum">176</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink176" id="link176"></a> equivalent to the possession of + capital; but to class such things as capital would be to put an end to the + distinction between land and capital." + </p> + <p> + Just so. But the fatal truth is that these things are capital; and that + there really is no fundamental distinction between land and capital. Is it + denied that a fertile field, a rich vein of ore, or a falling stream, may + form part of a man's stock, and that, if they do, they are capable of + yielding revenue? Will not somebody pay a share of the produce in kind, or + in money, for the privilege of cultivating the first royalties for that of + working the second; and a like equivalent for that of erecting a mill on + the third? In what sense, then, are these things less "capital" than the + buildings and tools which on page 27 of "Progress and Poverty" are + admitted to be capital? Is it not plain that if these things confer + "advantages equivalent to the possession of capital," and if the + "advantage" of capital is nothing but the yielding of revenue, then the + denial that they are capital is merely a roundabout way of + self-contradiction? + </p> + <p> + All this confused talk about capital, however, is lucidity itself compared + with the exposition of the remarkable thesis, "Wages not drawn from + capital, but produced by labour," which occupies the third chapter of + "Progress and Poverty." + </p> + <p> + "If, for instance, I devote my labour to gathering birds' eggs or picking + wild berries, the eggs or berries I thus <span class="pagenum">177</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink177" id="link177"></a> get are my wages. Surely no one + will contend that, in such a case, wages are drawn from capital. There is + no capital in the case" (p. 34). + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, those who have followed what has been said in the first part + of this essay surely neither will, nor can, have any hesitation about + substantially adopting the challenged contention, though they may possibly + have qualms as to the propriety of the use of the term "wages."* They will + have no difficulty in apprehending the fact that birds' eggs and berries + are stores of foodstuffs, or vital capital; that the man who devotes his + labour to getting them does so at the expense of his personal vital + capital; and that, if the eggs and the berries are "wages" for his work, + they are so because they enable him to restore to his organism the vital + capital which he has consumed in doing the work of collection. So that + there is really a great deal of "capital in the case." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Not merely on the grounds stated below, but on the strength + of Mr. George's own definition. Does the gatherer of eggs, or + berries, produce them by his labour? If so, what do the hens + and the bushes do? +</pre> + <p> + Our author proceeds:— + </p> + <p> + "An absolutely naked man, thrown on an island where no human being has + before trod, may gather birds' eggs or pick berries" (p. 34). + </p> + <p> + No doubt. But those who have followed my argument thus far will be aware + that a man's vital capital does not reside in his clothes; and, therefore, + <span class="pagenum">178</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink178" id="link178"></a> they will probably fail, as + completely as I do, to discover the relevancy of the statement. + </p> + <p> + Again:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . Or, if I take a piece of leather and work it up into a + pair of shoes, the shoes are my wages—the reward of my + exertion. Surely they are not drawn from capital—either + my capital or anybody else's capital—but are brought + into existence by the labour of which they became the + wages; and, in obtaining this pair of shoes as the wages + of my labour, capital is not even momentarily lessened + one iota. For if we call in the idea of capital, my + capital at the beginning consists of the piece of + leather, the thread, &c. (p. 34). +</pre> + <p> + It takes away one's breath to have such a concatenation of fallacies + administered in the space of half a paragraph. It does not seem to have + occurred to our economical reformer to imagine whence his "capital at the + beginning," the "leather, thread, &c." came. I venture to suppose that + leather to have been originally cattle-skin; and since calves and oxen are + not flayed alive, the existence of the leather implies the lessening of + that form of capital by a very considerable iota. It is, therefore, as + sure as anything can be that, in the long run, the shoes are drawn from + that which is capital par excellence; to wit, cattle. It is further beyond + doubt that the operation of tanning must involve loss of capital in the + shape of bark, to say nothing of other losses; and that the use of the + awls and knives of the shoemaker involves loss of capital in the shape of + the store of <span class="pagenum">179</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink179" id="link179"></a> iron; further, the shoemaker has + been enabled to do his work not only by the vital capital expended during + the time occupied in making the pair of shoes, but by that expended from + the time of his birth, up to the time that he earned wages that would keep + him alive. + </p> + <p> + "Progress and Poverty" continues:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . As my labour goes on, value is steadily added until, + when my labour results in the finished shoes, I have my + capital plus the difference in value between the + material and the shoes. In obtaining this additional + value—my wages—how is capital, at any time, drawn + upon? (p, 34). +</pre> + <p> + In return we may inquire, how can any one propound such a question? + Capital is drawn upon all the time. Not only when the shoes are commenced, + but while they are being made, and until they are either used by the + shoemaker himself or are purchased by somebody else; that is, exchanged + for a portion of another man's capital. In fact (supposing that the + shoemaker does not want shoes himself), it is the existence of vital + capital in the possession of another person and the willingness of that + person to part with more or less of it in exchange for the shoes—it + is these two conditions, alone, which prevent the shoemaker from having + consumed his capital unproductively, just as much as if he had spent his + time in chopping up the leather into minute fragments. + </p> + <p> + Thus, the examination of the very case selected <span class="pagenum">180</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink180" id="link180"></a> by the advocate of the doctrine + that labour bestowed upon manufacture, without any intervention of + capital, can produce wages, proves to be a delusion of the first + magnitude; even though it be supported by the dictum of Adam Smith which + is quoted in its favour (p. 34)— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "The produce of labour constitutes the natural recompense + or wages of labour. In that original state of things which + precedes both the appropriation of land and the + accumulation of stock, the whole produce of labour belongs + to the labourer. He has neither landlord nor master to + share with him" ("Wealth of Nations," ch. viii). +</pre> + <p> + But the whole of this passage exhibits the influence of the French + Physiocrats by whom Adam Smith was inspired, at their worst; that is to + say, when they most completely forsook the ground of experience for a + priori speculation. The confident reference to "that original state of + things" is quite in the manner of the Essai sur l'Inegalie. Now, the state + of men before the "appropriation of land" and the "accumulation of stock" + must surely have been that of purely savage hunters. As, by the + supposition, nobody would have possessed land, certainly no man could have + had a landlord; and, if there was no accumulation of stock in a + transferable form, as surely there could be no master, in the sense of + hirer. But hirer and hire (that is, wages) are correlative terms, like + mother and child. As "child" implies "mother," so does "hire" or "wages" + imply a <span class="pagenum">181</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink181" id="link181"></a> "hirer" or "wage-giver." + Therefore, when a man in "the original state of things" gathered fruit or + killed game for his own sustenance, the fruit or the game could be called + his "wages" only in a figurative sense; as one sees if the term "hire," + which has a more limited connotation, is substituted for "wage." If not, + it must be assumed that the savage hired himself to get his own dinner; + whereby we are led to the tolerably absurd conclusion that, as in the + "state of nature" he was his own employer, the "master" and the labourer, + in that model age, appropriated the produce in equal shares! And if this + should be not enough, it has already been seen that, in the hunting state, + man is not even an accessory of production of vital capital; he merely + consumes what nature produces. + </p> + <p> + According to the author of "Progress and Poverty" political economists + have been deluded by a "fallacy which has entangled some of the most acute + minds in a web of their own spinning." + </p> + <p> + "It is in the use of the term capital in two senses. In the primary + proposition that capital is necessary to the exertion of productive + labour, the term "capital" is understood as including all food, clothing, + shelter, &c.; whereas in the deductions finally drawn from it, the + term is used in its common and legitimate meaning of wealth devoted, not + to the immediate gratification of desire, but to the procurement of more + wealth—of wealth in the hands of employers as distinguished from + labourers" (p. 40). + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">182</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink182" id="link182"></a> I am by no means concerned to + defend the political economists who are thus charged with blundering; but + I shall be surprised to learn that any have carried the art of + self-entanglement to the degree of perfection exhibited by this passage. + Who has ever imagined that wealth which, in the hands of an employer, is + capital, ceases to be capital if it is in the hands of a labourer? Suppose + a workman to be paid thirty shillings on Saturday evening for six days' + labour, that thirty shillings comes out of the employer's capital, and + receives the name of "wages" simply because it is exchanged for labour. In + the workman's pocket, as he goes home, it is a part of his capital, in + exactly the same sense as, half an hour before, it was part of the + employer's capital; he is a capitalist just as much as if he were a + Rothschild. Suppose him to be a single man, whose cooking and household + matters are attended to by the people of the house in which he has a room; + then the rent which he pays them out of this capital is, in part, wages + for their labour, and he is, so far, an employer. If he saves one shilling + out of his thirty, he has, to that extent, added to his capital when the + next Saturday comes round. And if he puts his saved shillings week by week + into the Savings Bank, the difference between him and the most bloated of + bankers is simply one of degree. + </p> + <p> + At page 42, we are confidently told that <span class="pagenum">183</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink183" id="link183"></a> "labourers by receiving wages" + cannot lessen "even temporarily" the "capital of the employer," while at + page 44 it is admitted that in certain cases the capitalist "pays out + capital in wages." One would think that the "paying out" of capital is + hardly possible without at least a "temporary" diminution of the capital + from which payment is made. But "Progress and Poverty" changes all that by + a little verbal legerdemain:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . "For where wages are paid before the object of the labour + is obtained, or is finished—as in agriculture, where + ploughing and sowing must precede by several months the + harvesting of the crop; as in the erection of buildings, + the construction of ships, railroads, canals, &c.—it is + clear that the owners of the capital paid in wages cannot + expect an immediate return, but, as the phrase is, must + "outlay it" or "lie out of it" for a time which sometimes + amounts to many years. And hence, if first principles are + not kept in mind, it is easy to jump to the conclusion + that wages are advanced by capital" (p. 44). +</pre> + <p> + Those who have paid attention to the argument of former parts of this + paper may not be able to understand how, if sound "first principles are + kept in mind," any other conclusion can be reached, whether by jumping, or + by any other mode of logical progression. But the first principle which + our author "keeps in mind" possesses just that amount of ambiguity which + enables him to play hocus-pocus with it. It is this; that "the creation of + value does not depend upon the finishing of the product" (p. 44). + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">184</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink184" id="link184"></a> There is no doubt that, under + certain limitations, this proposition is correct. It is not true that + "labour always adds to capital by its exertion before it takes from + capital its wages" (p. 44), but it is true that it may, and often does, + produce that effect. + </p> + <p> + To take one of the examples given, the construction of a ship. The shaping + of the timbers undoubtedly gives them a value (for a shipbuilder) which + they did not possess before. When they are put together to constitute the + framework of the ship, there is a still further addition of value (for a + shipbuilder); and when the outside planking is added, there is another + addition (for a shipbuilder). Suppose everything else about the hull is + finished, except the one little item of caulking the seams, there is no + doubt that it has still more value for a shipbuilder. But for whom else + has it any value, except perhaps for a fire-wood merchant? What price will + any one who wants a ship—that is to say, something that will carry a + cargo from one port to another—give for the unfinished vessel which + would take water in at every seam and go down in half an hour, if she were + launched? Suppose the shipbuilder's capital to fail before the vessel is + caulked, and that he cannot find another shipbuilder who cares to buy and + finish it, what sort of proportion does the value created by the labour, + for which he has paid out of his capital, stand to that of his advances? + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">185</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink185" id="link185"></a> Surely no one will give him + one-tenth of the capital disbursed in wages, perhaps not so much even as + the prime cost of the raw materials. Therefore, though the assertion that + "the creation of value does not depend on the finishing of the product" + may be strictly true under certain circumstances, it need not be and is + not always true. And, if it is meant to imply or suggest that the creation + of value in a manufactured article does not depend upon the finishing of + that article, a more serious error could hardly be propounded. + </p> + <p> + Is there not a prodigious difference in the value of an uncaulked and in + that of a finished ship; between the value of a house in which only the + tiles of the roof are wanting and a finished house; between that of a + clock which only lacks the escapement and a finished clock? + </p> + <p> + As ships, house, and clock, the unfinished articles have no value whatever—that + is to say, no person who wanted to purchase one of these things, for + immediate use, would give a farthing for either. The only value they can + have, apart from that of the materials they contain, is that which they + possess for some one who can finish them, or for some one who can make use + of parts of them for the construction of other things. A man might buy an + unfinished house for the sake of the bricks; or he might buy an incomplete + clock to use the works for some other piece of machinery. + </p> + <p> + Thus, though every stage of the labour <span class="pagenum">186</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink186" id="link186"></a> bestowed on raw material, for the + purpose of giving rise to a certain product, confers some additional value + on that material in the estimation of those who are engaged in + manufacturing that product, the ratio of that accumulated value, at any + stage of the process, to the value of the finished product is extremely + inconstant, and often small; while, to other persons, the value of the + unfinished product may be nothing, or even a minus quantity. A + house-timber merchant, for example, might consider that wood which had + been worked into the ribs of a ship was spoiled—that is, had less + value than it had as a log. + </p> + <p> + According to "Progress and Poverty," there was, really, no advance of + capital while the great St. Gothard tunnel was cut. Suppose that, as the + Swiss and the Italian halves of the tunnel approached to within half a + kilometre, that half-kilometre had turned out to be composed of + practically impenetrable rock—would anybody have given a centime for + the unfinished tunnel? And if not, how comes it that "the creation of + value does not depend on the finishing of the product"? + </p> + <p> + I think it may be not too much to say that, of all the political delusions + which are current in this queer world, the very stupidest are those which + assume that labour and capital are necessarily antagonistic; that all + capital is produced by labour and therefore, by natural right, is the + property of <span class="pagenum">187</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink187" id="link187_"></a> the labourer; that the possessor + of capital is a robber who preys on the workman and appropriates to + himself that which he has had no share in producing. + </p> + <p> + On the contrary, capital and labour are, necessarily, close allies; + capital is never a product of human labour alone; it exists apart from + human labour; it is the necessary antecedent of labour; and it furnishes + the materials on which labour is employed. The only indispensable form of + capital—vital capital—cannot be produced by human labour. All + that man can do is to favour its formation by the real producers. There is + no intrinsic relation between the amount of labour bestowed on an article + and its value in exchange. The claim of labour to the total result of + operations which are rendered possible only by capital is simply an a + priori iniquity. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">188</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink188" id="link188"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0024" id="link2H_4_0024"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES + </h2> + <h3> + LETTERS TO THE "TIMES" ON MR. BOOTH'S SCHEME. + </h3> + <h3> + WITH A PREFACE AND INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. + </h3> + <h3> + (1891) + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF2" id="link2H_PREF2"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + The letters which are here collected together were published in the + "Times" in the course of the months of December, 1890, and January, 1891. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances which led me to write the first letter are sufficiently + set forth in its opening sentences; and the materials on which I based my + criticisms of Mr. Booth's scheme, in this and in the second letter, were + wholly derived from Mr. Booth's book. I had some reason to know, however, + that when anybody allows his sense of duty so far to prevail over his + sense of the blessedness of peace as to write a letter to the "Times," on + any subject of public interest, his reflections, before he has done with + the business, will be very like <span class="pagenum">189</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink189" id="link189"></a> those of Johnny Gilpin, "who + little thought, when he set out, of running such a rig." Such undoubtedly + are mine when I contemplate these twelve documents, and call to mind the + distinct addition to the revenue of the Post Office which must have + accrued from the mass of letters and pamphlets which have been delivered + at my door; to say nothing of the unexpected light upon my character, + motives, and doctrines, which has been thrown by some of the "Times'" + correspondents, and by no end of comments elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + If self-knowledge is the highest aim of man, I ought by this time to have + little to learn. And yet, if I am awake, some of my teachers—unable, + perhaps, to control the divine fire of the poetic imagination which is so + closely akin to, if not a part of, the mythopoeic faculty—have + surely dreamed dreams. So far as my humbler and essentially prosaic + faculties of observation and comparison go, plain facts are against them. + But, as I may be mistaken, I have thought it well to prefix to the letters + (by way of "Prolegomena") an essay which appeared in the "Nineteenth + Century" for January, 1888, in which the principles that, to my mind, lie + at the bottom of the "social question" are stated. So far as Individualism + and Regimental Socialism are concerned, this paper simply emphasizes and + expands the opinions expressed in an address to the members of the Midland + Institute, delivered seventeen years earlier, <span class="pagenum">190</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink190" id="link190"></a> and still more fully developed in + several essays published in the "Nineteenth Century" in 1889, which I + hope, before long, to republish.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 290 to end; and this volume, + p. 147. +</pre> + <p> + The fundamental proposition which runs through the writings, which thus + extend over twenty years, is, that the common a priori doctrines and + methods of reasoning about political and social questions are essentially + vicious; and that argumentation on this basis leads, with equal logical + force, to two contradictory and extremely mischievous systems, the one + that of Anarchaic Individualism, the other that of despotic or Regimental + Socialism. Whether I am right or wrong, I am at least consistent in + opposing both to the best of my ability. Mr. Booth's system appears to me, + and, as I have shown, is regarded by Socialists themselves, to be mere + autocratic Socialism, masked by its theological exterior. That the + "fantastic" religious skin will wear away, and the Socialistic reality it + covers will show its real nature, is the expressed hope of one candid + Socialist, and may be fairly conceived to be the unexpressed belief of the + despotic leader of the new Trades Union, who has shown his zeal, if not + his discretion, in championing Mr. Booth's projects. [See Letter VIII.] + </p> + <p> + Yet another word to commentators upon my letters. There are some who + rather chuckle, and <span class="pagenum">191</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink191" id="link191"></a> some who sneer, at what they seem + to consider the dexterity of an "old controversial hand," exhibited by the + contrast which I have drawn between the methods of conversion depicted in + the New Testament and those pursued by fanatics of the Salvationist type, + whether they be such as are now exploited by Mr. Booth, or such as those + who, from the time of the Anabaptists, to go no further back, have worked + upon similar lines. + </p> + <p> + Whether such observations were intended to be flattering or sarcastic, I + must respectfully decline to accept the compliment, or to apply the + sarcasm to myself. I object to obliquity of procedure and ambiguity of + speech in all shapes. And I confess that I find it difficult to understand + the state of mind which leads any one to suppose, that deep respect for + single-minded devotion to high aims is incompatible with the unhesitating + conviction that those aims include the propagation of doctrines which are + devoid of foundation—perhaps even mischievous. + </p> + <p> + The most degrading feature of the narrower forms of Christianity (of which + that professed by Mr. Booth is a notable example) is their insistence that + the noblest virtues, if displayed by those who reject their pitiable + formulae, are, as their pet phrase goes, "splendid sins." But there is, + perhaps, one step lower; and that is that men, who profess freedom of + thought, should fail to see and <span class="pagenum">192</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink192" id="link192"></a> appreciate that large soul of + goodness which often animates even the fanatical adherents of such tenets. + I am sorry for any man who can read the epistles to the Galatians and the + Corinthians without yielding a large meed of admiration to the fervent + humanity of Paul of Tarsus; who can study the lives of Francis of Assisi, + or of Catherine of Siena, without wishing that, for the furtherance of his + own ideals, he might be even as they; or who can contemplate unmoved the + steadfast veracity and true heroism which loom through the fogs of + mystical utterance in George Fox. In all these great men and women there + lay the root of the matter; a burning desire to amend the condition of + their fellow-men, and to put aside all other things for that end. If, in + spite of all the dogmatic helps or hindrances in which they were + entangled, these people are not to be held in high honour, who are? + </p> + <p> + I have never expressed a doubt—for I have none—that, when Mr. + Booth left the Methodist connection, and started that organisation of the + Salvation Army upon which, comparatively recently, such ambitious schemes + of social reform have been grafted, he may have deserved some share of + such honour. I do not say that, so far as his personal desires and + intentions go, he may not still deserve it. But the correlate of despotic + authority is unlimited responsibility. If Mr. Booth is to take <span + class="pagenum">193</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink193" id="link193"></a> credit for any good that the Army + system has effected, he must be prepared to bear blame for its inherent + evils. As it seems to me, that has happened to him which sooner or later + happens to all despots: he has become the slave of his own creation—the + prosperity and glory of the soul-saving machine have become the end, + instead of a means, of soul-saving; and to maintain these at the proper + pitch, the "General" is led to do things which the Mr. Booth of twenty + years ago would probably have scorned. + </p> + <p> + And those who desire, as I most emphatically desire, to be just to Mr. + Booth, however badly they may think of the working of the organization he + has founded, will bear in mind that some astute backers of his probably + care little enough for Salvationist religion; and, perhaps, are not very + keen about many of Mr. Booth's projects. I have referred to the rubbing of + the hands of the Socialists over Mr. Booth's success;* but, unless I err + greatly, there are politicians of a certain school to whom it affords + still greater satisfaction. Consider what electioneering agents the + captains of the Salvation Army, scattered through all our towns, and + directed from a political "bureau" in London, would make! Think how + political adversaries could be harassed by our local attorney—"tribune + of the people," I mean; and how a troublesome man, on the other side, + could be "hunted <span class="pagenum">194</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink194" id="link194"></a> down" upon any convenient charge, + whether true or false, brought by our Vigilance-familiar!** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Letter VIII. + ** See Letter II. +</pre> + <p> + I entirely acquit Mr. Booth of any complicity in far-reaching schemes of + this kind; but I did not write idly when, in my first letter, I gave no + vague warning of what might grow out of the organised force, drilled in + the habit of unhesitating obedience, which he has created. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">195</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink195" id="link195"></a> <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0026" id="link2H_4_0026"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. + </h2> + <h3> + THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN HUMAN SOCIETY. + </h3> + <h3> + (1888). + </h3> + <p> + The vast and varied procession of events, which we call Nature, affords a + sublime spectacle and an inexhaustible wealth of attractive problems to + the speculative observer. If we confine our attention to that aspect which + engages the attention of the intellect, nature appears a beautiful and + harmonious whole, the incarnation of a faultless logical process, from + certain premises in the past to an inevitable conclusion in the future. + But if it be regarded from a less elevated, though more human, point of + view; if our moral sympathies are allowed to influence our judgment, and + we permit ourselves to criticise our great mother as we criticise one + another; then our verdict, at least so far as sentient nature is + concerned, can hardly be so favourable. + </p> + <p> + In sober truth, to those who have made a study of the phenomena of life as + they exhibited by the higher forms of the animal world, <span + class="pagenum">196</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink196" id="link196"></a> the optimistic dogma, that this is + the best of all possible worlds, will seem little better than a libel upon + possibility. It is really only another instance to be added to the many + extant, of the audacity of a priori speculators who, having created God in + their own image, find no difficulty in assuming that the Almighty must + have been actuated by the same motives as themselves. They are quite sure + that, had any other course been practicable, He would no more have made + infinite suffering a necessary ingredient of His handiwork than a + respectable philosopher would have done the like. + </p> + <p> + But even the modified optimism of the time-honoured thesis of + physico-theology, that the sentient world is, on the whole, regulated by + principles of benevolence, does but ill stand the test of impartial + confrontation with the facts of the case. No doubt it is quite true that + sentient nature affords hosts of examples of subtle contrivances directed + towards the production of pleasure or the avoidance of pain; and it may be + proper to say that these are evidences of benevolence. But if so, why is + it not equally proper to say of the equally numerous arrangements, the no + less necessary result of which is the production of pain, that they are + evidences of malevolence? + </p> + <p> + If a vast amount of that which, in a piece of human workmanship, we should + call skill, is <span class="pagenum">197</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink197" id="link197"></a> visible in those parts of the + organization of a deer to which it owes its ability to escape from beasts + of prey, there is at least equal skill displayed in that bodily mechanism + of the wolf which enables him to track, and sooner or later to bring down, + the deer. Viewed under the dry light of science, deer and wolf are alike + admirable; and, if both were non-sentient automata, there would be nothing + to qualify our admiration of the action of the one on the other. But the + fact that the deer suffers, while the wolf inflicts suffering, engages our + moral sympathies. We should call men like the deer innocent and good, men + such as the wolf malignant and bad; we should call those who defended the + deer and aided him to escape brave and compassionate, and those who helped + the wolf in his bloody work base and cruel. Surely, if we transfer these + judgments to nature outside the world of man at all, we must do so + impartially. In that case, the goodness of the right hand which helps the + deer, and the wickedness of the left hand which eggs on the wolf, will + neutralize one another: and the course of nature will appear to be neither + moral nor immoral, but non-moral. + </p> + <p> + This conclusion is thrust upon us by analogous facts in every part of the + sentient world; yet, inasmuch as it not only jars upon prevalent + prejudices, but arouses the natural dislike to that which is painful, much + ingenuity has been exercised in devising an escape from it. + </p> + <p> + From the theological side, we are told that <span class="pagenum">198</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink198" id="link198"></a> this is a state of probation, and + that the seeming injustices and immoralities of nature will be compensated + by and by. But how this compensation is to be effected, in the case of the + great majority of sentient things, is not clear. I apprehend that no one + is seriously prepared to maintain that the ghosts of all the myriads of + generations of herbivorous animals which lived during the millions of + years of the earth's duration, before the appearance of man, and which + have all that time been tormented and devoured by carnivores, are to be + compensated by a perennial existence in clover; while the ghosts of + carnivores are to go to some kennel where there is neither a pan of water + nor a bone with any meat on it. Besides, from the point of view of + morality, the last stage of things would be worse than the first. For the + carnivores, however brutal and sanguinary, have only done that which, if + there is any evidence of contrivance in the world, they were expressly + constructed to do. Moreover, carnivores and herbivores alike have been + subject to all the miseries incidental to old age, disease, and + over-multiplication, and both might well put in a claim for "compensation" + on this score. + </p> + <p> + On the evolutionist side, on the other hand, we are told to take comfort + from the reflection that the terrible struggle for existence tends to + final good, and that the suffering of the ancestor is paid for by the + increased perfection of the progeny. There would be something in this + argument if, in <span class="pagenum">199</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink199" id="link199"></a> Chinese fashion, the present + generation could pay its debts to its ancestors; otherwise it is not clear + what compensation the Eohippus gets for his sorrows in the fact that, some + millions of years afterwards, one of his descendants wins the Derby. And, + again, it is an error to imagine that evolution signifies a constant + tendency to increased perfection. That process undoubtedly involves a + constant remodelling of the organism in adaptation to new conditions; but + it depends on the nature of those conditions whether the direction of the + modifications effected shall be upward or downward. Retrogressive is as + practicable as progressive metamorphosis. If what the physical + philosophers tell us, that our globe has been in a state of fusion, and, + like the sun, is gradually cooling down, is true; then the time must come + when evolution will mean adaptation to an universal winter, and all forms + of life will die out, except such low and simple organisms as the Diatom + of the arctic and antarctic ice and the Protococcus of the red snow. If + our globe is proceeding from a condition in which it was too hot to + support any but the lowest living thing to a condition in which it will be + too cold to permit of the existence of any others, the course of life upon + its surface must describe a trajectory like that of a ball fired from a + mortar; and the sinking half of that course is as much a part of the + general process of evolution as the rising. + </p> + <p> + From the point of view of the moralist the <span class="pagenum">200</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink200" id="link200"></a> animal world is on about the same + level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are fairly well treated, and + set to fight—whereby the strongest, the swiftest, and the cunningest + live to fight another day. The spectator has no need to turn his thumbs + down, as no quarter is given. He must admit that the skill and training + displayed are wonderful. But he must shut his eyes if he would not see + that more or less enduring suffering is the meed of both vanquished and + victor. And since the great game is going on in every corner of the world, + thousands of times a minute; since, were our ears sharp enough, we need + not descend to the gates of hell to hear— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + . . . sospiri, pianti, ed alti guai. + Voci alte e floche, e suon di man con elle +</pre> + <p> + —it seems to follow that, if the world is governed by benevolence, + it must be a different sort of benevolence from that of John Howard. + </p> + <p> + But the old Babylonians wisely symbolized Nature by their great goddess + Istar, who combined the attributes of Aphrodite with those of Ares. Her + terrible aspect is not to be ignored or covered up with shams; but it is + not the only one. If the optimism of Leibnitz is a foolish though pleasant + dream, the pessimism of Schopenhauer is a nightmare, the more foolish + because of its hideousness. Error which is not pleasant is surely the + worst form of wrong. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">201</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink201" id="link201"></a> This may not be the best of all + possible worlds, but to say that it is the worst is mere petulant + nonsense. A worn-out voluptuary may find nothing good under the sun, or a + vain and inexperienced youth, who cannot get the moon he cries for, may + vent his irritation in pessimistic moanings; but there can be no doubt in + the mind of any reasonable person that mankind could, would, and in fact + do, get on fairly well with vastly less happiness and far more misery than + find their way into the lives of nine people out of ten. If each and all + of us had been visited by an attack of neuralgia, or of extreme mental + depression, for one hour in every twenty-four—a supposition which + many tolerably vigorous people know, to their cost, is not extravagant—the + burden of life would have been immensely increased without much practical + hindrance to its general course. Men with any manhood in them find life + quite worth living under worse conditions than these. + </p> + <p> + There is another sufficiently obvious fact, which renders the hypothesis + that the course of sentient nature is dictated by malevolence quite + untenable. A vast multitude of pleasures, and these among the purest and + the best, are superfluities, bits of good which are to all appearances + unnecessary as inducements to live, and are, so to speak, thrown into the + bargain of life. To those who experience them, few delights can be more + entrancing than such as are afforded by natural <span class="pagenum">202</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink202" id="link202"></a> beauty, or by the arts, and + especially by music; but they are products of, rather than factors in, + evolution, and it is probable that they are known, in any considerable + degree, to but a very small proportion of mankind. + </p> + <p> + The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be that, if Ormuzd has not had + his way in this world, neither has Ahriman. Pessimism is as little + consonant with the facts of sentient existence as optimism. If we desire + to represent the course of nature in terms of human thought, and assume + that it was intended to be that which it is, we must say that its + governing principle is intellectual and not moral; that it is a + materialized logical process, accompanied by pleasures and pains, the + incidence of which, in the majority of cases, has not the slightest + reference to moral desert. That the rain falls alike upon the just and the + unjust, and that those upon whom the Tower of Siloam fell were no worse + than their neighbours, seem to be Oriental modes of expressing the same + conclusion. + </p> + <p> + In the strict sense of the word "nature," it denotes the sum of the + phenomenal world, of that which has been, and is, and will be; and + society, like art, is therefore a part of nature. But it is convenient to + distinguish those parts of nature in which man plays the part of immediate + cause, as some thing apart; and, therefore, society, like art, <span + class="pagenum">203</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink203" id="link203"></a> is usefully to be considered as + distinct from nature. It is the more desirable, and even necessary, to + make this distinction, since society differs from nature in having a + definite moral object; whence it comes about that the course shaped by the + ethical man—the member of society or citizen—necessarily runs + counter to that which the non-ethical man—the primitive savage, or + man as a mere member of the animal kingdom—tends to adopt. The + latter fights out the struggle for existence to the bitter end, like any + other animal; the former devotes his best energies to the object of + setting limits to the struggle.* + </p> + <p> + In the cycle of phenomena presented by the life of man, the animal, no + more moral end is discernible than in that presented by the lives of the + wolf and of the deer. However imperfect the relics of prehistoric men may + be, the evidence which they afford clearly tends to the conclusion that, + for thousands and thousands of years, before the origin of the oldest + known civilizations, men were savages of a very low type. They strove with + their enemies and their competitors; they preyed upon things weaker or + less cunning than themselves; they were born, multiplied without stint, + and died, for thousands of generations alongside the mammoth, the urus, + the lion, and the hyaena, whose lives were spent in the same way; <span + class="pagenum">204</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink204" id="link204"></a> and they were no more to be + praised or blamed on moral grounds, than their less erect and more hairy + compatriots. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [The reader will observe that this is the argument of the + Romanes Lecture, in brief.—1894.] +</pre> + <p> + As among these, so among primitive men, the weakest and stupidest went to + the wall, while the toughest and shrewdest, those who were best fitted to + cope with their circumstances, but not the best in any other sense, + survived. Life was a continual free fight, and beyond the limited and + temporary relations of the family, the Hobbesian war of each against all + was the normal state of existence. The human species, like others, plashed + and floundered amid the general stream of evolution, keeping its head + above water as it best might, and thinking neither of whence nor whither. + </p> + <p> + The history of civilization—that is, of society—on the other + hand, is the record of the attempts which the human race has made to + escape from this position. The first men who substituted the state of + mutual peace for that of mutual war, whatever the motive which impelled + them to take that step, created society. But, in establishing peace, they + obviously put a limit upon the struggle for existence. Between the members + of that society, at any rate, it was not to be pursued a outrance. And of + all the successive shapes which society has taken, that most nearly + approaches perfection in which the war of individual against individual is + most strictly limited. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">205</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink205" id="link205"></a> The primitive savage, tutored by + Istar, appropriated whatever took his fancy, and killed whomsoever opposed + him, if he could. On the contrary, the ideal of the ethical man is to + limit his freedom of action to a sphere in which he does not interfere + with the freedom of others; he seeks the common weal as much as his own; + and, indeed, as an essential part of his own welfare. Peace is both end + and means with him; and he founds his life on a more or less complete + self-restraint, which is the negation of the unlimited struggle for + existence. He tries to escape from his place in the animal kingdom, + founded on the free development of the principle of non-moral evolution, + and to establish a kingdom of Man, governed upon the principle of moral + evolution. For society not only has a moral end, but in its perfection, + social life, is embodied morality. + </p> + <p> + But the effort of ethical man to work towards a moral end by no means + abolished, perhaps has hardly modified, the deep-seated organic impulses + which impel the natural man to follow his non-moral course. One of the + most essential conditions, if not the chief cause, of the struggle for + existence, is the tendency to multiply without limit, which man shares + with all living things. It is notable that "increase and multiply" is a + commandment traditionally much older than the ten; and that it is, + perhaps, the only one which has been spontaneously and ex animo obeyed by + <span class="pagenum">206</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink206" id="link206"></a> the great majority of the human + race. But, in civilized society, the inevitable result of such obedience + is the re-establishment, in all its intensity, of that struggle for + existence—the war of each against all—the mitigation or + abolition of which was the chief end of social organization. + </p> + <p> + It is conceivable that, at some perios in the history of the fabled Atlantis, + the production of food should have been exactly sufficient to meet the + wants of the population, that the makers of the commodities of the + artificer should have amounted to just the number supportable by the + surplus food of the agriculturists. And, as there is no harm in adding + another monstrous supposition to the foregoing, let it be imagined that + every man, woman, and child was perfectly virtuous, and aimed at the good + of all as the highest personal good. In that happy land, the natural man + would have been finally put down by the ethical man. There would have been + no competition, but the industry of each would have been serviceable to + all; nobody being vain and nobody avaricious, there would have been no + rivalries; the struggle for existence would have been abolished, and the + millennium would have finally set in. But it is obvious that this state of + things could have been permanent only with a stationary population. Add + ten fresh mouths; and as, by the supposition, there was only exactly + enough before, somebody must go on short rations. The <span class="pagenum">207</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink207" id="link207"></a> Atlantis society might have been a + heaven upon earth, the whole nation might have consisted of just men, + needing no repentance, and yet somebody must starve. Reckless Istar, + non-moral Nature, would have riven the ethical fabric. I was once talking + with a very eminent physician* about the vis medicatrix naturae. "Stuff!" + said he; "nine times out of ten nature does not want to cure the man: she + wants to put him in his coffin." And Istar-Nature appears to have equally + little sympathy with the ends of society. "Stuff! she wants nothing but a + fair field and free play for her darling the strongest." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The late Sir W. Gull +</pre> + <p> + Our Atlantis may be an impossible figment, but the antagonistic tendencies + which the fable adumbrates have existed in every society which was ever + established, and, to all appearance, must strive for the victory in all + that will be. Historians point to the greed and ambition of rulers, to the + reckless turbulence of the ruled, to the debasing effects of wealth and + luxury, and to the devastating wars which have formed a great part of the + occupation of mankind, as the causes of the decay of states and the + foundering of old civilizations, and thereby point their story with a + moral. No doubt immoral motives of all sorts have figured largely among + the minor causes of these events. But beneath all this <span + class="pagenum">208</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink208" id="link208"></a> superficial turmoil lay the + deep-seated impulse given by unlimited multiplication. In the swarms of + colonies thrown out by Phoenicia and by old Greece; in the ver sacrum of + the Latin races; in the floods of Gauls and of Teutons which burst over + the frontiers of the old civilization of Europe; in the swaying to and fro + of the vast Mongolian hordes in late times, the population problem comes + to the front in a very visible shape. Nor is it less plainly manifest in + the everlasting agrarian questions of ancient Rome than in the Arreoi + societies of the Polynesian Islands. + </p> + <p> + In the ancient world, and in a large part of that in which we live, the + practice of infanticide was, or is, a regular and legal custom; famine, + pestilence, and war were and are normal factors in the struggle for + existence, and they have served, in a gross and brutal fashion, to + mitigate the intensity of the effects of its chief cause. + </p> + <p> + But, in the more advanced civilizations, the progress of private and + public morality has steadily tended to remove all these checks. We declare + infanticide murder, and punish it as such; we decree, not quite so + successfully, that no one shall die of hunger; we regard death from + preventible causes of other kinds as a sort of constructive murder, and + eliminate pestilence to the best of our ability; we declaim against the + curse <span class="pagenum">209</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink209" id="link209"></a> of war, and the wickedness of the + military spirit, and we are never weary of dilating on the blessedness of + peace and the innocent beneficence of Industry. In their moments of + expansion, even statesmen and men of business go thus far. The finer + spirits look to an ideal civitas Dei; a state when, every man having + reached the point of absolute self-negation, and having nothing but moral + perfection to strive after, peace will truly reign, not merely among + nations, but among men, and the struggle for existence will be at an end. + </p> + <p> + Whether human nature is competent, under any circumstances, to reach, or + even seriously advance towards, this ideal condition, is a question which + need not be discussed. It will be admitted that mankind has not yet + reached this stage by a very long way, and my business is with the + present. And that which I wish to point out is that, so long as the + natural man increases and multiplies without restraint, so long will peace + and industry not only permit, but they will necessitate, a struggle for + existence as sharp as any that ever went on under the regime of war. If + Istar is to reign on the one hand, she will demand her human sacrifices on + the other. + </p> + <p> + Let us look at home. For seventy years peace and industry have had their + way among us with less interruption and under more favourable conditions + than in any other country on the face of the earth. The wealth of Croesus + was nothing to <span class="pagenum">210</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink210" id="link210"></a> that which we have accumulated, + and our prosperity has filled the world with envy. But Nemesis did not + forget Croesus: has she forgotten us? + </p> + <p> + I think not. There are now 36,000,000 of people in our islands, and every + year considerably more than 300,000 are added to our numbers.* That is to + say, about every hundred seconds, or so, a new claimant to a share in the + common stock or maintenance presents him or herself among us. At the + present time, the produce of the soil does not suffice to feed half its + population. The other moiety has to be supplied with food which must be + bought from the people of food-producing countries. That is to say, we + have to offer them the things which they want in exchange for the things + we want. And the things they want and which we can produce better than + they can are mainly manufactures—industrial products. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These numbers are only approximately accurate. In 1881, our + population amounted to 35,241,482, exceeding the number in 1871 + by 3,396,103. The average annual increase in the decennial. + 1871—1881 is therefore 339,610. The number of minutes in a + calendar year is 525,600. +</pre> + <p> + The insolent reproach of the first Napoleon had a very solid foundation. + We not only are, but, under penalty of starvation, we are bound to be, a + nation of shopkeepers. But other nations also lie under the same necessity + of keeping shop, and some of them deal in the same goods as ourselves. Our + customers naturally seek to get the most and <span class="pagenum">211</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink211" id="link211"></a> the best in exchange for their + produce. If our goods are inferior to those of our competitors, there is + no ground, compatible with the sanity of the buyers, which can be alleged, + why they should not prefer the latter. And, if that result should ever + take place on a large and general scale, five or six millions of us would + soon have nothing to eat. We know what the cotton famine was; and we can + therefore form some notion of what a dearth of customers would be. + </p> + <p> + Judged by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satisfactory than the + position in which we find ourselves. In a real, though incomplete, degree + we have attained the condition of peace which is the main object of social + organization; and, for argument's sake, it may be assumed that we desire + nothing but that which is in itself innocent and praiseworthy—namely, + the enjoyment of the fruits of honest industry. And lo! in spite of + ourselves, we are in reality engaged in an internecine struggle for + existence with our presumably no less peaceful and well-meaning + neighbours. We seek peace and we do not ensue it. The moral nature in us + asks for no more than is compatible with the general good; the non-moral + nature proclaims and acts upon that fine old Scottish family motto, "Thou + shalt starve ere I want." Let us be under no illusions, then. So long as + unlimited multiplication goes on, no social organization which has ever + been devised, or is likely to <span class="pagenum">212</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink212" id="link212"></a> be devised, no fiddle-faddling + with the distribution of wealth, will deliver society from the tendency to + be destroyed by the reproduction within itself, in its intensest form, of + that struggle for existence the limitation of which is the object of + society. And however shocking to the moral sense this eternal competition + of man against man and of nation against nation may be; however revolting + may be the accumulation of misery at the negative pole of society, in + contrast with that of monstrous wealth at the positive pole;* this state + of things must abide, and grow continually worse, so long as Istar holds + her way unchecked. It is the true riddle of the Sphinx; and every nation + which does not solve it will sooner or later be devoured by the monster + itself has generated. + </p> + <p> + The practical and pressing question for us, just now, seems to me to be + how to gain time. "Time brings counsel," as the Teutonic proverb has it; + and wiser folk among our posterity may see their way out of that which at + present looks like an impasse. + </p> + <p> + It would be folly to entertain any ill-feeling towards those neighbours + and rivals who, like ourselves, are slaves of Istar; but, if somebody is + to be starved, the modern world has no Oracle of Delphi to which the + nations can appeal for an <span class="pagenum">213</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink213" id="link213"></a> indication of the victim. It is + open to us to try our fortune; and, if we avoid impending fate, there will + be a certain ground for believing that we are the right people to escape. + Securus judicat orbis. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [It is hard to say whether the increase of the unemployed + poor, or that of the unemployed rich, is the greater social + evil. — 1894} +</pre> + <p> + To this end, it is well to look into the necessary condition of our + salvation by works. They are two, one plain to all the world and hardly + needing insistence; the other seemingly not so plain, since too often it + has been theoretically and practically left out of sight. The obvious + condition is that our produce shall be better than that of others. There + is only one reason why our goods should be preferred to those of our + rivals—our customers must find them better at the price. That means + that we must use more knowledge, skill, and industry in producing them, + without a proportionate increase in the cost of production; and, as the + price of labour constitutes a large element in that cost, the rate of + wages must be restricted within certain limits. It is perfectly true that + cheap production and cheap labour are by no means synonymous; but it is + also true that wages cannot increase beyond a certain proportion without + destroying cheapness. Cheapness, then, with, as part and parcel of + cheapness, a moderate price of labour, is essential to our success as + competitors in the markets of the world. + </p> + <p> + The second condition is really quite as plainly indispensable as the + first, if one thinks seriously <span class="pagenum">214</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink214" id="link214"></a> about the matter. It is social + stability. Society is stable, when the wants of its members obtain as much + satisfaction as, life being what it is, common sense and experience show + may be reasonably expected. Mankind, in general, care very little for + forms of government or ideal considerations of any sort; and nothing + really stirs the great multitude to break with custom and incur the + manifest perils of revolt except the belief that misery in this world, or + damnation in the next, or both, are threatened by the continuance of the + state of things in which they have been brought up. But when they do + attain that conviction, society becomes as unstable as a package of + dynamite, and a very small matter will produce the explosion which sends + it back to the chaos of savagery. + </p> + <p> + It needs no argument to prove that when the price of labour sinks below a + certain point, the worker infallibly falls into that condition which the + French emphatically call la misere—a word for which I do not think + there is any exact English equivalent. It is a condition in which the + food, warmth, and clothing which are necessary for the mere maintenance of + the functions of the body in their normal state cannot be obtained; in + which men, women, and children are forced to crowd into dens wherein + decency is abolished and the most ordinary conditions of healthful + existence are impossible of attainment; in which the <span class="pagenum">215</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink215" id="link215"></a> pleasures within reach are reduced + to bestiality and drunkenness; in which the pains accumulate at compound + interest, in the shape of starvation, disease, stunted development, and + moral degradation; in which the prospect of even steady and honest + industry is a life of unsuccessful battling with hunger, rounded by a + pauper's grave. + </p> + <p> + That a certain proportion of the members of every great aggregation of + mankind should constantly tend to establish and populate such a Slough of + Despond as this is inevitable, so long as some people are by nature idle + and vicious, while others are disabled by sickness or accident, or thrown + upon the world by the death of their bread-winners. So long as that + proportion is restricted within tolerable limits, it can be dealt with; + and, so far as it arises only from such causes, its existence may and must + be patiently borne. But, when the organization of society, instead of + mitigating this tendency, tends to continue and intensify it; when a given + social order plainly makes for evil and not for good, men naturally enough + begin to think it high time to try a fresh experiment. The animal man, + finding that the ethical man has landed him in such a slough, resumes his + ancient sovereignty, and preaches anarchy; which is, substantially, a + proposal to reduce the social cosmos to chaos, and begin the brute + struggle for existence once again. + </p> + <p> + Any one who is acquainted with the state of <span class="pagenum">216</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink216" id="link216"></a> the population of all great + industrial centres, whether in this or other countries, is aware that, + amidst a large and increasing body of that population, la misere reigns + supreme. I have no pretensions to the character of a philanthropist, and I + have a special horror of all sorts of sentimental rhetoric; I am merely + trying to deal with facts, to some extent within my own knowledge, and + further evidenced by abundant testimony, as a naturalist; and I take it to + be a mere plain truth that, throughout industrial Europe, there is not a + single large manufacturing city which is free from a vast mass of people + whose condition is exactly that described; and from a still greater mass + who, living just on the edge of the social swamp, are liable to be + precipitated into it by any lack of demand for their produce. And, with + every addition to the population, the multitude already sunk in the pit + and the number of the host sliding towards it continually increase. + </p> + <p> + Argumentation can hardly be needful to make it clear that no society in + which the elements of decomposition are thus swiftly and surely + accumulating can hope to win in the race of industries. + </p> + <p> + Intelligence, knowledge, and skill are undoubtedly conditions of success; + but of what avail are they likely to be unless they are backed up by + honesty, energy, goodwill, and all the physical and moral faculties that + go to the making of manhood, and unless they are stimulated by hope of + such <span class="pagenum">217</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink217" id="link217"></a> reward as men may fairly look to? + And what dweller in the slough of want, dwarfed in body and soul, + demoralized, hopeless, can reasonably be expected to possess these + qualities? + </p> + <p> + Any full and permanent development of the productive powers of an + industrial population, then, must be compatible with and, indeed, based + upon a social organization which will secure a fair amount of physical and + moral welfare to that population; which will make for good and not for + evil. Natural science and religious enthusiasm rarely go hand in hand, but + on this matter their concord is complete; and the least sympathetic of + naturalists can but admire the insight and the devotion of such social + reformers as the late Lord Shaftesbury, whose recently published "Life and + Letters" gives a vivid picture of the condition of the working classes + fifty years ago, and of the pit which our industry, ignoring these plain + truths, was then digging under its own feet. + </p> + <p> + There is, perhaps, no more hopeful sign of progress among us, in the last + half-century, than the steadily increasing devotion which has been and is + directed to measures for promoting physical and moral welfare among the + poorer classes. Sanitary reformers, like most other reformers whom I have + had the advantage of knowing, seem to need a good dose of fanaticism, as a + sort of moral coca, to keep them up to the mark, and, doubtless, they have + made many mistakes; but that the <span class="pagenum">218</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink218" id="link218"></a> endeavour to improve the condition + under our industrial population live, to amend the drainage of densely + peopled streets, to provide baths, washhouses, and gymnasia, to facilitate + habits of thrift, to furnish some provision for instruction and amusement + in public libraries and the like, is not only desirable from a + philanthropic point of view, but an essential condition of safe industrial + development, appears to me to be indisputable. It is by such means alone, + so far as I can see, that we can hope to check the constant gravitation of + industrial society towards la misere, until the general progress of + intelligence and morality leads men to grapple with the sources of that + tendency. If it is said that the carrying out of such arrangements as + those indicated must enhance the cost of production, and thus handicap the + producer in the race of competition, I venture, in the first place, to + doubt the fact; but if it be so, it results that industrial society has to + face a dilemma, either alternative of which threatens destruction. + </p> + <p> + On the one hand, a population the labour of which is sufficiently + remunerated may be physically and morally healthy and socially stable, but + may fail in industrial competition by reason of the dearness of its + produce. On the other hand, a population the labour of which is + insufficiently remunerated must become physically and morally unhealthy, + and socially unstable; and though it <span class="pagenum">219</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink219" id="link219"></a> may succeed for a while in + industrial competition, by reason of the cheapness of its produce, it must + in the end fall, through hideous misery and degradation, to utter ruin. + </p> + <p> + Well, if these are the only possible alternatives, let us for ourselves + and our children choose the former, and, if need be, starve like men. But + I do not believe that the stable society made up of healthy, vigorous, + instructed, and self-ruling people would ever incur serious risk of that + fate. They are not likely to be troubled with many competitors of the same + character, just yet; and they may be safely trusted to find ways of + holding their own. + </p> + <p> + Assuming that the physical and moral well-being and the stable social + order, which are the indispensable conditions of permanent industrial + development, are secured, there remains for consideration the means of + attaining that knowledge and skill without which, even then, the battle of + competition cannot be successfully fought. Let us consider how we stand. A + vast system of elementary education has now been in operation among us for + sixteen years, and has reached all but a very small fraction of the + population. I do not think that there is any room for doubt that, on the + whole, it has worked well, and that its indirect no less than its direct + benefits have been immense. But, as might be expected, it exhibits the + defects of all our educational systems—fashioned <span + class="pagenum">220</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink220" id="link220"></a> as they were to meet the wants of + a bygone condition of society. There is a widespread and, I think, + well-justified complaint that it has too much to do with books and too + little to do with things. I am as little disposed as any one can well be + to narrow early education and to make the primary school a mere annexe of + the shop. And it is not so much in the interests of industry, as in that + of breadth of culture, that I echo the common complaint against the + bookish and theoretical character of our primary instruction. + </p> + <p> + If there were no such things as industrial pursuits, a system of education + which does nothing for the faculties of observation, which trains neither + the eye nor the hand, and is compatible with utter ignorance of the + commonest natural truths, might still be reasonably regarded as strangely + imperfect. And when we consider that the instruction and training which + are lacking are exactly; those which are of most importance for the great + mass of our population, the fault becomes almost a crime, the more that + there is no practical difficulty in making good these defects. There + really is no reason why drawing should not be universally taught, and it + is an admirable training for both eye and hand. Artists are born, not + made; but everybody may be taught to draw elevations, plans, and sections; + and pots and pans are as good, indeed better, models for <span + class="pagenum">221</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink221" id="link221"></a> this purpose than the Apollo + Belvedere. The plant is not expensive; and there is this excellent quality + about drawing of the kind indicated, that it can be tested almost as + easily and severely as arithmetic. Such drawings are either right or + wrong, and if they are wrong the pupil can be made to see that they are + wrong. From the industrial point of view, drawing has the further merit + that there is hardly any trade in which the power of drawing is not of + daily and hourly utility. In the next place, no good reason, except the + want of capable teachers, can be assigned why elementary notions of + science should not be an element in general instruction. In this case, + again, no expensive or elaborate apparatus is necessary. The commonest + thing—a candle, a boy's squirt, a piece of chalk—in the hands + of a teacher who knows his business, may be made the starting-point whence + children may be led into the regions of science as far as their capacity + permits, with efficient exercise of their observational and reasoning + faculties on the road. If object lessons often prove trivial failures, it + is not the fault of object lessons, but that of the teacher, who has not + found out how much the power of teaching a little depends on knowing a + great deal, and that thoroughly; and that he has not made that discovery + is not the fault of the teachers, but of the detestable system of training + them which is widely prevalent.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Training in the use of simple tools is no doubt desirable, + on all grounds. From the point of view of "culture," the + man whose "fingers are all thumbs" is but a stunted + creature. But the practical difficulties in the way of + introducing handiwork of this kind into elementary schools + appear to me to be considerable. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">222</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink222" id="link222"></a> As I have said, I do not regard + the proposal to add these to the present subjects of universal instruction + as made merely in the interests of industry. Elementary science and + drawing are just as needful at Eton (where I am happy to say both are now + parts of the regular course) as in the lowest primary school. But their + importance in the education of the artisan is enhanced, not merely by the + fact that the knowledge and skill thus gained—little as they may + amount to—will still be of practical utility to him; but, further, + because they constitute an introduction to that special training which is + commonly called "technical education." + </p> + <p> + I conceive that our wants in this last direction may be grouped under + three heads: (1) Instruction in the principles of those branches of + science and of art which are peculiarly applicable to industrial pursuits, + which may be called preliminary scientific education. (2) Instruction in + the special branches of such applied science and art, as technical + education proper. (3) Instruction of teachers in both these branches. (4) + Capacity-catching machinery. + </p> + <p> + A great deal has already been done in each of these directions, but much + remains to be done. If elementary education is amended in the way <span + class="pagenum">223</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink223" id="link223"></a> that has been suggested, I think + that the school boards will have quite as much on their hands as they are + capable of doing well. The influences under which the members of these + bodies are elected do not tend to secure fitness for dealing with + scientific or technical education; and it is the less necessary to burden + them with an uncongenial task as there are other organizations, not only + much better fitted to do the work, but already actually doing it. + </p> + <p> + In the matter of preliminary scientific education, the chief of these is + the Science and Art Department, which has done more during the last + quarter of a century for the teaching of elementary science among the + masses of the people than any organization which exists either in this or + in any other country. It has become veritably a people's university, so + far as physical science is concerned. At the foundation of our old + universities they were freely open to the poorest, but the poorest must + come to them. In the last quarter of a century, the Science and Art + Department, by means of its classes spread all over the country and open + to all, has conveyed instruction to the poorest. The University Extension + movement shows that our older learned corporations have discovered the + propriety of following suit. + </p> + <p> + Technical education, in the strict sense, has become a necessity for two + reasons. The old apprenticeship system has broken down, partly by <span + class="pagenum">224</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink224" id="link224"></a> reason of the changed conditions + of industrial life, and partly because trades have ceased to be "crafts," + the traditional secrets whereof the master handed down to his apprentices. + Invention is constantly changing the face of our industries, so that "use + and wont," "rule of thumb," and the like, are gradually losing their + importance, while that knowledge of principles which alone can deal + successfully with changed conditions is becoming more and more valuable. + Socially, the "master" of four or five apprentices is disappearing in + favour of the "employer" of forty, or four hundred, or four thousand, + "hands," and the odds and ends of technical knowledge, formerly picked up + in a shop, are not, and cannot be, supplied in the factory. The + instruction formerly given by the master must therefore be more than + replaced by the systematic teaching of the technical school. + </p> + <p> + Institutions of this kind on varying scales of magnitude and completeness, + from the splendid edifice set up by the City and Guilds Institute to the + smallest local technical school, to say nothing of classes, such as those + in technology instituted by the Society of Arts (subsequently taken over + by the City Guilds), have been established in various parts of the + country, and the movement in favour of their increase and multiplication + is rapidly growing in breadth and intensity. But there is much difference + of opinion as to the best <span class="pagenum">225</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink225" id="link225"></a> way in which the technical + instruction, so generally desired, should be given. Two courses appear to + be practicable: the one is the establishment of special technical schools + with a systematic and lengthened course of instruction demanding the + employment of the whole time of the pupils. The other is the setting afoot + of technical classes, especially evening classes, comprising a short + series of lessons on some special topic, which may be attended by persons + already earning wages in some branch of trade or commerce. + </p> + <p> + There is no doubt that technical schools, on the plan indicated under the + first head, are extremely costly; and, so far as the teaching of artisans + is concerned, it is very commonly objected to them that, as the learners + do not work under trade conditions, they are apt to fall into amateurish + habits, which prove of more hindrance than service in the actual business + of life. When such schools are attached to factories under the direction + of an employer who desires to train up a supply of intelligent workmen, of + course this objection does not apply; nor can the usefulness of such + schools for the training of future employers and for the higher grade of + the employed be doubtful; but they are clearly out of the reach of the + great mass of the people, who have to earn their bread as soon as + possible. We must therefore look to the classes, and especially to evening + classes, as the great instrument for the technical <span class="pagenum">226</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink226" id="link226"></a> education of the artisan. The + utility of such classes has now been placed beyond all doubt; the only + question which remains is to find the ways and means of extending them. + </p> + <p> + We are here, as in all other questions of social organization, met by two + diametrically opposed views. On the one hand, the methods pursued in + foreign countries are held up as our example. The State is exhorted to + take the matter in hand and establish a great system of technical + education. On the other hand, many economists of the individualist school + exhaust the resources of language in condemning and repudiating, not + merely the interference of the general government in such matters, but the + application of a farthing of the funds raised by local taxation to these + purposes. I entertain a strong conviction that, in this country, at any + rate, the State had much better leave purely technical and trade + instruction alone. But, although my personal leanings are decidedly + towards the individualists, I have arrived at that conclusion on merely + practical grounds. In fact, my individualism is rather of a sentimental + sort, and I sometimes think I should be stronger in the faith if it were + less vehemently advocated.* I am unable to see that civil society is + anything but a corporation established <span class="pagenum">227</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink227" id="link227"></a> for a moral object only—namely, + the good of its members—and therefore that it may take such measures + as seem fitting for the attainment of that which the general voice decides + to be the general good. That the suffrage of the majority is by no means a + scientific test of social good and evil is unfortunately too true; but, in + practice, it is the only test we can apply, and the refusal to abide by it + means anarchy. The purest despotism that ever existed is as much based + upon that will of the majority (which is usually submission to the will of + a small minority) as the freest republic. Law is the expression of the + opinion of the majority; and it is law, and not mere opinion, because the + many are strong enough to enforce it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In what follows I am only repeating and emphasizing + opinions which I expressed seventeen years ago, in an + Address to the members of the Midland Institute + (republished in Critiques and Addresses in 1873, and in Vol. + I. of these Essays ). I have seen no reason to modify them, + notwithstanding high authority on the other side. +</pre> + <p> + I am as strongly convinced as the most pronounced individualist can be, + that it is desirable that every man should be free to act in every way + which does not limit the corresponding freedom of his fellow-man. But I + fail to connect that great induction of political science with the + practical corollary which is frequently drawn from it: that the State—that + is, the people in their corporate capacity—has no business to meddle + with anything but the administration of justice and external defence. It + appears to me that the <span class="pagenum">228</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink228" id="link228"></a> amount of freedom which + incorporate society may fitly leave to its members is not a fixed + quantity, to be determined a priori by deduction from the fiction called + "natural rights"; but that it must be determined by, and vary with, + circumstances. I conceive it to be demonstrable that the higher and the + more complex the organization of the social body, the more closely is the + life of each member bound up with that of the whole; and the larger + becomes the category of acts which cease to be merely self-regarding, and + which interfere with the freedom of others more or less seriously. + </p> + <p> + If a squatter, living ten miles away from any neighbour, chooses to burn + his house down to get rid of vermin, there may be no necessity (in the + absence of insurance offices) that the law should interfere with his + freedom of action; his act can hurt nobody but himself. But, if the + dweller in a street chooses to do the same thing, the State very properly + makes such a proceeding a crime, and punishes it as such. He does meddle + with his neighbour's freedom, and that seriously. So it might, perhaps, be + a tenable doctrine, that it would be needless, and even tyrannous, to make + education compulsory in a sparse agricultural population, living in + abundance on the produce of its own soil; but, in a densely populated + manufacturing country, struggling for existence with competitors, every + ignorant person tends to <span class="pagenum">229</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink229" id="link229"></a> become a burden upon, and, so far, + an infringer of the liberty of, his fellows, and an obstacle to their + success. Under such circumstances an education rate is, in fact, a war + tax, levied for purposes of defence. + </p> + <p> + That State action always has been more or less misdirected, and always + will be so, is, I believe, perfectly true. But I am not aware that it is + more true of the action of men in their corporate capacity than it is of + the doings of individuals. The wisest and most dispassionate man in + existence, merely wishing to go from one stile in a field to the opposite, + will not walk quite straight—he is always going a little wrong, and + always correcting himself; and I can only congratulate the individualist + who is able to say that his general course of life has been of a less + undulatory character. To abolish State action, because its direction is + never more than approximately correct, appears to me to be much the same + thing as abolishing the man at the wheel altogether, because, do what he + will, the ship yaws more or less. "Why should I be robbed of my property + to pay for teaching another man's children?" is an individualist question, + which is not unfrequently put as if it settled the whole business. Perhaps + it does, but I find difficulties in seeing why it should. The parish in + which I live makes me pay my share for the paving and lighting of a great + many streets that I never pass through; <span class="pagenum">230</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink230" id="link230"></a> and I might plead that I am robbed + to smooth the way and lighten the darkness of other people. But I am + afraid the parochial authorities would not let me off on this plea; and I + must confess I do not see why they should. + </p> + <p> + I cannot speak of my own knowledge, but I have every reason to believe + that I came into this world a small reddish person, certainly without a + gold spoon in my mouth, and in fact with no discernible abstract or + concrete "rights" or property of any description. If a foot was not set + upon me, at once, as a squalling nuisance, it was either the natural + affection of those about me, which I certainly had done nothing to + deserve, or the fear of the law which, ages before my birth, was painfully + built up by the society into which I intruded, that prevented that + catastrophe. If I was nourished, cared for, taught, saved from the + vagabondage of a wastrel, I certainly am not aware that I did anything to + deserve those advantages. And, if I possess anything now, it strikes me + that, though I may have fairly earned my day's wages for my day's work, + and may justly call them my property—yet, without that organization + of society, created out of the toil and blood of long generations before + my time, I should probably have had nothing but a flint axe and an + indifferent hut to call my own; and even those would be mine only so long + as no stronger savage came my way. + </p> + <p> + So that if society, having, quite gratuitously, <span class="pagenum">231</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink231" id="link231"></a> done all these things for me, asks + me in turn to do something towards its preservation—even if that + something is to contribute to the teaching of other men's children—I + really in spite of all my individualist leanings, feel rather ashamed to + say no. And if I were not ashamed, I cannot say that I think that society + would be dealing unjustly with me in converting the moral obligation into + a legal one. There is a manifest unfairness in letting all the burden be + borne by the willing horse. + </p> + <p> + It does not appear to me, then, that there is any valid objection to + taxation for purposes of education; but, in the case of technical schools + and classes, I think it is practically expedient that such a taxation + should be local. Our industrial population accumulates in particular towns + and districts; these districts are those which immediately profit by + technical education; and it is only in them that we can find the men + practically engaged in industries, among whom some may reasonably be + expected to be competent judges of that which is wanted, and of the best + means of meeting the want. + </p> + <p> + In my belief, all methods of technical training are at present tentative, + and, to be successful, each must be adapted to the special peculiarities + of its locality. This is a case in which we want twenty years, not of + "strong government," but of cheerful and hopeful blundering; and we may be + <span class="pagenum">232</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink232" id="link232"></a> thankful if we get things straight + in that time. + </p> + <p> + The principle of the Bill introduced, but dropped, by the Government last + session, appears to me to be wise, and some of the objections to it I + think are due to a misunderstanding. The bill proposed in substance to + allow localities to tax themselves for purposes of technical education—on + the condition that any scheme for such purpose should be submitted to the + Science and Art Department, and declared by that department to be in + accordance with the intention of the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + A cry was raised that the Bill proposed to throw technical education into + the hands of the Science and Art Department. But, in reality, no power of + initiation, nor even of meddling with details, was given to that + Department—the sole function of which was to decide whether any plan + proposed did or did not come within the limits of "technical education." + The necessity for such control, somewhere, is obvious. No legislature, + certainly not ours, is likely to grant the power of self-taxation without + setting limits to that power in some way; and it would neither have been + practicable to devise a legal definition of technical education, nor + commendable to leave the question to the Auditor-General, to be fought out + in the law-courts. The only alternative was to leave the decision to an + appropriate State authority. If it is <span class="pagenum">233</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink233" id="link233"></a> asked what is the need of such + control if the people of the localities are the best judges, the obvious + reply is that there are localities and localities, and that while + Manchester, or Liverpool, or Birmingham, or Glasgow might, perhaps, be + safely left to do as they thought fit, smaller towns, in which there is + less certainty of full discussion by competent people of different ways of + thinking, might easily fall a prey to crocheteers. + </p> + <p> + Supposing our intermediate science teaching and our technical schools and + classes are established, there is yet a third need to be supplied, and + that is the want of good teachers. And it is necessary not only to get + them, but to keep them when you have got them. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the fact that the efficient + teachers of science and of technology are not to be made by the processes + in vogue at ordinary training colleges. The memory loaded with mere + bookwork is not the thing wanted—is, in fact, rather worse than + useless—in the teacher of scientific subjects. It is absolutely + essential that his mind should be full of knowledge and not of mere + learning, and that what he knows should have been learned in the + laboratory rather than in the library. There are happily already, both in + London and in the provinces, various places in which such training is to + be had, and the main thing at present is to make it in the first place + accessible, and in the next <span class="pagenum">234</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink234" id="link234"></a> indispensable, to those who + undertake the business of teaching. But when the well-trained men are + supplied, it must be recollected that the profession of teacher is not a + very lucrative or otherwise tempting one, and that it may be advisable to + offer special inducements to good men to remain in it. These, however, are + questions of detail into which it is unnecessary to enter further. + </p> + <p> + Last, but not least, comes the question of providing the machinery for + enabling those who are by nature specially qualified to undertake the + higher branches of industrial work, to reach the position in which they + may render that service to the community. If all our educational + expenditure did nothing but pick one man of scientific or inventive + genius, each year, from amidst the hewers of wood and drawers of water, + and give him the chance of making the best of his inborn faculties, it + would be a very good investment. If there is one such child among the + hundreds of thousands of our annual increase, it would be worth any money + to drag him either from the slough of misery, or from the hotbed of + wealth, and teach him to devote himself to the service of his people. + Here, again, we have made a beginning with our scholarships and the like, + and need only follow in the tracks already worn. + </p> + <p> + The programme of industrial development briefly set forth in the preceding + pages is not what Kant calls a "Hirngespinnst," a cobweb <span + class="pagenum">235</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink235" id="link235"></a> spun in the brain of a Utopian + philosopher. More or less of it has taken bodily shape in many parts of + the country, and there are towns of no great size or wealth in the + manufacturing districts (Keighley, for example) in which almost the whole + of it has, for some time, been carried out, so far as the means at the + disposal of the energetic and public-spirited men who have taken the + matter in hand permitted. The thing can be done; I have endeavoured to + show good grounds for the belief that it must be done, and that speedily, + if we wish to hold our own in the war of industry. I doubt not that it + will be done, whenever its absolute necessity becomes as apparent to all + those who are absorbed in the actual business of industrial life as it is + to some of the lookers on. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it is necessary for me to add that technical education is not here + proposed as a panacea for social diseases, but simply as a medicament + which will help the patient to pass through an imminent crisis. + </p> + <p> + An ophthalmic surgeon may recommend an operation for cataract in a man who + is going blind, without being supposed to undertake that it will cure him + of gout. And I may pursue the metaphor so far as to remark, that the + surgeon is justified in pointing out that a diet of pork-chops and + burgundy will probably kill his patient, though he may be quite able to + suggest a mode of living <span class="pagenum">236</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink236" id="link236"></a> which will free him from his + constitutional disorder. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Booth asks me, Why do you not propose some plan of your own? Really, + that is no answer to my argument that his treatment will make the patient + very much worse. [Note added in Social Diseases and Worse Remedies, + January, 1891.] + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">237</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink237" id="link237"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + LETTERS TO THE "Times" + + ON THE + + "DARKEST ENGLAND SCHEME." + + I. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 1st, 1890 + </p> + <p> + SIR: A short time ago a generous and philanthropic friend wrote to me, + placing at my disposal a large sum of money for the furtherance of the + vast scheme which the "General" of the Salvation Army has propounded, if I + thought it worthy of support. The responsibility of advising my benevolent + correspondent has weighed heavily upon me, but I felt that it would be + cowardly, as well as ungracious, to refuse to accept it. I have therefore + studied Mr. Booth's book with some care, for the purpose of separating the + essential from the accessory features of his project, and I have based my + judgment—I am sorry to say an unfavourable one—upon the data + thus obtained. Before communicating my conclusions to my friend, however, + I am desirous to know what there may be to be said in arrest of that + judgment; <span class="pagenum">238</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink238" id="link238"></a> and the matter is of such vast + public importance that I trust you will aid me by publishing this letter, + notwithstanding its length. + </p> + <p> + There are one or two points upon which I imagine all thinking men have + arrived at the same convictions as those from which Mr. Booth starts. It + is certain that there is an immense amount of remediable misery among us, + that, in addition to the poverty, disease, and degradation which are the + consequences of causes beyond human control, there is a vast, probably a + very much larger, quantity of misery which is the result of individual + ignorance, or misconduct, and of faulty social arrangements. Further, I + think it is not to be doubted that, unless this remediable misery is + effectually dealt with, the hordes of vice and pauperism will destroy + modern civilization as effectually as uncivilized tribes of another kind + destroyed the great social organization which preceded ours. Moreover, I + think all will agree that no reforms and improvements will go to the root + of the evil unless they attack it in its ultimate source—namely, the + motives of the individual man. Honest, industrious, and self-restraining + men will make a very bad social organization prosper; while vicious, idle, + and reckless citizens will bring to ruin the best that ever was, or ever + will be, invented. + </p> + <p> + The leading propositions which are peculiar to Mr. Booth I take to be + these:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">239</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink239" id="link239"></a> (1) That the only adequate means + to such reformation of the individual man is the adoption of that form of + somewhat corybantic Christianity of which the soldiers of the Salvation + Army are the militant missionaries. This implies the belief that the + excitement of the religious emotions (largely by processes described by + their employers as "rousing" and "convivial") is a desirable and + trustworthy method of permanently amending the conduct of mankind. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I demur to these propositions. I am of opinion that the testimony of +history, no less than the cool observation of that which lies within +the personal experience of many of us, is wholly adverse to it. + + (2) That the appropriate instrument for the propagation and +maintenance of this peculiar sacramental enthusiasm is the Salvation +Army—a body of devotees, drilled and disciplined as a military +organization, and provided with a numerous hierarchy of officers, +every one of whom is pledged to blind and unhesitating obedience to +the "General," who frankly tells us that the first condition of the +service is "implicit, unquestioning obedience." "A telegram from me +will send any of them to the uttermost parts of the earth"; every one +"has taken service on the express condition that he or she will obey, +without questioning, or gainsaying, the orders from headquarters" +("Darkest England," p. 243). +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +<span class="pagenum">240</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink240" id="link240"></a> This proposition seems to me to be + indisputable. History confirms it. Francis of Assisi and Ignatius Loyola + made their great experiments on the same principle. Nothing is more + certain than that a body of religious enthusiasts (perhaps we may even say + fanatics) pledged to blind obedience to their chief, is one of the most + efficient instruments for effecting any purpose that the wit of man has + yet succeeded in devising. And I can but admire the insight into human + nature which has led Mr. Booth to leave his unquestioning and unhesitating + instruments unbound by vows. A volunteer slave is worth ten sworn + bondsmen. +</p> +<p>(3) That the success of the Salvation Army, with its present + force of 9416 officers "wholly engaged in the work," its capital of three + quarters of a million, its income of the same amount, its 1375 corps at + home, and 1499 in the colonies and foreign countries (Appendix, pp. 3 and + 4), is a proof that Divine assistance has been vouchsafed to its efforts. + </p> + <p> + Here I am not able to agree with the sanguine Commander-in-chief of the + new model, whose labours in creating it have probably interfered with his + acquisition of information respecting the fate of previous enterprises of + like kind. + </p> + <p> + It does not appear to me that his success is in any degree more remarkable + than that of Francis of Assisi or that of Ignatius Loyola, than that <span + class="pagenum">241</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink241" id="link241"></a> of George Fox, or even than that + of the Mormons, in our own time. When I observe the discrepancies of the + doctrinal foundations from which each of these great movements set out, I + find it difficult to suppose that supernatural aid has been given to all + of them; still more, that Mr. Booth's smaller measure of success is + evidence that it has been granted to him. + </p> + <p> + But what became of the Franciscan experiment?* If there was one rule + rather than another on which the founder laid stress, it was that his army + of friars should be absolute mendicants, keeping themselves sternly apart + from all worldly entanglements. Yet, even before the death of Francis, in + 1226, a strong party, headed by Elias of Cortona, the deputy of his own + appointment, began to hanker after these very things; and, within thirty + years of that time, the Franciscans had become one of the most powerful, + wealthy, and worldly corporations in Christendom, with their fingers in + every sink of political and social corruption, if so be profit for the + order could be fished out of it; their principal interest being to fight + their rivals, the Dominicans, and to persecute such of their own brethren + as were honest enough to try to carry out their founder's plainest + injunctions. We also know what has become of Loyola's experiment. For two + centuries the Jesuits have been the hope of the enemies of the Papacy; + whenever it becomes too prosperous, they are sure to bring about a + catastrophe by their corrupt use of the political and social influence + which their organization and their wealth secure. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See note pp. 245-247} +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">242</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink242" id="link242"></a> With these examples of that which + may happen to institutions founded by noble men, with high aims, in the + hands of successors of a different stamp, armed with despotic authority, + before me, common prudence surely requires that, before advising the + handing over of a large sum of money to the general of a new order of + mendicants, I should ask what guarantee there is that, thirty years hence, + the "General" who then autocratically controls the action, say, of 100,000 + officers pledged to blind obedience, distributed through the whole length + and breadth of the poorer classes, and each with his finger on the trigger + of a mine charged with discontent and religious fanaticism; with the + absolute control, say, of eight or ten millions sterling of capital and as + many of income; with barracks in every town, with estates scattered over + the country, and with settlements in the colonies—will exercise his + enormous powers, not merely honestly, but wisely? What shadow of security + is there that the person who wields this uncontrolled authority over many + thousands of men shall use it solely for those philanthropic and religious + objects which, I do not doubt, are alone in the mind of Mr. Booth? Who is + to say that the Salvation Army, in the year <span class="pagenum">243</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink243" id="link243"></a> 1920, shall not be a replica of + what the Franciscan order had become in the year 1260? + </p> + <p> + The personal character and the intentions of the founders of such + organizations as we are considering count for very little in the formation + of a forecast of their future; and if they did, it is no disrespect to Mr. + Booth to say that he is not the peer of Francis of Assisi. But if + Francis's judgment of men was so imperfect as to permit him to appoint an + ambitious intriguer of the stamp of Brother Elias his deputy, we have no + right to be sanguine about the perspicacity of Mr. Booth in a like matter. + </p> + <p> + Adding to all these considerations the fact that Mr. Llewelyn Davies, the + warmth of whose philanthropy is beyond question, and in whose competency + and fairness I, for one, place implicit reliance, flatly denies the + boasted success of the Salvation Army in its professed mission, I have + arrived at the conclusion that, as at present advised, I cannot be the + instrument of carrying out my friend's proposal. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Booth has pithily characterized certain benevolent schemes as doing + sixpennyworth of good and a shilling's worth of harm. I grieve to say + that, in my opinion, the definition exactly fits his own project. Few + social evils are of greater magnitude than uninstructed and unchastened + religious fanaticism; no personal habit more surely degrades the + conscience and the intellect than <span class="pagenum">244</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink244" id="link244"></a> blind and unhesitating obedience + to unlimited authority. Undoubtedly, harlotry and intemperance are sore + evils, and starvation is hard to bear, or even to know of; but the + prostitution of the mind, the soddening of the conscience, the dwarfing of + manhood are worse calamities. It is a greater evil to have the intellect + of a nation put down by organized fanaticism; to see its political and + industrial affairs at the mercy of a despot whose chief thought is to make + that fanaticism prevail; to watch the degradation of men, who should feel + themselves individually responsible for their own and their country's + fates, to mere brute instruments, ready to the hand of a master for any + use to which he may put them. + </p> + <p> + But that is the end to which, in my opinion, all such organizations as + that to which kindly people, who do not look to the consequences of their + acts, are now giving their thousands, inevitably tend. Unless clear proof + that I am wrong is furnished, another thousand shall not be added by my + instrumentality. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">245</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink245" id="link245"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + NOTE. +</pre> + <p> + An authoritative contemporary historian, Matthew Paris, writes thus of the + Minorite, or Franciscan, Friars in England in 1235, just nine years after + the death of Francis of Assisi:— + </p> + <p> + "At this time some of the Minorite brethren, as well as some of the Order + of Preachers, unmindful of their profession and the restrictions of their + order, impudently entered the territories of some noble monasteries, under + pretense of fulfilling their duties of preaching, as if intending to + depart after preaching the next day. Under pretence of sickness, or on + some other pretext, however, they remained, and, constructing an altar of + wood, they placed on it a consecrated stone altar, which they had brought + with them, and clandestinely and in a low voice performed mass, and even + received the confessions of many of the parishioners, to the prejudice of + the priests. And if by chance they were not satisfied with this, they + broke forth in insults and threats, reviling every other order except + their own, and asserting that all the rest were doomed to damnation, and + that they would not spare the soles of their feet till they had exhausted + the wealth of their opposers, however great it might be. The religious + men, therefore, gave way to them in many points, yielding to avoid + scandal, and offending those in power. For they were the councillors and + messengers of the nobles, and even secretaries of the Pope, and therefore + obtained much <span class="pagenum">246</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink246" id="link246"></a> secular favour. Some, however, + finding themselves opposed by the Court of Rome, were restrained by + obvious reasons, and went away in confusion; for the Supreme Pontiff, with + a scowling look, said to them, 'What means this, my brethren? To what + lengths are you going? Have you not professed voluntary poverty, and that + you would traverse towns and castles and distant places, as the case + required, barefooted and unostentatiously, in order to preach the word of + God in all humility? And do you now presume to usurp these estates to + yourselves against the will of the lords of these fees? Your religion + appears to be in a great measure dying away, and your doctrines to be + confuted." + </p> + <p> + Under date of 1243, Matthew writes:— + </p> + <p> + "For three or four hundred years or more the monastic order did not hasten + to destruction so quickly as their order [Minorites and Preachers] of whom + now the brothers, twenty-four years having scarcely elapsed, had first + built in England dwellings which rivalled regal palaces in height. These + are they who daily expose to view their inestimable treasures, in + enlarging their sumptuous edifices, and erecting lofty walls, thereby + impudently transgressing the limits of their original poverty and + violating the basis of their religion, according to the prophecy of German + Hildegarde. When noblemen and rich men are at the point of death, whom + they know to be possessed of great riches, they, in their love of gain, + diligently urge them, to the injury and loss of the ordinary pastors, and + extort confessions and hidden wills, lauding themselves and their own + order only, <span class="pagenum">247</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink247" id="link247"></a> and placing themselves before all + others. So no faithful man now believes he can be saved, except he is + directed by the counsels of the Preachers and Minorites."—Matthew + Paris's English History. Translated by the Rev. J. A. Giles, 1889, Vol. I. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + II +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 9th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + Sir,—The purpose of my previous letter about Mr. Booth's scheme was + to arouse the contributors to the military chest of the Salvation Army to + a clear sense of what they are doing. I thought it desirable that they + should be distinctly aware that they are setting up and endowing a sect, + in many ways analogous to the "Ranters" and "Revivalists" of undesirable + notoriety in former times; but with this immensely important difference, + that it possesses a strong, far-reaching, centralized organization, the + disposal of the physical, moral, and financial strength of which rests + with an irresponsible chief, who, according to his own account, is assured + of the blind obedience of nearly 10,000 subordinates. I wish them to ask + themselves, Ought prudent men and good citizens to aid in the + establishment of an organization which, under sundry, by no means + improbable, contingencies, may easily become a worse and more <span + class="pagenum">248</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink248" id="link248"></a> dangerous nuisance than the + mendicant friars of the middle ages? If this is an academic question, I + really do not know what questions deserve to be called practical. As you + divined, I purposely omitted any consideration of the details of the + Salvationist scheme, and of the principles which animate those who work + it, because I desired that the public appreciation of the evils, + necessarily inherent in all such plans of despotic social and religious + regimentation should not be obscured by the raising of points of less + comparative, however great absolute, importance. + </p> + <p> + But it is now time to undertake a more particular criticism of "Darkest + England." At the outset of my examination of that work, I was startled to + find that Mr. Booth had put forward his scheme with an almost incredibly + imperfect knowledge of what had been done and is doing in the same + direction. A simple reader might well imagine that the author of "Darkest + England" posed as the Columbus, or at any rate the Cortez, of that region. + "Go to Mudie's," he tells us, and you will be surprised to see how few + books there are upon the social problem. That may or may not be correct; + but if Mr. Booth had gone to a certain reading-room not far from Mudie's, + I undertake to say that the well-informed and obliging staff of the + national library in Bloomsbury would have provided him with more books on + this topic, in almost all European languages, than he would <span + class="pagenum">249</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink249" id="link249"></a> read in three months. Has + socialism no literature? And what is socialism but an incarnation of the + social question? Moreover, I am persuaded that even "Mudie's" resources + could have furnished Mr. Booth with the "Life of Lord Shaftesbury" and + Carlyle's works. Mr. Booth seems to have undertaken to instruct the world + without having heard of "Past and Present" or of "Latter-Day Pamphlets"; + though, somewhat late in the day, a judicious friend calls his attention + to them. To those of my contemporaries on whom, as on myself, Carlyle's + writings on this topic made an ineffaceable impression forty years ago, + who know that, for all that time, hundreds of able and devoted men, both + clerical and lay, have worked heart and soul for the permanent amendment + of the condition of the poor, Mr. Booth's "Go to Mudie's" affords an apt + measure of the depth of his preliminary studies. However, I am bound to + admit that these earlier labourers in the field laboured in such a + different fashion, that the originality of the plan started by Mr. Booth + remains largely unaffected. For them no drums have beat, no trombones + brayed; no sanctified buffoonery, after the model of the oration of the + Friar in Wallenstein's camp dear to the readers of Schiller, has tickled + the ears of the groundlings on their behalf. Sadly behind the great age of + rowdy self-advertisement in which their lot has fallen, they seem not to + have advanced one whit <span class="pagenum">250</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink250" id="link250"></a> beyond John the Baptist and the + Apostles, 1800 years ago, in their notions of the way in which the + metanoia, the change of mind of the ill-doer, is to be brought about. Yet + the new model was there, ready for the imitation of those ancient savers + of souls. The ranting and roaring mystagogues of some of the most + venerable of Greek and Syrian cults also had their processions and + banners, their fifes and cymbals and holy chants, their hierarchy of + officers to whom the art of making collections was not wholly unknown; and + who, as freely as their modern imitators, promised an Elysian future to + contributory converts. The success of these antique Salvation armies was + enormous. Simon Magus was quite as notorious a personage, and probably had + as strong a following as Mr. Booth. Yet the Apostles, with their + old-fashioned ways, would not accept such a success as a satisfactory sign + of the Divine sanction, nor depart from their own methods of leading the + way to the higher life. + </p> + <p> + I deem it unessential to verify Mr. Booth's statistics. The exact strength + of the population of the realm of misery, be it one, two, or three + millions, has nothing to do with the efficacy of any means proposed for + the highly desirable end of reducing it to a minimum. The sole question + for consideration at present is whether the scheme, keeping specially in + view the spirit in which it is to be worked, is likely to do more good + than harm. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">251</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink251" id="link251"></a> Mr. Booth tells us, with + commendable frankness, that "it is primarily and mainly for the sake of + saving the soul that I seek the salvation of the body" (p. 45), which + language, being interpreted, means that the propagation of the special + Salvationist creed comes first, and the promotion of the physical, + intellectual, and purely moral welfare of mankind second in his + estimation. Men are to be made sober and industrious, mainly, that, as + washed, shorn, and docile sheep, they may be driven into the narrow + theological fold which Mr. Booth patronizes. If they refuse to enter, for + all their moral cleanliness, they will have to take their place among the + goats as sinners, only less dirty than the rest. + </p> + <p> + I have been in the habit of thinking (and I believe the opinion is largely + shared by reasonable men) that self-respect and thrift are the rungs of + the ladder by which men may most surely climb out of the slough of despond + of want; and I have regarded them as perhaps the most eminent of the + practical virtues. That is not Mr. Booth's opinion. For him they are mere + varnished sins—nothing better than "Pride re-baptised" (p. 46). + Shutting his eyes to the necessary consequences of the struggle for life, + the existence of which he accepts as fully as any Darwinian,* Mr. Booth + tells men, whose evil case is one of those consequences, that envy is a + corner-stone of our <span class="pagenum">252</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink252" id="link252"></a> competitive system. With thrift + and self-respect denounced as sin, with the suffering of starving men + referred to the sins of the capitalist, the gospel according to Mr. Booth + may save souls, but it will hardly save society. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See p. 100 +</pre> + <p> + In estimating the social and political influence which the Salvation Army + is likely to exert, it is important to reflect that the officers (pledged + to blind obedience to their "General") are not to confine themselves to + the functions of mere deacons and catechists (though, under a "General" + like Cyril, Alexandria knew to her cost what even they could effect); they + are to be "tribunes of the people," who are to act as their gratuitous + legal advisers; and, when law is not sufficiently effective, the whole + force of the army is to obtain what the said tribunes may conceive to be + justice, by the practice of ruthless intimidation. Society, says Mr. + Booth, needs "mothering"; and he sets forth, with much complacency, a + variety of "cases," by which we may estimate the sort of "mothering" to be + expected at his parental hands. Those who study the materials thus set + before them will, I think, be driven to the conclusion that the "mother" + has already proved herself a most unscrupulous meddler, even if she has + not fallen within reach of the arm of the law. + </p> + <p> + Consider this "case." A, asserting herself to have been seduced twice, + "applied to our people. We hunted up the man, followed him to the country, + <span class="pagenum">253</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink253" id="link253"></a> threatened him with public + exposure, and forced from him the payment to his victim of [Pounds] 60 + down, an allowance of [Pounds] 1 a week, and an insurance policy on his + life for [Pounds] 450 in her favour" (p. 222) . + </p> + <p> + Jedburgh justice this. We "constitute ourselves prosecutor, judge, jury, + sheriff's officer, all in one;" we "practice intimidation as deftly as if + we were a branch of another League; and, under threat of exposure," we + "extort a tolerably heavy hush-money in payment of our silence. " + </p> + <p> + Well, really, my poor moral sense is unable to distinguish these + remarkable proceedings of the new popular tribunate from what, in French, + is called chantage and, in plain English, blackmailing. And when we + consider that anybody, for any reason of jealousy, or personal spite, or + party hatred, might be thus "hunted," "followed," "threatened," and + financially squeezed or ruined, without a particle of legal investigation, + at the will of a man whom the familiar charged with the inquisitorial + business dare not hesitate to obey, surely it is not unreasonable to ask + how far does the Salvation Army, in its "tribune of the people" aspect, + differ from a Sicilian Mafia? I am no apologist of men guilty of the acts + charged against the person who yet, I think, might be as fairly called a + "victim," in this case, as his partner in wrong-doing. It is possible + that, in so peculiar a case, Solomon himself might have been puzzled <span + class="pagenum">254</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink254" id="link254"></a> to apportion the relative moral + delinquency of the parties. However that may be, the man was morally and + legally bound to support his child, and any one would have been justified + in helping the woman to her legal rights, and the man to the legal + consequences (in which exposure is included) of his fault. + </p> + <p> + The action of the "General" of the Salvation Army in extorting the heavy + fine he chose to impose as the price of his silence, however excellent his + motives, appears to me to be as immoral as, I hope, it is illegal. + </p> + <p> + So much for the Salvation Army as a teacher of questionable ethics and of + eccentric economics, as the legal adviser who recommends and practices the + extraction of money by intimidation, as the fairy godmother who proposes + to "mother" society, in a fashion which is not to my taste, however much + it may commend itself to some of Mr. Booth's supporters. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">255</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink255" id="link255"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + III + + The "Times," December 11th, 1890 +</pre> + <p> + Sir,—When I first addressed you on the subject of the projected + operations of the Salvation Army, all that I knew about that body was + derived from the study of Mr. Booth's book, from common repute, and from + occasional attention to the sayings and doings of his noisy squadrons, + with which my walks about London, in past years, have made me familiar. I + was quite unaware of the existence of evidence respecting the present + administration of the Salvation forces, which would have enabled me to act + upon the sagacious maxim of the American humourist, "Don't prophesy unless + you know." The letter you were good enough to publish has brought upon me + a swarm of letters and pamphlets. Some favour me with abuse; some + thoughtful correspondents warmly agree with me, and then proceed to point + out how much worthier certain schemes of their own are of my friend's + support; some send valuable encouragement, for which I offer my hearty + thanks, and ask them to excuse any more special acknowledgment. But that + which I find most to the purpose, just now, is the revelation made by some + of the documents which have reached me, of a fact of which I was wholly + ignorant—namely, that <span class="pagenum">256</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink256" id="link256"></a> persons who have faithfully and + zealously served in the Salvation Army, who express unchanged attachment + to its original principles and practice, and who have been in close + official relations with the "General" have publicly declared that the + process of degradation of the organization into a mere engine of fanatical + intolerance and personal ambition, which I declared was inevitable, has + already set in and is making rapid progress. + </p> + <p> + It is out of the question, Sir, that I should occupy the columns of the + "Times" with a detailed exposition and criticism of these pieces + justificatives of my forecast. I say criticism, because the assertions of + persons who have quitted any society must, in fairness, be taken with the + caution that is required in the case of all ex parte statements of hostile + witnesses. But it is, at any rate, a notable fact that there are parts of + my first letter, indicating the inherent and necessary evil consequences + of any such organization, which might serve for abstracts of portions of + this evidence, long since printed and published under the public + responsibility of the witnesses. + </p> + <p> + Let us ask the attention of your readers, in the first place, to "An + ex-Captain's Experience of the Salvation Army," by J. J. R. Redstone, the + genuineness of which is guaranteed by the preface (dated April 5th, 1888) + which the Rev. Dr. Cunningham Geikie has supplied. Mr. Redstone's story is + well worth reading on its own account. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">257</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink257" id="link257"></a> Told in simple, direct language + such as John Bunyan might have used, it permits no doubt of the + single-minded sincerity of the man, who gave up everything to become an + officer of the Salvation Army, but, exhibiting a sad want of that capacity + for unhesitating and blind obedience on which Mr. Booth lays so much + stress, was thrown aside, penniless—no, I am wrong, with 2s. 4d. for + his last week's salary—to shift, with his equally devoted wife, as + he best might. I wish I could induce intending contributors to Mr. Booth's + army chest to read Mr. Redstone's story. I would particularly ask them to + contrast the pure simplicity of his plain tale with the artificial pietism + and slobbering unction of the letters which Mr. Ballington Booth addresses + to his "dear boy" (a married man apparently older than himself), so long + as the said "dear boy" is facing brickbats and starvation, as per order. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I confess that my opinion of the chiefs of the Salvation Army has been +so distinctly modified by the perusal of this pamphlet that I am glad +to be relieved from the necessity of expressing it. It will be much +better that I should cite a few sentences from the preface written by +Dr. Cunningham Geikie, who expresses warm admiration for the early and +uncorrupted work of the Salvation Army, and cannot possibly be accused +of prejudice against it on religious grounds:— + + (1) "The Salvation Army is emphatically a <span class="pagenum">258</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink258" id="link258"></a> family concern. Mr. Booth, senior, + is General; one son is chief of the staff, and the remaining sons and + daughters engross the other chief positions. It is Booth all over; indeed, + like the sun in your eyes, you can see nothing else wherever you turn. + And, as Dr. Geikie shrewdly remarks, 'to be the head of a widely spread + sect carries with it many advantages—not all exclusively + spiritual.'" +</p> +<p> +(2) "Whoever becomes a Salvation officer is henceforth a + slave, helplessly exposed to the caprice of his superiors." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"Mr. Redstone bore an excellent character both before he entered the +army and when he left it. To join it, though a married man, he gave up +a situation which he had held for five years, and he served Mr. Booth +two years, working hard in most difficult posts. His one fault, Major +Lawley tells us, was, that he was 'too straight'—that is, too honest, +truthful, and manly—or, in other words, too real a Christian. Yet +without trial, without formulated charges, on the strength of secret +complaints which were never, apparently, tested, he was dismissed with +less courtesy than most people would show a beggar—with 2s. 4d. for +his last week's salary. If there be any mistake in this matter, I +shall be glad to learn it." + + (3) Dr. Geikie confirms, on the ground of information given +confidentially by other officers, <span class="pagenum">259</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink259" id="link259"></a> Mr. Redstone's assertion that they + are watched and reported by spies from headquarters. +</p> +<p> +(4) Mr. Booth refuses + to guarantee his officers any fixed amount of salary. While he and his + family of high officials live in comfort, if not in luxury, the pledged + slaves whose devotion is the foundation of any true success the Army has + met with often have "hardly food enough to sustain life. One good fellow + frankly told me that when he had nothing he just went and begged." + </p> + <p> + At this point, it is proper that I should interpose an apology for having + hastily spoken of such men as Francis of Assisi, even for purposes of + warning, in connection with Mr. Booth. Whatever may be thought of the + wisdom of the plans of the founders of the great monastic orders of the + middle ages, they took their full share of suffering and privation, and + never shirked in their own persons the sacrifices they imposed on their + followers. + </p> + <p> + I have already expressed the opinion, that whatever the ostensible purpose + of the scheme under discussion, one of its consequences will be the + setting up and endowment of a new Ranter-Socialist sect. I may now add + that another effect will be—indeed, has been—to set up and + endow the Booth dynasty with unlimited control of the physical, moral, and + financial resources of the sect. Mr. Booth is already a printer and + publisher, who, it is plainly declared, utilizes the officers of the <span + class="pagenum">260</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink260" id="link260"></a> Army as agents for advertising and + selling his publications; and some of them are so strongly impressed with + the belief that active pushing of Mr. Booth's business is the best road to + their master's favour, that when the public obstinately refuse to purchase + his papers they buy them themselves and send the proceeds to headquarters. + Mr. Booth is also a retail trader on a large scale, and the Dean of Wells + has, most seasonably, drawn attention to the very notable banking project + which he is trying to float. Any one who follows Dean Plumptre's clear + exposition of the principles of this financial operation can have little + doubt that, whether they are, or are not, adequate to the attainment of + the first and second of Mr. Booth's ostensible objects, they may be + trusted to effect a wide extension of any kingdom in which worldly + possessions are of no value. We are, in fact, in sight of a financial + catastrophe like that of Law a century ago. Only it is the poor who will + suffer. + </p> + <p> + I have already occupied too much of your space, and yet I have drawn upon + only one of the sources of information about the inner working of the + Salvation Army at my disposition. Far graver charges than any here dealt + with are publicly brought in the others. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">261</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink261" id="link261"></a> P.S.— I have just read Mr. + Buchanan's letter in the Times of to-day. Mr. Buchanan is, I believe, an + imaginative writer. I am not acquainted with his works, but nothing in the + way of fiction he has yet achieved can well surpass his account of my + opinions and of the purport of my writings. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + IV +</pre> + <p> + The "Times" December 20th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + Sir,—In discussing Mr. Booth's projects I have hitherto left in the + background a distinction which must be kept well in sight by those who + wish to form a fair judgment of the influence, for good or evil, of the + Salvation Army. Salvationism, the work of "saving souls" by revivalist + methods, is one thing; Boothism, the utilization of the workers for the + furtherance of Mr. Booth's peculiar projects, is another. Mr. Booth has + captured, and harnessed with sharp bits and effectual blinkers, a + multitude of ultra-Evangelical missionaries of the revivalist school who + were wandering at large. It is this skilfully, if somewhat mercilessly, + driven team which has dragged the "General's" coach-load of projects into + their present position. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">262</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink262" id="link262"></a> Looking, then, at the host of + Salvationists proper, from the "captains" downwards (to whom, in my + judgment, the family hierarchy stands in the relation of the Old Man of + the Sea to Sinbad), as an independent entity, I desire to say that the + evidence before me, whether hostile or friendly to the General and his + schemes, is distinctly favourable to them. It exhibits them as, in the + main, poor, uninstructed, not unfrequently fanatical, enthusiasts, the + purity of whose lives, the sincerity of whose belief, and the cheerfulness + of whose endurance of privation and rough usage, in what they consider a + just cause, command sincere respect. For my part, though I conceive the + corybantic method of soul-saving to be full of dangers, and though the + theological speculations of these good people are to me wholly + unacceptable, yet I believe that the evils which must follow in the track + of such errors, as of all other errors, will be largely outweighed by the + moral and social improvement of the people whom they convert. I would no + more raise my voice against them (so long as they abstain from annoying + their neighbours) than I would quarrel with a man, vigorously sweeping out + a stye, on account of the shape of his broom, or because he made a great + noise over his work. I have always had a strong faith in the principle of + the injunction, "Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn." + If a kingdom is worth a Mass, as a great <span class="pagenum">263</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink263" id="link263"></a> ruler said, surely the reign of + clean living, industry, and thrift is worth any quantity of tambourines + and eccentric doctrinal hypotheses. All that I have hitherto said, and + propose further to say, is directed against Mr. Booth's extremely clever, + audacious, and hitherto successful attempt to utilize the credit won by + all this honest devotion and self-sacrifice for the purposes of his + socialistic autocracy. + </p> + <p> + I now propose to bring forward a little more evidence as to how things + really stand where Mr. Booth's system has had a fair trial. I obtain it, + mainly, from a curious pamphlet, the title of which runs: "The New Papacy. + Behind the Scenes in the Salvation Army," by an ex-Staff Officer. "Make + not my Father's house a house of merchandise" (John ii. 16). 1889. + Published at Toronto, by A. Britnell. On the cover it is stated that "This + is the book which was burned by the authorities of the Salvation Army." I + remind the reader, once more, that the statements which I shall cite must + be regarded as ex parte; all I can vouch for is that, on grounds of + internal evidence and from other concurrent testimony respecting the ways + of the Booth hierarchy, I feel justified in using them. + </p> + <p> + This is the picture the writer draws of the army in the early days of its + invasion of the Dominion of Canada:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">264</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink264" id="link264"></a> "Then, it will be remembered, it + professed to be the humble handmaid of the existing churches; its + professed object was the evangelization of the masses. It repudiated the + idea of building up a separate religious body, and it denounced the + practice of gathering together wealth and the accumulation of property. + Men and women other than its own converts gathered around it and threw + themselves heart and soul into the work, for the simple reason that it + offered, as they supposed, a more extended and widely open field for + evangelical effort. Ministers everywhere were invited and welcomed to its + platforms, majors and colonels were few and far between, and the supremacy + and power of the General were things unknown . . . Care was taken to avoid + anything like proselytism; its converts were never coerced into joining + its ranks... In a word, the organization occupied the position of an + auxiliary mission and recruiting agency for the various religious + bodies.... The meetings were crowded, people professed conversion by the + score, the public liberally supplied the means to carry on the work in + their respective communities; therefore every corps was wholly + self-supporting, its officers were properly, if not luxuriously, cared + for, the local expenditure was amply provided, and, under the supervision + of the secretary, a local member, and the officer in charge, the funds + were disbursed in the towns where they were collected, and the <span + class="pagenum">265</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink265" id="link265"></a> spirit of satisfaction and + confidence was mutual all around" (pp. 4, 5). + </p> + <p> + Such was the army as the green tree. Now for the dry:— + </p> + <p> + "Those who have been daily conversant with the army's machinery are well + aware how entirely and radically the whole system has changed, and how, + from a band of devoted and disinterested workers, united in the bonds of + zeal and charity for the good of their fellows, it has developed into a + colossal and aggressive agency for the building up of a system and a sect, + bound by rules and regulations altogether subversive of religious liberty + and antagonistic to every (other?) branch of Christian endeavour, and + bound hand and foot to the will of one supreme head and ruler.... As the + work has spread through the country, and as the area of its endeavours has + enlarged, each leading position has been filled, one after the other, by + individuals strangers to the country, totally ignorant of the sentiments + and idiosyncrasies of the Canadian people, trained in one school under the + teachings and dominance of a member of the Booth family, and out of whom + every idea has been crushed, except that of unquestioning obedience to the + General, and the absolute necessity of going forward to his bidding + without hesitation or question" (p. 6). + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">266</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink266" id="link266"></a> "What is the result of all this? + In the first place, whilst material prosperity has undoubtedly been + attained, spirituality has been quenched, and, as an evangelical agency, + the army has become almost a dead letter... In seventy-five per cent of + its stations its officers suffer need and privation, chiefly on account of + the heavy taxation that is placed upon them to maintain an imposing + headquarters and a large ornamental staff. The whole financial + arrangements are carried on by a system of inflation and a hand-to-mouth + extravagance and blindness as to future contingencies. Nearly all of its + original workers and members have disappeared" (p. 7). "In reference to + the religious bodies at large the army has become entirely antagonistic. + Soldiers are forbidden by its rules to attend other places of worship + without the permission of their officers... Officers or soldiers who may + conscientiously leave the service or the ranks are looked upon and often + denounced publicly as backsliders... Means of the most despicable + description have been resorted to in order to starve them back to the + service" (p. 8). "In its inner workings the army system is identical with + Jesuitism... That 'the end justifies the means,' if not openly taught, is + as tacitly agreed as in that celebrated order" (p. 9). + </p> + <p> + Surely a bitter, overcharged, anonymous libel, is the reflection which + will occur to many who read <span class="pagenum">267</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink267" id="link267"></a> these passages, especially the + last. Well, I turn to other evidence which, at any rate, is not anonymous. + It is contained in a pamphlet entitled "General Booth, the Family, and the + Salvation Army, showing its Rise, Progress, and Moral and Spiritual + Decline," by S. H. Hodges, LL.B., late Major in the Army, and formerly + private secretary to General Booth (Manchester, 1890). I recommend + potential contributors to Mr. Booth's wealth to study this little work + also. I have learned a great deal from it. Among other interesting + novelties, it tells me that Mr. Booth has discovered "the necessity of a + third step or blessing, in the work of Salvation. He said to me one day, + 'Hodges, you have only two barrels to your gun; I have three'" (p. 31). + And if Mr. Hodges's description of this third barrel is correct—"giving + up your conscience" and, "for God and the army, stooping to do things + which even honourable worldly men would not consent to do" (p. 32)—it + is surely calculated to bring down a good many things, the first + principles of morality among them. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hodges gives some remarkable examples of the army practice with the + "General's" new rifle. But I must refer the curious to his instructive + pamphlet. The position I am about to take up is a serious one; and I + prefer to fortify it by the help of evidence which, though some of it may + be anonymous, cannot be sneered away. And I shall <span class="pagenum">268</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink268" id="link268"></a> be believed, when I say that + nothing but a sense of the great social danger of the spread of Boothism + could induce me to revive a scandal, even though it is barely entitled to + the benefit of the Statute of Limitations. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of July, 1883, you, Sir, did the public a great service by + writing a leading article on the notorious "Eagle" case, from which I take + the following extract:— + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Justice Kay refused the application, but he was induced to refuse it + by means which, as Mr. Justice Stephen justly remarked, were highly + discreditable to Mr. Booth. Mr. Booth filed an affidavit which appears + totally to have misled Mr. Justice Kay, as it would have misled any one + who regarded it as a frank and honest statement by a professed teacher of + religion." + </p> + <p> + When I addressed my first letter to you I had never so much as heard of + the "Eagle" scandal. But I am thankful that my perception of the + inevitable tendency of all religious autocracies towards evil was clear + enough to bring about a provisional condemnation of Mr. Booth's schemes in + my mind. Supposing that I had decided the other way, with what sort of + feeling should I have faced my friend, when I had to confess that the + money had passed into the absolute control of a person about the character + of whose administration this <span class="pagenum">269</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink269" id="link269"></a> concurrence of damnatory evidence + was already extant? + </p> + <p> + I have nothing to say about Mr. Booth personally, for I know nothing. On + that subject, as on several others, I profess myself an agnostic. But, if + he is, as he may be, a saint actuated by the purest of motives, he is not + the first saint who, as you have said, has shown himself "in the ardour of + prosecuting a well-meant object" to be capable of overlooking "the plain + maxims of every-day morality." If I were a Salvationist soldier, I should + cry with Othello, "Cassio, I love thee; but never more be officer of + mine." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + V +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 24th, 1890— + </p> + <p> + Sir,—If I have any strong points, finance is certainly not one of + them. But the financial, or rather fiscal, operations of the General of + the Salvation Army, as they are set forth and exemplified in "The New + Papacy," possess that grand simplicity which is the mark of genius; <span + class="pagenum">270</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink270" id="link270"></a> and even I can comprehend them—or, + to be more modest, I can portray them in such a manner that every + lineament, however harsh, and every shade, however dark, can be verified + by published evidence. + </p> + <p> + Suppose there is a thriving, expanding colonial town, and that, scattered + among its artisans and labourers, there is a sprinkling of Methodists, or + other such ultra-evangelical good people, doing their best, in a quiet + way, to "save souls." Clearly, this is an outpost which it is desirable to + capture. "We," therefore, take measures to get up a Salvation "boom" of + the ordinary pattern. Enthusiasm is roused. A score or two of soldiers are + enlisted into the ranks of the Salvation Army. "We" select the man who + promises to serve our purposes best, make a "captain" of him, and put him + in command of the "corps." He is very pleased and grateful; and indeed he + ought to be. All he has done is that he has given up his trade; that he + has promised to work at least nine hours a day in our service (none of + your eight-hour nonsense for us) as collector, bookseller, general agent, + and anything else we may order him to be. "We," on the other hand, + guarantee him nothing whatever; to do so might weaken his faith and + substitute worldly for spiritual ties between us. Knowing that, if he + exerts himself in a right spirit, his labours will surely be blessed, we + content ourselves with telling him that if, after all <span class="pagenum">271</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink271" id="link271"></a> expenses are paid and our demands + are satisfied each week, 25s. remains, he may take it. And, if nothing + remains, he may take that, and stay his stomach with what the faithful may + give him. With a certain grim playfulness, we add that the value of these + contributions will be reckoned as so much salary. So long as our "captain" + is successful, therefore, a beneficent spring of cash trickles unseen into + our treasury; when it begins to dry up we say, "God bless you, dear boy," + turn him adrift (with or without 2s. 4d. in his pocket), and put some + other willing horse in the shafts. + </p> + <p> + The "General," I believe, proposes, among other things, to do away with + "sweating." May he not as well set a good example by beginning at home? My + little sketch, however, looks so like a monstrous caricature that, after + all, I must produce the original from the pages of my Canadian authority. + He says that a "captain" "has to pay 10 per cent. of all collections and + donations to the divisional fund for the support of his divisional + officer, who has also the privilege of arranging for such special meetings + as he shall think fit, the proceeds of which he takes away for the general + needs of the division. Headquarters, too, has the right to hold such + special meetings at the corps and send around such special attractions as + its wisdom sees fit, and to take away the proceeds for the purposes it + decides upon. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">272</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink272" id="link272"></a> He has to pay the rent of his + building, either to headquarters or a private individual; he has to send + the whole collection of the afternoon meeting of the first Sunday in the + month to the 'Extension Fund' at headquarters; he has to pay for the + heating, lighting, and cleaning of his hall, together with such necessary + repairs as may be needed; he has to provide the food, lodging, and + clothing of his cadet, if he has one; headquarters taxes him with so many + copies of the army papers each week, for which he has to pay, sold or + unsold; and when he has done this, he may take $6 (or $5, being a woman), + or such proportion of it as may be left, with which to clothe and feed + himself and to pay the rent and provide for the heating and lighting of + his quarters. If he has a lieutenant he has to pay him $6 per week, or + such proportion of it as he himself gets, and share the house expenses + with him. Now, it will be easily understood that at least 60 per cent. of + the stations in Canada the officer gets no money at all, and he has to beg + specially amongst his people for his house-rent and food. There are few + places in the Dominion in which the soldiers do not find their officers in + all the food they need; but it must be remembered that the value of the + food so received has to be accounted for at headquarters and entered upon + the books of the corps as cash received, the amount being deducted from + any moneys that the officer is able to take from the <span class="pagenum">273</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink273" id="link273"></a> week's collections. So that, no + matter how much may be specially given, the officer cannot receive more + than the value of $6 per week. The officer cannot collect any arrears of + salary, as each week has to pay its own expenses; and if there is any + surplus cash after all demands are met it must be sent to the 'war chest' + at headquarters."—"The New Papacy" (pp. 35, 36). + </p> + <p> + Evidently, Sir, "headquarters" has taken to heart the injunction about + casting your bread upon the waters. It casts the crumb of a day or two's + work of an emissary, and gets back any quantity of loaves of cash, so long + as "captains" present themselves to be used up and replaced by new + victims. What can be said of these devoted poor fellows except, O sancta + simplicitas! + </p> + <p> + But it would be a great mistake to suppose that the money-gathering + efficacy of Mr. Booth's fiscal agencies is exhausted by the foregoing + enumeration of their regular operations. Consider the following edifying + history of the "Rescue Home" in Toronto:— + </p> + <p> + "It is a fine building in the heart of the city; the lot cost $7,000, and + a building was put up at a cost of $7,000 more, and there is a mortgage on + it amounting to half the cost of the whole. The land to-day would probably + fetch double its original price, and every year enhances its value....In + the first five months of its <span class="pagenum">274</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink274" id="link274"></a> existence this institution + received from the public an income of $1,812 70c.; out of this $600 was + paid to headquarters for rent, $590 52c. was spent upon the building in + various ways, and the balance of $622 18c. paid the salaries of the staff + and supported the inmates" (pp. 24, 25). + </p> + <p> + Said I not truly that Mr. Booth's fisc bears the stamp of genius? Who else + could have got the public to buy him a "corner lot," put a building upon + it, pay all its working expenses: and then, not content with paying him a + heavy rent for the use of the handsome present they had made him, they say + not a word against his mortgaging it to half its value? And, so far as any + one knows, there is nothing to stop headquarters from selling the whole + estate tomorrow, and using the money as the "General" may direct. + </p> + <p> + Once more listen to the author of "The New Papacy," who affirms that "out + of the funds given by the Dominion for the evangelization of the people by + means of the Salvation Army, one sixth had been spent in the extension of + the Kingdom of God, and the other five sixths had been invested in + valuable property, all handed over to Mr. Booth and his heirs and assigns, + as we have already stated" (p. 26). + </p> + <p> + And this brings me to the last point upon which I wish to touch. The + answer to all inquiries as to what has become of the enormous <span + class="pagenum">275</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink275" id="link275"></a> personal and real estate which has + been given over to Mr. Booth is that it is held "in trust." The supporters + of Mr. Booth may feel justified in taking that statement "on trust." I do + not. Anyhow, the more completely satisfactory this "trust" is, the less + can any man who asks the public to put blind faith in his integrity and + his wisdom object to acquaint them exactly with its provisions. Is the + trust drawn up in favour of the Salvation Army? But what is the legal + status of the Salvation Army? Have the soldiers any claim? Certainly not. + Have the officers any legal interest in the "trust"? Surely not. The + "General" has taken good care to insist on their renouncing all claims as + a condition of their appointment. Thus, to all appearance, the army, as a + legal person, is identical with Mr. Booth. And, in that case, any "trust" + ostensibly for the benefit of the army is—what shall we say that is + at once accurate and polite? + </p> + <p> + I conclude with these plain questions—Will Mr. Booth take counsel's + opinion as to whether there is anything in such legal arrangements as he + has at present made which prevents him from disposing of the wealth he has + accumulated at his own will and pleasure? Will anybody be in a position to + set either the civil or the criminal law in motion against him or his + successors if he or they choose to spend every farthing in ways very + different from those contemplated by the donors? + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">276</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink276" id="link276"></a> I may add that a careful study of + the terms of a "Declaration of Trust by William Booth in favour of the + Christian Mission," made in 1878, has not enabled persons of much greater + competence than myself to answer these questions satisfactorily.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + * See Preface to this volume, pp. ix-xiii. +</pre> + <p> + On December 24th a letter appeared in the "Times" signed "J. S. Trotter," + in which the following passages appear:— + </p> + <p> + "It seems a pity to put a damper on the spirits of those who agree with + Professor Huxley in his denunciation of General Booth and all his works. + May I give a few particulars as to the 'book' which was published in + Canada? I had the pleasure of an interview with the author of a book + written in Canada. The book was printed at Toronto, and two copies only + struck off by the printers; one of these copies was stolen from the + printer, and the quotation sent to you by Professor Huxley was inserted in + the book, and is consequently a forgery. The book was published without + the consent and against the will of the author. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">277</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink277" id="link277"></a> "So the quotation is not only 'a + bitter, overcharged anonymous libel,' as Professor Huxley intimates, but a + forgery as well. As to Mr. Hodges, it seems to me to be simply trifling + with your readers to bring him in as an authority. He was turned out of + the army, out of kindness taken on again, and again dismissed. If this had + happened to one of your staff, would his opinion of the 'Times' as a + newspaper be taken for gospel?" + </p> + <p> + But in the "Times" of December 29th Mr. J. S. Trotter writes:— + </p> + <p> + "I find I was mistaken in saying, in my letter of Wednesday, to the + 'Times' that Mr. Hodges was dismissed from the service of General Booth, + and regret any inconvenience the statement may have caused to Mr. Hodges." + </p> + <p> + And on December 30th the "Times" published a letter from Mr. Hodges in + which he says that Mr. Trotter's statements as they regard himself "are + the very reverse of truth.—I was never turned out of the Salvation + Army. Nor, so far as I was made acquainted with General Booth's motives, + was I taken on again out of kindness. In order to rejoin the Salvation + Army, I resigned the position of manager in a mill where I was in <span + class="pagenum">278</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink278" id="link278"></a> receipt of a salary of [Pounds] + 250 per annum, with house-rent and one third of the profits. Instead of + this Mr. Booth allowed me [Pounds] 2 per week and house-rent." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + VI +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 26th, 1890 + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Sir,—I am much obliged to Mr. J. S. Trotter for the letter which you +published this morning. It furnishes evidence, which I much desired to +possess on the following points:— + + 1. The author of "The New Papacy" is a responsible, trustworthy +person; otherwise Mr. Trotter would not speak of having had "the +pleasure of an interview" with him. + + 2. After this responsible person had taken the trouble to write a +pamphlet of sixty-four closely printed pages, some influence was +brought to bear upon him, the effect of which was that he refused his +consent to its publication. Mr. Trotter's excellent information will +surely enable him to tell us what influence that was. + + 3. How does Mr. Trotter know that any passage I have quoted is an +interpolation? Does he possess that other copy of the "two" which +alone, as he affirms, were printed? +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">279</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink279" id="link279"></a> 4. If so, he will be able to say + which of the passages I have cited is genuine and which is not; and + whether the tenor of the whole uninterpolated copy differs in any + important respect from that of the copy I have quoted. + </p> + <p> + It will be interesting to hear what Mr. J. S. Trotter has to say upon + these points. But the really important thing which he has done is that he + has testified, of his own knowledge, that the anonymous author of "The New + Papacy" is no mere irresponsible libeller, but a person of whom even an + ardent Salvationist has to speak with respect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + [I may add that the unfortunate Mr. Trotter did me the further service of + eliciting the letter from Mr. Hodges referred to on p. 277—which + sufficiently establishes that gentleman's credit, and leads me to attach + full weight to his evidence about the third barrel.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + January, 1891. +</pre> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">280</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink280" id="link280"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + VII +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 27th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—In making use of the only evidence of the actual working of Mr. + Booth's autocratic government accessible to me, I was fully aware of the + slippery nature of the ground upon which I was treading. For, as I pointed + out in my first letter, "no personal habit more surely degrades the + conscience and the intellect than blind and unhesitating obedience to + unlimited authority." Now we have it, on Mr. Booth's own showing that + every officer of his has undertaken to "obey without questioning or + gainsaying the orders from headquarters." And the possible relations of + such orders to honour and veracity are demonstrated not only by the + judicial deliverance on Mr. Booth's affidavit in the "Eagle" case, which I + have already cited; not only by Mr. Bramwell Booth's admission before Mr. + Justice Lopes that he had stated what was "not quite correct" because he + had "promised Mr. Stead not to divulge" the facts of the case (the + "Times," November 4th, 1885); but by the following passage in Mr. Hodges's + account of the reasons of his withdrawal from the Salvation Army:— + </p> + <p> + "The general and Chief did not and could <span class="pagenum">281</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink281" id="link281"></a> not deny doing these things; the + only question was this, Was it right to practise this deception? These + points of difference were fully discussed between myself and the Chief of + the Staff on my withdrawal, especially the Leamington incident, which was + the one that finally drove me to decision. I had come to the conclusion, + from the first, that they had acted as they supposed with a single eye to + the good of God's cause, and had persuaded myself that the things were, as + against the devil, right to be done, that as in battle one party captured + and turned the enemy's own guns upon them, so, as they were fighting + against the devil, it would be fair to use against him his weapons. And I + wrote to this effect to the "General" (p. 63)." + </p> + <p> + Now, I do not wish to say anything needlessly harsh, but I ask any prudent + man these questions. Could I, under these circumstances, trust any + uncorroborated statement emanating from headquarters, or made by the + General's order? Had I any reason to doubt the truth of Mr. Hodges's naive + confession of the corrupting influence of Mr. Booth's system? And did it + not behove me to pick my way carefully through the mass of statements + before me, many of them due to people whose moral sense might, by + possibility, have been as much blunted by the army discipline in the <span + class="pagenum">282</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink282" id="link282"></a> use of the weapons of the devil as + Mr. Hodges affirms that his was? + </p> + <p> + Therefore, in my third letter, I commenced my illustrations of the + practical working of Boothism with the evidence of Mr. Redstone, fortified + and supplemented by that of a non-Salvationist, Dr. Cunningham Geikie. + That testimony has not been challenged, and, until it is, I shall assume + that it cannot be. In my fourth letter, I cited a definite statement by + Mr. Hodges in evidence of the Jesuitical principles of headquarters. What + sort of answer is it to tell us that Mr. Hodges was dismissed the army? A + child might expect that some such red herring would be drawn across the + trail; and, in anticipation of the stale trick, I added the strong prima + facie evidence of the trustworthiness of my witness, in this particular, + which is afforded by the "Eagle" case. It was not until I wrote my fourth + letter to you, Sir—until the exploitation of the "captains" and the + Jesuitry of headquarters could be proved up to the hilt—that I + ventured to have recourse to "The New Papacy." So far as the pamphlet + itself goes, this is an anonymous work; and, for sufficient reasons, I did + not choose to go beyond what was to be found between its covers. To any + one accustomed to deal with the facts of evolution, the Boothism of "The + New Papacy" was merely the natural and necessary development of the + Boothism of Mr. Redstone's case and of the <span class="pagenum">283</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink283" id="link283"></a> "Eagle" case. Therefore, I felt + fully justified in using it, at the same time carefully warning my readers + that it must be taken with due caution. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Mr. Trotter's useful letter admits that such a book was written by a +person with whom he had the "pleasure of an interview," and that a +version of it (interpolated, according to his assertion) was published +against the will of the author. Hence I am justified in believing that +there is a foundation of truth in certain statements, some of which +have long been in my possession, but which for lack of Mr. Trotter's +valuable corroboration I have refrained from using. The time is come +when I can set forth some of the heads of this information, with the +request that Mr. Trotter, who knows all about the business, will be so +good as to point out any error that there may be in them. I am bound +to suppose that his sole object, like mine, is the elucidation of the +truth, and to assume his willingness to help me therein to the best of +his ability. + + 1. "The author of 'The New Papacy' is a Mr. Sumner, a person of +perfect respectability, and greatly esteemed in Toronto, who held a +high position in the Army. When he left, a large public meeting, +presided over by a popular Methodist minister, passed a vote of +sympathy with him." +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">284</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink284" id="link284"></a> Is this true or false? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 2. "On Saturday last, about noon, Mr. Sumner, the author of the +book, and Mr. Fred Perry, the Salvation Army printer, accompanied by a +lawyer, went down to Messrs. Imrie and Graham's establishment, and +asked for all the manuscript, stereotype plates, &c., of the book. Mr. +Sumner explained that the book had been sold to the Army, and, on a +cheque for the amount due being given, the printing material was +delivered up." +</pre> + <p> + Did these paragraphs appear in the "Toronto Telegram" of April 24th, 1889, + or did they not? Are the statements they contain true or false? + </p> + <p> + 3. "Public interest in the fate or probable outcome of that mysterious + book called 'The New Papacy; or, Behind the Scenes in the Salvation Army,' + continues unabated, though the line of proceedings by the publisher and + his solicitor, Mr. Smoke, of Watson, Thorne, Smoke, and Masten, has not + been altered since yesterday. The book, no doubt, will be issued in some + form. So far as known, only one complete copy remains, and the whereabouts + of this is a secret which will be profoundly kept. It is safe to say that + if the Commissioner kept on guessing until the next anniversary, he would + not strike the secluded <span class="pagenum">285</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink285" id="link285"></a> location of the one volume among + five thousand which escaped, when he and his assistant, Mr. Fred Perry, + believed they had cast every vestige of the forbidden work into the fiery + furnace. On Tuesday last, when the discovery was made that a copy of 'The + New Papacy' was in existence, Publisher Britnell, of Yonge Street, was at + once the suspected holder, and in a short time his book-store was the + resort of army agents sent to reconnoitre" ("Toronto News," April 28th, + 1889). + </p> + <p> + Is this a forgery, or is it not? Is it in substance true or false? + </p> + <p> + When Mr. Trotter has answered these inquiries categorically, we may + proceed to discuss the question of interpolations in Mr. Sumner's book. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + [On the 26th of December a letter, signed J. T. Cunningham, late Fellow of + University College, Oxford, called forth the following commentary.] + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">286</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink286" id="link286"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + VIII +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 29th, 1890— + </p> + <p> + Sir,—If Mr. Cunningham doubts the efficacy of the struggle for + existence, as a factor in social conditions, he should find fault with Mr. + Booth and not with me. + </p> + <p> + "I am labouring under no delusion as to the possibility of inaugurating + the millennium by my social specific. In the struggle of life the weakest + will go to the wall, and there are so many weak. The fittest in tooth and + claw will survive. All that we can do is to soften the lot of the unfit, + and make their suffering less horrible than it is at present" ("In Darkest + England," p. 44). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +That is what Mr. Cunningham would have found if he had read Mr. Booth's +book with attention. And, if he will bestow equal pains on my second +letter, he will discover that he has interpolated the word "wilfully" +in his statement of my "argument," which runs thus: "Shutting his eyes +to the necessary consequences of the struggle for life, the existence +of which he admits as fully as any Darwinian, Mr. Booth tells men +whose evil case is one of those consequences that envy is a +corner-stone of our competitive system." Mr. <span class="pagenum">287</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink287" id="link287"></a> Cunningham's physiological studies + will have informed him that the process of "shutting the eyes," in the + literal sense of the words, is not always wilful; and I propose to + illustrate, by the crucial instance his own letter furnishes, that the + "shutting of the eyes" of the mind to the obvious consequences of accepted + propositions may also be involuntary. At least, I hope so. 1. "Sooner or + later," says Mr. Cunningham, "the population problem will block the way + once more." What does this mean, except that multiplication, excessive in + relation to the contemporaneous means of support, will create a severe + competition for those means? And this seems to me to be a pretty accurate + "reflection of the conceptions of Malthus" and the other poor benighted + folks of a past generation at whom Mr. Cunningham sneers. 2. By way of + leaving no doubt upon this subject, Mr. Cunningham further tells us, "The + struggle for existence is always going on, of course; let us thank Darwin + for making us realize it." It is pleasant to meet with a little gratitude + to Darwin among the epigoni who are squabbling over the heritage he + conquered for them, but Mr. Cunningham's personal expression of that + feeling is hasty. For it is obvious that he has not "realized" the + significance of Darwin's teaching—indeed, I fail to discover in Mr. + Cunningham's letter any sign that he has even "realized" what <span + class="pagenum">288</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink288" id="link288"></a> he would be at. If the "struggle + for existence is always going on"; and if, as I suppose will be granted, + industrial competition is one phase of that struggle, I fail to see how my + conclusion that it is sheer wickedness to tell ignorant men that "envy" is + a corner-stone of competition can be disputed. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Cunningham has followed the lead of that polished and instructed + person, Mr. Ben Tillett, in rebuking me for (as the associates say) + attacking Mr. Booth's personal character. Of course, when I was writing, I + did not doubt that this very handy, though not too clean, weapon would be + used by one or other of Mr. Booth's supporters. And my action was finally + decided by the following considerations: I happen to be a member of one of + the largest life insurance societies. There is a vacancy in the directory + at present, for which half a dozen gentlemen are candidates. Now, I said + to myself, supposing that one of these gentlemen (whose pardon I humbly + beg for starting the hypothesis), say Mr. A., in his administrative + capacity and as a man of business, has been the subject of such + observations as a Judge on the Bench bestowed upon Mr. Booth, is he a + person for whom I can properly vote? And, if I find, when I go to the + meeting of the policy-holders, that most of them know nothing of this and + other evidences of what, by the mildest judgment, must be termed Mr. A.'s + unfitness for administrative <span class="pagenum">289</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink289" id="link289"></a> responsibilities, am I to let them + remain in their ignorance? I leave the answer and its application to men + of sense and integrity. + </p> + <p> + The mention of Mr. Cunningham's ally reminds me that I have omitted to + thank Mr. Tillett for his very useful and instructive letter; and I hasten + to repair a neglect which I assure Mr. Tillett was more apparent than + real. Mr. Tillett's letter is dated December 20th. On the 21st the + following pregnant (however unconscious) commentary upon it appeared in + "Reynolds's Newspaper":- + </p> + <p> + "I have always maintained that the Salvation Army is one of the mightiest + Socialistic agencies in the country; and now Professor Huxley comes in to + confirm that view. How could it be otherwise? The fantastic religious side + of Salvationism will disappear in the course of time, and what will be + left? A large number of men and women who have been organized, + disciplined, and taught to look for something better than their present + condition, and who have become public speakers and not afraid of ridicule. + There you have the raw materials for a Socialist army." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Ben Tillett evidently knows Latin enough to construe proximus ardet. + </p> + <p> + I trust that the public will not allow themselves to be led away by the + false issues which are <span class="pagenum">290</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink290" id="link290"></a> dangled before them. A man really + may love his fellow-men; cherish any form of Christianity he pleases; and + hold not only that Darwinism is "tottering to its fall," but, if he + pleases, the equally sane belief that it never existed; and yet may feel + it his duty to oppose, to the best of his capacity, despotic Socialism in + all its forms, and, more particularly, in its Boothian disguise. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T.H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + [Persons who have not had the advantage of a classical education might + fairly complain of my use of the word epigoni. To say truth, I had been + reading Droysen's "Geschichte des Hellenismus," and the familiar + historical title slipped out unawares. In replying to me, however, the + late "Fellow of University College," Oxford, declares he had to look the + word out in a Lexicon. I commend the fact to the notice of the combatants + over the desirability of retaining the present compulsory modicum of Greek + in our Universities.] + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">291</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink291" id="link291"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + IX. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," December 30th, 1890 + </p> + <p> + Sir,—I am much obliged to Messrs. Ranger, Burton, and Matthews for + their prompt answer to my questions. I presume it applies to all money + collected by the agency of the Salvation Army, though not specifically + given for the purposes of the "Christian Mission" named in the deed of + 1878; to all sums raised by mortgage upon houses and land so given; and, + further, to funds subscribed for Mr. Booth's various projects, which have + no apparent reference to the objects of the "Christian Mission" as defined + in the deed. Otherwise, to use a phrase which has become classical, "it + does not assist us much." But I must leave these points to persons learned + in the law. + </p> + <p> + And, indeed, with many thanks to you, Sir, for the amount of valuable + space which you have allowed me to occupy, I now propose to leave the + whole subject. My sole purpose in embarking upon an enterprise which was + extremely distasteful to me was to prevent the skilful "General," or + rather "Generals," who devised the plan of campaign from sweeping all + before them with a rush. I found the pass already held by such stout + defenders as Mr. Loch and the Dean <span class="pagenum">292</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink292" id="link292"></a> of Wells, and, with your powerful + help, we have given time for the reinforcements, sure to be sent by the + abundant, though somewhat slowly acting, common sense of our countrymen, + to come up. + </p> + <p> + I can no longer be useful, and I return to more congenial occupations. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> + <p> + The following letter appeared in the "Times" of January 2nd, 1891:— + </p> + <p> + "Dear Mr. Tillett,—I have not had patience to read Professor + Huxley's letters. The existence of hunger, nakedness, misery, 'death from + insufficient food,' even of starvation, is certain, and no agency as yet + reaches it. How can any man hinder or discourage the giving of food or + help? Why is the house called a workhouse? Because it is for those who + cannot work? No, because it was the house to give work or bread. The very + name is an argument. I am very sure what Our Lord and His Apostles would + do if they were in London. Let us be thankful even to have a will to do + the same. + </p> + <p> + "Yours faithfully, Henry E. Card. Manning." + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">293</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink293" id="link293"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + X. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," January 3rd, 1891 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—In my old favourite, "The Arabian Nights," the motive of the + whole series of delightful narratives is that the sultan, who refuses to + attend to reason, can be got to listen to a story. May I try whether + Cardinal Manning is to be reached in the same way? When I was attending + the meeting of the British Association in Belfast nearly forty years ago, + I had promised to breakfast with the eminent scholar Dr. Hincks. Having + been up very late the previous night, I was behind time; so, hailing an + outside car, I said to the driver as I jumped on, "Now drive fast, I am in + a hurry." Whereupon he whipped up his horse and set off at a hand-gallop. + Nearly jerked off my seat, I shouted, "My good friend, do you know where I + want to go?" "No, yer honner," said the driver, "but, any way, I am + driving fast." I have never forgotten this object-lesson in the dangers of + ill-regulated enthusiasm. We are all invited to jump on to the Salvation + Army car, which Mr. Booth is undoubtedly driving very fast. Some of us + have a firm conviction, not only that he is taking a very different + direction from that in which we wish to go, but that, before long, car and + driver will come to grief. Are we to accept <span class="pagenum">294</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink294" id="link294"></a> the invitation, even at the + bidding of the eminent person who appears to think himself entitled to + pledge the credit of "Our Lord and His Apostles" in favour of Boothism? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + XI. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," January 13th, 1891 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—A letter from Mr. Booth-Clibborn, dated January 3rd, appeared + in the "Times" of yesterday. This elaborate document occupies three + columns of small print—space enough, assuredly, for an effectual + reply to the seven letters of mine to which the writer refers, if any such + were forthcoming. Mr. Booth-Clibborn signs himself "Commissioner of the + Salvation Army for France and Switzerland," but he says that he accepts my + "challenge" without the knowledge of his chiefs. Considering the + self-damaging character of his letter, it was, perhaps, hardly necessary + to make that statement. + </p> + <p> + Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn speaks of my "challenge." I presume that + he refers to my request for information about the authorship and fate of + "The New Papacy," in the letter <span class="pagenum">295</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink295" id="link295"></a> published in the "Times" on + December 27th, 1890. The "Commissioner" deals with this matter in + paragraph No. 4 of his letter; and I observe, with no little satisfaction, + that he does not venture to controvert any one of the statements of my + witnesses. He tacitly admits that the author of "The New Papacy" was a + person "greatly esteemed in Toronto," and that he held "a high position in + the army"; further, that the Canadian "Commissioner" thought it worth + while to pay the printer's bill, in order that the copies already printed + off might be destroyed and the pamphlet effectually suppressed. Thus the + essential facts of the case are admitted and established beyond question. + </p> + <p> + How does Mr. Booth-Clibborn try to explain them away? + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Sumner, who wrote the little book in a hot fit, soon regretted it (as + any man would do whose conscience showed him in a calmer moment when his + 'respectability' returned with his repentance, that he had grossly + misrepresented), and just before it appeared offered to order its + suppression if the army would pay the costs already incurred, and which he + was unable to bear." + </p> + <p> + "The New Papacy" fills sixty closely printed duodecimo pages. It is + carefully written, and for the most part in studiously moderate language; + moreover, it contains many precise details and <span class="pagenum">296</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink296" id="link296"></a> figures, the ascertainment of + which must have taken much time and trouble. Yet, forsooth, it was written + in "a hot fit." + </p> + <p> + I sincerely hope, for the sake of his own credit, that Mr. "Commissioner" + Booth-Clibborn does not know as much about this melancholy business as I + do. My hands are unfortunately tied, and I am not at liberty to use all + the information in my possession. I must content myself with quoting the + following passage from the preface to "The New Papacy":— + </p> + <p> + "It has not been without considerable thought and a good deal of urging + that the following pages have been given to the public. But though we + would have shrunk from a labour so distasteful, and have gladly avoided a + notoriety anything but pleasant to the feelings, or conducive to our + material welfare, we have felt that in the interests of the benevolent + public, in the interests of religion, in the interests of a band of + devoted men and women whose personal ends are being defeated, and the + fruit of whose labour is being destroyed, and, above all, in the interests + of that future which lies before the Salvation Army itself, if purged and + purified in its executive and returned to its original position in the + ranks of Canadian Christian effort, it is no more than our duty to throw + such light as we are able upon its true inwardness, and with that object + and for the <span class="pagenum">297</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink297" id="link297"></a> furtherance of those ends we offer + our pages to the public view." + </p> + <p> + The preface is dated April 1889. According to the statement in the + "Toronto Telegram" which Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn does not dare + to dispute, his Canadian fellow-"Commissioner" bought and destroyed the + whole edition of "The New Papacy" about the end of the third week in + April. It is clear that the writer of the paragraph quoted from the + preface was well out of a "hot fit," if he had ever been in one, while he + had not entered on the stage of repentance within three weeks of that + time. Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn's scandalous insinuations that Mr. + Sumner was bribed by "a few sovereigns," and that he was "bought off," in + the face of his own admission that Mr. Sumner "offered to order its + suppression if the army would pay the costs already incurred, and which he + was unable to bear" is a crucial example of that Jesuitry with which the + officials of the army have been so frequently charged. + </p> + <p> + Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn says that when "London headquarters + heard of the affair, it disapproved of the action of the Commissioner." + That circumstance indicates that headquarters is not wholly devoid of + intelligence; but it has nothing to do with the value of Mr. Sumner's + evidence, which is all I am concerned about. Very likely London + headquarters will disapprove of its French <span class="pagenum">298</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink298" id="link298"></a> "Commissioner's" present action. + But what then? The upshot of all this is that Mr. Booth-Clibborn has made + as great a blunder as simple Mr. Trotter did. The pair of Balaams greatly + desired to curse, but have been compelled to bless. They have, between + them, completely justified my reliance on Mr. Sumner as a perfectly + trustworthy witness; and neither of them has dared to challenge the + accuracy of one solitary statement made by that worthy gentleman, whose + full story I hope some day or other to see set before the public. Then the + true causes of his action will be made known. + </p> + <p> + Paragraph 2 of the "Commissioner's" letter says many things, but not much + about Mr. Hodges. The columns of the "Times" recently showed that Mr. + Hodges was able to compel an apology from Mr. Trotter. I leave it to him + to deal with the "Commissioner." + </p> + <p> + As to the "Eagle" case, treated of in paragraph No. 3, a gentleman well + versed in the law, who was in court during the hearing of the appeal, has + assured me that the argument was purely technical; that the facts were + very slightly gone into; and that, so far as he knows, no dissenting + comment was made on the strictures of the Judge before whom the case first + came. Moreover, in the judgment of the Master of the Rolls, fully recorded + in the "Times" of February 14th, 1884, the following passages occur:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">299</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink299" id="link299"></a> "The case had been heard by a + learned Judge, who had exercised his discretion upon it, and the Court + would not interfere with his discretion unless they could see that he was + wrong. The learned Judge had taken a strong view of the conduct of the + defendant, but nevertheless had said that he would have given relief if he + could have seen how far protection and compensation could be given. And if + this Court differed from him in that view, and could give relief without + forfeiture, they would be acting on his own principle in doing so. Certain + suggestions had been made with that view, and the Court had to consider + the case under all the circumstances.... He himself (the Master of the + Rolls) considered that it was probable the defendant, with his principles, + had intended to destroy the property as a public-house, and that it was + not right thus to take property under a covenant to keep it up as a + public-house, intending to destroy it as such. He did not, however, think + this was enough to deprive him of all relief. The defendant could only + expect severe terms." + </p> + <p> + Yet, Sir, Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn, this high official of the + Salvation Army, has the audacity to tell the public that if I had made + inquiries I should have found that "in the Court of Appeal the Judge + reversed the decision of his predecessor as regards seven eighths of the + property, and the General was declared to have acted <span class="pagenum">300</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink300" id="link300"></a> all along with straight + forwardness and good faith." + </p> + <p> + But the nature of Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn's conceptions of + straightforwardness and good faith is so marvellously illustrated by the + portions of his letter with which I have dealt that I doubt not his + statements are quite up to the level of the "Army" Regulations and + Instructions in regard to those cardinal virtues. As I pointed out must be + the case, the slave is subdued to that he works in. + </p> + <p> + For myself, I must confess that the process of wading through Mr. + "Commissioner's" verbose and clumsy pleadings has given me a "hot fit," + which, I undertake to say, will be followed by not so much as a passing + shiver of repentance. And it is under the influence of the genial warmth + diffused through the frame, on one of those rare occasions when one may be + "angry and sin not," that I infringe my resolution to trouble you with no + more letters. On reflection, I am convinced that it is undesirable that + the public should be misled, for even a few days, by misrepresentations so + serious. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I am copiously abused for speaking of the Jesuitical methods of the +superior officials of the Salvation Army. But the following facts have +not been, and, I believe, cannot be, denied:— + + 1. Mr. Booth's conduct in the "Eagle" case has been censured by two +of the Judges. +</pre> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">301</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink301" id="link301"></a> 2. Mr. Bramwell Booth admitted + before Mr. Justice Lopes that he had made an untrue statement because of a + promise he had made to Mr. Stead.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This statement has been disputed, but not yet publicly. (See p. 305.) +</pre> + <p> + And I have just proved that Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn asserts the + exact contrary of that which your report of the judgment of the Master of + the Rolls tells us that distinguished judge said. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, I think that my politeness in applying no + harder adjective than "Jesuitical" to these proceedings is not properly + appreciated. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + XII. +</pre> + <p> + The "Times," January 22nd, 1891 + </p> + <p> + SIR,—I think that your readers will be interested in the + accompanying opinion, written in consultation with an eminent Chancery + Queen's Counsel, with which I have been favoured. It will be observed that + this important legal deliverance <span class="pagenum">302</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink302" id="link302"></a> justifies much stronger language + than any which I have applied to the only security (?) for the proper + administration of the funds in Mr. Booth's hands which appears to be in + existence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + 1, Dr. Johnson's Buildings, Temple, E.C., + January 14, 1891. +</pre> + <h3> + MR. BOOTH'S DECLARATION OF TRUST DEED, 1878. + </h3> + <p> + "I am of opinion, subject to the question whether there may be any + provision in the Charitable Trusts Acts which can be made available for + enforcing some scheme for the appropriation of the property, and with + regard to the real and leasehold properties whether the conveyances and + leases are not altogether void, as frauds on the Mortmain Acts, that + nothing can be done to control or to interfere with Booth in the + disposition or application of the properties or moneys purported to be + affected by the deed. + </p> + <p> + "As to the properties vested in Booth himself, it appears to me that such + are placed absolutely under his power and control both as to the disposal + and application thereof, and that there are no trusts for any specific + purposes declared which <span class="pagenum">303</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink303" id="link303"></a> could be enforced, and that there + are no defined persons nor classes of persons who can claim to be entitled + to the benefits of them, or at whose instance they could be enforced by + any legal process. + </p> + <p> + "As to the properties (if any) vested in trustees appointed by Booth, it + appears to me that the only person who has a locus standi to enforce these + trusts is Booth himself, and that he would have absolute power over the + trusts and the property, and might deal with the property as he pleased, + and that, as in the former case, nothing could be done in the way of + enforcing any trusts against him. + </p> + <p> + "As to the moneys contributed or raised by mortgage for the general + purposes of the mission, it appears to me that Booth may expend them as he + pleases, without being subject to any legal control, and that he cannot + even be compelled to publish any balance-sheets. + </p> + <p> + "Whether there are any provisions in the Charitable Trusts Acts which + could be made available for enforcing some scheme for the application of + the property or funds is a question to which I should require to give a + closer consideration should it become necessary to go into it; but at + present, after perusing these Acts, and especially 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137 + and 18 and 19 Vict. c. 124, I cannot see how they could be made applicable + to the trusts as declared in this deed. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">304</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink304" id="link304"></a> "As to the Mortmain Acts, the + matter is clearly charitable, and unless in the conveyances and leases to + Booth, or to the trustees (if any) named by him, all the provisions of the + Acts have been complied with, and the deeds have been enrolled under the + Acts, they would be void. It is probable, however, that every conveyance + and lease has been taken without disclosing any charitable trust, for the + purpose of preventing it from being void on the face of it. It is to be + noted that the deed is a mere deed poll by Booth himself, without any + other party to it, who, as a contracting party, would have a right to + enforce it. + </p> + <p> + "Whether there are any objects of the trust I cannot say. If there is, as + the recital indicates, a society of enrolled members called 'The Christian + Mission,' those members would be objects of the trust, but then, it + appears to me, Booth has entire control and determination of the + application. And, as to the trusts enuring for the benefit of the + 'Salvation Army,' I am not aware what is the constitution of the + 'Salvation Army,' but there is no reference whatever to any such body in + the deed. I have understood the army as being merely the missionaries, and + not the society of worshippers. + </p> + <p> + "If there is no Christian Mission Society of enrolled members, then there + are no objects of the trust. The trusts are purely religious, and trading + is entirely beyond its purposes. Booth can <span class="pagenum">305</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink305" id="link305"></a> 'give away' the property, simply + because there is no one who has any right to prevent his doing so. + </p> + <p> + "Ernest Hatton." + </p> + <p> + It is probably my want of legal knowledge which prevents me from + appreciating the value of the professed corrections of Mr. Hatton's + opinion contained in the letters of Messrs. Ranger, Burton, and Matthews, + "Times," January 28th and 29th, 1891. + </p> + <p> + The note on page 301 refers to a correspondence, incomplete at the time + fixed for the publication of my pamphlet, the nature of which is + sufficiently indicated by the subjoined extracts from Mr. Stead's letter + in the "Times" of January 20th, and from my reply in the "Times" of + January 24th. Referring to the paragraphs numbered 1, 2, at the end of my + letter XI., Mr. Stead says:— + </p> + <p> + "On reading this, I at once wrote to Professor Huxley, stating that, as he + had mentioned my name, I was justified in intervening to explain that, so + far as the second count in his indictment went—for the Eagle dispute + is no concern of mine—he had been misled by an error in the reports + of the case which appeared in the daily papers <span class="pagenum">306</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink306" id="link306"></a> of November 4, 1885. I have his + reply to-day, saying that I had better write to you direct. May I ask you, + then, seeing that my name has been brought into the affair, to state that, + as I was in the dock when Mr. Bramwell Booth was in the witness-box, I am + in a position to give the most unqualified denial to the statement as to + the alleged admission on his part of falsehood? Nothing was heard in Court + of any such admission. Neither the prosecuting counsel nor the Judge who + tried the case ever referred to it, although it would obviously have had a + direct bearing on the credit of the witness; and the jury, by acquitting + Mr. Bramwell Booth, showed that they believed him to be a witness of + truth. But fortunately the facts can be verified beyond all gainsaying by + a reference to the official shorthand-writer's report of the evidence. + During the hearing of the case for the prosecution, Inspector Borner was + interrupted by the Judge, who said:— + </p> + <p> + "'I want to ask you a question. During the whole of that conversation, did + Booth in any way suggest that that child had been sold?' Borner replied:— + </p> + <p> + "'Not at that interview, my Lord.' + </p> + <p> + "It was to this that Mr. Bramwell Booth referred when, after examination, + cross-examination, <span class="pagenum">307</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink307" id="link307"></a> and re-examination, during which + no suggestion had been made that he had ever made the untrue statement now + alleged against him, he asked and received leave from the Judge to make + the following explanation, which I quote from the official report:— + </p> + <p> + "'Will you allow me to explain a matter mentioned yesterday in reference + to a question asked by your Lordship some days ago with respect to one + matter connected with my conduct? Your Lordship asked, I think it was + Inspector Borner, whether I had said to him at either of our interviews + that the child was sold by her parents, and he replied "No." That is quite + correct; I did not say so to him, and what I wish to say now is that I had + been specially requested by Mr. Stead, and had given him a promise, that I + would not under any circumstances divulge the fact of that sale to any + person which would ma ke it at all probable that any trouble would be + brought upon the persons who had taken part in this investigation.' + (Central Criminal Court Reports, Vol. CII., part 612, pp. 1,035-6.) + </p> + <p> + "In the daily papers of the following day this statement was misreported + as follows:— + </p> + <p> + "'I wish to explain, in regard to your Lordship's condemnation of my + having said "No" to <span class="pagenum">308</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink308" id="link308"></a> Inspector Borner when he asked me + whether the child had been sold by her parents—the reason why I + stated what was not correct was that I had promised Mr. Stead not to + divulge the fact of the sale to any person which would make it probable + that any trouble should be brought on persons taking part in this + proceeding.' + </p> + <p> + "Hence the mistake into which Professor Huxley has unwittingly fallen. + </p> + <p> + "I may add that, so far from the statement never having been challenged + for five years, it was denounced as 'a remarkably striking lie' in the + 'War Cry' of November 14th, and again the same official organ of the + Salvation Army of November 18th specifically adduced this misreport as an + instance of 'the most disgraceful way' in which the reports of the trial + were garbled by some of the papers. What, then, becomes of one of the two + main pillars of Professor Huxley's argument?" + </p> + <p> + In my reply, I point out that, on the 10th of January, Mr. Stead addressed + to me a letter, which commences thus: "I see in the 'Times' of this + morning that you are about to republish your letters on Booth's book." + </p> + <p> + I replied to this letter on the 12th of January:— + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">309</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink309" id="link309"></a> "Dear Mr. Stead,—I charge + Mr. Bramwell Booth with nothing. I simply quote the 'Times' report, the + accuracy of which, so far as I know, has never been challenged by Mr. + Booth. I say I quote the 'Times' and not Mr. Hodges,* because I took some + pains about the verification of Mr. Hodges's citation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is a slip of the pen. Mr. Hodges had nothing to do + with the citation of which I made use. +</pre> + <p> + "I should have thought it rather appertained to Mr. Bramwell Booth to + contradict a statement which refers, not to what you heard, but to what he + said. However, I am the last person to wish to give circulation to a story + which may not be quite correct; and I will take care, if you have no + objection (your letter is marked 'private'), to make public as much of + your letter as relates to the point to which you have called my attention. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I am, yours very faithfully, + T. H. Huxley." +</pre> + <p> + To this Mr. Stead answered, under date of January 13th, 1891:— + </p> + <p> + "Dear Professor Huxley,—I thank you for your letter of the 12th + inst. I am quite sure you would not wish to do any injustice in this + matter. But, instead of publishing any extract from my letter, might I ask + you to read the passage as it <span class="pagenum">310</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink310" id="link310"></a> appears in the verbatim report of + the trial which was printed day by day, and used by counsel on both sides, + and by the Judge during the case? I had hoped to have got you a copy + to-day, but find that I was too late. I shall have it first thing + to-morrow morning. You will find that it is quite clear, and conclusively + disposes of the alleged admission of untruthfulness. Again thanking you + for your courtesy, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I am, yours faithfully, + W. T. Stead." +</pre> + <p> + Thus it appears that the letter which Mr. Stead wrote to me on the 13th of + January does not contain one word of that which he ways it contains, in + the statement which appears in the "Times" to-day. Moreover, the letter of + mine to which Mr. Stead refers in his first communication to me is not the + letter which appeared on the 13th, as he states, but that which you + published on December 27th, 1890. Therefore, it is not true that Mr. Stead + wrote "at once." On the contrary, he allowed nearly a fortnight to elapse + before he addressed me on the 10th of January 1891. Furthermore, Mr. Stead + suppresses the fact that, since the 13th of January, he has had in his + possession my offer to publish his version of the story; and he leads the + reader to suppose that my only answer was that he "had better write to + <span class="pagenum">311</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink311" id="link311"></a> you direct. All the while, Mr. + Stead knows perfectly well that I was withheld from making public use of + his letter of the 10th by nothing but my scruples about using a document + which was marked "private"; and that he did not give me leave to quote his + letter of the 10th of January until after he had written that which + appeared yesterday. + </p> + <p> + And I add:— + </p> + <p> + As to the subject-matter of Mr. Stead's letter, the point which he wishes + to prove appears to be this—that Mr. Bramwell Booth did not make a + false statement, but that he withheld from the officers of justice, + pursuing a most serious criminal inquiry, a fact of grave importance, + which lay within his own knowledge. And this because he had promised Mr. + Stead to keep the fact secret. In short, Mr. Bramwell Booth did not say + what was wrong; but he did what was wrong. + </p> + <p> + I will take care to give every weight to the correction. Most people, I + think, will consider that one of the "main pillars of my argument," as Mr. + Stead is pleased to call them, has become very much strengthened. + </p> + <h3> + <span class="pagenum">312</span><br /><br /> + </h3> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink312" id="link312"></a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + LEGAL OPINIONS RESPECTING + "GENERAL" BOOTH'S ACTS. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +In referring to the course of action adopted by "General" Booth and +Mr. Bramwell Booth in respect of their legal obligations to other +persons, or to the criminal and civil law, I have been as careful as I +was bound to be, to put any difficulties suggested by mere lay +commonsense in an interrogative or merely doubtful form; and to +confine myself, for any positive expressions, to citations from +published declarations of the judges before whom the acts of "General" +Booth came; from reports of the Law Courts; and from the deliberate +opinions of legal experts. I have now some further remarks to make on +these topics. + + I. The observations at p. 305 express, with due reserve, the +impression which the counsel's opinions, quoted by "General" Booth's +solicitors, made on my mind. They were written and sent to the printer +before I saw the letter from a "Barrister NOT Practising on the Common +Law Side," and those from Messrs. Clarke and Calkin and Mr. George +Kebbell, which appeared in the "Times" of February 3rd and 4th. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +These letters fully bear out the conclusion which I had formed, but +which it would have <span class="pagenum">313</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink313" id="link313"></a> been presumptuous on my part to + express, that the opinions cited by "General" Booth's solicitors were like + the famous broken tea-cups "wisely ranged for show"; and that, as Messrs. + Clarke and Calkin say, they "do not at all meet the main points on which + Mr. Hatton advised." I do not think that any one who reads attentively the + able letter of "A Barrister NOT Practicing on the Common Law Side" will + arrive at any other conclusion; or who will not share the very natural + desire of Mr. Kebbell to be provided with clear and intelligible answers + to the following inquiries:— (1) Does the trust deed by its + operation empower any one legally to call upon Mr. Booth to account for + the application of the funds? (2) In the event of the funds not being + properly accounted for, is any one, and, if so, who, in a position to + institute civil or criminal proceedings against any one, and whom, in + respect of such refusal or neglect to account? (3) In the event of the + proceedings, civil or criminal, failing to obtain restitution of + misapplied funds, is or are any other person or persons liable to make + good the loss? + </p> + <p> + On December 24th, 1890, a letter of mine appeared in the "Times" (No. V. + above) in which I put questions of the same import, and asked Mr. Booth if + he would not be so good as to take counsel's opinion on the "trusts" of + which so <span class="pagenum">314</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink314" id="link314"></a> much has been heard and so little + seen, not as they stood in 1878, or in 1888, but as they stand now? Six + weeks have elapsed, and I wait for a reply. + </p> + <p> + It is true that Dr. Greenwood has been authorized by Mr. Booth to publish + what he calls a "Rough outline of the intended Trust Deed" ("General Booth + and His Critics," p. 120), but unfortunately we are especially told that + it "does not profess to be an absolutely accurate analysis." Under these + circumstances I am afraid that neither lawyers nor laymen of moderate + intelligence will pay much attention to the assertion, that "it gives a + fair idea of the general effect of the draft," even although "the words in + quotation marks are taken from it verbatim." + </p> + <p> + These words, which I give in italics, (1) define the purposes of the + scheme to be "for the social and moral regeneration and improvement of + persons needy, destitute, degraded, or criminal, in some manner indicated, + implied, or suggested in the book called 'In Darkest England.'" Whence I + apprehend that, if the whole funds collected are applied to "mothering + society" by the help of speculative attorney "tribunes of the people," the + purposes of the trust will be unassailably fulfilled. (2) The name is to + be "Darkest England Scheme," (3) the General of the Salvation Army is to + be "Director of the Scheme." Truly valuable information all this! But + taking it for what it is worth, the <span class="pagenum">315</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink315" id="link315"></a> public must not be misled into + supposing that it has the least bearing upon the questions to which + neither I, nor anybody else, has yet been able to obtain an intelligible + answer, and that is, where are the vast funds which have been obtained, in + one way or another, during the last dozen years in the name of the + Salvation Army? Where is the presumably amended Trust Deed of 1888? I ask + once more: Will Mr. Booth submit to competent and impartial legal scrutiny + the arrangements by which he and his successors are prevented from dealing + with the funds of the so-called "army chest" exactly as he or they may + please? + </p> + <p> + II. With respect to the "Eagle" case, I am advised that Dr. Greenwood, + whose good faith I do not question, has been misled into misrepresenting + it in the appendix to his pamphlet. And certainly, the evidence of + authoritative records which I have had the opportunity of perusing, + appears to my non-legal mind to be utterly at variance with the statement + to which Dr. Greenwood stands committed. I may observe, further, that the + excuse alleged on behalf of Mr. Booth, that he signed the affidavit set + before him by his solicitors without duly considering its contents, is one + which I should not like to have put forward were the case my own. It may + be, and often is, necessary for a person to sign an affidavit without + <span class="pagenum">316</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink316" id="link316"></a> being able fully to appreciate the + technical language in which it is couched. But his solicitor will always + instruct him as to the effect of these terms. And, in this particular case + where the whole matter turns on Mr. Booth's personal intentions, it was + his plainest duty to inquire, very seriously, whether the legal + phraseology employed would convey neither more nor less than such + intentions to those who would act on the affidavit, before he put his name + to it. + </p> + <p> + III. With respect to Mr. Bramwell Booth's case, I refer the reader to p. + 311. + </p> + <p> + IV. As to Mr. Booth-Clibborn's misrepresentations, see above, pp. 298, + 299. + </p> + <p> + This much for the legal questions which have been raised by various + persons since the first edition of the pamphlet was published. + </p> + <h3> + DR. GREENWOOD'S "GENERAL BOOTH AND HIS CRITICS" + </h3> + <p> + So far as I am concerned, there is little or nothing in this brochure + beyond a reproduction of the vituperative stuff which has been going the + round of those newspapers which favour "General" Booth for some weeks. + Those who do not want to see the real worth of it all will not read <span + class="pagenum">317</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink317" id="link317"></a> the preceding pages; and those who + do will need no help from me. + </p> + <p> + I fear, however, that in justice to other people I must put one of Dr. + Greenwood's paragraphs in the pillory. He says that I have "built up, on + the flimsy foundation of stories told by three or four deserters from the + Army" (p. 114), a sweeping indictment against General Booth. This is the + sort of thing to which I am well accustomed at the hands of anonymous + newspaper writers. But in view of the following easily verifiable + statements, I do not think that an educated and, I have no doubt, highly + respectable gentleman like Dr. Greenwood can, in cold blood, contemplate + that assertion with satisfaction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The persons here alluded to as "three or four deserters from the army" +are:— + + (1) Mr. Redstone, for whose character Dr. Cunningham Geikie is +guarantee, and whom it has been left to Dr. Greenwood to attempt to +besmirch. + + (2) Mr. Sumner, who is a gentleman quite as worthy of respect as +Dr. Greenwood, and whose published evidence not one of the champions +of the Salvation Army has yet ventured to impugn. + + (3) Mr. Hodges, similarly libelled by that unhappy meddler Mr. +Trotter, who was compelled to the prompt confession of his error (see +p. 277). + + (4) Notwithstanding this evidence of Mr. Trotter's claims to +attention, Dr. Greenwood quotes a <span class="pagenum">318</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink318" id="link318"></a> statement of his as evidence that + a statement quoted by me from Mr. Sumner's work is a "forgery." But Dr. + Greenwood unfortunately forgets to mention that on the 27th of December + 1890 (Letter No. VII. above) Mr. Trotter was publicly required to produce + proof of his assertion; and that he has not thought fit to produce that + proof. + </p> + <p> + If I were disposed to use to Dr. Greenwood language of the sort he so + freely employs to me, I think that he could not complain of a handsome + scolding. For what is the real state of the case? Simply this—that + having come to the conclusion, from the perusal of "In Darkest England," + that "General" Booth's colossal scheme (as apart from the local action of + Salvationists) was bad in principle and must produce certain evil + consequences, and having warned the public to that effect, I quite + unexpectedly found my hands full of evidence that the exact evils + predicted had, in fact, already shown themselves on a great scale; and, + carefully warning the public to criticize this evidence, I produced a + small part of it. When Dr. Greenwood talks about my want of "regard to the + opinion of the nine thousand odd who still remain among the faithful" (p. + 114), he commits an imprudence. He would obviously be surprised to learn + the extent of the support, encouragement, and information which I have + received from active and sincere members of the Salvation Army <span + class="pagenum">319</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink319" id="link319"></a> —but of which I can make no + use, because of the terroristic discipline and systematic espionage which + my correspondents tell me is enforced by its chief. Some of these days, + when nobody can be damaged by their use, a curious light may be thrown + upon the inner workings of the organization which we are bidden to regard + as a happy family, by these documents. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">320</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink320" id="link320"></a> (blank page) <span class="pagenum">321</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink321" id="link321"></a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0027" id="link2H_4_0027"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SALVATION ARMY ARTICLES OF WAR, + </h2> + <h3> + To be signed by all who wish to be entered on the roll as soldiers. + </h3> + <p> + Having received with all my heart the Salvation offered to me by the + tender mercy of Jehovah, I do here and now publicly acknowledge God to be + my Father and King, Jesus Christ to be my Saviour, and the Holy Spirit to + be my Guide, Comforter, and Strength; and that I will, by His help, love, + serve, worship, and obey this glorious God through all time and through + all eternity. + </p> + <p> + Believing solemnly that The Salvation Army has been raised up by God, and + is sustained and directed by Him, I do here declare my full determination, + by God's help, to be a true soldier of the Army till I die. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am thoroughly convinced of the truth of the Army's teaching. + + I believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus +Christ, and conversion by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to Salvation, +and that all men may be saved. + + I believe that we are saved by grace, through faith in our Lord +Jesus Christ, and he that believeth hath the witness of it in himself. +I have got it. Thank God! + + I believe that the Scriptures were given by inspiration of God, and +that they teach that not only does continuance in the favour of God +depend upon continued faith in, and obedience to, Christ, <span class="pagenum">322</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink322" id="link322"></a> but that it is possible for those + who have been truly converted to fall away and be eternally lost. I + believe that it is the privilege of all God's people to be "wholly + sanctified," and that "their whole spirit and soul and body" may "be + preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ." That is to + say, I believe that after conversion there remain in the heart of the + believer inclinations to evil, or roots of bitterness, which, unless + overpowered by Divine grace, produce actual sin; but these evil tendencies + can be entirely taken away by the Spirit of God, and the whole heart thus + cleansed from anything contrary to the will of God, or entirely + sanctified, will then produce the fruit of the Spirit only. And I believe + that persons thus entirely sanctified may, by the power of God, be kept + unblamable and unreprovable before Him. I believe in the immortality of + the soul; in the resurrection of the body; in the general judgment at the + end of the world; in the eternal happiness of the righteous; and in the + everlasting punishment of the wicked. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +THEREFORE, I do here, and now, and for ever, renounce the world with +all its sinful pleasures, companionship treasures, and objects, and +declare my full determination boldly to show myself a Soldier of Jesus +Christ in all places and companies, no matter what I may have to +suffer, do, or lose, by so doing. + + I do here and now declare that I will abstain from the use of all +intoxicating liquors, and also from the habitual use of opium, +laudanum, morphia, and all other baneful drugs, except when in illness +such drugs shall be ordered for me by a doctor. + + I do here and now declare that I will abstain from <span class="pagenum">323</span><br /><br /></pre> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink323" id="link323"></a> the use of all low or profane + language; from the taking of the name of God in vain; and from all + impurity, or from taking part in any unclean conversation or the reading + of any obscene book or paper at any time, in any company, or in any place. + I do here declare that I will not allow myself in any falsehood, deceit, + misrepresentation, or dishonesty; neither will I practise any fraudulent + conduct, either in my business, my home, or in any other relation in which + I may stand to my fellow men, but that I will deal truthfully, fairly, + honourably, and kindly with all those who may employ me or whom I may + myself employ. I do here declare that I will never treat any woman, child, + or other person, whose life, comfort, or happiness may be placed within my + power, in an oppressive, cruel, or cowardly manner, but that I will + protect such from evil and danger so far as I can, and promote, to the + utmost of my ability, their present welfare and eternal salvation. I do + here declare that I will spend all the time, strength, money, and + influence I can in supporting and carrying on this War, and that I will + endeavour to lead my family, friends, neighbours, and all others whom I + can influence, to do the same, believing that the sure and only way to + remedy all the evils in the world is by bringing men to submit themselves + to the government of the Lord Jesus Christ. I do here declare that I will + always obey the lawful orders of my Officers, and that I will carry out to + the utmost of my power all the Orders and Regulations of The Army; and + further, that I will be an example of faithfulness to its principles, + advance to the utmost of my ability its operations, and never allow, where + I can prevent it, any injury to its interests or hindrance to its success. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum">324</span><br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linklink324" id="link324"></a> And I do here and now call upon + all present to witness that I enter into this undertaking and sign these + Articles of War of my own free will, feeling that the love of Christ who + died to save me requires from me this devotion of my life to His service + for the Salvation of the whole world, and therefore wish now to be + enrolled as a Soldier of the Salvation Army. + </p> + <h3> + ________________________________________ + </h3> + <h3> + _____________CORPS______________ 18___ + </h3> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ____________________________________ + ______________________________ Corps + ___________________________ Division + _____________________ 18____ + + (SINGLE) + + FORM OF APPLICATION + FOR AN APPOINTMENT AS AN + OFFICER IN THE SALVATION ARMY +</pre> + <p> + Name _____________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + Address __________________________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +1. What was your AGE last birthday? ___________________ + What is the date of your birthday? _________________ +</pre> + <p> + 2. What is your height? __________________ + </p> + <p> + 3. Are you free from bodily defect or disease? ____ + </p> + <p> + 4. What serious illnesses have you had, and when? ________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 5. Have you ever had fits of any kind? __________________ If so how long, + and what kind? ___________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 6. Do you consider your health good, and that you are strong enough for + the work of an officer? __________________________________________________ + If not, or if you are doubtful, write a letter and explain the matter. + </p> + <p> + 7. Is your doctor's certificate a full and correct statement so far as you + know? ___________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 8. Are you, or have you ever been, married? ___________ + </p> + <p> + 9. When and where CONVERTED? ____________________________ + </p> + <p> + 10. What other Religious Societies have you belonged to? _________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 11. Were you ever a Junior Soldier? _____________________ If so, how long? + ________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 12. How long have you been enrolled as a SOLDIER? _______ and signed + Articles of War? ____________________ + </p> + <p> + 13. If you hold any office in your Corps, say what and how long held? ____ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 14. Do you intend to live and die in the ranks of the Salvation Army? ____ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +</pre> + <p> + 15. Have you ever been an open BACKSLIDER? ______________ If so, how long? + ________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 16. Why? _________________________________________________________________ + Date of your Restoration? ___________________ + </p> + <p> + 17. Are you in DEBT? __________________ If so, how much? + ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 18. How long owing? ______________________________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 19. Did you ever use Intoxicating Drink? _____________ If so, how long is + it since you entirely gave up its use? ________________ + </p> + <p> + 20. Did you ever use Tobacco or Snuff? _________ If so, how long is it + since you gave up using either? ____________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ———————————— +</pre> + <p> + 21. What UNIFORM do you wear? ____________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 22. How long have you worn it? ___________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 23. Do you agree to dress in accordance with the direction of + Headquarters? _________________ + </p> + <p> + 24. Can you provide your own uniform and "List of Necessaries" before + entering the Service? ____________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ———————————————— +</pre> + <p> + 25. Are you in a Situation? _____________ If so, how long? + ________________________ + </p> + <p> + 26. Nature of duties, and salary _________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 27. Name and address of employer? ________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 28. If out, date of leaving last situation? _________________________ How + long there? _____________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 29. Why did you leave? ___________________________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 30. Name and address of last employer? ___________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 31. Can you start the SINGING? __________ + </p> + <p> + 32. Can you play any musical instrument? _________________ If so, what? + _____________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 33. Is this form filled up by you? ________________________ Can you read + well at first sight? _________________________ + </p> + <p> + 34. Can you write SHORTHAND? _________________________ If so, what speed + and system? ____________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 35. Can you speak any language other than English? _______________________ + If so, what? _____________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 36. Have you had any experience and success in the JUNIOR SOLDIERS' WAR? + <i> </i> + </p> + <p> + 37. If so, what? _________________________________________________________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 38. Are you willing to sell the "WAR CRY" on Sundays? ____________ + </p> + <p> + 39. Do you engage not to publish any books, songs, or music except for the + benefit of the Salvation Army, and then only with the consent of + Headquarters? ________________ + </p> + <p> + 40. Do you promise not to engage in any trade, profession, or other money- + making occupation, except for the benefit of the Salvation Army, and then + only with the consent of Headquarters? _________________________ + </p> + <p> + 41. Would you be willing to go ABROAD if required? _______________________ + </p> + <p> + 42. Do you promise to do your utmost to help forward the Junior Soldiers' + work if accepted? _____________ + </p> + <p> + 43. Do you pledge yourself to spend not less than nine hours every day in + the active service of the Army, of which not less than three hours of each + week day shall be spent in VISITATION? ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 44. Do you pledge yourself to fill up and send to Headquarters forms as to + how your day is spent? ______________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —————————————— +</pre> + <p> + 45. Have you read, and do you believe, the DOCTRINES printed on the other + side? ____________________ + </p> + <p> + 46. Have you read the "Orders and Regulations for Field Officers" of the + Army? ________________________________ + </p> + <p> + If you have not got a copy of "Orders and Regulations," get one from + Candidates' Department at once. The price to Candidates is 2s. 6d. + </p> + <p> + 47. Do you pledge yourself to study and carry out and to endeavour to + train others to carry out all Orders and Regulations of the Army? ________ + </p> + <p> + 48. Have you read the Order on page 3 of this Form as to PRESENTS and + TESTIMONIALS, and do you engage to carry it out? _________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +49. Do you pledge yourself never to receive any sum in the form of pay +beyond the amount of allowances granted under the scale which follows? +___________ + + ALLOWANCES— From the day of arrival at his station, each officer is +entitled to draw the following allowances, provided the amount remains in +hand after meeting all local expenses, namely: +</pre> + <p> + — For Single Men: Lieutenants, 16s. weekly, and Captains, 18s. + </p> + <p> + — for Single Women: Lieutenants, 12s. weekly, and Captains, 15s. + weekly. + </p> + <p> + — Married Men, 27s. per week, and ls. per week for each child under + 14 years of age; in all cases without house-rent. + </p> + <p> + 50. Do you perfectly understand that no salary or allowance is guaranteed + to you, and that you will have no claim against the Salvation Army, or + against any one connected therewith, on account of salary or allowances + not received by you? _____________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——————————————- +</pre> + <p> + 51. Have you ever APPLIED BEFORE? ___ If so, when? ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 52. With what result? ____________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 53. If you have ever been in the service of the Salvation Army in any + position, say what? ______________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 54. Why did you leave? ___________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 55. Are you willing to come into TRAINING that we may see whether you have + the necessary goodness and ability for an Officer in the Salvation Army, + and should we conclude that you have not the necessary qualifications, do + you pledge yourself to return home and work in your Corps without creating + any dissatisfaction? ____________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 56. Will you pay your own travelling expenses if we decide to receive you + in Training? _____________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 57. How much can you pay for your maintenance while in Training? _________ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 58. Can you deposit [Pound] 1 so that we can provide you with a suit of + Uniform when you are Commissioned? + ______________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 59. What is the shortest NOTICE you require should we want you? __________ + </p> + <p> + 60. Are your PARENTS willing that you should become an Officer? __________ + </p> + <p> + 61. Does any one depend upon you for support? _________ If so, who? ______ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 62. To what extent? ______________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 63. Give your parents', or nearest living relatives', full address _______ + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————————————————- +</pre> + <p> + 64. Are you COURTING? ________ If so, give name and address of the person: + __________________________________________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 65. How long have you been engaged? _____________ What is the person's + age? __________________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 66. What is the date of Birthday? _______________________ How long + enrolled as a SOLDIER? _________________________ + </p> + <p> + 67. What Uniform does the person wear? ___________________________________ + How long worn? ______________________ + </p> + <p> + 68. What does the person do in the Corps? ________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 69. Has the person applied for the work? _________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 70. If not, when does the person intend doing so? ________________________ + </p> + <p> + 71. Do the parents agree to the person coming into Training? _____________ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————————————————- +</pre> + <p> + 72. Do you understand that you may not be allowed to marry until three + years after your appointment as an Officer, and do you engage to abide by + this? __________________ + </p> + <p> + 73. If you are not courting, do you pledge yourself to abstain from + anything of the kind during Training and for at least twelve months after + your appointment as a Commissioned Field Officer? __________________ + </p> + <p> + 74. Do you pledge yourself not to carry on courtship with any one at the + station to which you are at the time appointed? __________________________ + </p> + <p> + 75. Do you pledge yourself never to commence, or allow to commence, or + break off anything of the sort, without first informing your Divisional + Officer, or Headquarters, of your intention to do so? ____________________ + </p> + <p> + 76. Do you pledge yourself never to marry any one marriage with whom would + take you out of the Army altogether? _____________________________________ + </p> + <p> + 77. Have you read, and do you agree to carry out, the following + Regulations as to Courtship and Marriage? ___________________ + </p> + <p> + (a) "Officers must inform their Divisional Officer or Headquarters of + their desire to enter into or break off any engagement, and no Officer is + permitted to enter into or break off an engagement without the consent of + his or her D.O. + </p> + <p> + (b) "Officers will not be allowed to carry on any courtship in the Town in + which they are appointed; nor until twelve months after the date of their + Commission. + </p> + <p> + (c) "Headquarters cannot consent to the engagement of Male Lieutenants, + until their Divisional Officer is prepared to recommend them for command + of a Station as Captain. + </p> + <p> + (d) "Before Headquarters can consent to the marriage of any Officer, the + Divisional Officer must be prepared to give him three stations as a + married man. + </p> + <p> + (e) "No Officer accepted will be allowed to marry until he or she has been + at least three years in the field, except in cases of long-standing + engagements before application for the work. + </p> + <p> + (f) "No Male Officer will, under any circumstances, be allowed to marry + before he is twenty-two years of age, unless required by Headquarters for + special service. + </p> + <p> + (g) "Headquarters will not agree to the Marriage of any Male Officer + (except under extraordinary circumstances) until twelve months after + consenting to his engagement. + </p> + <p> + (h) "Consent will not be given to the engagement of any male Officer + unless the young woman is likely to make a suitable wife for an Officer, + and (if not already an Officer) is prepared to come into Training at once. + </p> + <p> + (i) "Consent will be given to engagements between Female Officers and + Soldiers, on condition that the latter are suitable for Officers, and are + willing to come into Training if called upon. + </p> + <p> + (j) "Consent will never be given to any engagement or marriage which would + take an Officer out of the Army. + </p> + <p> + (k) "Every Officer must sign before marriage the Articles of Marriage, + contained in the Orders and Regulations for Field Officers." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —————————————— + + PRESENTS AND TESTIMONIALS. +</pre> + <p> + 1. Officers are expected to refuse utterly, and to prevent, if possible, + even the proposal of any present or testimonial to them. + </p> + <p> + 2. Of course, an Officer who is receiving no salary, or only part salary, + may accept food or other gifts, such as are needed to meet his wants; but + it is dishonourable for any one who is receiving their salary to accept + gifts of food also. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + THE DOCTRINES OF THE SALVATION ARMY. +</pre> + <p> + The principal Doctrines taught in the Army are as follows: — + </p> + <p> + 1. We believe that the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament were given + by inspiration of God, and that they only constitute the Divine rule of + Christian faith and practice. + </p> + <p> + 2. We believe there is only one God, who is infinitely perfect, the + Creator, Preserver, and Governor of all things. + </p> + <p> + 3. We believe that there are three persons in the Godhead—the + Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, undivided in essence, coequal in + power and glory, and the only proper object of religious worship. + </p> + <p> + 4. We believe that, in the person of Jesus Christ, the Divine and human + natures are united, so that He is truly and properly God, and truly and + properly man. + </p> + <p> + 5. We believe that our first parents were created in a state of innocency, + but by their disobedience they lost their purity and happiness; and that, + in consequence of their fall, all men have become sinners, totally + depraved, and as such are justly exposed to the wrath of God. + </p> + <p> + 6. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ has, by His suffering and death, + made an atonement for the whole world, so that whosoever will may be + saved. + </p> + <p> + 7. We believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, + and regeneration by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to Salvation. + </p> + <p> + 8. We believe that we are justified by grace, through faith in our Lord + Jesus Christ, and that he that believeth hath the witness in himself. + </p> + <p> + 9. We believe the Scriptures teach that not only does continuance in the + favour of God depend upon continued faith in, and obedience to, Christ, + but that it is possible for those who have been truly converted to fall + away and be eternally lost. + </p> + <p> + 10. We believe that it is the privilege of all believers to be "wholly + sanctified," and that "the whole spirit and soul and body" may "be + preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ." That is to + say, we believe that after conversion there remain in the heart of the + believer inclinations to evil, or roots of bitterness, which, unless + overpowered by Divine grace, produce actual sin; but that these evil + tendencies can be entirely taken away by the Spirit of God, and the whole + heart, thus cleansed from everything contrary to the will of God, or + entirely sanctified, will then produce the fruit of the Spirit only. And + we believe that persons thus entirely sanctified may, by the power of God, + be kept unblamable and unreprovable before Him. + </p> + <p> + 11. We believe in the immortality of the soul; in the resurrection of the + body; in the general judgment at the end of the world; in the eternal + happiness of the righteous; and in the everlasting punishment of the + wicked. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——————————————- + + DECLARATION. +</pre> + <p> + I HEREBY DECLARE that I will never, on any consideration, do anything + calculated to injure The Salvation Army, and especially, that I will + never, without first having obtained the consent of The General, take any + part in any religious services or in carrying on services held in + opposition to the Army. + </p> + <p> + I PLEDGE MYSELF to make true records, daily, on the forms supplied to me, + of what I do, and to confess, as far as I am concerned, and to report, as + far as I may see in others, any neglect or variation from the orders or + directions of The General. + </p> + <p> + I FULLY UNDERSTAND that he does not undertake to employ or to retain in + the service of The Army any one who does not appear to him to be fitted + for the work, or faithful and successful in it, and I solemnly pledge + myself quietly to leave any Army Station to which I may be sent, without + making any attempt to disturb or annoy The Army in any way, should The + General desire me to do so. And I hereby discharge The Army and The + General from all liability, and pledge myself to make no claim on account + of any situation, property, or interest I may give up in order to secure + an engagement in The Army. + </p> + <p> + I understand that The General will not be responsible in any way for any + loss I may suffer in consequence of being dismissed from Training; as I am + aware that the Cadets are received into Training for the very purpose of + testing their suitability for the work of Salvation Army Officers. + </p> + <p> + I hereby declare that the foregoing answers appear to me to fully express + the truth as to the questions put to me, and that I know of no other facts + which would prevent my engagement by The General, if they were known to + him. + </p> + <p> + Candidate to sign here......................................... + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————————————— + + NOTICE TO CANDIDATES. +</pre> + <p> + 1. All Candidates are expected to fill up and sign this form themselves, + if they can write at all. + </p> + <p> + 2. You are expected to have obtained and read "Orders and Regulations for + Field Officers" before you make this application. + </p> + <p> + 3. Making this application does NOT imply that we can receive you as an + officer, and you are, therefore, NOT to leave your home, or give notice to + leave your situation, until you hear again from us. + </p> + <p> + 4. If you are appointed as an Officer, or received into Training and it is + afterwards discovered that any of the questions in this form have not been + truthfully answered, you will be instantly dismissed. + </p> + <p> + 5. If you do not understand any question in this form, or if you do not + agree to any of the requirements stated upon it, return it to + Headquarters, and say so in a straightforward manner. + </p> + <p> + 6. Make the question for this appointment a matter of earnest prayer, as + it is the most important step you have taken since your conversion. + </p> + <p> + We must have your Photo. Please enclose it with your forms, and address + them to "Candidate Department," 101, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + </body> +</html> diff --git a/old/old-2024-02-10/2940.txt b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e139946 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10412 @@ +Project Gutenberg Etext of Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays +#30 in our series by Thomas H. 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HUXLEY + + + + +PREFACE + +THE discourse on "Evolution and Ethics," reprinted in the first half of +the present volume, was delivered before the University of Oxford, as +the second of the annual lectures founded by Mr. Romanes: whose name I +may not write without deploring the untimely death, in the flower of +his age, of a friend endeared to me, as to so many others, by his +kindly nature; and justly valued by all his colleagues for his powers +of investigation and his zeal for the advancement of knowledge. I well +remember, when Mr. Romanes' early work came into my hands, as one of +the secretaries of the Royal Society, how much I rejoiced in the +accession to the ranks of the little army of workers in science of a +recruit so well qualified to take a high place among us. + +It was at my friend's urgent request that I agreed to undertake the +lecture, should I be honoured with an official proposal to give it, +though I confess not without misgivings, if only on account of the +serious fatigue and hoarseness which public speaking has for some +years caused me; while I knew that it would be my fate to follow the +most accomplished and facile orator of our time, whose indomitable +youth is in no matter more manifest than in his penetrating and +musical voice. A certain saying about comparisons intruded itself +somewhat importunately. + +And even if I disregarded the weakness of my body in the matter of +voice, and that of my mind in the matter of vanity, there remained a +third difficulty. For several reasons, my attention, during a number +of years, has been much directed to the bearing of modern scientific +thought on the problems of morals and of politics, and I did not care +to be diverted from that topic. Moreover, I thought it the most +important and the worthiest which, at the present time, could engage +the attention even of an ancient and renowned University. + +But it is a condition of the Romanes foundation that the lecturer +shall abstain from treating of either Religion or Politics; and it +appeared to me that, more than most, perhaps, I was bound to act, not +merely up to the letter, but in the spirit, of that prohibition. Yet +Ethical Science is, on all sides, so entangled with Religion and +Politics that the lecturer who essays to touch the former without +coming into contact with either of the latter, needs all the dexterity +of an egg-dancer; and may even discover that his sense of clearness +and his sense of propriety come into conflict, by no means to the +advantage of the former. + +I had little notion of the real magnitude of these difficulties when I +set about my task; but I am consoled for my pains and anxiety by +observing that none of the multitudinous criticisms with which I have +been favoured and, often, instructed, find fault with me on the score +of having strayed out of bounds. + +Among my critics there are not a few to whom I feel deeply indebted for +the careful attention which they have given to the exposition thus +hampered; and further weakened, I am afraid, by my forgetfulness of a +maxim touching lectures of a popular character, which has descended to +me from that prince of lecturers, Mr. Faraday. He was once asked by a +beginner, called upon to address a highly select and cultivated +audience, what he might suppose his hearers to know already. Whereupon +the past master of the art of exposition emphatically replied +"Nothing!" + +To my shame as a retired veteran, who has all his life profited by +this great precept of lecturing strategy, I forgot all about it just +when it would have been most useful. I was fatuous enough to imagine +that a number of propositions, which I thought established, and which, +in fact, I had advanced without challenge on former occasions, needed +no repetition. + +I have endeavoured to repair my error by prefacing the lecture with +some matter--chiefly elementary or recapitulatory--to which I have +given the title of "Prolegomena" I wish I could have hit upon a +heading of less pedantic aspect which would have served my purpose; +and if it be urged that the new building looks over large for the +edifice to which it is added, I can only plead the precedent of the +ancient architects, who always made the adytum the smallest part of +the temple. + +If I had attempted to reply in full to the criticisms to which I have +referred, I know not what extent of ground would have been covered by +my pronaos. All I have endeavoured to do, at present, is to remove +that which seems to have proved a stumbling-block to many--namely, the +apparent paradox that ethical nature, while born of cosmic nature, is +necessarily at enmity with its parent. Unless the arguments set forth +in the Prolegomena, in the simplest language at my command, have some +flaw which I am unable to discern, this seeming paradox is a truth, as +great as it is plain, the recognition of which is fundamental for the +ethical philosopher. + +We cannot do without our inheritance from the forefathers who were the +puppets of the cosmic process; the society which renounces it must be +destroyed from without. Still less can we de with too much of it; the +society in which it dominates must be destroyed from within. + +The motive of the drama of human life is the necessity, laid upon every +man who comes into the world, of discovering the mean between +self-assertion and self-restraint suited to his character and his +circumstances. And the eternally tragic aspect of the drama lies in +this: that the problem set before us is one the elements of which can +be but imperfectly known, and of which even an approximately right +solution rarely presents itself, until that stern critic, aged +experience, has been furnished with ample justification for venting +his sarcastic humour upon the irreparable blunders we have already +made. + +I have reprinted the letters on the "Darkest England" scheme, published +in the "Times" of December, 1890, and January, 1891; and subsequently +issued, with additions, as a pamphlet, under the title of "Social +Diseases and Worse Remedies," because, although the clever attempt to +rush the country on behalf of that scheme has been balked, Booth's +standing army remains afoot, retaining all the capacities for mischief +which are inherent in its constitution. I am desirous that this fact +should be kept steadily in view; and that the moderation of the +clamour of the drums and trumpets should not lead us to forget the +existence of a force, which, in bad hands, may, at any time, be used +for bad purposes. + +In 1892, a Committee was "formed for the purpose of investigating the +manner in which the moneys, subscribed in response to the appeal made +in the book entitled 'In Darkest England and the Way out,' have been +expended." The members of this body were gentlemen in whose competency +and equity every one must have complete confidence; and in December, +1892, they published a report in which they declare that, "with the +exception of the sums expended on the 'barracks' at Hadleigh," the +moneys in question have been "devoted only to the objects and expended +in the methods set out in that appeal, and to and in no others." + +Nevertheless, their final conclusion runs as follows: "(4) That whilst +the invested property, real and personal, resulting from such Appeal +is so vested and controlled by the Trust of the Deed of January 30th, +1891, that any application of it to purposes other than those declared +in the deed by any 'General' of the Salvation Army would amount to a +breach of trust, and would subject him to the proceedings of a civil +and criminal character, before mentioned in the Report, ADEQUATE LEGAL +SAFEGUARDS DO NOT AT PRESENT EXIST TO PREVENT THE MISAPPLICATION OF +SUCH PROPERTY." + +The passage I have italicised forms part of a document dated December +19th, 1892. It follows, that, even after the Deed of January 30th, +1891, was executed, "adequate legal safeguards" "to prevent the +misapplication of the property" did not exist. What then was the state +of things, up to a week earlier, that is on January 22nd, 1891, when +my twelfth and last letter appeared in the "Times"? A better +justification for what I have said about the want of adequate security +for the proper administration of the funds intrusted to Mr. Booth +could not be desired, unless it be that which is to be found in the +following passages of the Report (pp. 36 and 37):-- + +"It is possible that a 'General' may be forgetful of his duty, and +sell property and appropriate the proceeds to his own use, or to +meeting the general liabilities of the Salvation Army. As matters now +stand, he, and he alone, would have control over such a sale. Against +such possibilities it appears to the Committee to be reasonable that +some check should be imposed." + +Once more let it be remembered that this opinion given under the hand +of Sir Henry James, was expressed by the Committee, with the Trust +Deed of 1891, which has been so sedulously flaunted before the public, +in full view. + +The Committee made a suggestion for the improvement of this very +unsatisfactory state of things; but the exact value set upon it by the +suggestors should be carefully considered (p.37). + +"The Committee are fully aware that if the views thus expressed are +carried out, the safeguards and checks created will not be sufficient +for all purposes absolutely to prevent possible dealing with the +property and moneys inconsistent with the purposes to which they are +intended to be devoted." + +In fact, they are content to express the very modest hope that "if the +suggestion made be acted upon, some hindrance will thereby be placed in +the way of any one acting dishonestly in respect of the disposal of +the property and moneys referred to." + +I do not know, and, under the circumstances, I cannot say I much care, +whether the suggestions of the Committee have, or have not, been acted +upon. Whether or not, the fact remains that an unscrupulous "General" +will have a pretty free hand, notwithstanding "some" hindrance. + +Thus, the judgment of the highly authoritative, and certainly not +hostile, Committee of 1892, upon the issues with which they concerned +themselves is hardly such as to inspire enthusiastic confidence. And +it is further to be borne in mind that they carefully excluded from +their duties "any examination of the principles, government, teaching, +or methods of the Salvation Army as a religious organization, or of +its affairs" except so far as they related to the administration of +the moneys collected by the "Darkest England" appeal. + +Consequently, the most important questions discussed in my letters were +not in any way touched by the Committee. Even if their report had been +far more favourable to the "Darkest England" scheme than it is; if it +had really assured the contributors that the funds raised were fully +secured against malversation; the objections, on social and political +grounds, to Mr. Booth's despotic organization, with its thousands of +docile satellites pledged to blind obedience, set forth in the +letters, would be in no degree weakened. The "sixpennyworth of good" +would still be out-weighed by the "shillingsworth of harm"; if indeed +the relative worth, or unworth, of the latter should not be rated in +pounds rather than in shillings. + +What would one not give for the opinion of the financial members of +the Committee about the famous Bank; and that of the legal experts +about the proposed "tribunes of the people"? + +HODESLEA, EASTBOURNE, + July, 1894. + + + + + CONTENTS + + I + + PAGE +EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. PROLEGOMENA [1894] . . . . . . 1 + + II + +EVOLUTION AND ETHICS [1893]. . . . . . . . . . . . .46 + + III + +SCIENCE AND MORALS [1886]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 + + IV + +CAPITAL--THE MOTHER OF LABOUR [1890] . . . . . . . 147 + + V + +SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES [1891]. . . . . 188 + +Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 +The Struggle for Existence in Human Society. 195 +Letters to the Times . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 +Legal Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 +The Articles of War of the Salvation Army. . 321 + + + + +[1] + + + I. + + EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. + + PROLEGOMENA. + + [1894.] + + + I. + +IT may be safely assumed that, two thousand years ago, before Caesar +set foot in southern Britain, the whole country-side visible from the +windows of the room in which I write, was in what is called "the state +of nature." Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, +such as those which still, here and there, break the flowing contours +of the downs, man's hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin veil +of vegetation which overspread the broad-backed heights and the +shelving sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry. The +native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse, contended +with one another for the possession of the scanty surface soil; they +fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of winter, and the +furious gales which swept, with unbroken force, now from the [2] +Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times of the year; they +filled up, as they best might, the gaps made in their ranks by all +sorts of underground and overground animal ravagers. One year with +another, an average population, the floating balance of the unceasing +struggle for existence among the indigenous plants, maintained itself. +It is as little to be doubted, that an essentially similar state of +nature prevailed, in this region, for many thousand years before the +coming of Caesar; and there is no assignable reason for denying that +it might continue to exist through an equally prolonged futurity, +except for the intervention of man. + +Reckoned by our customary standards of duration, the native vegetation, +like the "everlasting hills" which it clothes, seems a type of +permanence. The little Amarella Gentians, which abound in some places +to-day, are the descendants of those that were trodden underfoot, by +the prehistoric savages who have left their flint tools, about, here +and there; and they followed ancestors which, in the climate of the +glacial epoch, probably flourished better than they do now. Compared +with the long past of this humble plant, all the history of civilized +men is but an episode. + +Yet nothing is more certain than that, measured by the liberal scale +of time-keeping of the universe, this present state of nature, however +it may seem to have gone and to go on for ever, is [3] but a fleeting +phase of her infinite variety; merely the last of the series of +changes which the earth's surface has undergone in the course of the +millions of years of its existence. Turn back a square foot of the +thin turf, and the solid foundation of the land, exposed in cliffs of +chalk five hundred feet high on the adjacent shore, yields full +assurance of a time when the sea covered the site of the "everlasting +hills"; and when the vegetation of what land lay nearest, was as +different from the present Flora of the Sussex downs, as that of +Central Africa now is.* No less certain is it that, between the time +during which the chalk was formed and that at which the original turf +came into existence, thousands of centuries elapsed, in the course of +which, the state of nature of the ages during which the chalk was +deposited, passed into that which now is, by changes so slow that, in +the coming and going of the generations of men, had such witnessed +them, the contemporary conditions would have seemed to be unchanging +and unchangeable. + + * See "On a piece of Chalk" in the preceding volume of these + Essays (vol. viii. p. 1). + +But it is also certain that, before the deposition of the chalk, a +vastly longer period had elapsed; throughout which it is easy to +follow the traces of the same process of ceaseless modification and of +the internecine struggle for existence of living things; and that even +when we can get no further [4] back, it is not because there is any +reason to think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail +of the most ancient life remains hidden, or has become obliterated. + +Thus that state of nature of the world of plants which we began by +considering, is far from possessing the attribute of permanence. Rather +its very essence is impermanence. It may have lasted twenty or thirty +thousand years, it may last for twenty or thirty thousand years more, +without obvious change; but, as surely as it has followed upon a very +different state, so it will be followed by an equally different +condition. That which endures is not one or another association of +living forms, but the process of which the cosmos is the product, and +of which these are among the transitory expressions. And in the living +world, one of the most characteristic features of this cosmic process +is the struggle for existence, the competition of each with all, the +result of which is the selection, that is to say, the survival of +those forms which, on the whole, are best adapted, to the conditions +which at any period obtain; and which are, therefore, in that respect, +and only in that respect, the fittest.* The acme reached by the cosmic +[5] process in the vegetation of the downs is seen in the turf, with +its weeds and gorse. Under the conditions, they have come out of the +struggle victorious; and, by surviving, have proved that they are the +fittest to survive. + + * That every theory of evolution must be consistent not merely + with progressive development, but with indefinite persistence + in the same condition and with retrogressive modification, is a + point which I have insisted upon repeatedly from the year 1862 + till now. See Collected Essays, vol. ii. pp. 461-89; vol. iii. + p. 33; vol. viii. p. 304. In the address on "Geological + Contemporaneity and Persistent Types" (1862), the + paleontological proofs of this proposition were, I believe, + first set forth. + +That the state of nature, at any time, is a temporary phase of a +process of incessant change, which has been going on for innumerable +ages, appears to me to be a proposition as well established as any in +modern history. + +Paleontology assures us, in addition, that the ancient philosophers +who, with less reason, held the same doctrine, erred in supposing that +the phases formed a cycle, exactly repeating the past, exactly +foreshadowing the future, in their rotations. On the contrary, it +furnishes us with conclusive reasons for thinking that, if every link +in the ancestry of these humble indigenous plants had been preserved +and were accessible to us, the whole would present a converging series +of forms of gradually diminishing complexity, until, at some period in +the history of the earth, far more remote than any of which organic +remains have yet been discovered, they would merge in those low groups +among which the Boundaries between animal and vegetable life become +effaced.* + + * "On the Border Territory between the Animal and the Vegetable + Kingdoms," Essays, vol. viii. p. 162 + +[6] The word "evolution," now generally applied to the cosmic process, +has had a singular history, and is used in various senses.* Taken in +its popular signification it means progressive development, that is, +gradual change from a condition of relative uniformity to one of +relative complexity; but its connotation has been widened to include +the phenomena of retrogressive metamorphosis, that is, of progress +from a condition of relative complexity to one of relative uniformity. + +As a natural process, of the same character as the development of a +tree from its seed, or of a fowl from its egg, evolution excludes +creation and all other kinds of supernatural intervention. As the +expression of a fixed order, every stage of which is the effect of +causes operating according to definite rules, the conception of +evolution no less excludes that of chance. It is very desirable to +remember that evolution is not an explanation of the cosmic process, +but merely a generalized statement of the method and results of that +process. And, further, that, if there is proof that the cosmic process +was set going by any agent, then that agent will be, the creator of it +and of all its products, although supernatural intervention may remain +strictly excluded from its further course. + +So far as that limited revelation of the nature of things, which we +call scientific knowledge, has [7] yet gone, it tends, with constantly +increasing emphasis, to the belief that, not merely the world of +plants, but that of animals; not merely living things, but the whole +fabric of the earth; not merely our planet, but the whole solar +system; not merely our star and its satellites, but the millions of +similar bodies which bear witness to the order which pervades +boundless space, and has endured through boundless time; are all +working out their predestined courses of evolution. + + * See "Evolution in Biology," Essays, vol. ii. p. 187 + +With none of these have I anything to do, at present, except with that +exhibited by the forms of life which tenant the earth. All plants and +animals exhibit the tendency to vary, the causes of which have yet to +be ascertained; it is the tendency of the conditions of life, at any +given time, while favouring the existence of the variations best +adapted to them, to oppose that of the rest and thus to exercise +selection; and all living things tend to multiply without limit, while +the means of support are limited; the obvious cause of which is the +production of offspring more numerous than their progenitors, but with +equal expectation of life in the actuarial sense. Without the first +tendency there could be no evolution. Without the second, there would +be no good reason why one variation should disappear and another take +its place; that is to say there would be no selection. Without the [8] +third, the struggle for existence, the agent of the selective process +in the state of nature, would vanish.* + + * Collected Essays, vol. ii. passim. + +Granting the existence of these tendencies, all the known facts of the +history of plants and of animals may be brought into rational +correlation. And this is more than can be said for any other +hypothesis that I know of. Such hypotheses, for example, as that of +the existence of a primitive, orderless chaos; of a passive and +sluggish eternal matter moulded, with but partial success, by +archetypal ideas; of a brand-new world-stuff suddenly created and +swiftly shaped by a supernatural power; receive no encouragement, but +the contrary, from our present knowledge. That our earth may once have +formed part of a nebulous cosmic magma is certainly possible, indeed +seems highly probable; but there is no reason to doubt that order +reigned there, as completely as amidst what we regard as the most +finished works of nature or of man.** The faith which is born of +knowledge, finds its object in an eternal order, bringing forth +ceaseless change, through endless time, in endless space; the +manifestations of the cosmic energy alternating between phases of +potentiality and phases of explication. It may be that, as Kant +suggests,*** every cosmic [9] magma predestined to evolve into a new +world, has been the no less predestined end of a vanished predecessor. + + **Ibid., vol. iv. p. 138; vol. v. pp. 71-73. + ***Ibid., vol. viii. p. 321. + + + II. + +Three or four years have elapsed since the state of nature, to which I +have referred, was brought to an end, so far as a small patch of the +soil is concerned, by the intervention of man. The patch was cut off +from the rest by a wall; within the area thus protected, the native +vegetation was, as far as possible, extirpated; while a colony of +strange plants was imported and set down in its place. In short, it +was made into a garden. At the present time, this artificially treated +area presents an aspect extraordinarily different from that of so much +of the land as remains in the state of nature, outside the wall. +Trees, shrubs, and herbs, many of them appertaining to the state of +nature of remote parts of the globe, abound and flourish. Moreover, +considerable quantities of vegetables, fruits, and flowers are +produced, of kinds which neither now exist, nor have ever existed, +except under conditions such as obtain in the garden; and which, +therefore, are as much works of the art of man as the frames and +glasshouses in which some of them are raised. That the "state of Art," +thus created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and +dependent on him, would at once become [10] apparent, if the watchful +supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic +influences of the general cosmic process were no longer sedulously +warded off, or counteracted. The walls and gates would decay; +quadrupedal and bipedal intruders would devour and tread down the +useful and beautiful plants; birds, insects, blight, and mildew would +work their will; the seeds of the native plants, carried by winds or +other agencies, would immigrate, and in virtue of their long-earned +special adaptation to the local conditions, these despised native +weeds would soon choke their choice exotic rivals. A century or two +hence, little beyond the foundations of the wall and of the houses and +frames would be left, in evidence of the victory of the cosmic powers +at work in the state of nature, over the temporary obstacles to their +supremacy, set up by the art of the horticulturist. + +It will be admitted that the garden is as much a work of art,* or +artifice, as anything that can be mentioned. The energy localised in +certain human bodies, directed by similarly localised intellects, has +produced a collocation of other material bodies which could not be +brought about in the state of nature. The same proposition is true of +all the + + * The sense of the term "Art" is becoming narrowed; "work of + Art" to most people means a picture, a statue, or a piece of + bijouterie; by way of compensation "artist" has included in its + wide embrace cooks and ballet girls, no less than painters and + sculptors. + +[11] works of man's hands, from a flint implement to a cathedral or a +chronometer; and it is because it is true, that we call these things +artificial, term them works of art, or artifice, by way of +distinguishing them from the products of the cosmic process, working +outside man, which we call natural, or works of nature. The +distinction thus drawn between the works of nature and those of man, +is universally recognized; and it is, as I conceive, both useful and +justifiable. + + + III. + +No doubt, it may be properly urged that the operation of human energy +and intelligence, which has brought into existence and maintains the +garden, by what I have called "the horticultural process," is, +strictly speaking, part and parcel of the cosmic process. And no one +could more readily agree to that proposition than I. In fact, I do not +know that any one has taken more pains than I have, during the last +thirty years, to insist upon the doctrine, so much reviled in the +early part of that period, that man, physical, intellectual, and +moral, is as much a part of nature, as purely a product of the cosmic +process, as the humblest weed.* + + * See "Man's Place in Nature," Collected Essays, vol. vii., and + "On the Struggle for Existence in Human Society" (1888), below. + +But if, following up this admission, it is urged [12] that, such being +the case, the cosmic process cannot be in antagonism with that +horticultural process which is part of itself--I can only reply, that +if the conclusion that the two are antagonistic is logically absurd, +I am sorry for logic, because, as we have seen, the fact is so. The +garden is in the same position as every other work of man's art; it is +a result of the cosmic process working through and by human energy and +intelligence; and, as is the case with every other artificial thing +set up in the state of nature, the influences of the latter, are +constantly tending to break it down and destroy it. No doubt, the +Forth bridge and an ironclad in the offing, are, in ultimate resort, +products of the cosmic process; as much so as the river which flows +under the one, or the seawater on which the other floats. +Nevertheless, every breeze strains the bridge a little, every tide +does something to weaken its foundations; every change of temperature +alters the adjustment of its parts, produces friction and consequent +wear and tear. From time to time, the bridge must be repaired, just +as the ironclad must go into dock; simply because nature is always +tending to reclaim that which her child, man, has borrowed from her +and has arranged in combinations which are not those favoured by the +general cosmic process. + +Thus, it is not only true that the cosmic energy, working through man +upon a portion of [13] the plant world, opposes the same energy as it +works through the state of nature, but a similar antagonism is +everywhere manifest between the artificial and the natural. Even in +the state of nature itself, what is the struggle for existence but the +antagonism of the results of the cosmic process in the region of life, +one to another?* + + * Or to put the case still more simply. When a man lays hold of + the two ends of a piece of string and pulls them, with intent + to break it, the right arm is certainly exerted in antagonism + to the left arm; yet both arms derive their energy from the + same original source. + + + IV. + +Not only is the state of nature hostile to the state of art of the +garden; but the principle of the horticultural process, by which the +latter is created and maintained, is antithetic to that of the cosmic +process. The characteristic feature of the latter is the intense and +unceasing competition of the struggle for existence. The +characteristic of the former is the elimination of that struggle, by +the removal of the conditions which give rise to it. The tendency of +the cosmic process is to bring about the adjustment of the forms of +plant life to the current conditions; the tendency of the +horticultural process is the adjustment of the conditions to the needs +of the forms of plant life which the gardener desires to raise. + +The cosmic process uses unrestricted multiplication [14] as the means +whereby hundreds compete for the place and nourishment adequate for +one; it employs frost and drought to cut off the weak and unfortunate; +to survive, there is need not only of strength, but of flexibility and +of good fortune. + +The gardener, on the other hand, restricts multiplication; provides +that each plant shall have sufficient space and nourishment; protects +from frost and drought; and, in every other way, attempts to modify +the conditions, in such a manner as to bring about the survival of +those forms which most nearly approach the standard of the useful or +the beautiful, which he has in his mind. + +If the fruits and the tubers, the foliage and the flowers thus +obtained, reach, or sufficiently approach, that ideal, there is no +reason why the status quo attained should not be indefinitely +prolonged. So long as the state of nature remains approximately the +same, so long will the energy and intelligence which created the +garden suffice to maintain it. However, the limits within which this +mastery of man over nature can be maintained are narrow. If the +conditions of the cretaceous epoch returned, I fear the most skilful +of gardeners would have to give up the cultivation of apples and +gooseberries; while, if those of the glacial period once again +obtained, open asparagus beds would be superfluous, and the training +of fruit [15] trees against the most favourable of South walls, a +waste of time and trouble. + +But it is extremely important to note that, the state of nature +remaining the same, if the produce does not satisfy the gardener, it +may be made to approach his ideal more closely. Although the struggle +for existence may be at end, the possibility of progress remains. In +discussions on these topics, it is often strangely forgotten that the +essential conditions of the modification, or evolution, of living +things are variation and hereditary transmission. Selection is the +means by which certain variations are favoured and their progeny +preserved. But the struggle for existence is only one of the means by +which selection may be effected. The endless varieties of cultivated +flowers, fruits, roots, tubers, and bulbs are not products of +selection by means of the struggle for existence, but of direct +selection, in view of an ideal of utility or beauty. Amidst a multitude +of plants, occupying the same station and subjected to the same +conditions, in the garden, varieties arise. The varieties tending in a +given direction are preserved, and the rest are destroyed. And the +same process takes place among the varieties until, for example, the +wild kale becomes a cabbage, or the wild Viola tricolor, a prize +pansy. + +[16] + + + V. + +The process of colonisation presents analogies to the formation of a +garden which are highly instructive. Suppose a shipload of English +colonists sent to form a settlement, in such a country as Tasmania was +in the middle of the last century. On landing, they find themselves in +the midst of a state of nature, widely different from that left behind +them in everything but the most general physical conditions. The +common plants, the common birds and quadrupeds, are as totally +distinct as the men from anything to be seen on the side of the globe +from which they come. The colonists proceed to put an end to this +state of things over as large an area as they desire to occupy. They +clear away the native vegetation, extirpate or drive out the animal +population, so far as may be necessary, and take measures to defend +themselves from the re-immigration of either. In their place, they +introduce English grain and fruit trees; English dogs, sheep, cattle, +horses; and English men; in fact, they set up a new Flora and Fauna and +a new variety of mankind, within the old state of nature. Their farms +and pastures represent a garden on a great scale, and themselves the +gardeners who have to keep it up, in watchful antagonism to the old +regime. Considered as a whole, the colony is a composite unit +introduced into the old state of nature; and, [17] thenceforward, a +competitor in the struggle for existence, to conquer or be vanquished. + +Under the conditions supposed, there is no doubt of the result, if the +work of the colonists be carried out energetically and with +intelligent combination of all their forces. On the other hand, if +they are slothful, stupid, and careless; or if they waste their +energies in contests with one another, the chances are that the old +state of nature will have the best of it. The native savage will +destroy the immigrant civilized man; of the English animals and plants +some will be extirpated by their indigenous rivals, others will pass +into the feral state and themselves become components of the state of +nature. In a few decades, all other traces of the settlement will have +vanished. + + + VI. + +Let us now imagine that some administrative authority, as far superior +in power and intelligence to men, as men are to their cattle, is set +over the colony, charged to deal with its human elements in such a +manner as to assure the victory of the settlement over the +antagonistic influences of the state of nature in which it is set +down. He would proceed in the same fashion as that in which the +gardener dealt with his garden. In the first place, he would, as far +as possible, put a [18] stop to the influence of external competition +by thoroughly extirpating and excluding the native rivals, whether +men, beasts, or plants. And our administrator would select his human +agents, with a view to his ideal of a successful colony, just as the +gardener selects his plants with a view to his ideal of useful or +beautiful products. + +In the second place, in order that no struggle for the means of +existence between these human agents should weaken the efficiency of +the corporate whole in the battle with the state of nature, he would +make arrangements by which each would be provided with those means; +and would be relieved from the fear of being deprived of them by his +stronger or more cunning fellows. Laws, sanctioned by the combined +force of the colony, would restrain the self-assertion of each man +within the limits required for the maintenance of peace. In other +words, the cosmic struggle for existence, as between man and man, +would be rigorously suppressed; and selection, by its means, would be +as completely excluded as it is from the garden. + +At the same time, the obstacles to the full development of the +capacities of the colonists by other conditions of the state of nature +than those already mentioned, would be removed by the creation of +artificial conditions of existence of a more favourable character: +Protection against extremes of heat and cold would [19] be afforded by +houses and clothing; drainage and irrigation works would antagonise +the effects of excessive rain and excessive drought; roads, bridges, +canals, carriages, and ships would overcome the natural obstacles to +locomotion and transport; mechanical engines would supplement the +natural strength of men and of their draught animals; hygienic +precautions would check, or remove, the natural causes of disease. +With every step of this progress in civilization, the colonists would +become more and more independent of the state of nature; more and +more, their lives would be conditioned by a state of art. In order to +attain his ends, the administrator would have to avail himself of the +courage, industry, and co-operative intelligence of the settlers; and +it is plain that the interest of the community would be best served by +increasing the proportion of persons who possess such qualities, and +diminishing that of persons devoid of them. In other words, by +selection directed towards an ideal. + +Thus the administrator might look to the establishment of an earthly +paradise, a true garden of Eden, in which all things should work +together towards the well-being of the gardeners: within which the +cosmic process, the coarse struggle for existence of the state of +nature, should be abolished; in which that state should be replaced by +a state of art; [20] where every plant and every lower animal should +be adapted to human wants, and would perish if human supervision and +protection were withdrawn; where men themselves should have been +selected, with a view to their efficiency as organs for the +performance of the functions of a perfected society. And this ideal +polity would have been brought about, not by gradually adjusting the +men to the conditions around them, but by creating artificial +conditions for them; not by allowing the free play of the struggle for +existence, but by excluding that struggle; and by substituting +selection directed towards the administrator's ideal for the selection +it exercises. + + + VII. + +But the Eden would have its serpent, and a very subtle beast too. Man +shares with the rest of the living world the mighty instinct of +reproduction and its consequence, the tendency to multiply with great +rapidity. The better the measures of the administrator achieved their +object, the more completely the destructive agencies of the state of +nature were defeated, the less would that multiplication be checked. + +On the other hand, within the colony, the enforcement of peace, which +deprives every man of the power to take away the means of existence +from another, simply because he is the stronger, [21] would have put +an end to the struggle for existence between the colonists, and the +competition for the commodities of existence, which would alone +remain, is no check upon population. + +Thus, as soon as the colonists began to multiply, the administrator +would have to face the tendency to the reintroduction of the cosmic +struggle into his artificial fabric, in consequence of the +competition, not merely for the commodities, but for the means of +existence. When the colony reached the limit of possible expansion, +the surplus population must be disposed of somehow; or the fierce +struggle for existence must recommence and destroy that peace, which +is the fundamental condition of the maintenance of the state of art +against the state of nature. + +Supposing the administrator to be guided by purely scientific +considerations, he would, like the gardener, meet this most serious +difficulty by systematic extirpation, or exclusion, of the superfluous. +The hopelessly diseased, the infirm aged, the weak or deformed in body +or in mind, the excess of infants born, would be put away, as the +gardener pulls up defective and superfluous plants, or the breeder +destroys undesirable cattle. Only the strong and the healthy, +carefully matched, with a view to the progeny best adapted to the +purposes of the administrator, would be permitted to perpetuate their +kind. + +[22] + + + VIII. + +Of the more thoroughgoing of the multitudinous attempts to apply the +principles of cosmic evolution, or what are supposed to be such, to +social and political problems, which have appeared of late years, a +considerable proportion appear to me to be based upon the notion that +human society is competent to furnish, from its own resources, an +administrator of the kind I have imagined. The pigeons, in short, are +to be their own Sir John Sebright.* A despotic government, whether +individual or collective, is to be endowed with the preternatural +intelligence, and with what, I am afraid, many will consider the +preternatural ruthlessness, required for the purpose of carrying out +the principle of improvement by selection, with the somewhat drastic +thoroughness upon which the success of the method depends. Experience +certainly does not justify us in limiting the ruthlessness of +individual "saviours of society"; and, on the well-known grounds of +the aphorism which denies both body and soul to corporations, it seems +probable (indeed the belief is not without support in history) that a +collective despotism, a mob got to believe in its own divine right by +demagogic missionaries, would be capable of more thorough [23] work in +this direction than any single tyrant, puffed up with the same +illusion, has ever achieved. But intelligence is another affair. The +fact that "saviours of society" take to that trade is evidence enough +that they have none to spare. And such as they possess is generally +sold to the capitalists of physical force on whose resources they +depend. However, I doubt whether even the keenest judge of character, +if he had before him a hundred boys and girls under fourteen, could +pick out, with the least chance of success, those who should be kept, +as certain to be serviceable members of the polity, and those who +should be chloroformed, as equally sure to be stupid, idle, or +vicious. The "points" of a good or of a bad citizen are really far +harder to discern than those of a puppy or a short-horn calf; many do +not show themselves before the practical difficulties of life +stimulate manhood to full exertion. And by that time the mischief is +done. The evil stock, if it be one, has had time to multiply, and +selection is nullified. + + * Not that the conception of such a society is necessarily based + upon the idea of evolution. The Platonic state testifies to the + contrary. + + + IX. + +I have other reasons for fearing that this logical ideal of +evolutionary regimentation--this pigeon-fanciers' polity--is +unattainable. In the absence of any such a severely scientific +administrator as we have been dreaming of, human society [24] is kept +together by bonds of such a singular character, that the attempt to +perfect society after his fashion would run serious risk of loosening +them. Social organization is not peculiar to men. Other societies, +such as those constituted by bees and ants, have also arisen out of +the advantage of co-operation in the struggle for existence; and their +resemblances to, and their differences from, human society are alike +instructive. The society formed by the hive bee fulfils the ideal of +the communistic aphorism "to each according to his needs, from each +according to his capacity." Within it, the struggle for existence is +strictly limited. Queen, drones, and workers have each their allotted +sufficiency of food; each performs the function assigned to it in the +economy of the hive, and all contribute to the success of the whole +cooperative society in its competition with rival collectors of nectar +and pollen and with other enemies, in the state of nature without. In +the same sense as the garden, or the colony, is a work of human art, +the bee polity is a work of apiarian art, brought about by the cosmic +process, working through the organization of the hymenopterous type. + +Now this society is the direct product of an organic necessity, +impelling every member of it to a course of action which tends to the +good of the whole. Each bee has its duty and none [25] has any rights. +Whether bees are susceptible of feeling and capable of thought is a +question which cannot be dogmatically answered. As a pious opinion, I +am disposed to deny them more than the merest rudiments of +consciousness.* But it is curious to reflect that a thoughtful drone +(workers and queens would have no leisure for speculation) with a turn +for ethical philosophy, must needs profess himself an intuitive +moralist of the purest water. He would point out, with perfect +justice, that the devotion of the workers to a life of ceaseless toil +for a mere subsistence wage, cannot be accounted for either by +enlightened selfishness, or by any other sort of utilitarian motives; +since these bees begin to work, without experience or reflection, as +they emerge from the cell in which they are hatched. Plainly, an +eternal and immutable principle, innate in each bee, can alone account +for the phenomena. On the other hand, the biologist, who traces out +all the extant stages of gradation between solitary and hive bees, as +clearly sees in the latter, simply the perfection of an automatic +mechanism, hammered out by the blows of the struggle for existence +upon the progeny of the former, during long ages of constant +variation. + + * Collected Essays, vol. i., "Animal Automatism"; vol. v., + "Prologue," pp. 45 et seq. + +[26] + + + X. + +I see no reason to doubt that, at its origin, human society was as much +a product of organic necessity as that of the bees.* The human family, +to begin with, rested upon exactly the same conditions as those which +gave rise to similar associations among animals lower in the scale. +Further, it is easy to see that every increase in the duration of the +family ties, with the resulting co-operation of a larger and larger +number of descendants for protection and defence, would give the +families in which such modification took place a distinct advantage +over the others. And, as in the hive, the progressive limitation of +the struggle for existence between the members of the family would +involve increasing efficiency as regards outside competition. + +But there is this vast and fundamental difference between bee society +and human society. In the former, the members of the society are each +organically predestined to the performance of one particular class of +functions only. If they were endowed with desires, each could desire +to perform none but those offices for which its organization specially +fits it; and which, in view of the good of the whole, it is proper it +should do. So long as a new queen does not make her appearance, +rivalries, and competition are absent from the bee polity. + + * Collected Essays, vol v., Prologue, pp. 50-54, + +[27] Among mankind, on the contrary, there is no such predestination to +a sharply defined place in the social organism. However much men may +differ in the quality of their intellects, the intensity of their +passions, and the delicacy of their sensations, it cannot be said that +one is fitted by his organization to be an agricultural labourer and +nothing else, and another to be a landowner and nothing else. +Moreover, with all their enormous differences in natural endowment, +men agree in one thing, and that is their innate desire to enjoy the +pleasures and to escape the pains of life; and, in short, to do +nothing but that which it pleases them to do, without the least +reference to the welfare of the society into which they are born. That +is their inheritance (the reality at the bottom of the doctrine of +original sin) from the long series of ancestors, human and semi-human +and brutal, in whom the strength of this innate tendency to +self-assertion was the condition of victory in the struggle for +existence. That is the reason of the aviditas vitae*--the insatiable +hunger for enjoyment--of all mankind, which is one of the essential +conditions of success in the war with the state of nature outside; and +yet the sure agent of the destruction of society if allowed free play +within. + + * See below. Romanes' Lecture, note 7. + +The check upon this free play of self-assertion, or natural liberty, +which is the necessary condition for the origin of human society, is +the product [28] of organic necessities of a different kind from those +upon which the constitution of the hive depends. One of these is the +mutual affection of parent and offspring, intensified by the long +infancy of the human species. But the most important is the tendency, +so strongly developed in man, to reproduce in himself actions and +feelings similar to, or correlated with, those of other men. Man is +the most consummate of all mimics in the animal world; none but +himself can draw or model; none comes near him in the scope, variety, +and exactness of vocal imitation; none is such a master of gesture; +while he seems to be impelled thus to imitate for the pure pleasure of +it. And there is no such another emotional chameleon. By a purely +reflex operation of the mind, we take the hue of passion of those who +are about us, or, it may be, the complementary colour. It is not by +any conscious "putting one's self in the place" of a joyful or a +suffering person that the state of mind we call sympathy usually +arises; * indeed, it is often contrary to one's sense of [29] right, +and in spite of one's will, that "fellow-feeling makes us wondrous +kind," or the reverse. However complete may be the indifference to +public opinion, in a cool, intellectual view, of the traditional sage, +it has not yet been my fortune to meet with any actual sage who took +its hostile manifestations with entire equanimity. Indeed, I doubt if +the philosopher lives, or ever has lived who could know himself to be +heartily despised by a street boy without some irritation. And, +though one cannot justify Haman for wishing to hang Mordecai on such a +very high gibbet, yet, really, the consciousness of the Vizier of +Ahasuerus, as he went in and out of the gate, that this obscure Jew +had no respect for him, must have been very annoying.** + + * Adam Smith makes the pithy observation that the man who + sympathises with a woman in childbed, cannot be said to put + himself in her place. ("The Theory of the Moral Sentiments," + Part vii. sec. iii. chap. i.) Perhaps there is more humour than + force in the example; and, in spite of this and other + observations of the same tenor, I think that the one defect of + the remarkable work in which it occurs is that it lays too much + stress on conscious substitution, too little on purely reflex + sympathy. + + ** Esther v. 9-13. ". . . but when Haman saw Mordecai in the + king's gate, that he stood not up, nor moved for him, he was + full of indignation against Mordecai. . . . And Haman told them + of the glory of his riches . . . and all the things wherein the + king had promoted him . . . Yet all this availeth me nothing, + so long as I see Mordecai the Jew sitting at the king's gate." + What a shrewd exposure of human weakness it is! + +It is needful only to look around us, to see that the greatest +restrainer of the anti-social tendencies of men is fear, not of the +law, but of the opinion of their fellows. The conventions of honour +bind men who break legal, moral, and religious bonds; and, while +people endure the extremity of physical pain rather than part with +life, shame drives the weakest to suicide. + +Every forward step of social progress brings [30] men into closer +relations with their fellows, and increases the importance of the +pleasures and pains derived from sympathy. We judge the acts of others +by our own sympathies, and we judge our own acts by the sympathies of +others, every day and all day long, from childhood upwards, until +associations, as indissoluble as those of language, are formed between +certain acts and the feelings of approbation or disapprobation. It +becomes impossible to imagine some acts without disapprobation, or +others without approbation of the actor, whether he be one's self, or +any one else. We come to think in the acquired dialect of morals. An +artificial personality, the "man within," as Adam Smith* calls +conscience, is built up beside the natural personality. He is the +watchman of society, charged to restrain the anti-social tendencies of +the natural man within the limits required by social welfare. + + * "Theory of the Moral Sentiments," Part iii. chap. 3. On the + Influence and Authority of Conscience. + + + XI. + +I have termed this evolution of the feelings out of which the +primitive bonds of human society are so largely forged, into the +organized and personified sympathy we call conscience, the ethical +process.* So far as it tends to + + * Worked out, in its essential features, chiefly by Hartley and + Adam Smith, long before the modern doctrine of evolution was + thought of. See Note below, p. 45. + +[31] make any human society more efficient in the struggle for +existence with the state of nature, or with other societies, it works +in harmonious contrast with the cosmic process. But it is none the +less true that, since law and morals are restraints upon the struggle +for existence between men in society, the ethical process is in +opposition to the principle of the cosmic process, and tends to the +suppression of the qualities best fitted for success in that +struggle.* + + * See the essay "On the Struggle for Existence in Human Society" + below; and Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 276, for Kant's + recognition of these facts. + +It is further to be observed that, just as the self-assertion, +necessary to the maintenance of society against the state of nature, +will destroy that society if it is allowed free operation within; so +the self-restraint, the essence of the ethical process, which is no +less an essential condition of the existence of every polity, may, by +excess, become ruinous to it. + +Moralists of all ages and of all faiths, attending only to the +relations of men towards one another in an ideal society, have agreed +upon the "golden rule," "Do as you would be done by." In other words, +let sympathy be your guide; put yourself in the place of the man +towards whom your action is directed; and do to him what you would +like to have done to yourself under the circumstances. However much +one may admire the generosity of such a rule of [32] conduct; however +confident one may be that average men may be thoroughly depended upon +not to carry it out to its full logical consequences; it is +nevertheless desirable to recognise the fact that these consequences +are incompatible with the existence of a civil state, under any +circumstances of this world which have obtained, or, so far as one can +see, are, likely to come to pass. + +For I imagine there can be no doubt that the great desire of every +wrongdoer is to escape from the painful consequences of his actions. +If I put myself in the place of the man who has robbed me, I find that +I am possessed by an exceeding desire not to be fined or imprisoned; +if in that of the man who has smitten me on one cheek, I contemplate +with satisfaction the absence of any worse result than the turning of +the other cheek for like treatment. Strictly observed, the "golden +rule" involves the negation of law by the refusal to put it in motion +against law-breakers; and, as regards the external relations of a +polity, it is the refusal to continue the struggle for existence. It +can be obeyed, even partially, only under the protection of a society +which repudiates it. Without such shelter, the followers of the +"golden rule" may indulge in hopes of heaven, but they must reckon with +the certainty that other people will be masters of the earth. + +What would become of the garden if the [33] gardener treated all the +weeds and slugs, and birds and trespassers as he would like to be +treated, if he were in their place? + + + XII. + +Under the preceding heads, I have endeavoured to represent in broad, +but I hope faithful, outlines the essential features of the state of +nature and of that cosmic process of which it is the outcome, so far +as was needful for my argument; I have contrasted with the state of +nature the state of art, produced by human intelligence and energy, as +it is exemplified by a garden; and I have shown that the state of art, +here and elsewhere, can be maintained only by the constant +counteraction of the hostile influences of the state of nature. +Further, I have pointed out that the "horticultural process," which +thus sets itself against the "cosmic process" is opposed to the latter +in principle, in so far as it tends to arrest the struggle for +existence, by restraining the multiplication which is one of the chief +causes of that struggle, and by creating artificial conditions of +life, better adapted to the cultivated plants than are the conditions +of the state of nature. And I have dwelt upon the fact that, though +the progressive modification, which is the consequence of the struggle +for existence in the state of nature, is at an end, such modification +may still be effected [34] by that selection, in view of an ideal of +usefulness, or of pleasantness, to man, of which the state of nature +knows nothing. + +I have proceeded to show that a colony, set down in a country in the +state of nature, presents close analogies with a garden; and I have +indicated the course of action which an administrator, able and +willing to carry out horticultural principles, would adopt, in order +to secure the success of such a newly formed polity, supposing it to +be capable of indefinite expansion. In the contrary case, I have shown +that difficulties must arise; that the unlimited increase of the +population over a limited area must, sooner or later, reintroduce into +the colony that struggle for the means of existence between the +colonists, which it was the primary object of the administrator to +exclude, insomuch as it is fatal to the mutual peace which is the +prime condition of the union of men in society. + +I have briefly described the nature of the only radical cure, known to +me, for the disease which would thus threaten the existence of the +colony; and, however regretfully, I have been obliged to admit that +this rigorously scientific method of applying the principles of +evolution to human society hardly comes within the region of practical +politics; not for want of will on the part of a great many people; but +because, for one reason, there is no hope that mere human beings will +ever possess enough intelligence to select the fittest. And I [35] +have adduced other grounds for arriving at the same conclusion. + +I have pointed out that human society took its rise in the organic +necessities expressed by imitation and by the sympathetic emotions; +and that, in the struggle for existence with the state of nature and +with other societies, as part of it, those in which men were thus led +to close co-operation had a great advantage.* But, since each man +retained more or less of the faculties common to all the rest, and +especially a full share of the desire for unlimited +self-gratification, the struggle for existence within society could +only be gradually eliminated. So long as any of it remained, society +continued to be an imperfect instrument of the struggle for existence +and, consequently, was improvable by the selective influence of that +struggle. Other things being alike, the tribe of savages in which +order was best maintained; in which there was most security within the +tribe and the most loyal mutual support outside it, would be the +survivors. + + * Collected Essays, vol. v., Prologue, p. 52. + +I have termed this gradual strengthening of the social bond, which, +though it arrest the struggle for existence inside society, up to a +certain point improves the chances of society, as a corporate whole, +in the cosmic struggle--the ethical process. I have endeavoured to +show that, when the ethical process has advanced so far as to secure +[36] every member of the society in the possession of the means of +existence, the struggle for existence, as between man and man, within +that society is, ipso facto, at an end. And, as it is undeniable that +the most highly civilized societies have substantially reached this +position, it follows that, so far as they are concerned, the struggle +for existence can play no important part within them.* In other words, +the kind of evolution which is brought about in the state of nature +cannot take place. + + * Whether the struggle for existence with the state of nature + and with other societies, so far as they stand in the relation + of the state of nature with it, exerts a selective influence + upon modern society, and in what direction, are questions not + easy to answer. The problem of the effect of military and + industrial warfare upon those who wage it is very complicated. + +I have further shown cause for the belief that direct selection, after +the fashion of the horticulturist and the breeder, neither has played, +nor can play, any important part in the evolution of society; apart +from other reasons, because I do not see how such selection could be +practised without a serious weakening, it may be the destruction, of +the bonds which hold society together. It strikes me that men who are +accustomed to contemplate the active or passive extirpation of the +weak, the unfortunate, and the superfluous; who justify that conduct +on the ground that it has the sanction of the cosmic process, and is +the only way of ensuring the progress of the race; who, if [37] they +are consistent, must rank medicine among the black arts and count the +physician a mischievous preserver of the unfit; on whose matrimonial +undertakings the principles of the stud have the chief influence; +whose whole lives, therefore, are an education in the noble art of +suppressing natural affection and sympathy, are not likely to have any +large stock of these commodities left. But, without them, there is no +conscience, nor any restraint on the conduct of men, except the +calculation of self-interest, the balancing of certain present +gratifications against doubtful future pains; and experience tells us +how much that is worth. Every day, we see firm believers in the hell +of the theologians commit acts by which, as they believe when cool, +they risk eternal punishment; while they hold back from those which are +opposed to the sympathies of their associates. + + + XIII. + +That progressive modification of civilization which passes by the name +of the "evolution of society," is, in fact, a process of an +essentially different character, both from that which brings about the +evolution of species, in the state of nature, and from that which +gives rise to the evolution of varieties, in the state of art. + +There can be no doubt that vast changes have taken place in English +civilization since the reign [38] of the Tudors. But I am not aware of +a particle of evidence in favour of the conclusion that this +evolutionary process, has been accompanied by any modification of the +physical, or the mental, characters of the men who have been the +subjects of it. I have not met with any grounds for suspecting that +the average Englishmen of to-day are sensibly different from those +that Shakspere knew and drew. We look into his magic mirror of the +Elizabethan age, and behold, nowise darkly, the presentment of +ourselves. + +During these three centuries, from the reign of Elizabeth to that of +Victoria, the struggle for existence between man and man has been so +largely restrained among the great mass of the population (except for +one or two short intervals of civil war), that it can have had little, +or no, selective operation. As to anything comparable to direct +selection, it has been practised on so small a scale that it may also +be neglected. The criminal law, in so far as by putting to death or by +subjecting to long periods of imprisonment, those who infringe its +provisions, prevents the propagation of hereditary criminal +tendencies; and the poor-law, in so far as it separates married +couples, whose destitution arises from hereditary defects of +character, are doubtless selective agents operating in favour of the +non-criminal and the more effective members of society. But the +proportion of the population which they influence [39] is very small; +and, generally, the hereditary criminal and the hereditary pauper have +propagated their kind before the law affects them. In a large +proportion of cases, crime and pauperism have nothing to do with +heredity; but are the consequence, partly, of circumstances and, +partly, of the possession of qualities, which, under different +conditions of life, might have excited esteem and even admiration. It +was a shrewd man of the world who, in discussing sewage problems, +remarked that dirt is riches in the wrong place; and that sound +aphorism has moral applications. The benevolence and open-handed +generosity which adorn a rich man, may make a pauper of a poor one; +the energy and courage to which the successful soldier owes his rise, +the cool and daring subtlety to which the great financier owes his +fortune, may very easily, under unfavourable conditions, lead their +possessors to the gallows, or to the hulks. Moreover, it is fairly +probable that the children of a "failure" will receive from their +other parent just that little modification of character which makes +all the difference. I sometimes wonder whether people, who talk so +freely about extirpating the unfit, ever dispassionately consider +their own history. Surely, one must be very "fit," indeed, not to know +of an occasion, or perhaps two, in one's life, when it would have been +only too easy to qualify for a place among the "unfit." + +[40] In my belief the innate qualities, physical, intellectual, and +moral, of our nation have remained substantially the same for the last +four or five centuries. If the struggle for existence has affected us +to any serious extent (and I doubt it) it has been, indirectly, +through our military and industrial wars with other nations. + + + XIV. + +What is often called the struggle for existence in society (I plead +guilty to having used the term too loosely myself), is a contest, not +for the means of existence, but for the means of enjoyment. Those who +occupy the first places in this practical competitive examination are +the rich and the influential; those who fail, more or less, occupy the +lower places, down to the squalid obscurity of the pauper and the +criminal. Upon the most liberal estimate, I suppose the former group +will not amount to two per cent. of the population. I doubt if the +latter exceeds another two per cent.; but let it be supposed, for the +sake of argument, that it is as great as five per cent.* + + * Those who read the last Essay in this volume will not accuse + me of wishing to attenuate the evil of the existence of this + group, whether great or small. + +As it is only in the latter group that any thing comparable to the +struggle for existence in the state of nature can take place; as it is +[41] only among this twentieth of the whole people that numerous men, +women, and children die of rapid or slow starvation, or of the +diseases incidental to permanently bad conditions of life; and as +there is nothing to prevent their multiplication before they are +killed off, while, in spite of greater infant mortality, they increase +faster than the rich; it seems clear that the struggle for existence +in this class can have no appreciable selective influence upon the +other 95 per cent. of the population. + +What sort of a sheep breeder would he be who should content himself +with picking out the worst fifty out of a thousand, leaving them on a +barren common till the weakest starved, and then letting the survivors +go back to mix with the rest? And the parallel is too favourable; +since in a large number of cases, the actual poor and the convicted +criminals are neither the weakest nor the worst. + +In the struggle for the means of enjoyment, the qualities which ensure +success are energy, industry, intellectual capacity, tenacity of +purpose, and, at least, as much sympathy as is necessary to make a man +understand the feelings of his fellows. Were there none of those +artificial arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top +of society instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom,* +the struggle for the means [42] of enjoyment would ensure a constant +circulation of the human units of the social compound, from the bottom +to the top and from the top to the bottom. The survivors of the +contest, those who continued to form the great bulk of the polity, +would not be those "fittest" who got to the very top, but the great +body of the moderately "fit," whose numbers and superior propagative +power, enable them always to swamp the exceptionally endowed minority. + + * I have elsewhere lamented the absence from society of a + machinery for facilitating the descent of incapacity. + "Administrative Nihilism." Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 54. + +I think it must be obvious to every one, that, whether we consider the +internal or the external interests of society, it is desirable they +should be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest share +of energy, of industry, of intellectual capacity, of tenacity of +purpose, while they are not devoid of sympathetic humanity; and, in so +far as the struggle for the means of enjoyment tends to place such men +in possession of wealth and influence, it is a process which tends to +the good of society. But the process, as we have seen, has no real +resemblance to that which adapts living beings to current conditions +in the state of nature; nor any to the artificial selection of the +horticulturist. + +[43] To return, once more, to the parallel of horticulture. In the +modern world, the gardening of men by themselves is practically +restricted to the performance, not of selection, but of that other +function of the gardener, the creation of conditions more favourable +than those of the state of nature; to the end of facilitating the free +expansion of the innate faculties of the citizen, so far as it is +consistent with the general good. And the business of the moral and +political philosopher appears to me to be the ascertainment, by the +same method of observation, experiment, and ratiocination, as is +practised in other kinds of scientific work, of the course of conduct +which will best conduce to that end. + +But, supposing this course of conduct to be scientifically determined +and carefully followed out, it cannot put an end to the struggle for +existence in the state of nature; and it will not so much as tend, in +any way, to the adaptation of man to that state. Even should the whole +human race be absorbed in one vast polity, within which "absolute +political justice" reigns, the struggle for existence with the state +of nature outside it, and the tendency to the return to the struggle +within, in consequence of over-multiplication, will remain; and, +unless men's inheritance from the ancestors who fought a good fight in +the state of [44] nature, their dose of original sin, is rooted out by +some method at present unrevealed, at any rate to disbelievers in +supernaturalism, every child born into the world will still bring with +him the instinct of unlimited self-assertion. He will have to learn +the lesson of self-restraint and renunciation. But the practice of +self-restraint and renunciation is not happiness, though it may be +something much better. + +That man, as a "political animal," is susceptible of a vast amount of +improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of +his intelligence to the adaptation of the conditions of life to his +higher needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But so long as he +remains liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is +compelled to be perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose +ends are not his ends, without and within himself; so long as he is +haunted by inexpugnable memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as +the recognition of his intellectual limitations forces him to +acknowledge his incapacity to penetrate the mystery of existence; the +prospect of attaining untroubled happiness, or of a state which can, +even remotely, deserve the title of perfection, appears to me to be as +misleading an illusion as ever was dangled before the eyes of poor +humanity. And there have been many of them. + +That which lies before the human race is a [45] constant struggle to +maintain and improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State +of Art of an organized polity; in which, and by which, man may develop +a worthy civilization, capable of maintaining and constantly improving +itself, until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far +upon its downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; +and, once more, the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our +planet. + + Note: (See p. 30).--It seems the fashion nowadays to ignore +Hartley; though, a century and a half ago, he not only laid the +foundations but built up much of the superstructure of a true theory +of the Evolution of the intellectual and moral faculties. He speaks of +what I have termed the ethical process as "our Progress from +Self-interest to Self-annihilation." Observations on Man (1749), vol. +ii p. 281. + +[46] + + II. + + EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. + + [The Romanes Lecture, 1893.] + +Soleo enim et in aliena castra transire, non tanquam transfuga sed +tanquam explorator. (L. ANNAEI SENECAE EPIST. II. 4.) + +THERE is a delightful child's story, known by the title of "Jack and +the Bean-stalk," with which my contemporaries who are present will be +familiar. But so many of our grave and reverend Juniors have been +brought up on severer intellectual diet, and, perhaps, have become +acquainted with fairyland only through primers of comparative +mythology, that it may be needful to give an outline of the tale. It +is a legend of a bean-plant, which grows and grows until it reaches +the high heavens and there spreads out into a vast canopy of foliage. +The hero, being moved to climb the stalk, discovers that the leafy +expanse supports a world composed of the same elements as that below +but yet strangely new; and his adventures there, on which I may not +dwell, must [47] have completely changed his views of the nature of +things; though the story, not having been composed by, or for, +philosophers, has nothing to say about views. + +My present enterprise has a certain analogy to that of the daring +adventurer. I beg you to accompany me in an attempt to reach a world +which, to many, is probably strange, by the help of a bean. It is, as +you know, a simple, inert-looking thing. Yet, if planted under proper +conditions, of which sufficient warmth is one of the most important, +it manifests active powers of a very remarkable kind. A small green +seedling emerges, rises to the surface of the soil, rapidly increases +in size and, at the same time, undergoes a series of metamorphoses +which do not excite our wonder as much as those which meet us in +legendary history, merely because they are to be seen every day and +all day long. + +By insensible steps, the plant builds itself up into a large and +various fabric of root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit, every one +moulded within and without in accordance with an extremely complex +but, at the same time, minutely defined pattern. In each of these +complicated structures, as in their smallest constituents, there is an +immanent energy which, in harmony with that resident in all the +others, incessantly works towards the maintenance ,of the whole and +the efficient performance of the part which it has to play in the +economy of nature. + +[48] But no sooner has the edifice, reared with such exact +elaboration, attained completeness, than it begins to crumble. By +degrees, the plant withers and disappears from view, leaving behind +more or fewer apparently inert and simple bodies, just like the bean +from which it sprang; and, like it, endowed with the potentiality of +giving rise to a similar cycle of manifestations. Neither the poetic +nor the scientific imagination is put to much strain in the search +after analogies with this process of going forth and, as it were, +returning to the starting-point. It may be likened to the ascent and +descent of a slung stone, or the course of an arrow along its +trajectory. Or we may say that the living energy takes first an upward +and then a downward road. Or it may seem preferable to compare the +expansion of the germ into the full-grown plant, to the unfolding of a +fan, or to the rolling forth and widening of a stream; and thus to +arrive at the conception of "development," or "evolution." Here, as +elsewhere, names are "noise and smoke"; the important point is to have +a clear and adequate conception of the fact signified by a name. And, +in this case, the fact is the Sisyphaean process, in the course of +which, the living and growing plant passes from the relative +simplicity and latent potentiality of the seed to the full epiphany of +a highly differentiated type, thence to fall back to simplicity and +potentiality. + +[49] The value of a strong intellectual grasp of the nature of this +process lies in the circumstance that what is true of the bean is true +of living things in general. From very low forms up to the highest--in +the animal no less than in the vegetable kingdom--the process of life +presents the same appearance [Note 1] of cyclical evolution. Nay, we +have but to cast our eyes over the rest of the world and cyclical +change presents itself on all sides. It meets us in the water that +flows to the sea and returns to the springs; in the heavenly bodies +that wax and wane, go and return to their places; in the inexorable +sequence of the ages of man's life; in that successive rise, apogee, +and fall of dynasties and of states which is the most prominent topic +of civil history. + +As no man fording a swift stream can dip his foot twice into the same +water, so no man can, with exactness, affirm of anything in the +sensible world that it is.[Note 2] As he utters the words, nay, as he +thinks them, the predicate ceases to be applicable; the present has +become the past; the "is" should be "was." And the more we learn of +the nature of things, the more evident is it that what we call rest is +only unperceived activity; that seeming peace is silent but strenuous +battle. In every part, at every moment, the state of the cosmos is the +expression of a transitory adjustment of contending forces; a scene, +of strife, in which all the combatants fall in turn. What is [50] true +of each part, is true of the whole. Natural knowledge tends more and +more to the conclusion that "all the choir of heaven and furniture of +the earth" are the transitory forms of parcels of cosmic substance +wending along the road of evolution, from nebulous potentiality, +through endless growths of sun and planet and satellite; through all +varieties of matter; through infinite diversities of life and thought; +possibly, through modes of being of which we neither have a +conception, nor are competent to form any, back to the indefinable +latency from which they arose. Thus the most obvious attribute of the +cosmos is its impermanence. It assumes the aspect not so much of a +permanent entity as of a changeful process in which naught endures +save the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades it. + +We have climbed our bean-stalk and have reached a wonderland in which +the common and the familiar become things new and strange. In the +exploration of the cosmic process thus typified, the highest +intelligence of man finds inexhaustible employment; giants are subdued +to our service; and the spiritual affections of the contemplative +philosopher are engaged by beauties worthy of eternal constancy. + +But there is another aspect of the cosmic process, so perfect as a +mechanism, so beautiful as a work of art. Where the cosmopoietic energy +[51] works through sentient beings, there arises, among its other +manifestations, that which we call pain or suffering. This baleful +product of evolution increases in quantity and in intensity, with +advancing grades of animal organization, until it attains its highest +level in man. Further, the consummation is not reached in man, the +mere animal; nor in man, the whole or half savage; but only in man, +the member of an organized polity. And it is a necessary consequence +of his attempt to live in this way; that is, under those conditions +which are essential to the full development of his noblest powers. + +Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the +sentient world, and has become the superb animal which he is, in +virtue of his success in the struggle for existence. The conditions +having been of a certain order, man's organization has adjusted itself +to them better than that of his competitors in the cosmic strife. In +the case of mankind, the self-assertion, the unscrupulous seizing upon +all that can be grasped, the tenacious holding of all that can be +kept, which constitute the essence of the struggle for existence, have +answered. For his successful progress, throughout the savage state, +man has been largely indebted to those qualities which he shares with +the ape and the tiger; his exceptional physical organization; his +cunning, his sociability, his curiosity, and his imitativeness; his +ruthless and [52] ferocious destructiveness when his anger is roused +by opposition. + +But, in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social +organization, and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth, +these deeply ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects. +After the manner of successful persons, civilized man would gladly +kick down the ladder by which he has climbed. He would be only too +pleased to see "the ape and tiger die." But they decline to suit his +convenience; and the unwelcome intrusion of these boon companions of +his hot youth into the ranged existence of civil life adds pains and +griefs, innumerable and immeasurably great, to those which the cosmic +process necessarily brings on the mere animal. In fact, civilized man +brands all these ape and tiger promptings with the name of sins; he +punishes many of the acts which flow from them as crimes; and, in +extreme cases, he does his best to put an end to the survival of the +fittest of former days by axe and rope. + +I have said that civilized man has reached this point; the assertion +is perhaps too broad and general; I had better put it that ethical man +has attained thereto. The science of ethics professes to furnish us +with a reasoned rule of life; to tell us what is right action and why +it is so. Whatever differences of opinion may exist among experts +there is a general consensus that the ape and [53] tiger methods of +the struggle for existence are not reconcilable with sound ethical +principles. + +The hero of our story descended the bean-stalk, and came back to the +common world, where fare and work were alike hard; where ugly +competitors were much commoner than beautiful princesses; and where +the everlasting battle with self was much less sure to be crowned with +victory than a turn-to with a giant. We have done the like. Thousands +upon thousands of our fellows, thousands of years ago, have preceded +us in finding themselves face to face with the same dread problem of +evil. They also have seen that the cosmic process is evolution; that +it is full of wonder, full of beauty, and, at the same time, full of +pain. They have sought to discover the bearing of these great facts on +ethics; to find out whether there is, or is not, a sanction for +morality in the ways of the cosmos. + +Theories of the universe, in which the conception of evolution plays a +leading part, were extant at least six centuries before our era. +Certain knowledge of them, in the fifth century, reaches us from +localities as distant as the valley of the Ganges and the Asiatic +coasts of the Aegean. To the early philosophers of Hindostan, no less +than to those of Ionia, the salient and characteristic feature of the +phenomenal world was its [54] changefulness; the unresting flow of all +things, through birth to visible being and thence to not being, in +which they could discern no sign of a beginning and for which they saw +no prospect of an ending. It was no less plain to some of these +antique forerunners of modern philosophy that suffering is the badge +of all the tribe of sentient things; that it is no accidental +accompaniment, but an essential constituent of the cosmic process. The +energetic Greek might find fierce joys in a world in which "strife is +father and king;" but the old Aryan spirit was subdued to quietism in +the Indian sage; the mist of suffering which spread over humanity hid +everything else from his view; to him life was one with suffering and +suffering with life. + +In Hindostan, as in Ionia, a period of relatively high and tolerably +stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi-barbarism and +struggle. Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement, +and, close at their heels, had followed the malady of thought. To the +struggle for bare existence, which never ends, though it may be +alleviated and partially disguised for a fortunate few, succeeded the +struggle to make existence intelligible and to bring the order of +things into harmony with the moral sense of man, which also never +ends, but, for the thinking few, becomes keen er with every increase +of knowledge and with every step towards the realization of a worthy +ideal of life. + +[55] Two thousand five hundred years ago, the value of civilization was +as apparent as it is now; then, as now, it was obvious that only in +the garden of an orderly polity can the finest fruits humanity is +capable of bearing be produced. But it had also become evident that +the blessings of culture were not unmixed. The garden was apt to turn +into a hothouse. The stimulation of the senses, the pampering of the +emotions, endlessly multiplied the sources of pleasure. The constant +widening of the intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of +that especially human faculty of looking before and after, which adds +to the fleeting present those old and new worlds of the past and the +future, wherein men dwell the more the higher their culture. But that +very sharpening of the sense and that subtle refinement of emotion, +which brought such a wealth of pleasures, were fatally attended by a +proportional enlargement of the capacity for suffering; and the divine +faculty of imagination, while it created new heavens and new earths, +provided them with the corresponding hells of futile regret for the +past and morbid anxiety for the future. [Note 3] Finally, the +inevitable penalty of over-stimulation, exhaustion, opened the gates +of civilization to its great enemy, ennui; the stale and flat +weariness when man delights-not, nor woman neither; when all things +are vanity and vexation; and life seems not worth living except to +escape the bore of dying. + +[56] Even purely intellectual progress brings about its revenges. +Problems settled in a rough and ready way by rude men, absorbed in +action, demand renewed attention and show themselves to be still +unread riddles when men have time to think. The beneficent demon, +doubt, whose name is Legion and who dwells amongst the tombs of old +faiths, enters into mankind and thenceforth refuses to be cast out. +Sacred customs, venerable dooms of ancestral wisdom, hallowed by +tradition and professing to hold good for all time, are put to the +question. Cultured reflection asks for their credentials; judges them +by its own standards; finally, gathers those of which it approves into +ethical systems, in which the reasoning is rarely much more than a +decent pretext for the adoption of foregone conclusions. + +One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the +conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are +associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one +another; its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide +by that agreement; and, so far as they waver, that mutual trust which +is the bond of society is weakened or destroyed. Wolves could not hunt +in packs except for the real, though unexpressed, understanding that +they should not attack one another during the chase. The most +rudimentary polity is a pack of men living under the like tacit, or +expressed, [57] understanding; and having made the very important +advance upon wolf society, that they agree to use the force of the +whole body against individuals who violate it and in favour of those +who observe it. This observance of a common understanding, with the +consequent distribution of punishments and rewards according to +accepted rules, received the name of justice, while the contrary was +called injustice. Early ethics did not take much note of the animus of +the violator of the rules. But civilization could not advance far, +without the establishment of a capital distinction between the case of +involuntary and that of wilful misdeed; between a merely wrong action +and a guilty one. And, with increasing refinement of moral +appreciation, the problem of desert, which arises out of this +distinction, acquired more and more theoretical and practical +importance. If life must be given for life, yet it was recognized that +the unintentional slayer did not altogether deserve death; and, by a +sort of compromise between the public and the private conception of +justice, a sanctuary was provided in which he might take refuge from +the avenger of blood. + +The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from +punishment and reward according to acts, to punishment and reward +according to desert; or, in other words, according to motive. +Righteousness, that is, action from right motive, [58] not only became +synonymous with justice, but the positive constituent of innocence and +the very heart of goodness. + +Now when the ancient sage, whether Indian or Greek, who had attained to +this conception of goodness, looked the world, and especially human +life, in the face, he found it as hard as we do to bring the course of +evolution into harmony with even the elementary requirement of the +ethical ideal of the just and the good. + +If there is one thing plainer than another, it is that neither the +pleasures nor the pains of life, in the merely animal world, are +distributed according to desert; for it is admittedly impossible for +the lower orders of sentient beings, to deserve either the one or the +other. If there is a generalization from the facts of human life which +has the assent of thoughtful men in every age and country, it is that +the violator of ethical rules constantly escapes the punishment which +he deserves; that the wicked flourishes like a green bay tree, while, +the righteous begs his bread; that the sins of the fathers are visited +upon the children; that, in the realm of nature, ignorance is punished +just as severely as wilful wrong; and that thousands upon thousands of +innocent beings suffer for the crime, or the unintentional trespass of +one. + +Greek and Semite and Indian are agreed upon [59] this subject. The book +of Job is at one with the "Works and Days" and the Buddhist Sutras; +the Psalmist and the Preacher of Israel, with the Tragic Poets of +Greece. What is a more common motive of the ancient tragedy in fact, +than the unfathomable injustice of the nature of things; what is more +deeply felt to be true than its presentation of the destruction of the +blameless by the work of his own hands, or by the fatal operation of +the sins of others? Surely Oedipus was pure of heart; it was the +natural sequence of events--the cosmic process--which drove him, in +all innocence, to slay his father and become the husband of his +mother, to the desolation of his people and his own headlong ruin. Or +to step, for a moment, beyond the chronological limits I have set +myself, what constitutes the sempiternal attraction of Hamlet but the +appeal to deepest experience of that history of a no less blameless +dreamer, dragged, in spite of himself, into a world out of joint +involved in a tangle of crime and misery, created by one of the prime +agents of the cosmic process as it works in and through man? + +Thus, brought before the tribunal of ethics, the cosmos might well seem +to stand condemned. The conscience of man revolted against the moral +indifference of nature, and the microcosmic atom should have found the +illimitable macrocosm guilty. But few, or none, ventured to record +that verdict. + +[60] In the great Semitic trial of this issue, Job takes refuge in +silence and submission; the Indian and the Greek, less wise perhaps, +attempt to reconcile the irreconcilable and plead for the defendant. +To this end, the Greeks invented Theodicies; while the Indians devised +what, in its ultimate form, must rather be termed a Cosmodicy. For, +although Buddhism recognizes gods many and lords many, they are +products of the cosmic process; and transitory, however long enduring, +manifestations of its eternal activity. In the doctrine of +transmigration, whatever its origin, Brahminical and Buddhist +speculation found, ready to hand[Note 4] the means of constructing a +plausible vindication of the ways of the cosmos to man. If this world +is full of pain and sorrow; if grief and evil fall, like the rain, +upon both the just and the unjust; it is because, like the rain, they +are links in the endless chain of natural causation by which past, +present, and future are indissolubly connected; and there is no more +injustice in the one case than in the other. Every sentient being is +reaping as it has sown; if not in this life, then in one or other of +the infinite series of antecedent existences of which it is the latest +term. The present distribution of good and evil is, therefore, the +algebraical sum of accumulated positive and negative deserts; or, +rather, it depends on the floating balance of the account. For it was +not thought necessary that a complete settlement [61] should ever take +place. Arrears might stand over as a sort of "hanging gale;" a period +of celestial happiness just earned might be succeeded by ages of +torment in a hideous nether world, the balance still overdue for some +remote ancestral error. [Note 5] + +Whether the cosmic process looks any more moral than at first, after +such a vindication, may perhaps be questioned. Yet this plea of +justification is not less plausible than others; and none but very +hasty thinkers will reject it on the ground of inherent absurdity. +Like the doctrine of evolution itself, that of transmigration has its +roots in the world of reality; and it may claim such support as the +great argument from analogy is capable of supplying. + +Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped +under the name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious +marks of his parentage, perhaps of remoter relationships. More +particularly, the sum of tendencies to act in a certain way, which we +call "character," is often to be traced through a long series of +progenitors and collaterals. So we may justly say that this +"character"--this moral and intellectual essence of a man--does +veritably pass over from one fleshly tabernacle to another, and does +really transmigrate from generation to generation. In the new-born +infant, the character of the stock lies latent, and the Ego is little +more [62] than a bundle of potentialities. But, very early, these +become acutalities; from childhood to age they manifest themselves in +dulness or brightness, weakness or strength, viciousness or +uprightness; and with each feature modified by confluence with another +character, if by nothing else, the character passed on to its +incarnation in new bodies. + +The Indian philosophers called character, as thus defined, +"karma."[Note 6] It is this karma which passed from life to life and +linked them in the chain of transmigrations; and they held that it is +modified in each life, not merely by confluence of parentage, but by +its own acts. They were, in fact, strong believers in the theory, so +much disputed just at present, of the hereditary transmission of +acquired characters. That the manifestation of the tendencies of a +character may be greatly facilitated, or impeded, by conditions, of +which self-discipline, or the absence of it, are among the most +important, is indubitable; but that the character itself is modified +in this way is by no means so certain; it is not so sure that the +transmitted character of an evil liver is worse, or that of a +righteous man better, than that which he received. Indian philosophy, +however, did not admit of any doubt on this subject; the belief in the +influence of conditions, notably of self-discipline, on the karma was +not merely a necessary postulate of its theory of retribution, but it +presented [63] the only way of escape from the endless round of +transmigrations. + +The earlier forms of Indian philosophy agreed with those prevalent in +our own times, in supposing the existence of a permanent reality, or +"substance," beneath the shifting series of phenomena, whether of +matter or of mind. The substance of the cosmos was "Brahma," that of +the individual man "Atman;" and the latter was separated from the +former only, if I may so speak, by its phenomenal envelope, by the +casing of sensations, thoughts and desires, pleasures and pains, which +make up the illusive phantasmagoria of life. This the ignorant take +for reality; their "Atman" therefore remains eternally imprisoned in +delusions, bound by the fetters of desire and scourged by the whip of +misery. But the man who has attained enlightenment sees that the +apparent reality is mere illusion, or, as was said a couple of +thousand years later, that there is nothing good nor bad but thinking +makes it so. If the cosmos is just "and of our pleasant vices makes +instruments to scourge us," it would seem that the only way to escape +from our heritage of evil is to destroy that fountain of desire whence +our vices flow; to refuse any longer to be the instruments of the +evolutionary process, and withdraw from the struggle for existence. If +the karma is modifiable by self-discipline, if its coarser desires, +one after another, can be extinguished, the ultimate [64] fundamental +desire of self-assertion, or the desire to be, may also be destroyed. +[Note 7] Then the bubble of illusion will burst, and the freed +individual "Atman" will lose itself in the universal "Brahma." + +Such seems to have been the pre-Buddhistic conception of salvation, and +of the way to be followed by those who would attain thereto. No more +thorough mortification of the flesh has ever been attempted than-that +achieved by the Indian ascetic anchorite; no later monachism has so +nearly succeeded in reducing the human mind to that condition of +impassive quasi-somnambulism, which, but for its acknowledged +holiness, might run the risk of being confounded with idiocy. + +And this salvation, it will be observed, was to be attained through +knowledge, and by action based on that knowledge; just as the +experimenter, who would obtain a certain physical or chemical result, +must have a knowledge of the natural laws involved and the persistent +disciplined will adequate to carry out all the various operations +required. The supernatural, in our sense of the term, was entirely +excluded. There was no external power which could affect the sequence +of cause and effect which gives rise to karma; none but the will of +the subject of the karma which could put an end to it. + +Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of +which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline. It was folly to +continue [65] to exist when an overplus of pain was certain; and the +probabilities in favour of the increase of misery with the +prolongation of existence, were so overwhelming. Slaying the body only +made matters worse; there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by +the voluntary arrest of all its activities. Property, social ties, +family affections, common companionship, must be abandoned; the most +natural appetites, even that for food, must be suppressed, or at least +minimized; until all that remained of a man was the impassive, +extenuated, mendicant monk, self-hypnotised into cataleptic trances, +which the deluded mystic took for foretastes of the final union with +Brahma. + +The founder of Buddhism accepted the chief postulates demanded by his +predecessors. But he was not satisfied with the practical annihilation +involved in merging the individual existence in the unconditioned--the +Atman in Brahma. It would seem that the admission of the existence of +any substance whatever--even of the tenuity of that which has neither +quality nor energy and of which no predicate whatever can be +asserted--appeared to him to be a danger and a snare. Though reduced +to a hypostatized negation, Brahma was not to be trusted; so long as +entity was there, it might conceivably resume the weary round of +evolution, with all its train of immeasurable miseries. Gautama got +rid of even that [66] shade of a shadow of permanent existence by a +metaphysical tour de force of great interest to the student of +philosophy, seeing that it supplies the wanting half of Bishop +Berkeley's well-known idealistic argument. + +Granting the premises, I am not aware of any escape from Berkeley's +conclusion, that the "substance" of matter is a metaphysical unknown +quantity, of the existence of which there is no proof. What Berkeley +does not seem to have so clearly perceived is that the non-existence +of a substance of mind is equally arguable; and that the result of the +impartial applications of his reasonings is the reduction of the All +to coexistences and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond which +there is nothing cognoscible. It is a remarkable indication of the +subtlety of Indian speculation that Gautama should have seen deeper +than the greatest of modern idealists; though it must be admitted +that, if some of Berkeley's reasonings respecting the nature of spirit +are pushed home, they reach pretty much the same conclusion. [Note 8] + +Accepting the prevalent Brahminical doctrine that the whole cosmos, +celestial, terrestrial, and infernal, with its population of gods and +other celestial beings, of sentient animals, of Mara and his devils, +is incessantly shifting through recurring cycles of production and +destruction, in each of which every human being has his transmigratory +[67] representative, Gautama proceeded to eliminate substance +altogether; and to reduce the cosmos to a mere flow of sensations, +emotions, volitions, and thoughts, devoid of any substratum. As, on +the surface of a stream of water, we see ripples and whirlpools, which +last for a while and then vanish with the causes that gave rise to +them, so what seem individual existences are mere temporary +associations of phenomena circling round a centre, "like a dog tied to +a post." In the whole universe there is nothing permanent, no eternal +substance either of mind or of matter. Personality is a metaphysical +fancy; and in very truth, not only we, but all things, in the worlds +without end of the cosmic phantasmagoria, are such stuff as dreams are +made of. + +What then becomes of karma? Karma remains untouched. As the peculiar +form of energy we call magnetism may be transmitted from a loadstone +to a piece of steel, from the steel to a piece of nickel, as it may be +strengthened or weakened by the conditions to which it is subjected +while resident in each piece, so it seems to have been conceived that +karma might be transmitted from one phenomenal association to another +by a sort of induction. However this may be, Gautama doubtless had a +better guarantee for the abolition of transmigration, when no wrack of +substance, either of Atman or of Brahma, was left behind; when, in +short, a man had but to [68] dream that he willed not to dream, to put +an end to all dreaming. + +This end of life's dream is Nirvana. What Nirvana is the learned do +not agree. But, since the best original authorities tell us there is +neither desire nor activity, nor any possibility of phenomenal +reappearance for the sage who has entered Nirvana, it may be safely +said of this acme of Buddhistic philosophy--"the rest is silence." + +[Note 9] Thus there is no very great practical disagreement between +Gautama and his predecessors with respect to the end of action; but it +is otherwise as regards the means to that end. With just insight into +human nature, Gautama declared extreme ascetic practices to be useless +and indeed harmful. The appetites and the passions are not to be +abolished by mere mortification of the body; they must, in addition, +be attacked on their own ground and conquered by steady cultivation of +the mental habits which oppose them; by universal benevolence; by the +return of good for evil; by humility; by abstinence from evil thought; +in short, by total renunciation of that self-assertion which is the +essence of the cosmic process. + +Doubtless, it is to these ethical qualities that Buddhism owes its +marvellous success.[Note 10] A system which knows no God in the +western sense; which denies a soul to man; which counts the belief in +immortality a blunder and the hope of it a sin; [69] which refuses any +efficacy to prayer and sacrifice; which bids men look to nothing but +their own efforts for salvation; which, in its original purity, knew +nothing of vows of obedience, abhorred intolerance, and never sought +the aid of the secular arm; yet spread over a considerable moiety of +the Old World with marvellous rapidity, and is still, with whatever +base admixture of foreign superstitions, the dominant creed of a large +fraction of mankind. + +Let us now set our faces westwards, towards Asia Minor and Greece and +Italy, to view the rise and progress of another philosophy, apparently +independent, but no less pervaded by the conception of evolution.[Note +11] + +The sages of Miletus were pronounced evolutionists; and, however dark +may be some of the sayings of Heracleitus of Ephesus, who was probably +a contemporary of Gautama, no better expressions of the essence of the +modern doctrine of evolution can be found than are presented by some +of his pithy aphorisms and striking metaphors. [Note 12] Indeed, many +of my present auditors must have observed that, more than once, I have +borrowed from him in the brief exposition of the theory of evolution +with which this discourse commenced. + +But when the focus of Greek intellectual activity shifted to Athens, +the leading minds [70] concentrated their attention upon ethical +problems. Forsaking the study of the macrocosm for that of the +microcosm, they lost the key to the thought of the great Ephesian, +which, I imagine, is more intelligible to us than it was to Socrates, +or to Plato. Socrates, more especially, set the fashion of a kind of +inverse agnosticism, by teaching that the problems of physics lie +beyond the reach of the human intellect; that the attempt to solve +them is essentially vain; that the one worthy object of investigation +is the problem of ethical life; and his example was followed by the +Cynics and the later Stoics. Even the comprehensive knowledge and the +penetrating intellect of Aristotle failed to suggest to him that in +holding the eternity of the world, within its present range of +mutation, he was making a retrogressive step. The scientific heritage +of Heracleitus passed into the hands neither of Plato nor of +Aristotle, but into those of Democritus. But the world was not yet +ready to receive the great conceptions of the philosopher of Abdera. +It was reserved for the Stoics to return to the track marked out by +the earlier philosophers; and, professing themselves disciples of +Heracleitus, to develop the idea of evolution systematically. In doing +this, they not only omitted some characteristic features of their +master's teaching, but they made additions altogether foreign to it. +One of the most influential of these importations was the +transcendental [71] theism which had come into vogue. The restless, +fiery energy, operating according to law, out of which all things +emerge and into which they return, in the endless successive cycles of +the great year; which creates and destroys worlds as a wanton child +builds up, and anon levels, sand castles on the seashore; was +metamorphosed into a material world-soul and decked out with all the +attributes of ideal Divinity; not merely with infinite power and +transcendent wisdom, but with absolute goodness. + +The consequences of this step were momentous. For if the cosmos is the +effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent cause, +the existence in it of real evil, still less of necessarily inherent +evil, is plainly inadmissible. [Note 13] Yet the universal experience +of mankind testified then, as now, that, whether we look within us or +without us, evil stares us in the face on all sides; that if anything +is real, pain and sorrow and wrong are realities. + +It would be a new thing in history if a priori philosophers were +daunted by the factious opposition of experience; and the Stoics were +the last men to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts. "Give me +a doctrine and I will find the reasons for it," said Chrysippus. So +they perfected, if they did not invent, that ingenious and plausible +form of pleading, the Theodicy; for the purpose of showing firstly, +that there is no such [72] thing as evil; secondly, that if there is, +it is the necessary correlate of good; and, moreover, that it is +either due to our own fault, or inflicted for our benefit. Theodicies +have been very popular in their time, and I believe that a numerous, +though somewhat dwarfed, progeny of them still survives. So far as I +know, they are all variations of the theme set forth in those famous +six lines of the "Essay on Man," in which Pope sums up Bolingbroke's +reminiscences of stoical and other speculations of this kind-- + + "All nature is but art, unknown to thee; + All chance, direction which thou canst not see; + All discord, harmony not understood; + All partial evil, universal good; + And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, + One truth is clear: whatever is is right." + +Yet, surely, if there are few more important truths than those +enunciated in the first triad, the second is open to very grave +objections. That there is a "soul of good in things evil" is +unquestionable; nor will any wise man deny the disciplinary value of +pain and sorrow. But these considerations do not help us to see why +the immense multitude of irresponsible sentient beings, which cannot +profit by such discipline, should suffer; nor why, among the endless +possibilities open to omnipotence--that of sinless, happy existence +among the rest--the actuality in which sin and misery abound should be +that selected. + +[73] Surely it is mere cheap rhetoric to call arguments which have +never yet been answered by even the meekest and the least rational of +Optimists, suggestions of the pride of reason. As to the concluding +aphorism, its fittest place would be as an inscription in letters of +mud over the portal of some "stye of Epicurus"[Note 14]; for that is +where the logical application of it to practice would land men, with +every aspiration stifled and every effort paralyzed. Why try to set +right what is right already? Why strive to improve the best of all +possible worlds? Let us eat and drink, for as today all is right, so +to-morrow all will be. + +But the attempt of the Stoics to blind themselves to the reality of +evil, as a necessary concomitant of the cosmic process, had less +success than that of the Indian philosophers to exclude the reality of +good from their purview. Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut +one's eyes to good than to evil. Pain and sorrow knock at our doors +more loudly than pleasure and happiness; and the prints of their heavy +footsteps are less easily effaced. Before the grim realities of +practical life the pleasant fictions of optimism vanished. If this +were the best of all possible worlds, it nevertheless proved itself a +very inconvenient habitation for the ideal sage. + +The stoical summary of the whole duty of man, "Live according to +nature," would seem to imply that the cosmic process is an exemplar +for human [74] conduct. Ethics would thus become applied Natural +History. In fact, a confused employment of the maxim, in this sense, +has done immeasurable mischief in later times. It has furnished an +axiomatic foundation for the philosophy of philosophasters and for the +moralizing of sentimentalists. But the Stoics were, at bottom, not +merely noble, but sane, men; and if we look closely into what they +really meant by this ill-used phrase, it will be found to present no +justification for the mischievous conclusions that have been deduced +from it. + +In the language of the Stoa, "Nature" was a word of many meanings. +There was the "Nature" of the cosmos and the "Nature" of man. In the +latter, the animal "nature," which man shares with a moiety of the +living part of the cosmos, was distinguished from a higher "nature." +Even in this higher nature there were grades of rank. The logical +faculty is an instrument which may be turned to account for any +purpose. The passions and the emotions are so closely tied to the +lower nature that they may be considered to be pathological, rather +than normal, phenomena. The one supreme, hegemonic, faculty, which +constitutes the essential "nature" of man, is most nearly represented +by that which, in the language of a later philosophy, has been called +the pure reason. It is this "nature" which holds up the ideal of the +supreme good and demands absolute submission of the will to its +behests. It is [75] which commands all men to love one another, to +return good for evil, to regard one another as fellow-citizens of one +great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress towards perfection of a +civilized state, or polity, depends on the obedience of its members to +these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed the pure reason the +"political" nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the adjective has +undergone so much modification, that the application of it to that +which commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would now +sound almost grotesque. [Note 15] + +But what part is played by the theory of evolution in this view of +ethics? So far as I can discern, the ethical system of the Stoics, +which is essentially intuitive, and reverences the categorical +imperative as strongly as that of any later moralists, might have been +just what it was if they had held any other theory; whether that of +special creation, on the one side, or that of the eternal existence of +the present order, on the other.[Note 16] To the Stoic, the cosmos had +no importance for the conscience, except in so far as he chose to +think it a pedagogue to virtue. The pertinacious optimism of our +philosophers hid from them the actual state of the case. It prevented +them from seeing that cosmic nature is no school of virtue, but the +headquarters of the enemy of ethical nature. The logic of facts was +necessary to convince them [76] that the cosmos works through the +lower nature of man, not for righteousness, but against it. And it +finally drove them to confess that the existence of their ideal "wise +man" was incompatible with the nature of things; that even a passable +approximation to that ideal was to be attained only at the cost of +renunciation of the world and mortification, not merely of the flesh, +but of all human affections. The state of perfection was that +"apatheia"[Note 17] in which desire, though it may still be felt, is +powerless to move the will, reduced to the sole function of executing +the commands of pure reason. Even this residuum of activity was to be +regarded as a temporary loan, as an efflux of the divine +world-pervading spirit, chafing at its imprisonment in the +flesh, until such time as death enabled it to return to its source in +the all-pervading logos. + +I find it difficult to discover any very great difference between +Apatheia and Nirvana, except that stoical speculation agrees with +pre-Buddhistic philosophy, rather than with the teachings of Gautama, +in so far as it postulates a permanent substance equivalent to +"Brahma" and "Atman;" and that, in stoical practice, the adoption of +the life of the mendicant cynic was held to be more a counsel of +perfection than an indispensable condition of the higher life. + +Thus the extremes touch. Greek thought and [77] Indian thought set out +from ground common to both, diverge widely, develop under very +different physical and moral conditions, and finally converge to +practically the same end. + +The Vedas and the Homeric epos set before us a world of rich and +vigorous life, full of joyous fighting men + + That ever with a frolic welcome took + The thunder and the sunshine .... + +and who were ready to brave the very Gods themselves when their blood +was up. A few centuries pass away, and under the influence of +civilization the descendants of these men are "sicklied o'er with the +pale cast of thought"--frank pessimists, or, at best, make-believe +optimists. The courage of the warlike stock may be as hardly tried as +before, perhaps more hardly, but the enemy is self. The hero has +become a monk. The man of action is replaced by the quietist, whose +highest aspiration is to be the passive instrument of the divine +Reason. By the Tiber, as by the Ganges, ethical man admits that the +cosmos is too strong for him; and, destroying every bond which ties +him to it by ascetic discipline, he seeks salvation in absolute +renunciation.[Note 18] + +Modern thought is making a fresh start from the base whence Indian and +Greek philosophy set out; and, the human mind being very much what +[78] it was six-and-twenty centuries ago, there is no ground for +wonder if it presents indications of a tendency to move along the old +lines to the same results. + +We are more than sufficiently familiar with modern pessimism, at least +as a speculation; for I cannot call to mind that any of its present +votaries have sealed their faith by assuming the rags and the bowl of +the mendicant Bhikku, or the cloak and the wallet of the Cynic. The +obstacles placed in the way of sturdy vagrancy by an unphilosophical +police have, perhaps, proved too formidable for philosophical +consistency. We also know modern speculative optimism, with its +perfectibility of the species, reign of peace, and lion and lamb +transformation scenes; but one does not hear so much of it as one did +forty years ago; indeed, I imagine it is to be met with more commonly +at the tables of the healthy and wealthy, than in the congregations of +the wise. The majority of us, I apprehend, profess neither pessimism +nor optimism. We hold that the world is neither so good, nor so bad, +as it conceivably might be; and, as most of us have reason, now and +again, to discover that it can be. Those who have failed to experience +the joys that make life worth living are, probably, in as small a +minority as those who have never known the griefs that rob existence +of its savour and turn its richest fruits into mere dust and ashes. + +[79] Further, I think I do not err in assuming that, however diverse +their views on philosophical and religious matters, most men are +agreed that the proportion of good and evil in life may be very +sensibly affected by human action. I never heard anybody doubt that +the evil may be thus increased, or diminished; and it would seem to +follow that good must be similarly susceptible of addition or +subtraction. Finally, to my knowledge, nobody professes to doubt that, +so far forth as we possess a power of bettering things, it is our +paramount duty to use it and to train all our intellect and energy to +this supreme service of our kind. + +Hence the pressing interest of the question, to what extent modern +progress in natural knowledge, and, more especially, the general +outcome of that progress in the doctrine of evolution, is competent to +help us in the great work of helping one another? + +The propounders of what are called the "ethics of evolution," when the +"evolution of ethics" would usually better express the object of their +speculations, adduce a number of more or less interesting facts and +more or less sound arguments in favour of the origin of the moral +sentiments, in the same way as other natural phenomena, by a process +of evolution. I have little doubt, for my own part, that they are on +the right track; but as the immoral sentiments have no less been +evolved, there is, so far, as much natural sanction for the [80] one +as the other. The thief and the murderer follow nature just as much as +the philanthropist. Cosmic evolution may teach us how the good and the +evil tendencies of man may have come about; but, in itself, it is +incompetent to furnish any better reason why what we call good is +preferable to what we call evil than we had before. Some day, I doubt +not, we shall arrive at an understanding of the evolution of the +æsthetic faculty; but all the understanding in the world will neither +increase nor diminish the force of the intuition that this is +beautiful and that is ugly. + +There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called +"ethics of evolution." It is the notion that because, on the whole, +animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by +means of the struggle for existence and the consequent "survival of +the fittest;" therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must +look to the same process to help them towards perfection. I suspect +that this fallacy has arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the +phrase "survival of the fittest." "Fittest" has a connotation of +"best;" and about "best" there hangs a moral flavour. In cosmic +nature, however, what is "fittest" depends upon the conditions. Long +since [Note 19], I ventured to point out that if our hemisphere were +to cool again, the survival of the fittest might bring about, in the +vegetable kingdom, a population of more and more stunted and humbler +[81] and humbler organisms, until the "fittest" that survived might be +nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such microscopic organisms as those +which give red snow its colour; while, if it became hotter, the +pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might be uninhabitable by any +animated beings save those that flourish in a tropical jungle. They, +as the fittest, the best adapted to the changed conditions, would +survive. + +Men in society are undoubtedly subject to the cosmic process. As among +other animals, multiplication goes on without cessation, and involves +severe competition for the means of support. The struggle for +existence tends to eliminate those less fitted to adapt themselves to +the circumstances of their existence. The strongest, the most +self-assertive, tend to tread down the weaker. But the influence of +the cosmic process on the evolution of society is the greater the more +rudimentary its civilization. Social progress means a checking of the +cosmic, process at every step and the substitution for it of another, +which may be called the ethical process; the end of which is not the +survival of those who may happen to be the fittest, in respect of the +whole of the conditions which obtain, but of those who are ethically +the best.[Note 20] + +As I have already urged, the practice of that which is ethically +best--what we call goodness or virtue--involves a course of conduct +which, in all [82] respects, is opposed to that which leads to success +in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of ruthless +self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting aside, +or treading down, all competitors, it requires that the individual +shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its influence is +directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as to the +fitting of as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the +gladiatorial theory of existence. It demands that each man who enters +into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be mindful of +his debt to those who have laboriously constructed it; and shall take +heed that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been +permitted to live. Laws and moral precepts are directed to the end of +curbing the cosmic process and reminding the individual of his duty to +the community, to the protection and influence of which he owes, if +not existence itself, at least the life of something better than a +brutal savage. + +It is from neglect of these plain considerations that the fanatical +individualism [Note 21] of our time attempts to apply the analogy of +cosmic nature to society. Once more we have a misapplication of the +stoical injunction to follow nature; the duties of the individual to +the state are forgotten, and his tendencies to self-assertion are +dignified by the name of rights. It is seriously debated whether the +members of a community are justified in using [83] their combined +strength to constrain one of their number to contribute his share to +the maintenance of it; or even to prevent him from doing his best to +destroy it. The struggle for existence which has done such admirable +work in cosmic nature, must, it appears, be equally beneficent in the +ethical sphere. Yet if that which I have insisted upon is true; if the +cosmic process has no sort of relation to moral ends; if the imitation +of it by man is inconsistent with the first principles of ethics; what +becomes of this surprising theory? + +Let us understand, once for all, that the ethical progress of society +depends, not on imitating the cosmic process, still less in running +away from it, but in combating it. It may seem an audacious proposal +thus to pit the microcosm against the macrocosm and to set man to +subdue nature to his higher ends; but I venture to think that the +great intellectual difference between the ancient times with which we +have been occupied and our day, lies in the solid foundation we have +acquired for the hope that such an enterprise may meet with a certain +measure of success. + +The history of civilization details the steps by which men have +succeeded in building up an artificial world within the cosmos. +Fragile reed as he may be, man, as Pascal says, is a thinking reed: +[Note 22] there lies within him a fund of energy operating +intelligently and so far akin to that which pervades the universe, +that it is competent [84] to influence and modify the cosmic process. +In virtue of his intelligence, the dwarf bends the Titan to his will. +In every family, in every polity that has been established, the cosmic +process in man has been restrained and otherwise modified by law and +custom; in surrounding nature, it has been similarly influenced by the +art of the shepherd, the agriculturist, the artisan. As civilization +has advanced, so has the extent of this interference increased; until +the organized and highly developed sciences and arts of the present +day have endowed man with a command over the course of non-human +nature greater than that once attributed to the magicians. The most +impressive, I might say startling, of these changes have been brought +about in the course of the last two centuries; while a right +comprehension of the process of life and of the means of influencing +its manifestations is only just dawning upon us. We do not yet see +our way beyond generalities; and we are befogged by the obtrusion of +false analogies and crude anticipations. But Astronomy, Physics, +Chemistry, have all had to pass through similar phases, before they +reached the stage at which their influence became an important factor +in human affairs. Physiology, Psychology, Ethics, Political Science, +must submit to the same ordeal. Yet it seems to me irrational to doubt +that, at no distant period, they will work as great a revolution in +the sphere of practice. + +[85] The theory of evolution encourages no millennial anticipations. +If, for millions of years, our globe has taken the upward road, yet, +some time, the summit will be reached and the downward route will be +commenced. The most daring imagination will hardly venture upon the +suggestion that the power and the intelligence of man can ever arrest +the procession of the great year. + +Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent, +necessary for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of +severe training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries +will suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. +Ethical nature may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and +powerful enemy as long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I +see no limit to the extent to which intelligence and will, guided by +sound principles of investigation, and organized in common effort, may +modify the conditions of existence, for a period longer than that now +covered by history. And much may be done to change the nature of man +himself. [Note 23] The intelligence which has converted the brother of +the wolf into the faithful guardian of the flock ought to be able to +do something towards curbing the instincts of savagery in civilized +men. + +But if we may permit ourselves at larger hope of abatement of the +essential evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the +infancy of [86] exact knowledge, faced the problem of existence more +than a score of centuries ago, I deem it an essential condition of the +realization of that hope that we should cast aside the notion that the +escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life. + +We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when +good and evil could be met with the same "frolic welcome;" the +attempts to escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in +flight from the battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the +youthful overconfidence and the no less youthful discouragement of +nonage. We are grown men, and must play the man + + "...strong in will + To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield," + +cherishing the good that falls in our way, and bearing the evil, in +and around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. So far, we all +may strive in one faith towards one hope: + + "... It may be that the gulfs will wash us down, + It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, + + ... but something ere the end, + Some work of noble note may yet be done." [Note 24] + +[187] + + NOTES. + +Note 1 (p. 49). + +I have been careful to speak of the "appearance" of cyclical evolution +presented by living things; for, on critical examination, it will be +found that the course of vegetable and of animal life is not exactly +represented by, the figure of a cycle which returns into itself. What +actually happens, in all but the lowest organisms, is that one part of +the growing germ (A) gives rise to tissues and organs; while another +part (B) remains in its primitive condition, or is but slightly +modified. The moiety A becomes the body of the adult and, sooner or +later, perishes, while portions of the moiety B are detached and, as +offspring, continue the life of the species. Thus, if we trace back +an organism along the direct line of descent from its remotest +ancestor, B, as a whole, has never suffered death; portions of it, +only, have been cast off and died in each individual offspring. + +Everybody is familiar with the way in which the "suckers" of a +strawberry plant behave. A thin cylinder of living tissue keeps on +growing at its free end, until it attains a considerable length. At +[88] successive intervals, it develops buds which grow into strawberry +plants; and these become independent by the death of the parts of the +sucker which connect them. The rest of the sucker, however, may go on +living and growing indefinitely, and, circumstances remaining +favourable, there is no obvious reason why it should ever die. The +living substance B, in a manner, answers to the sucker. If we could +restore the continuity which was once possessed by the portions of B, +contained in all the individuals of a direct line of descent, they +would form a sucker, or stolon, on which these individuals would be +strung, and which would never have wholly died. + +A species remains unchanged so long as the potentiality of development +resident in B remains unaltered; so long, e.g., as the buds of the +strawberry sucker tend to become typical strawberry plants. In the case +of the progressive evolution of a species, the developmental +potentiality of B becomes of a higher and higher order. In +retrogressive evolution, the contrary would be the case. The phenomena +of atavism seem to show that retrogressive evolution that is, the +return of a species to one or other of its earlier forms, is a +possibility to be reckoned with. The simplification of structure, +which is so common in the parasitic members of a group, however, does +not properly come under this head. The worm-like, limbless Lernoea has +no resemblance to any of the stages of development of the many-limbed +active animals of the group to which it belongs. [89] Note 2 (p. 49). + +Heracleitus says,[Greek phrase Potamo gar ouk esti dis embenai to suto] +but, to be strictly accurate, the river remains, though the water of +which it is composed changes--just as a man retains his identity +though the whole substance of his body is constantly shifting. + +This is put very well by Seneca (Ep. lvii. i. 20, Ed. Ruhkopf): +"Corpora nostra rapiuntur fluminum more, quidquid vides currit cum +tempore; nihil ex his quae videmus manet. Ego ipse dum loquor mutari +ista, mutatus sum. Hoc est quod ait Heraclitus 'In idem flumen bis non +descendimus.' Manet idem fluminis nomen, aqua transmissa est. Hoc in +amne manifestius est quam in homine, sed nos quoque non minus velox +cursus praetervehit." + +Note 3 (p. 55). + +"Multa bona nostra nobis nocent, timoris enim tormentum memorin +reducit, providentia anticipat. Nemo tantum praesentibus miser est." +(Seneca, Ed. v. 7.) + +Among the many wise and weighty aphorisms of the Roman Bacon, few sound +the realities of life more deeply than "Multa bona nostra nobis +nocent." If there is a soul of good in things evil, it is at least +equally true that there is a soul of evil in things good: for things, +like men, have "les defauts de leurs qualites." It is one of the last +lessons one learns from experience, but not the least important, that +a [90] heavy tax is levied upon all forms of success, and that failure +is one of the commonest disguises assumed by blessings. + +Note 4 (p. 60). + +"There is within the body of every man a soul which, at the death of +the body, flies away from it like a bird out of a cage, and enters +upon a new life ... either in one of the heavens or one of the hells +or on this earth. The only exception is the rare case of a man having +in this life acquired a true knowledge of God. According to the +pre-Buddhistic theory, the soul of such a man goes along the path of +the Gods to God, and, being united with Him, enters upon an immortal +life in which his individuality is not extinguished. In the latter +theory his soul is directly absorbed into the Great Soul, is lost in +it, and has no longer any independent existence. The souls of all +other men enter, after the death of the body, upon a new existence in +one or other of the many different modes of being. If in heaven or +hell, the soul itself becomes a god or demon without entering a body; +all superhuman beings, save the great gods, being looked upon as not +eternal, but merely temporary creatures. If the soul returns to earth +it may or may not enter a new body; and this either of a human being, +an animal, a plant, or even a material object. For all these are +possessed of souls, and there is no essential difference between these +souls and the souls of men--all being alike mere sparks of the Great +Spirit, who is [91] the only real existence." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert +Lectures, 1881, p. 83.) + +For what I have said about Indian Philosophy, I am particularly +indebted to the luminous exposition of primitive Buddhism and its +relations to earlier Hindu thought, which is given by Prof. Rhys +Davids in his remarkable Hibbert Lectures for 1881, and Buddhism +(1890). The only apology I can offer for the freedom with which I have +borrowed from him in these notes, is my desire to leave no doubt as to +my indebtedness. I have also found Dr. Oldenberg's Buddha (Ed. 2, +1890) very helpful. The origin of the theory of transmigration stated +in the above extract is an unsolved problem. That it differs widely +from the Egyptian metempsychosis is clear. In fact, since men usually +people the other world with phantoms of this, the Egyptian doctrine +would seem to presuppose the Indian as a more archaic belief. + +Prof. Rhys Davids has fully insisted upon the ethical importance of +the transmigration theory. "One of the latest speculations now being +put forward among ourselves would seek to explain each man's +character, and even his outward condition in life, by the character he +inherited from his ancestors, a character gradually formed during a +practically endless series of past existences, modified only by the +conditions into which he was born, those very conditions being also, +in like manner, the last result of a practically endless series of +past causes. Gotama's; speculation might be stated in the same words. +But it attempted also to explain, in a way different from [92] that +which would be adopted by the exponents of the modern theory, that +strange problem which it is also the motive of the wonderful drama of +the book of Job to explain--the fact that the actual distribution here +of good fortune, or misery, is entirely independent of the moral +qualities which men call good or bad. We cannot wonder that a teacher, +whose whole system was so essentially an ethical reformation, should +have felt it incumbent upon him to seek an explanation of this +apparent injustice. And all the more so, since the belief he had +inherited, the theory of the transmigration of souls, had provided a +solution perfectly sufficient to any one who could accept that +belief." (Hibbert Lectures, p. 93.) I should venture to suggest the +substitution of "largely" for "entirely" in the foregoing passage. +Whether a ship makes a good or a bad voyage is largely independent of +the conduct of the captain, but it is largely affected by that +conduct. Though powerless before a hurricane he may weather a bad +gale. + +Note 5 (P. 61). + +The outward condition of the soul is, in each new birth, determined by +its actions in a previous birth; but by each action in succession, and +not by the balance struck after the evil has been reckoned off against +the good. A good man who has once uttered a slander may spend a +hundred thousand years as a god, in consequence of his goodness, and +when the power of his good actions is exhausted, may be born [93] as a +dumb man on account of his transgression; and a robber who has once +done an act of mercy, may come to life in a king's body as the result +of his virtue, and then suffer torments for ages in hell or as a ghost +without a body, or be re-born many times as a slave or an outcast, in +consequence of his evil life. + +"There is no escape, according to this theory, from the result of any +act; though it is only the consequences of its own acts that each soul +has to endure. The force has been set in motion by itself and can +never stop; and its effect can never be foretold. If evil, it can +never be modified or prevented, for it depends on a cause already +completed, that is now for ever beyond the soul's control. There is +even no continuing consciousness, no memory of the past that could +guide the soul to any knowledge of its fate. The only advantage open +to it is to add in this life to the sum of its good actions, that it +may bear fruit with the rest. And even this can only happen in some +future life under essentially them same conditions as the present one: +subject, like the present one, to old age, decay, and death; and +affording opportunity, like the present one, for the commission of +errors, ignorances, or sins, which in their turn must inevitably +produce their due effect of sickness, disability, or woe. Thus is the +soul tossed about from life to life, from billow to billow in the +great ocean of transmigration. And there is no escape save for the +very few, who, during their birth as men, attain to a right knowledge +of the Great Spirit: and thus enter into immortality, or, as the later +[94] philosophers taught, are absorbed into the Divine Essence." (Rhys +Davids, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 85, 86.) + +The state after death thus imagined by the Hindu philosophers has a +certain analogy to the purgatory of the Roman Church; except that +escape from it is dependent, not on a divine decree modified, it may +be, by sacerdotal or saintly intercession, but by the acts of the +individual himself; and that while ultimate emergence into heavenly +bliss of the good, or well-prayed for, Catholic is professedly +assured, the chances in favour of the attainment of absorption, or of +Nirvana, by any individual Hindu are extremely small. + +Note 6 (P. 62). + +"That part of the then prevalent transmigration theory which could not +be proved false seemed to meet a deeply felt necessity, seemed to +supply a moral cause which would explain the unequal distribution here +of happiness or woe, so utterly inconsistent with the present +characters of men." Gautama "still therefore talked of men's previous +existence, but by no means in the way that he is generally represented +to have done." What he taught was "the transmigration of character." +He held that after the death of any being, whether human or not, there +survived nothing at all but that being's "Karma," the result, that is, +of its mental and bodily actions. Every individual, whether human or +divine, was the last inheritor and the last result of the Karma of a +long series of past individuals--"a series [95] so long that its +beginning is beyond the reach of calculation, and its end will be +coincident with the destruction of the world." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert +Lectures, p. 92.) + +In the theory of evolution, the tendency of a germ to develop according +to a certain specific type, e.g. of the kidney bean seed to grow into +a plant having all the characters of Phaseolus vulgaris, is its +"Karma." It is the "last inheritor and the last result" of all the +conditions that have affected a line of ancestry which goes back for +many millions of years to the time when life first appeared on the +earth. The moiety B of the substance of the bean plant (see Note 1) is +the last link in a once continuous chain extending from the primitive +living substance: and the characters of the successive species to +which it has given rise are the manifestations of its gradually +modified Karma. As Prof. Rhys Davids aptly says, the snowdrop "is a +snowdrop and not an oak, and just that kind of snowdrop, because it is +the outcome of the Karma of an endless series of past existences." +(Hibbert Lectures, p. 114.) + +Note 7 (p. 64). + +"It is interesting to notice that the very point which is the weakness +of the theory--the supposed concentration of the effect of the Karma +in one new being--presented itself to the early Buddhists themselves +as a difficulty. They avoided it, partly by explaining that it was a +particular thirst in the creature dying (a craving, Tanha, which plays +other [96] wise a great part in the Buddhist theory) which actually +caused the birth of the new individual who was to inherit the Karma of +the former one. But, how this too place, how the craving desire +produced this effect, was acknowledged to be a mystery patent only to +a Buddha." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, P. 95.) + +Among the many parallelisms of Stoicism and Buddhism, it is curious to +find one for this Tanha, "thirst," or "craving desire" for life. +Seneca writes (Epist. lxxvi. 18): "Si enim ullum aliud est bonum quam +honestum, sequetur nos aviditas vitae aviditas rerum vitam +instruentium: quod est intolerabile infinitum, vagum." + +Note 8 (P. 66). + +"The distinguishing characteristic of Buddhism was that it started a +new line, that it looked upon the deepest questions men have to solve +from an entirely different standpoint. It swept away from the field of +its vision the whole of the great soul theory which had hitherto so +completely filled and dominated the minds of the superstitious and the +thoughtful alike. For the first time in the history of the world, it +proclaimed a salvation which each man could gain for himself and by +himself, in this world, during this life, without any the least +reference to God, or to Gods, either great or small. Like the +Upanishads, it placed the first importance on knowledge; but it was no +longer a knowledge of God, it was a clear perception of the real +nature, as [97] they supposed it to be, of men and things. And it added +to the necessity of knowledge, the necessity of purity, of courtesy, +of uprightness, of peace and of a universal love far reaching, grown +great and beyond measure." (Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures, p. 29.) + +The contemporary Greek philosophy takes an analogous direction. +According to Heracleitus, the universe was made neither by Gods nor +men; but, from all eternity, has been, and to all eternity, will be, +immortal fire, glowing and fading in due measure. (Mullach, Heracliti +Fragmenta, 27.) And the part assigned by his successors, the Stoics, +to the knowledge and the volition of the "wise man" made their +Divinity (for logical thinkers) a subject for compliments, rather than +a power to be reckoned with. In Hindu speculation the "Arahat," still +more the "Buddha," becomes the superior of Brahma; the stoical "wise +man" is, at least, the equal of Zeus. + +Berkeley affirms over and over again that no idea can be formed of a +soul or spirit--"If any man shall doubt of the truth of what is here +delivered, let him but reflect and try if he can form any idea of +power or active being; and whether he hath ideas of two principal +powers marked by the names of will and understanding distinct from +each other, as well as from a third idea of substance or being in +general, with a relative notion of its supporting or being the subject +of the aforesaid power, which is signified by the name soul or spirit. +This is what some hold but, so far as I can see, the words will, soul, +spirit, do not stand for different ideas or, in truth, for any idea at +all, but for something which is very different from ideas, and which, +being an agent, cannot be like unto or represented by Any idea +whatever [though it must be owned at the same time, that we have some +notion of soul, spirit, and the operations of the mind, such as +willing, loving, hating, inasmuch as we know or understand the meaning +of these words". (The Principles of Human Knowledge, lxxvi. See also +sections lxxxix., cxxxv., cxlv.) + +It is open to discussion, I think, whether it is possible to have +"some notion" of that of which we can form no "idea." + +Berkeley attaches several predicates to the "perceiving active being +mind, spirit, soul or myself" (Parts I. II.) It is said, for example, +to be "indivisible, incorporeal, unextended, and incorruptible." The +predicate indivisible, though negative in form, has highly positive +consequences. For, if "perceiving active being" is strictly +indivisible, man's soul must be one with the Divine spirit: which is +good Hindu or Stoical doctrine, but hardly orthodox Christian +philosophy. If, on the other hand, the "substance" of active +perceiving "being" is actually divided into the one Divine and +innumerable human entities, how can the predicate "indivisible" be +rigorously applicable to it? + +Taking the words cited, as they stand, the amount to the denial of the +possibility of any knowledge of substance. "Matter" having been +resolved into mere affections of "spirit", "spirit" melts away into an +admittedly inconceivable and unknowable [99] hypostasis of thought and +power--consequently the existence of anything in the universe beyond a +flow of phenomena is a purely hypothetical assumption. Indeed a +pyrrhonist might raise the objection that if "esse" is "percipi" +spirit itself can have no existence except as a perception, +hypostatized into a "self," or as a perception of some other spirit. +In the former case, objective reality vanishes; in the latter, there +would seem to be the need of an infinite series of spirits each +perceiving the others. + +It is curious to observe how very closely the phraseology of Berkeley +sometimes approaches that of the Stoics: thus (cxlviii.) "It seems to +be a general pretence of the unthinking herd that they cannot see God. +. . But, alas, we need only open our eyes to see the Sovereign Lord of +all things with a more full and clear view, than we do any of our +fellow-creatures . . . we do at all times and in all places perceive +manifest tokens of the Divinity: everything we see, hear, feel, or any +wise perceive by sense, being a sign or effect of the power of God" . +. . cxlix. "It is therefore plain, that nothing can be more evident to +any one that is capable of the least reflection, than the existence of +God, or a spirit who is intimately present to our minds, producing in +them all that variety of ideas or sensations which continually affect +us, on whom we have an absolute and entire dependence, in short, in +whom we live and move and have our being." cl. "[But you will say hath +Nature no share in the production of natural things, and must they all +be ascribed to the immediate and sole operation of God? ... if by +Nature is [100] meant some being distinct from God, as well as from +the laws of nature and things perceived by sense, I must confess that +word is to me an empty sound, without any intelligible meaning annexed +to it.] Nature in this acceptation is a vain Chimaera introduced by +those heathens, who had not just notions of the omnipresence and +infinite perfection of God." + +Compare Seneca (De Beneficiis, iv. 7): + +"Natura, inquit, haec mihi praestat. Non intelligis te, quum hoc +dicis, mutare Nomen Deo? Quid enim est aliud Natura quam Deus, et +divina ratio, toti mundo et partibus ejus inserta? Quoties voles tibi +licet aliter hunc auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare, et Jovem illum +optimum et maximum rite dices, et tonantem, et statorem: qui non, ut +historici tradiderunt, ex eo quod post votum susceptum acies Romanorum +fugientum stetit, sed quod stant beneficio ejus omnina, stator, +stabilitorque est: hunc eundem et fatum si dixeris, non mentieris, nam +quum fatum nihil aliud est, quam series implexa causarum, ille est +prima omnium causa, ea qua caeterae pendent." It would appear, +therefore, that the good Bishop is somewhat hard upon the "heathen," +of whose words his own might be a paraphrase. + +There is yet another direction in which Berkeley's philosophy, I will +not say agrees with Gautama's, but at any rate helps to make a +fundamental dogma of Buddhism intelligible. + +"I find I can excite ideas in my mind at pleasure, and vary and shift +the scene as often as I think fit. It is no more than willing, and +straightway this or that idea arises in my fancy: and by the same +power [101] it is obliterated, and makes way for another. This making +and unmaking of ideas doth very properly denominate the mind active. +This much is certain and grounded on experience. . ." (Principles, +xxviii.) + +A good many of us, I fancy, have reason to think that experience tells +them very much the contrary; and are painfully familiar with the +obsession of the mind by ideas which cannot be obliterated by any +effort of the will and steadily refuse to make way for others. But +what I desire to point out is that if Gautama was equally confident +that he could "make and unmake" ideas--then, since he had resolved +self into a group of ideal phantoms--the possibility of abolishing +self by volition naturally followed. + +Note 9 (P. 68). + +According to Buddhism, the relation of one life to the next is merely +that borne by the flame of one lamp to the flame of another lamp which +is set alight by it. To the "Arahat" or adept "no outward form, no +compound thing, no creature, no creator, no existence of any kind, +must appear to be other than a temporary collocation of its component +parts, fated inevitably to be dissolved."--(Rhys Davids, Hibbert +Lectures, p. 211.) + +The self is nothing but a group of phenomena held together by the +desire of life; when that desire shall have ceased, "the Karma of that +particular chain of lives will cease to influence any longer any +distinct individual, and there will be no more birth; [102] for birth, +decay, and death, grief, lamentation, and despair will have come, so +far as regards that chain of lives, for ever to an end." + +The state of mind of the Arahat in which the desire of life has ceased +is Nirvana. Dr. Oldenberg has very acutely and patiently considered +the various interpretations which have been attached to "Nirvana" in +the work to which I have referred (pp. 285 et seq.). The result of his +and other discussions of the question may I think be briefly stated +thus: + +1. Logical deduction from the predicates attached to the term +"Nirvana" strips it of all reality, conceivability, or perceivability, +whether by Gods or men. For all practical purposes, therefore, it +comes to exactly the same thing as annihilation. + +2. But it is not annihilation in the ordinary sense, inasmuch as it +could take place in the living Arahat or Buddha. + +3. And, since, for the faithful Buddhist, that which was abolished in +the Arahat was the possibility of further pain, sorrow, or sin; and +that which was attained was perfect peace; his mind directed itself +exclusively to this joyful consummation, and personified the negation +of all conceivable existence and of all pain into a positive bliss. +This was all the more easy, as Gautama refused to give any dogmatic +definition of Nirvana. There is something analogous in the way in +which people commonly talk of the "happy release" of a man who has +been long suffering from mortal disease. According to their own views, +it must always be extremely doubtful whether the man will be any +happier after the "release" [103] than before. But they do not choose +to look at the matter in this light. + +The popular notion that, with practical, if not metaphysical, +annihilation in view, Buddhism must needs be a sad and gloomy faith +seems to be inconsistent with fact; on the contrary, the prospect of +Nirvana fills the true believer, not merely with cheerfulness, but +with an ecstatic desire to reach it. + +Note 10 (P. 68.) + +The influence of the picture of the personal qualities of Gautama, +afforded by the legendary anecdotes which rapidly grew into a +biography of the Buddha; and by the birth stories, which coalesced +with the current folk-lore, and were intelligible to all the world, +doubtless played a great part. Further, although Gautama appears not +to have meddled with the caste system, he refused to recognize any +distinction, save that of perfection in the way of salvation, among +his followers; and by such teaching, no less than by the inculcation +of love and benevolence to all sentient beings, he practically +levelled every social, political, and racial barrier. A third +important condition was the organization of the Buddhists into +monastic communities for the stricter professors, while the laity were +permitted a wide indulgence in practice and were allowed to hope for +accommodation in some of the temporary abodes of bliss. With a few +hundred thousand years of immediate paradise in sight, the average man +could be content to shut his eyes to what might follow. + +[104] + +Note 11 (P. 69). + +In ancient times it was the fashion, even among the Greeks themselves, +to derive all Greek wisdom from Eastern sources; not long ago it was +as generally denied that Greek philosophy had any connection, with +Oriental speculation; it seems probable, however, that the truth lies +between these extremes. + +The Ionian intellectual movement does not stand alone. It is only one +of several sporadic indications of the working of some powerful mental +ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the Aegean and +Northern Hindostan during the eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries +before our era. In these three hundred years, prophetism attained its +apogee among the Semites of Palestine; Zoroasterism grew and became +the creed of a conquering race, the Iranic Aryans; Buddhism rose and +spread with marvellous rapidity among the Aryans of Hindostan; while +scientific naturalism took its rise among the Aryans of Ionia. It +would be difficult to find another three centuries which have given +birth to four events of equal importance. All the principal existing +religions of mankind have grown out of the first three: while the +fourth is the little spring, now swollen into the great stream of +positive science. So far as physical possibilities go, the prophet +Jeremiah and the oldest Ionian philosopher might have met and +conversed. If they had done so, they would probably have disagreed a +good deal; and it is interesting to reflect that their discussions +might have [105] embraced Questions which, at the present day, are +still hotly controverted. + +The old Ionian philosophy, then, seems to be only one of many results +of a stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the Aryan and the +Semitic populations of Western Asia. The conditions of this general +awakening were doubtless manifold; but there is one which modern +research has brought into great prominence. This is the existence of +extremely ancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the +Euphrates and of the Nile. + +It is now known that, more than a thousand--perhaps more than two +thousand--years before the sixth century B.C., civilization had +attained a relatively high pitch among the Babylonians and the +Egyptians. Not only had painting, sculpture, architecture, and the +industrial arts reached a remarkable development; but in Chaldaea, at +any rate, a vast amount of knowledge had been accumulated and +methodized, in the departments of grammar, mathematics, astronomy, and +natural history. Where such traces of the scientific spirit are +visible, naturalistic speculation is rarely far off, though, so far as +I know, no remains of an Accacian, or Egyptian, philosophy, properly +so called, have yet been recovered. + +Geographically, Chaldaea occupied a central position among the oldest +seats of civilization. Commerce, largely aided by the intervention of +those colossal pedlars, the Phoenicians, had brought Chaldaea into +connection with all of them, for a thousand years before the epoch at +present under consideration. And in the ninth, eighth and seventh +[106] centuries, the Assyrian, the depositary of Chaldaean +civilization, as the Macedonian and the Roman, at a later date, were +the depositories of Greek culture, had added irresistible force to the +other agencies for the wide distribution of Chaldaean literature, art, +and science. + +I confess that I find it difficult to imagine that the Greek +immigrant--who stood in somewhat the same relation to the Babylonians +and the Egyptians as the later Germanic barbarians to the Romans of +the Empire--should not have been immensely influenced by the new life +with which they became acquainted. But there is abundant direct +evidence of the magnitude of this influence in certain spheres. I +suppose it is not doubted that the Greek went to school with the +Oriental for his primary instruction in reading, writing, and +arithmetic; and that Semitic theology supplied him with some of his +mythological lore. Nor does there now seem to be any question about +the large indebtedness of Greek art to that of Chaldaea and that of +Egypt. + +But the manner of that indebtedness is very instructive. The obligation +is clear, but its limits are no less definite. Nothing better +exemplifies the indomitable originality of the Greeks than the +relations of their art to that of the Orientals. Far from being +subdued into mere imitators by the technical excellence of their +teachers, they lost no time in bettering the instruction they +received, using their models as mere stepping stones on the way to +those unsurpassed and unsurpassable achievements which are all their +own. The shibboleth of Art is [107] the human figure. The ancient +Chaldaeans and Egyptians, like the modern Japanese, did wonders in the +representation of birds and quadrupeds; they even attained to +something more than respectability in human portraiture. But their +utmost efforts never brought them within range of the best Greek +embodiments of the grace of womanhood, or of the severer beauty of +manhood. + +It is worth while to consider the probable effect upon the acute and +critical Greek mind of the conflict of ideas, social, political, and +theological, which arose out of the conditions of life in the Asiatic +colonies. The Ionian polities had passed through the whole gamut of +social and political changes, from patriarchal and occasionally +oppressive kingship to rowdy and still more burdensome mobship--no +doubt with infinitely eloquent and copious argumentation, on both +sides, at every stage of their progress towards that arbitrament of +force which settles most political questions. The marvellous +speculative faculty, latent in the Ionian, had come in contact with +Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Phoenician theologies and cosmogonies; with +the illuminati of Orphism and the fanatics and dreamers of the +Mysteries; possibly with Buddhism and Zoroasterism; possibly even with +Judaism. And it has been observed that the mutual contradictions of +antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to play a large part among the +generative agencies of naturalism. + +Thus, various external influences may have contributed to the rise of +philosophy among the Ionian Greeks of the sixth century. But the +assimilative [108] capacity of the Greek mind--its power of +Hellenizing whatever it touched--has here worked so effectually, that, +so far as I can learn, no indubitable traces of such extraneous +contributions are now allowed to exist by the most authoritative +historians of Philosophy. Nevertheless, I think it must be admitted +that the coincidences between the Heracleito-stoical doctrines and +those of the older Hindu philosophy are extremely remarkable. In both, +the cosmos pursues an eternal succession of cyclical changes. The +great year, answering to the Kalpa, covers an entire cycle from the +origin of the universe as a fluid to its dissolution in fire--"Humor +initium, ignis exitus mundi," as Seneca has it. In both systems, there +is immanent in the cosmos a source of energy, Brahma, or the Logos, +which works according to fixed laws. The individual soul is an efflux +of this world-spirit, and returns to it. Perfection is attainable only +by individual effort, through ascetic discipline, and is rather a +state of painlessness than of happiness; if indeed it can be said to +be a state of anything, save the negation of perturbing emotion. The +hatchment motto "In Coelo Quies" would serve both Hindu and Stoic; and +absolute quiet is not easily distinguishable from annihilation. + +Zoroasterism, which, geographically, occupies a position intermediate +between Hellenism and Hinduism, agrees with the latter in recognizing +the essential evil of the cosmos; but differs from both in its +intensely anthropomorphic personification of the two antagonistic +principles, to the one of which it ascribes all the good; and, to the +other, all the evil. + +[109] In fact, it assumes the existence of two worlds, one good and one +bad; the latter created by the evil power for the purpose of damaging +the former. The existing cosmos is a mere mixture of the two, and the +"last judgment" is a root-and-branch extirpation of the work of +Ahriman. + +Note 12 (p. 69). + +There is no snare in which the feet of a modern student of ancient lore +are more easily entangled, than that which is spread by the similarity +of the language of antiquity to modern modes of expression. I do not +presume to interpret the obscurest of Greek philosophers; all I wish +is to point out, that his words, in the sense accepted by competent +interpreters, fit modern ideas singularly well. + +So far as the general theory of evolution goes there is no difficulty. +The aphorism about the river; the figure of the child playing on the +shore; the kingship and fatherhood of strife, seem decisive. The +[Greek phrase osod ano kato mie] expresses, with singular aptness, the +cyclical aspect of the one process of organic evolution in individual +plants and animals: yet it may be a question whether the Heracleitean +strife included any distinct conception of the struggle for existence. +Again, it is tempting to compare the part played by the Heracleitean +"fire" with that ascribed by the moderns to heat, or rather to that +cause of motion of which heat is one expression; and a little +ingenuity might find a foreshadowing of the doctrine of the +conservation of energy, in the saying [110] that all the things are +changed into fire and fire into all things, as gold into goods and +goods into gold. + +Note 13 (p. 71). + +Pope's lines in the Essay on Man(Ep. i. 267-8), + + All are but parts of one stupendous whole, + Whose body Nature is, and God the soul," + +simply paraphrase Seneca's "quem in hoc mundo locum deus obtinet, hunc +in homine animus: quod est illic materia, id nobis corpus est."--(Ep. +lxv. 24); which again is a Latin version of the old Stoical doctrine, +[Greek phrase eis apan tou kosou meros diekei o nous, kataper aph emon +e psuche]. + +So far as the testimony for the universality of what ordinary people +call "evil" goes, there is nothing better than the writings of the +Stoics themselves. They might serve, as a storehouse for the epigrams +of the ultra-pessimists. Heracleitus (circa 500 B.C.) says just as +hard things about ordinary humanity as his disciples centuries later; +and there really seems no need to seek for the causes of this dark +view of life in the circumstances of the time of Alexander's +successors or of the early Emperors of Rome. To the man with an +ethical ideal, the world, including himself, will always seem full of +evil. + +Note 14 (P. 73). + +I use the well-known phrase, but decline responsibility for the libel +upon Epicurus, whose doctrines [111] were far less compatible with +existence in a stye than those of the Cynics. If it were steadily +borne in mind that the conception of the "flesh" as the source of +evil, and the great saying "Initium est salutis notitia peccati," are +the property of Epicurus, fewer illusions about Epicureanism would +pass muster for accepted truth. + +Note 15 (P. 75). + +The Stoics said that man was a [Greek phrase zoon logikon politikon +philallelon], or a rational, a political, and an altruistic or +philanthropic animal. In their view, his higher nature tended to +develop in these three directions, as a plant tends to grow up into +its typical form. Since, without the introduction of any consideration +of pleasure or pain, whatever thwarted the realization of its type by +the plant might be said to be bad, and whatever helped it good; so +virtue, in the Stoical sense, as the conduct which tended to the +attainment of the rational, political, and philanthropic ideal, was +good in itself, and irrespectively of its emotional concomitants. + +Man is an "animal sociale communi bono genitum." The safety of society +depends upon practical recognition of the fact. "Salva autem esse +societas nisi custodia et amore partium non possit," says Seneca. (De. +Ira, ii. 31.) + +Note 16 (P. 75). + +The importance of the physical doctrine of the Stoics lies in its +clear recognition of the universality [112] of the law of causation, +with its corollary, the order of nature: the exact form of that order +is an altogether secondary consideration. + +Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the incompatibility +of pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt about the immortality +of the soul, with religion and morality, is to be held as an +axiomatic truth. I confess that I have a certain difficulty in +accepting this dogma. For the Stoics were notoriously materialists and +pantheists of the most extreme character; and while no strict Stoic +believed in the eternal duration of the individual soul, some even +denied its persistence after death. Yet it is equally certain that of +all gentile philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical +development, is animated by the most religious spirit, and has exerted +the profoundest influence upon the moral and religious development not +merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the moderns down to +our own day. + +Seneca was claimed as a Christian and placed among the saints by the +fathers of the early Christian Church; and the genuineness of a +correspondence between him and the apostle Paul has been hotly +maintained in our own time, by orthodox writers. That the letters, as +we possess them, are worthless forgeries is obvious; and writers as +wide apart as Baur and Lightfoot agree that the whole story is devoid +of foundation. + +The dissertation of the late Bishop of Durham (Epistle to the +Philippians) is particularly worthy of study, apart from this +question, on account of [113] evidence which it supplies of the +numerous similarities of thought between Seneca and the writer of the +Pauline epistles. When it is remembered that the writer of the Acts +puts a quotation from Aratus, or Cleanthes, into the mouth of the +apostle; and that Tarsus was a great seat of philosophical and +especially stoical learning (Chrysippus himself was a native of the +adjacent town of Soli), there is no difficulty in understanding the +origin of these resemblances. See, on this subject, Sir Alexander +Grant's dissertation in his edition of The Ethics of Aristotle (where +there is an interesting reference to the stoical character of Bishop +Butler's ethics), the concluding pages of Dr. Weygoldt's instructive +little work Die Philosophie der Stoa, and Aubertin's Seneque et Saint +Paul. + +It is surprising that a writer of Dr. Lightfoot's stamp should speak +of Stoicism as a philosophy of "despair." Surely, rather, it was a +philosophy of men who, having cast off all illusions, and the +childishness of despair among them, were minded to endure in patience +whatever conditions the cosmic process might create, so long as those +conditions were compatible with the progress towards virtue, which +alone, for them, conferred a worthy object on existence. There is no +note of despair in the stoical declaration that the perfected "wise +man" is the equal of Zeus in everything but the duration of his +existence. And, in my judgment, there is as little pride about it, +often as it serves for the text of discourses on stoical arrogance. +Grant the stoical postulate that there is no good except virtue; grant +that [114] the perfected wise man is altogether virtuous, in +consequence of being guided in all things by the reason, which is an +effluence of Zeus, and there seems no escape from the stoical +conclusion. + +Note 17 (p. 76). + +Our "Apathy" carries such a different set of connotations from its +Greek original that I have ventured on using the latter as a technical +term. + +Note 18 (P. 77). + +Many of the stoical philosophers recommended their disciples to take +an active share in public affairs; and in the Roman world, for several +centuries, the best public men were strongly inclined to Stoicism. +Nevertheless, the logical tendency of Stoicism seems to me to be +fulfilled only in such men as Diogenes and Epictetus. + +Note 19 (P. 80). + +"Criticisms on the Origin of Species," 1864. Collected Essays, vol. ii. +p. 91.[1894.] + +Note 20 (P. 81). + +Of course, strictly speaking, social life, and the ethical process in +virtue of which it advances towards perfection, Are part and parcel of +the general process of evolution, just as the gregarious habit of in +[115] numerable plants and animals, which has been of immense +advantage to them, is so. A hive of bees is an organic polity, a +society in which the part played by each member is determined by +organic necessities. Queens, workers, and drones are, so to speak, +castes, divided from one another by marked physical barriers. Among +birds and mammals, societies are formed, of which the bond in many +cases seems to be purely psychological; that is to say, it appears to +depend upon the liking of the individuals for one another's company. +The tendency of individuals to over self-assertion is kept down by +fighting. Even in these rudimentary forms of society, love and fear +come into play, and enforce a greater or less renunciation of +self-will. To this extent the general cosmic process begins to be +checked by a rudimentary ethical process, which is, strictly speaking, +part of the former, just as the "governor" in a steam-engine is part +of the mechanism of the engine. + +Note 21 (p. 82). + +See "Government: Anarchy or Regimentation," Collected Essays, vol. i. +pp. 413-418. It is this form of political philosophy to which I +conceive the epithet of "reasoned savagery" to be strictly +applicable.[1894.] + +Note 22 (p. 83). + +"L'homme n'est qu'un roseau, le plus faible de la nature, mais c'est +un roseau pensant. Il ne faut [116] pas que l'univers entier s'arme +pour l'ecraser. Une vapour, une goutte d'eau, suffit pour le tuer. +Mais quand l'univers l'ecraserait, l'homme serait encore plus noble +que ce qui le tue, parce qu'il sait qu'il muert; et l'avantage que +l'univers a sur lui, l'univers n'en sait rien."--Pensees de Pascal. + +Note 23 (p. 85). + +The use of the word "Nature" here may be criticised. Yet the +manifestation of the natural tendencies of men is so profoundly +modified by training that it is hardly too strong. Consider the +suppression of the sexual instinct between near relations. + +Note 24 (p. 86). + +A great proportion of poetry is addressed by the young to the young; +only the great masters of the art are capable of divining, or think it +worth while to enter into, the feelings of retrospective age. The two +great poets whom we have so lately lost, Tennyson and Browning, have +done this, each in his own inimitable way; the one in the Ulysses, +from which I have borrowed; the other in that wonderful fragment +"Childe Roland to the dark Tower came." + +[147] + +(Note: Section III came from a different source than the +other sections and thus does not have page numbers. + +Section III of the volume, "Science and Theology", is not Huxley's text +and is not by Huxley. It reprints instead an entirely different essay, +one by Asa Gray on Darwin, published in the Atlantic in 1860 as +specified in a note before the text here; what looks like a subheading, +"NATURAL SELECTION NOT INCONSISTENT WITH NATURAL THEOLOGY", is the title +given to Gray's essay in some reprints.) + + III. + + SCIENCE AND MORALS + + [1886] + + +NATURAL SELECTION + +NOT INCONSISTENT WITH + +NATURAL THEOLOGY + +(Atlantic Monthly for July, August, and October, 1860, reprinted in +1861) + + +I + + +Novelties are enticing to most people; to us they are simply annoying. +We cling to a long-accepted theory, just as we cling to an old suit of +clothes. A new theory, like a new pair of breeches (the Atlantic still +affects the older type of nether garment), is sure to have hard-fitting +places; or, even when no particular fault can be found with the +article, it oppresses with a sense of general discomfort. New notions +and new styles worry us, till we get well used to them, which is only +by slow degrees. + +Wherefore, in Galileos time, we might have helped to proscribe, or to +burn--had he been stubborn enough to warrant cremation--even the great +pioneer of inductive research; although, when we had fairly recovered +our composure, and bad leisurely excogitated the matter, we might have +come to conclude that the new doctrine was better than the old one, +after all, at least for those who had nothing to unlearn. + +Such being our habitual state of mind, it may well be believed that the +perusal of the new book "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural +Selection" left an uncomfortable impression, in spite of its plausible +and winning ways. We were not wholly unprepared for it, as many of our +contemporaries seem to have been. The scientific reading in which we +indulge as a relaxation from severer studies had raised dim +forebodings. Investigations about the succession of species in time, +and their actual geographical distribution over the earths surface, +were leading up from all sides and in various ways to the question of +their origin. Now and then we encountered a sentence, like Prof. Owens +"axiom of the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living +things," which haunted us like an apparition. For, dim as our +conception must needs be as to what such oracular and grandiloquent +phrases might really mean, we felt confident that they presaged no good +to old beliefs. Foreseeing, yet deprecating, the coming time of +trouble, we still hoped that, with some repairs and makeshifts, the old +views might last out our days. Apres nous le deluge. Still, not to lag +behind the rest of the world, we read the book in which the new theory +is promulgated. We took it up, like our neighbors, and, as was natural, +in a somewhat captious frame of mind. + +Well, we found no cause of quarrel with the first chapter. Here the +author takes us directly to the barn-yard and the kitchen-garden. Like +an honorable rural member of our General Court, who sat silent until, +near the close of a long session, a bill requiring all swine at large +to wear pokes was introduced, when he claimed the privilege of +addressing the house, on the proper ground that he had been "brought up +among the pigs, and knew all about them"--so we were brought up among +cows and cabbages; and the lowing of cattle, the cackle of hens, and +the cooing of pigeons, were sounds native and pleasant to our ears. So +"Variation under Domestication" dealt with familiar subjects in a +natural way, and gently introduced "Variation under Nature," which +seemed likely enough. Then follows "Struggle for Existence"--a +principle which we experimentally know to be true and cogent--bringing +the comfortable assurance, that man, even upon Leviathan Hobbess theory +of society, is no worse than the rest of creation, since all Nature is +at war, one species with another, and the nearer kindred the more +internecine--bringing in thousandfold confirmation and extension of the +Malthusian doctrine that population tends far to outrun means of +subsistence throughout the animal and vegetable world, and has to be +kept down by sharp preventive checks; so that not more than one of a +hundred or a thousand of the individuals whose existence is so +wonderfully and so sedulously provided for ever comes to anything, +under ordinary circumstances; so the lucky and the strong must prevail, +and the weaker and ill-favored must perish; and then follows, as +naturally as one sheep follows another, the chapter on "Natural +Selection," Darwins cheval de bataille, which is very much the +Napoleonic doctrine that Providence favors the strongest +battalions--that, since many more individuals are born than can +possibly survive, those individuals and those variations which possess +any advantage, however slight, over the rest, are in the long-run sure +to survive, to propagate, and to occupy the limited field, to the +exclusion or destruction of the weaker brethren. All this we pondered, +and could not much object to. In fact, we began to contract a liking +for a system which at the outset illustrates the advantages of good +breeding, and which makes the most "of every creatures best." + +Could we "let by-gones be by-gones," and, beginning now, go on +improving and diversifying for the future by natural selection, could +we even take up the theory at the introduction of the actually +existing species, we should be well content; and so, perhaps, would +most naturalists be. It is by no means difficult to believe that +varieties are incipient or possible species, when we see what trouble +naturalists, especially botanists, have to distinguish between +them--one regarding as a true species what another regards as a +variety; when the progress of knowledge continually increases, rather +than diminishes, the number of doubtful instances; and when there is +less agreement than ever among naturalists as to what is the basis in +Nature upon which our idea of species reposes, or how the word is to be +defined. Indeed, when we consider the endless disputes of naturalists +and ethnologists over the human races, as to whether they belong to one +species or to more, and, if to more, whether to three, or five, or +fifty, we can hardly help fancying that both may be right--or rather, +that the uni-humanitarians would have been right many thousand years +ago, and the multi-humanitarians will be several thousand years later; +while at present the safe thing to say is, that probably there is some +truth on both sides. + +"Natural selection," Darwin remarks, "leads to divergence of character; +for the more living beings can be supported on the same area, the more +they diverge in structure, habits, and constitution" (a principle +which, by-the-way, is paralleled and illustrated by the diversification +of human labor); and also leads to much extinction of intermediate or +unimproved forms. Now, though this divergence may "steadily tend to +increase," yet this is evidently a slow process in Nature, and liable +to much counteraction wherever man does not interpose, and so not +likely to work much harm for the future. And if natural selection, with +artificial to help it, will produce better animals and better men than +the present, and fit them better to the conditions of existence, why, +let it work, say we, to the top of its bent There is still room enough +for improvement. Only let us hope that it always works for good: if +not, the divergent lines on Darwin's lithographic diagram of +"Transmutation made Easy," ominously show what small deviations from +the straight path may come to in the end. + +The prospect of the future, accordingly, is on the whole pleasant and +encouraging. It is only the backward glance, the gaze up the long vista +of the past, that reveals anything alarming. Here the lines converge as +they recede into the geological ages, and point to conclusions which, +upon the theory, are inevitable, but hardly welcome. The very first +step backward makes the negro and the Hottentot our +blood-relations--not that reason or Scripture objects to that, though +pride may. The next suggests a closer association of our ancestors of +the olden time with "our poor relations" of the quadrumanous family +than we like to acknowledge. Fortunately, however--even if we must +account for him scientifically --man with his two feet stands upon a +foundation of his own. Intermediate links between the Bimana and the +Quadrumana are lacking altogether; so that, put the genealogy of the +brutes upon what footing you will, the four-handed races will not serve +for our forerunners--at least, not until some monkey, live or fossil, +is producible with great-toes, instead of thumbs, upon his nether +extremities; or until some lucky geologist turns up the bones of his +ancestor and prototype in France or England, who was so busy "napping +the chuckie-stanes" and chipping out flint knives and arrow-heads in +the time of the drift, very many ages ago--before the British Channel +existed, says Lyell [III-1]--and until these men of the olden time are +shown to have worn their great-toes in the divergent and thumblike +fashion. That would be evidence indeed: but, until some testimony of +the sort is produced, we must needs believe in the separate and special +creation of man, however it may have been with the lower animals and +with plants. + +No doubt, the full development and symmetry of Darwin's hypothesis +strongly suggest the evolution of the human no less than the lower +animal races out of some simple primordial animal--that all are equally +"lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the +first bed of the Silurian system was deposited." But, as the author +speaks disrespectfully of spontaneous generation, and accepts a +supernatural beginning of life on earth, in some form or forms of being +which included potentially all that have since existed and are yet to +be, he is thereby not warranted to extend his inferences beyond the +evidence or the fair probability. There seems as great likelihood that +one special origination should be followed by another upon fitting +occasion (such as the introduction of man), as that one form should be +transmuted into another upon fitting occasion, as, for instance, in the +succession of species which differ from each other only in some +details. To compare small things with great in a homely illustration: +man alters from time to time his instruments or machines, as new +circumstances or conditions may require and his wit suggest. Minor +alterations and improvements he adds to the machine he possesses; he +adapts a new rig or a new rudder to an old boat: this answers to +Variation. "Like begets like," being the great rule in Nature, if boats +could engender, the variations would doubtless be propagated, like +those of domestic cattle. In course of time the old ones would be worn +out or wrecked; the best sorts would be chosen for each particular use, +and further improved upon; and so the primordial boat be developed into +the scow, the skiff, the sloop, and other species of water-craft--the +very diversification, as well as the successive improvements, entailing +the disappearance of intermediate forms, less adapted to any one +particular purpose; wherefore these go slowly out of use, and become +extinct species: this is Natural Selection. Now, let a great and +important advance be made, like that of steam navigation: here, though +the engine might be added to the old vessel, yet the wiser and +therefore the actual way is to make a new vessel on a modified plan: +this may answer to Specific Creation. Anyhow, the one does not +necessarily exclude the other. Variation and natural selection may +play their part, and so may specific creation also. Why not? + +This leads us to ask for the reasons which call for this new theory of +transmutation. The beginning of things must needs lie in obscurity, +beyond the bounds of proof, though within those of conjecture or of +analogical inference. Why not hold fast to the customary view, that all +species were directly, instead of indirectly, created after their +respective kinds, as we now behold them--and that in a manner which, +passing our comprehension, we intuitively refer to the supernatural? +Why this continual striving after "the unattained and dim?" why these +anxious endeavors, especially of late years, by naturalists and +philosophers of various schools and different tendencies, to penetrate +what one of them calls "that mystery of mysteries," the origin of +species? + +To this, in general, sufficient answer may be found in the activity of +the human intellect, "the delirious yet divine desire to know," +stimulated as it has been by its own success in unveiling the laws and +processes of inorganic Nature; in the fact that the principal triumphs +of our age in physical science have consisted in tracing connections +where none were known before, in reducing heterogeneous phenomena to a +common cause or origin, in a manner quite analogous to that of the +reduction of supposed independently originated species to a common +ultimate origin--thus, and in various other ways, largely and +legitimately extending the domain of secondary causes. Surely the +scientific mind of an age which contemplates the solar system as +evolved from a common revolving fluid mass--which, through experimental +research, has come to regard light, heat, electricity, magnetism, +chemical affinity, and mechanical power as varieties or derivative and +convertible forms of one force, instead of independent species--which +has brought the so-called elementary kinds of matter, such as the +metals, into kindred groups, and pertinently raised the question, +whether the members of each group may not be mere varieties of one +species--and which speculates steadily in the direction of the ultimate +unity of matter, of a sort of prototype or simple element which may be +to the ordinary species of matter what the Protozoa or what the +component cells of an organism are to the higher sorts of animals and +plants--the mind of such an age cannot be expected to let the old +belief about species pass unquestioned. It will raise the question, how +the diverse sorts of plants and animals came to be as they are and +where they are and will allow that the whole inquiry transcends its +powers only when all endeavors have failed Granting the origin to be +super natural or miraculous even, will not arrest the inquiry All real +origination the philosophers will say, is supernatural, their very +question is, whether we have yet gone back to the origin and can affirm +that the present forms of plants and animals are the primordial, the +miraculously created ones. And, even if they admit that, they will +still inquire into the order of the phenomena, into the form of the +miracle You might as well expect the child to grow up content with what +it is told about the advent of its infant brother Indeed, to learn that +the new comer is the gift of God, far from lulling inquiry, only +stimulates speculation as to how the precious gift was bestowed That +questioning child is father to the man--is philosopher in +short-clothes. + +Since, then questions about the origin of species will be raised, and +have been raised--and since the theorizings, however different in +particulars, all proceed upon the notion that one species of plant or +animal is somehow derived from another, that the different sorts which +now flourish are lineal (or unlineal) descendants of other and earlier +sorts--it now concerns us to ask, What are the grounds in Nature, the +admitted facts, which suggest hypotheses of derivation in some :shape +or other? Reasons there must be, and plausible ones, for the persistent +recurrence of theories upon this genetic basis. A study of Darwins +book, and a general glance at the present state of the natural +sciences, enable us to gather the following as among the most +suggestive and influential. We can only enumerate them here, without +much indication of their particular bearing. There is-- + +1. The general fact of variability, and the general tendency of the +variety to propagate its like--the patent facts that all species vary +more or less; that domesticated plants and animals, being in conditions +favorable to the production and preservation of varieties, are apt to +vary widely; and that, by interbreeding, any variety may be fixed into +a race, that is, into a variety which comes true from seed. Many such +races, it is allowed, differ from each other in structure and +appearance as widely as do many admitted species; and it is practically +very difficult, even impossible, to draw a clear line between races and +species. Witness the human races, for instance. Wild species also +vary, perhaps about as widely as those of domestication, though in +different ways. Some of them apparently vary little, others moderately, +others immoderately, to the great bewilderment of systematic botanists +and zoologists, and increasing disagreement as to whether various forms +shall be held to be original species or strong varieties. Moreover, the +degree to which the descendants of the same stock, varying in different +directions, may at length diverge, is unknown. All we know is, that +varieties are themselves variable, and that very diverse forms have +been educed from one stock. + +2. Species of the same genus are not distinguished from each other by +equal amounts of difference. There is diversity in this respect +analogous to that of the varieties of a polymorphous species, some of +them slight, others extreme. And in large genera the unequal +resemblance shows itself in the clustering of the species around +several types or central species, like satellites around their +respective planets. Obviously suggestive this of the hypothesis that +they were satellites, not thrown off by revolution, like the moons of +Jupiter, Saturn, and our own solitary moon, but gradually and +peacefully detached by divergent variation. That such closely-related +species may be only varieties of higher grade, earlier origin, or more +favored evolution, is not a very violent supposition. Anyhow, it was a +supposition sure to be made. + +3. The actual geographical distribution of species upon the earths +surface tends to suggest the same notion. For, as a general thing, all +or most of the species of a peculiar genus or other type are grouped in +the same country, or occupy continuous, proximate, or accessible areas. +So well does this rule hold, so general is the implication that kindred +species are or were associated geographically, that most trustworthy +naturalists, quite free from hypotheses of transmutation, are +constantly inferring former geographical continuity between parts of +the world now widely disjoined, in order to account thereby for certain +generic similarities among their inhabitants; just as philologists +infer former connection of races, and a parent language, to account for +generic similarities among existing languages. Yet no scientific +explanation has been offered to account for the geographical +association of kindred species, except the hypothesis of a common +origin. + +4. Here the fact of the antiquity of creation, and in particular of the +present kinds of the earths inhabitants, or of a large part of them, +comes in to rebut the objection that there has not been time enough for +any marked diversification of living things through divergent +variation--not time enough for varieties to have diverged into what we +call species. + +So long as the existing species of plants and animals were thought to +have originated a few thousand years ago, and without predecessors, +there was no room for a theory of derivation of one sort from another, +nor time enough even to account for the establishment of the races +which are generally believed to have diverged from a common stock. Not +so much that five or six thousand years was a short allowance for this; +but because some of our familiar domesticated varieties of grain, of +fowls, and of other animals, were pictured and mummified by the old +Egyptians more than half that number of years ago, if not earlier. +Indeed, perhaps the strongest argument for the original plurality of +human species was drawn from the identification of some of the present +races of men upon these early historical monuments and records. + +But this very extension of the current chronology, if we may rely upon +the archaeologists, removes the difficulty by opening up a longer +vista. So does the discovery in Europe of remains and implements of +prehistoric races of men, to whom the use of metals was unknown--men of +the stone age, as the Scandinavian archaeologists designate them. And +now, "axes and knives of flint, evidently wrought by human skill, are +found in beds of the drift at Amiens (also in other places, both in +France and England), associated with the bones of extinct species of +animals." These implements, indeed, were noticed twenty years ago; at a +place in Suffolk they have been exhumed from time to time for more than +a century; but the full confirmation, the recognition of the age of the +deposit in which the implements occur, their abundance, and the +appreciation of their bearings upon most interesting questions, belong +to the present time. To complete the connection of these primitive +people with the fossil ages, the French geologists, we are told, have +now "found these axes in Picardy associated with remains of Elephas +primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus fossilis, and an extinct +species of Bos."[III-2] In plain language, these workers in flint lived +in the time of the mammoth, of a rhinoceros now extinct, and along with +horses and cattle unlike any now existing--specifically different, as +naturalists say, from those with which man is now associated. Their +connection with existing human races may perhaps be traced through the +intervening people of the stone age, who were succeeded by the people +of the bronze age, and these by workers in iron.[III-3] Now, various +evidence carries back the existence of many of the present lower +species of animals, and probably of a larger number of plants, to the +same drift period. All agree that this was very many thousand years +ago. Agassiz tells us that the same species of polyps which are now +building coral walls around the present peninsula of Florida actually +made that peninsula, and have been building there for many thousand +centuries. + +5. The overlapping of existing and extinct species, and the seemingly +gradual transition of the life of the drift period into that of the +present, may be turned to the same account. Mammoths, mastodons, and +Irish elks, now extinct, must have lived down to human, if not almost +to historic times. Perhaps the last dodo did not long outlive his huge +New Zealand kindred. The aurochs, once the companion of mammoths, still +survives, but owes his present and precarious existence to mans care. +Now, nothing that we know of forbids the hypothesis that some new +species have been independently and supernaturally created within the +period which other species have survived. Some may even believe that +man was created in the days of the mammoth, became extinct, and was +recreated at a later date. But why not say the same of the aurochs, +contemporary both of the old man and of the new? Still it is more +natural, if not inevitable, to infer that, if the aurochs of that olden +time were the ancestors of the aurochs of the Lithuanian forests, so +likewise were the men of that age the ancestors of the present human +races. Then, whoever concludes that these primitive makers of rude +flint axes and knives were the ancestors of the better workmen of the +succeeding stone age, and these again of the succeeding artificers in +brass and iron, will also be likely to suppose that the Equus and Bos +of that time, different though they be, were the remote progenitors of +our own horses and cattle. In all candor we must at least concede that +such considerations suggest a genetic descent from the drift period +down to the present, and allow time enough--if time is of any account-- +for variation and natural selection to work out some appreciable +results in the way of divergence into races, or even into so-called +species. Whatever might have been thought, when geological time was +supposed to be separated from the present era by a clear line, it is +now certain that a gradual replacement of old forms by new ones is +strongly suggestive of some mode of origination which may still be +operative. When species, like individuals, were found to die out one by +one, and apparently to come in one by one, a theory for what Owen +sonorously calls "the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of +living things" could not be far off. + +That all such theories should take the form of a derivation of the new +from the old seems to be inevitable, perhaps from our inability to +conceive of any other line of secondary causes in this connection. Owen +himself is apparently in travail with some transmutation theory of his +own conceiving, which may yet see the light, although Darwins came +first to the birth. Different as the two theories will probably be, +they cannot fail to exhibit that fundamental resemblance in this +respect which betokens a community of origin, a common foundation on +the general facts and the obvious suggestions of modern science. +Indeed--to turn the point of a pungent simile directed against +Darwin--the difference between the Darwinian and the Owenian hypotheses +may, after all, be only that between homoeopathic and heroic doses of +the same drug. + +If theories of derivation could only stop here, content with explaining +the diversification and succession of species between the teritiary +period and the present time, through natural agencies or secondary +causes still in operation, we fancy they would not be generally or +violently objected to by the savants of the present day. But it is +hard, if not impossible, to find a stopping-place. Some of the facts or +accepted conclusions already referred to, and several others, of a more +general character, which must be taken into the account, impel the +theory onward with accumulated force. Vires (not to say virus) acquirit +eundo. The theory hitches on wonderfully well to Lyells uniformitarian +theory in geology--that the thing that has been is the thing that is +and shall be--that the natural operations now going on will account for +all geological changes in a quiet and easy way, only give them time +enough, so connecting the present and the proximate with the farthest +past by almost imperceptible gradations--a view which finds large and +increasing, if not general, acceptance in physical geology, and of +which Darwins theory is the natural complement. + +So the Darwinian theory, once getting a foothold, marches; boldly on, +follows the supposed near ancestors of our present species farther and +yet farther back into the dim past, and ends with an analogical +inference which "makes the whole world kin." As we said at the +beginning, this upshot discomposes us. Several features of the theory +have an uncanny look. They may prove to be innocent: but their first +aspect is suspicious, and high authorities pronounce the whole thing to +be positively mischievous. In this dilemma we are going to take advice. +Following the bent of our prejudices, and hoping to fortify these by +new and strong arguments, we are going now to read the principal +reviews which undertake to demolish the theory--with what result our +readers shall be duly informed. + + +II + + +"I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and +dispassionate judgment of which I am capable, that the view which most +naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained, namely, that +each species has been independently created, is erroneous. I am fully +convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to +what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other +and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged +varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. +Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main, +but not exclusive, means of modification." + + +This is the kernel of the new theory, the Darwinian creed, as recited +at the close of the introduction to the remarkable book under +consideration. The questions, "What will he do with it?" and "How far +will he carry it?" the author answers at the close of the volume: + + +"I cannot doubt that the theory of descent with modification embraces +all the members of the same class." Furthermore, "I believe that all +animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and +plants from an equal or lesser number." + + +Seeing that analogy as strongly suggests a further step in the same +direction, while he protests that "analogy may be a deceitful guide," +yet he follows its inexorable leading to the inference that-- + +"Probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this ear have +descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first +breathed."[III-4] + + +In the first extract we have the thin end of the wedge driven a little +way; in the last, the wedge driven home. + +We have already sketched some of the reasons suggestive of such a +theory of derivation of species, reasons which gave it plausibility, +and even no small probability, as applied to our actual world and to +changes occurring since the latest tertiary period. We are well pleased +at this moment to find that the conclusions we were arriving at in this +respect are sustained by the very high authority and impartial judgment +of Pictet, the Swiss paleontologist. In his review of Darwins +book[III-5] -- the fairest and most admirable opposing one that has +appeared--he freely accepts that ensemble of natural operations which +Darwin impersonates under the now familiar name of Natural Selection, +allows that the exposition throughout the first chapters seems "a la +fois prudent et fort," and is disposed to accept the whole argument in +its foundations, that is, so far as it relates to what is now going on, +or has taken place in the present geological period--which period he +carries back through the diluvial epoch to the borders of the +tertiary.[III-6] Pictet accordingly admits that the theory will very +well account for the origination by divergence of nearly-related +species, whether within the present period or in remoter geological +times; a very natural view for him to take, since he appears to have +reached and published, several years ago, the pregnant conclusion that +there most probably was some material connection between the +closely-related species of two successive faunas, and that the numerous +close species, whose limits are so difficult to determine, were not all +created distinct and independent. But while thus accepting, or ready +to accept, the basis of Darwins theory, and all its legitimate direct +inferences, he rejects the ultimate conclusions, brings some weighty +arguments to bear against them, and is evidently convinced that he can +draw a clear line between the sound inferences, which he favors, and +the unsound or unwarranted theoretical deductions, which he rejects. We +hope he can. + +This raises the question, Why does Darwin press his theory to these +extreme conclusions? Why do all hypotheses of derivation converge so +inevitably to one ultimate point? Having already considered some of the +reasons which suggest or support the theory at its outset--which may +carry it as far as such sound and experienced naturalists as Pictet +allow that it may be true--perhaps as far as Darwin himself unfolds it +in the introductory proposition cited at the beginning of this +article--we may now inquire after the motives which impel the theorist +so much farther. Here proofs, in the proper sense of the word, are not +to be had. We are beyond the region of demonstration, and have only +probabilities to consider. What are these probabilities? What work will +this hypothesis do to establish a claim to be adopted in its +completeness? Why should a theory which may plausibly enough account +for the diversification of the species of each special type or genus be +expanded into a general system for the origination or successive +diversification of all species, and all special types or forms, from +four or five remote primordial forms, or perhaps from one? We accept +the theory of gravitation because it explains all the facts we know, +and bears all the tests that we can put it to. We incline to accept the +nebular hypothesis, for similar reasons; not because it is proved--thus +far it is incapable of proof--but because it is a natural theoretical +deduction from accepted physical laws, is thoroughly congruous with the +facts, and because its assumption serves to connect and harmonize these +into one probable and consistent whole. Can the derivative hypothesis +be maintained and carried out into a system on similar grounds? If so, +however unproved, it would appear to be a tenable hypothesis, which is +all that its author ought now to claim. Such hypotheses as, from the +conditions of the case, can neither be proved nor disproved by direct +evidence or experiment, are to be tested only indirectly, and therefore +imperfectly, by trying their power to harmonize the known facts, and to +account for what is otherwise unaccountable. So the question comes to +this: What will an hypothesis of the derivation of species explain +which the opposing view leaves unexplained? + +Questions these which ought to be entertained before we take up the +arguments which have been advanced against this theory. We can barely +glance at some of the considerations which Darwin adduces, or will be +sure to adduce in the future and fuller exposition which is promised. +To display them in such wise as to indoctrinate the unscientific reader +would require a volume. Merely to refer to them in the most general +terms would suffice for those familiar with scientific matters, but +would scarcely enlighten those who are not. Wherefore let these trust +the impartial Pictet, who freely admits that, "in the absence of +sufficient direct proofs to justify the possibility of his hypothesis, +Mr. Darwin relies upon indirect proofs, the bearing of which is real +and incontestable;" who concedes that "his theory accords very well +with the great facts of comparative anatomy and zoology--comes in +admirably to explain unity of composition of organisms, also to explain +rudimentary and representative organs, and the natural series of genera +and species--equally corresponds with many paleontological data--agrees +well with the specific resemblances which exist between two successive +faunas, with the parallelism which is sometimes observed between the +series of paleontological succession and of embryonal development," +etc.; and finally, although he does not accept the theory in these +results, he allows that "it appears to offer the best means of +explaining the manner in which organized beings were produced in epochs +anterior to our own." + +What more than this could be said for such an hypothesis? Here, +probably, is its charm, and its strong hold upon the speculative mind. +Unproven though it be, and cumbered prima facie with cumulative +improbabilities as it proceeds, yet it singularly accords with great +classes of facts otherwise insulated and enigmatic, and explains many +things which are thus far utterly inexplicable upon any other +scientific assumption. + +We have said that Darwins hypothesis is the natural complement to +Lyells uniformitarian theory in physical geology. It is for the organic +world what that is for the inorganic; and the accepters of the latter +stand in a position from which to regard the former in the most +favorable light. Wherefore the rumor that the cautious Lyell himself +has adopted the Darwinian hypothesis need not surprise us. The two +views are made for each other, and, like the two counterpart pictures +for the stereoscope, when brought together, combine into one apparently +solid whole. + +If we allow, with Pictet, that Darwins theory will very well serve for +all that concerns the present epoch of the worlds history--an epoch in +which this renowned paleontologist includes the diluvial or quaternary +period--then Darwins first and foremost need in his onward course is a +practicable road from this into and through the tertiary period, the +intervening region between the comparatively near and the far remote +past. Here Lyells doctrine paves the way, by showing that in the +physical geology there is no general or absolute break between the two, +probably no greater between the latest tertiary and the quaternary +period than between the latter and the present time. So far, the +Lyellian view is, we suppose, generally concurred in. It is largely +admitted that numerous tertiary species have continued down into the +quaternary, and many of them to the present time. A goodly percentage +of the earlier and nearly half of the later tertiary mollusca, +according to Des Hayes, Lye!!, and, if we mistake not, Bronn, still +live. This identification, however, is now questioned by a naturalist +of the very highest authority. But, in its bearings on the new theory, +the point here turns not upon absolute identity so much as upon close +resemblance. For those who, with Agassiz, doubt the specific identity +in any of these cases, and those who say, with Pictet, that "the later +tertiary deposits contain in general the debris of species very nearly +related to those which still exist, belonging to the same genera, but +specifically different," may also agree with Pictet, that the +nearly-related species of successive faunas must or may have had "a +material connection." But the only material connection that we have an +idea of in such a case is a genealogical one. And the supposition of a +genealogical connection is surely not unnatural in such cases--is +demonstrably the natural one as respects all those tertiary species +which experienced naturalists have pronounced to be identical with +existing ones, but which others now deem distinct For to identify the +two is the same thing as to conclude the one to be the ancestor of the +other No doubt there are differences between the tertiary and the +present individuals, differences equally noticed by both classes of +naturalists, but differently estimated By the one these are deemed +quite compatible, by the other incompatible, with community of origin +But who can tell us what amount of difference is compatible with +community of origin? This is the very question at issue, and one to be +settled by observation alone Who would have thought that the peach and +the nectarine came from one stock? But, this being proved is it now +very improbable that both were derived from the almond, or from some +common amygdaline progenitor? Who would have thought that the cabbage, +cauliflower, broccoli kale, and kohlrabi are derivatives of one +species, and rape or colza, turnip, and probably ruta-baga, of another +species? And who that is convinced of this can long undoubtingly hold +the original distinctness of turnips from cabbages as an article of +faith? On scientific grounds may not a primordial cabbage or rape be +assumed as the ancestor of all the cabbage races, on much the same +ground that we assume a common ancestry for the diversified human +races? If all Our breeds of cattle came from one stock why not this +stock from the auroch, which has had all the time between the diluvial +and the historic periods in which to set off a variation perhaps no +greater than the difference between some sorts of domestic cattle? + +That considerable differences are often discernible between tertiary +individuals and their supposed descendants of the present day affords +no argument against Darwins theory, as has been rashly thought, but is +decidedly in its favor. If the identification were so perfect that no +more differences were observable between the tertiary and the recent +shells than between various individuals of either, then Darwins +opponents, who argue the immutability of species from the ibises and +cats preserved by the ancient Egyptians being just like those of the +present day, could triumphantly add a few hundred thousand years more +to the length of the experiment and to the force of their argument. + +As the facts stand, it appears that, while some tertiary forms are +essentially undistinguishable from existing ones, others are the same +with a difference, which is judged not to be specific or aboriginal; +and yet others show somewhat greater differences, such as are +scientifically expressed by calling them marked varieties, or else +doubtful species; while others, differing a little more, are +confidently termed distinct, but nearly-related species. Now, is not +all this a question of degree, of mere gradation of difference? And is +it at all likely that these several gradations came to be established +in two totally different ways--some of them (though naturalists cant +agree which) through natural variation, or other secondary cause, and +some by original creation, without secondary cause? We have seen that +the judicious Pictet answers such questions as Darwin would have him +do, in affirming that, in all probability, the nearly-related species +of two successive faunas were materially connected, and that +contemporaneous species, similarly resembling each other, were not all +created so, but have become so. This is equivalent to saying that +species (using the term as all naturalists do, and must continue to +employ the word) have only a relative, not an absolute fixity; that +differences fully equivalent to what are held to be specific may arise +in the course of time, so that one species may at length be naturally +replaced by another species a good deal like it, or may be diversified +into two, three, or more species, or forms as different as species. +This concedes all that Darwin has a right to ask, all that he can +directly infer from evidence. We must add that it affords a locus +standi, more or less tenable, for inferring more. + +Here another geological consideration comes in to help on this +inference. The species of the later tertiary period for the most part +not only resembled those of our days--many of them so closely as to +suggest an absolute continuity--but also occupied in general the same +regions that their relatives occupy now. The same may be said, though +less specially, of the earlier tertiary and of the later secondary; but +there is less and less localization of forms as we recede, yet some +localization even in palaeozoic times. While in the secondary period +one is struck with the similarity of forms and the identity of many of +the species which flourished apparently at the same time in all or in +the most widely-separated parts of the world, in the tertiary epoch, on +the contrary, along with the increasing specialization of climates and +their approximation to the present state, we find abundant evidence of +increasing localization of orders, genera and species, and this +localization strikingly accords with the present geographical +distribution of the same groups of species Where the imputed +forefathers lived their relatives and supposed descendants now flourish +All the actual classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms were +represented in the tertiary faunas and floras and in nearly the same +proportions and the same diversities as at present The faunas of what +is now Europe, Asia America and Australia, differed from each other +much as they now differ: in fact--according to Adolphe Brongniart, +whose statements we here condense[III-7]--the inhabitants of these +different regions appear for the most part to have acquired, before the +close of the tertiary period, the characters which essentially +distinguish their existing faunas. The Eastern Continent had then, as +now, its great pachyderms, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus; South +America, its armadillos, sloths, and anteaters; Australia, a crowd of +marsupials; and the very strange birds of New Zealand had predecessors +of similar strangeness. + +Everywhere the same geographical distribution as now, with a difference +in the particular area, as respects the northern portion of the +continents, answering to a warmer climate then than ours, such as +allowed species of hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant, to range +even to the regions now inhabited by the reindeer and the musk-ox, and +with the serious disturbing intervention of the glacial period within a +comparatively recent time. Let it be noted also that those tertiary +species which have continued with little change down to our days are +the marine animals of the lower grades, especially mollusca. Their low +organization, moderate sensibility, and the simple conditions of an +existence in a medium like the ocean, not subject to great variation +and incapable of sudden change, may well account for their continuance; +while, on the other hand, the more intense, however gradual, climatic +vicissitudes on land, which have driven all tropical and subtropical +forms out of the higher latitudes and assigned to them their actual +limits, would be almost sure to extinguish such huge and unwieldy +animals as mastodons, mammoths, and the like, whose power of enduring +altered circumstances must have been small. + +This general replacement of the tertiary species of a country by others +so much like them is a noteworthy fact. The hypothesis of the +independent creation of all species, irrespective of their antecedents, +leaves this fact just as mysterious as is creation itself; that of +derivation undertakes to account for it. Whether it satisfactorily does +so or not, it must be allowed that the facts well accord with that +hypothesis. The same may be said of another conclusion, namely, that +the geological succession of animals and plants appears to correspond +in a general way with their relative standing or rank in a natural +system of classification. It seems clear that, though no one of the +grand types of the animal kingdom can be traced back farther than the +rest, yet the lower classes long preceded the higher; that there has +been on the whole a steady progression within each class and order; and +that the highest plants and animals have appeared only in relatively +modern times. It is only, however, in a broad sense that this +generalization is now thought to hold good. It encounters many apparent +exceptions, and sundry real ones. So far as the rule holds, all is as +it should be upon an hypothesis of derivation. + +The rule has its exceptions. But, curiously enough, the most striking +class of exceptions, if such they be, seems to us even more favorable +to the doctrine of derivation than is the general rule of a pure and +simple ascending gradation. We refer to what Agassiz calls prophetic +and synthetic types; for which the former name may suffice, as the +difference between the two is evanescent. + + +"It has been noticed," writes our great zoologist, "that certain types, +which are frequently prominent among the representatives of past ages, +combine in their structure peculiarities which at later periods are +only observed separately in different, distinct types. Sauroid fishes +before reptiles, Pterodactyles before birds, Ichthyosauri before +dolphins, etc. There are entire families, of nearly every class of +animals, which in the state of their perfect development exemplify such +prophetic relations. + +The sauroid fishes of the past geological ages are an example of this +kind These fishes which preceded the appearance of reptiles present a +combination of ichthyic and reptilian characters not to be found in the +true members of this class, which form its bulk at present. The +Pterodactyles, which preceded the class of birds, and the Ichthyosauri, +which preceded the Cetacea, are other examples of such prophetic +types."--(Agassiz, "Contributions, Essay on Classification," p. 117.) + + +Now, these reptile-like fishes, of which gar-pikes are the living +representatives, though of earlier appearance, are admittedly of higher +rank than common fishes. They dominated until reptiles appeared, when +they mostly gave place to (or, as the derivationists will insist, were +resolved by divergent variation and natural selection into) common +fishes, destitute of reptilian characters, and saurian reptiles--the +intermediate grades, which, according to a familiar piscine saying, are +"neither fish, flesh, nor good red-herring," being eliminated and +extinguished by natural consequence of the struggle for existence which +Darwin so aptly portrays. And so, perhaps, of the other prophetic +types. Here type and antitype correspond. If these are true prophecies, +we need not wonder that some who read them in Agassizs book will read +their fulfillment in Darwins. + +Note also, in this connection, that along with a wonderful persistence +of type, with change of species, genera, orders, etc., from formation +to formation, no species and no higher group which has once +unequivocally died out ever afterward reappears. Why is this, but that +the link of generation has been sundered? Why, on the hypothesis of +independent originations, were not failing species recreated, either +identically or with a difference, in regions eminently adapted to their +well-being? To take a striking case. That no part of the world now +offers more suitable conditions for wild horses and cattle than the +pampas and other plains of South America, is shown by the facility with +which they have there run wild and enormously multiplied, since +introduced from the Old World not long ago. There was no wild American +stock. Yet in the times of the mastodon and megatherium, at the dawn of +the present period, wild-horses--certainly very much like the existing +horse--roamed over those plains in abundance. On the principle of +original and direct created adaptation of species to climate and other +conditions, why were they not reproduced, when, after the colder +intervening era, those regions became again eminently adapted to such +animals? Why, but because, by their complete extinction in South +America, the line of descent was there utterly broken? Upon the +ordinary hypothesis, there is no scientific explanation possible of +this series of facts, and of many others like them. Upon the new +hypothesis, "the succession of the same types of structure within the +same areas during the later geological periods ceases to be mysterious, +and is simply explained by inheritance." Their cessation is failure of +issue. + +Along with these considerations the fact (alluded to on page 98) should +be remembered that, as a general thing, related species of the present +age are geographically associated. The larger part of the plants, and +still more of the animals, of each separate country are peculiar to it; +and, as most species now flourish over the graves of their by-gone +relatives of former ages, so they now dwell among or accessibly near +their kindred species. + +Here also comes in that general "parallelism between the order of +succession of animals and plants in geological times, and the gradation +among their living representatives" from low to highly organized, from +simple and general to complex and specialized forms; also "the +parallelism between the order of succession of animals in geological +times and the changes their living representatives undergo during their +embryological growth," as if the world were one prolonged gestation. +Modern science has much insisted on this parallelism, and to a certain +extent is allowed to have made it out. All these things, which conspire +to prove that the ancient and the recent forms of life "are somehow +intimately connected together in one grand system," equally conspire to +suggest that the connection is one similar or analogous to generation. +Surely no naturalist can be blamed for entering somewhat confidently +upon a field of speculative inquiry which here opens so invitingly; nor +need former premature endeavors and failures utterly dishearten him. + +All these things, it may naturally be said, go to explain the order, +not the mode, of the incoming of species. But they all do tend to bring +out the generalization expressed by Mr. Wallace in the formula that +"every species has come into existence coincident both in time and +space with preexisting closely-allied species." Not, however, that this +is proved even of existing species as a matter of general fact. It is +obviously impossible to prove anything of the kind. But we must concede +that the known facts strongly suggest such an inference. And--since +species are only congeries of individuals, since every individual came +into existence in consequence of preexisting individuals of the same +sort, so leading up to the individuals with which the species began, +and since the only material sequence we know of among plants and +animals is that from parent to progeny--the presumption becomes +exceedingly strong that the connection of the incoming with the +preexisting species is a genealogical one. + +Here, however, all depends upon the probability that Mr. Wallaces +inference is really true. Certainly it is not yet generally accepted; +but a strong current is setting toward its acceptance. + +So long as universal cataclysms were in vogue, and all life upon the +earth was thought to have been suddenly destroyed and renewed many +times in succession, such a view could not be thought of. So the +equivalent view maintained by Agassiz, and formerly, we believe, by +DOrbigny, that irrespectively of general and sudden catastrophes, or +any known adequate physical cause, there has been a total depopulation +at the close of each geological period or formation, say forty or fifty +times or more, followed by as many independent great acts of creation, +at which alone have species been originated, and at each of which a +vegetable and an animal kingdom were produced entire and complete, +full-fledged, as flourishing, as wide-spread, and populous, as varied +and mutually adapted from the beginning as ever afterward--such a view, +of course, supersedes all material connection between successive +species, and removes even the association and geographical range of +species entirely out of the domain of physical causes and of natural +science. This is the extreme opposite of Wallaces and Darwin s view, +and is quite as hypothetical. The nearly universal opinion, if we +rightly gather it, manifestly is, that the replacement of the species +of successive formations was not complete and simultaneous, but partial +and successive; and that along the course of each epoch some species +probably were introduced, and some, doubtless, became extinct. If all +since the tertiary belongs to our present epoch, this is certainly true +of it: if to two or more epochs, then the hypothesis of a total change +is not true of them. + +Geology makes huge demands upon time; and we regret to find that it has +exhausted ours--that what we meant for the briefest and most general +sketch of some geological considerations in favor of Darwins hypothesis +has so extended as to leave no room for considering "the great facts of +comparative anatomy and zoology" with which Darwins theory "very well +accords," nor for indicating how "it admirably serves for explaining +the unity of composition of all organisms, the existence of +representative and rudimentary organs, and the natural series which +genera and species compose." Suffice it to say that these are the real +strongholds of the new system on its theoretical side; that it goes far +toward explaining both the physiological and the structural gradations +and relations between the two kingdoms, and the arrangement of all +their forms in groups subordinate to groups, all within a few great +types; that it reads the riddle of abortive organs and of morphological +conformity, of which no other theory has ever offered a scientific +explanation, and supplies a ground for harmonizing the two fundamental +ideas which naturalists and philosophers conceive to have ruled the +organic world, though they could not reconcile them; namely, Adaptation +to Purpose and Conditions of Existence, and Unity of Type. To reconcile +these two undeniable principles is the capital problem in the +philosophy of natural history; and the hypothesis which consistently +does so thereby secures a great advantage. + +We all know that the arm and hand of a monkey, the foreleg and foot of +a dog and of a horse, the wing of a bat, and the fin of a porpoise, are +fundamentally identical; that the long neck of the giraffe has the same +and no more bones than the short one of the elephant; that the eggs of +Surinam frogs hatch into tadpoles with as good tails for swimming as +any of their kindred, although as tadpoles they never enter the water; +that the Guinea-pig is furnished with incisor teeth which it never +uses, as it sheds them before birth; that embryos of mammals and birds +have branchial slits and arteries running in loops, in imitation or +reminiscence of the arrangement which is permanent in fishes; and that +thousands of animals and plants have rudimentary organs which, at least +in numerous cases, are wholly useless to their possessors, etc., etc. +Upon a derivative theory this morphological conformity is explained by +community of descent; and it has not been explained in any other way. + +Naturalists are constantly speaking of "related species," of the +"affinity" of a genus or other group, and of "family +resemblance"--vaguely conscious that these terms of kinship are +something more than mere metaphors, but unaware of the grounds of their +aptness. Mr. Darwin assures them that they have been talking derivative +doctrine all their lives--as M. Jourdain talked prose--without knowing +it. + +If it is difficult and in many cases practically impossible to fix the +limits of species, it is still more so to fix those of genera; and +those of tribes and families are still less susceptible of exact +natural circumscription. Intermediate forms occur, connecting one group +with another in a manner sadly perplexing to systematists, except to +those who have ceased to expect absolute limitations in Nature. All +this blending could hardly fail to suggest a former material connection +among allied forms, such as that which the hypothesis of derivation +demands. + +Here it would not be amiss to consider the general principle of +gradation throughout organic Nature--a principle which answers in a +general way to the Law of Continuity in the inorganic world, or rather +is so analogous to it that both may fairly be expressed by the +Leibnitzian axiom, Natura non agit saltatim. As an axiom or +philosophical principle, used to test modal laws or hypotheses, this in +strictness belongs only to physics. In the investigation of Nature at +large, at least in the organic world, nobody would undertake to apply +this principle as a test of the validity of any theory or supposed law. +But naturalists of enlarged views will not fail to infer the principle +from the phenomena they investigate--to perceive that the rule holds, +under due qualifications and altered forms, throughout the realm of +Nature; although we do not suppose that Nature in the organic world +makes no distinct steps, but only short and serial steps--not +infinitely fine gradations, but no long leaps, or few of them. + +To glance at a few illustrations out of many that present themselves. +It would be thought that the distinction between the two organic +kingdoms was broad and absolute. Plants and animals belong to two very +different categories, fulfill opposite offices and, as to the mass of +them are so unlike that the difficulty of the ordinary observer would +be to find points of comparison Without entering into details which +would fill an article, we may safely say that the difficulty with the +naturalist is all the other way--that all these broad differences +vanish one by one as we approach the lower confines of the two +kingdoms, and that no absolute distinction whatever is now known +between them. It is quite possible that the same organism may be both +vegetable and animal, or may be first the one and then the other. If +some organisms may be said to be at first vegetables and then animals, +others, like the spores and other reproductive bodies of many of the +lower Algae, may equally claim to have first a characteristically +animal, and then an unequivocally vegetable existence. Nor is the +gradation restricted to these simple organisms. It appears in general +functions, as in that of reproduction, which is reducible to the same +formula in both kingdoms, while it exhibits close approximations in the +lower forms; also in a common or similar ground of sensibility in the +lowest forms of both, a common faculty of effecting movements tending +to a determinate end, traces of which pervade the vegetable +kingdom--while, on the other hand, this indefinable principle, this +vegetable + +"Animula vagula, blandula, Hospes comesque corporis," + +graduates into the higher sensitiveness of the lower class of animals. +Nor need we hesitate to recognize the fine gradations from simple +sensitiveness and volition to the higher instinctive and to the other +psychical manifestations of the higher brute animals. The gradation is +undoubted, however we may explain it. + +Again, propagation is of one mode in the higher animals, of two in all +plants; but vegetative propagation, by budding or offshoots, extends +through the lower grades of animals. In both kingdoms there may be +separation of the offshoots, or indifference in this respect, or +continued and organic union with the parent stock; and this either with +essential independence of the offshoots, or with a subordination of +these to a common whole; or finally with such subordination and +amalgamation, along with specialization of function, that the same +parts, which in other cases can be regarded only as progeny, in these +become only members of an individual. + +This leads to the question of individuality, a subject quite too large +and too recondite for present discussion. The conclusion of the whole +matter, however, is, that individuality--that very ground of being as +distinguished from thing--is not attained in Nature at one leap. If +anywhere truly exemplified in plants, it is only in the lowest and +simplest, where the being is a structural unit, a single cell, +member-less and organless, though organic--the same thing as those +cells of which all the more complex plants are built up, and with which +every plant and (structurally) every animal began its development. In +the ascending gradation of the vegetable kingdom individuality is, so +to say, striven after, but never attained; in the lower animals it is +striven after with greater though incomplete success; it is realized +only in animals of so high a rank that vegetative multiplication or +offshoots are out of the question, where all parts are strictly members +and nothing else, and all subordinated to a common nervous centre--is +fully realized only in a conscious person. + +So, also, the broad distinction between reproduction by seeds or ova +and propagation by buds, though perfect in some of the lowest forms of +life, becomes evanescent in others; and even the most absolute law we +know in the physiology of genuine reproduction--that of sexual +cooperation--has its exceptions in both kingdoms in parthenogenesis, to +which in the vegetable kingdom a most curious and intimate series of +gradations leads. In plants, likewise, a long and finely graduated +series of transitions leads from bisexual to unisexual blossoms; and so +in various other respects. Everywhere we may perceive that Nature +secures her ends, and makes her distinctions on the whole manifest and +real but everywhere without abrupt breaks We need not wonder therefore +that gradations between species and varieties should occur; the more +so, since genera, tribes, and other groups into which the naturalist +collocates species, are far from being always absolutely limited in +Nature, though they are necessarily represented to be so in systems. +From the necessity of the case, the classifications of the naturalist +abruptly define where Nature more or less blends. Our systems are +nothing, if not definite. They express differences, and some of the +coarser gradations. But this evinces not their perfection, but their +imperfection. Even the best of them are to the system of Nature what +consecutive patches of the seven colors are to the rainbow. + +Now the principle of gradation throughout organic Nature may, of +course, be interpreted upon other assumptions than those of Darwins +hypothesis--certainly upon quite other than those of a materialistic +philosophy, with which we ourselves have no sympathy. Still we conceive +it not only possible, but probable, that this gradation, as it has its +natural ground, may yet have its scientific explanation. In any case, +there is no need to deny that the general facts correspond well with an +hypothesis like Darwins, which is built upon fine gradations. + +We have contemplated quite long enough the general presumptions in +favor of an hypothesis of the derivation of species. We cannot forget, +however, while for the moment we overlook, the formidable difficulties +which all hypotheses of this class have to encounter, and the serious +implications which they seem to involve. We feel, moreover, that +Darwins particular hypothesis is exposed to some special objections. It +requires no small strength of nerve steadily to conceive, not only of +the diversification, but of the formation of the organs of an animal +through cumulative variation and natural selection. Think of such an +organ as the eye, that most perfect of optical instruments, as so +produced in the lower animals and perfected in the higher! A friend of +ours, who accepts the new doctrine, confesses that for a long while a +cold chill came over him whenever he thought of the eye. He has at +length got over that stage of the complaint, and is now in the fever of +belief, perchance to be succeeded by the sweating stage, during which +sundry peccant humors may be eliminated from the system. For ourselves, +we dread the chill, and have some misgivings about the consequences of +the reaction. We find ourselves in the "singular position" +acknowledged by Pictet--that is, confronted with a theory which, +although it can really explain much, seems inadequate to the heavy task +it so boldly assumes, but which, nevertheless, appears better fitted +than any other that has been broached to explain, if it be possible to +explain, somewhat of the manner in which organized beings may have +arisen and succeeded each other. In this dilemma we might take +advantage of Mr. Darwins candid admission, that he by no means expects +to convince old and experienced people, whose minds are stocked with a +multitude of facts all regarded during a long course of years from the +old point of view. This is nearly our case. So, owning no call to a +larger faith than is expected of us, but not prepared to pronounce the +whole hypothesis untenable, under such construction as we should put +upon it, we naturally sought to attain a settled conviction through a +perusal of several proffered refutations of the theory. At least, this +course seemed to offer the readiest way of bringing to a head the +various objections to which the theory is exposed. On several accounts +some of these opposed reviews especially invite examination. We +propose, accordingly, to conclude our task with an article upon "Darwin +and his Reviewers." + + +III + + +The origin of species, like all origination, like the institution of +any other natural state or order, is beyond our immediate ken. We see +or may learn how things go on; we can only frame hypotheses as to how +they began. + +Two hypotheses divide the scientific world, very unequally, upon the +origin of the existing diversity of the plants and animals which +surround us. One assumes that the actual kinds are primordial; the +other, that they are derivative. One, that all kinds originated +supernaturally and directly as such, and have continued unchanged in +the order of Nature; the other, that the present kinds appeared in some +sort of genealogical connection with other and earlier kinds, that they +became what they now are in the course of time and in the order of +Nature. + +Or, bringing in the word species, which is well defined as "the +perennial succession of individuals," commonly of very like +individuals--as a close corporation of individuals perpetuated by +generation, instead of election--and reducing the question to +mathematical simplicity of statement: species are lines of individuals +coming down from the past and running on to the future; lines receding, +therefore, from our view in either direction. Within our limited +observation they appear to be parallel lines, as a general thing +neither approaching to nor diverging from each other. + +The first hypothesis assumes that they were parallel from the unknown +beginning and will be to the unknown end. The second hypothesis assumes +that the apparent parallelism is not real and complete, at least +aboriginally, but approximate or temporary; that we should find the +lines convergent in the past, if we could trace them far enough; that +some of them, if produced back, would fall into certain fragments of +lines, which have left traces in the past, lying not exactly in the +same direction, and these farther back into others to which they are +equally unparallel. It will also claim that the present lines, whether +on the whole really or only approximately parallel, sometimes fork or +send off branches on one side or the other, producing new lines +(varieties), which run for a while, and for aught we know indefinitely +when not interfered with, near and approximately parallel to the parent +line. This claim it can establish; and it may also show that these +close subsidiary lines may branch or vary again, and that those +branches or varieties which are best adapted to the existing conditions +may be continued, while others stop or die out. And so we may have the +basis of a real theory of the diversification of species and here +indeed, there is a real, though a narrow, established ground to build +upon But as systems of organic Nature, both doctrines are equally +hypotheses, are suppositions of what there is no proof of from +experience, assumed in order to account for the observed phenomena, and +supported by such indirect evidence as can be had. + +Even when the upholders of the former and more popular system mix up +revelation with scientific discussion--which we decline to do--they by +no means thereby render their view other than hypothetical. Agreeing +that plants and animals were produced by Omnipotent fiat does not +exclude the idea of natural order and what we call secondary causes. +The record of the fiat--"Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb +yielding seed," etc., "and it was so;" "let the earth bring forth the +living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping thing and beast of +the earth after his kind, and it was so"--seems even to imply them. +Agreeing that they were formed of "the dust of the ground," and of thin +air, only leads to the conclusion that the pristine individuals were +corporeally constituted like existing individuals, produced through +natural agencies. To agree that they were created "after their kinds" +determines nothing as to what were the original kinds, nor in what +mode, during what time, and in what connections it pleased the Almighty +to introduce the first individuals of each sort upon the earth. +Scientifically considered, the two opposing doctrines are equally +hypothetical. + +The two views very unequally divide the scientific world; so that +believers in "the divine right of majorities" need not hesitate which +side to take, at least for the present. Up to a time quite within the +memory of a generation still on the stage, two hypotheses about the +nature of light very unequally divided the scientific world. But the +small minority has already prevailed: the emission theory has gone +out; the undulatory or wave theory, after some fluctuation, has reached +high tide, and is now the pervading, the fully-established system. +There was an intervening time during which most physicists held their +opinions in suspense. + +The adoption of the undulatory theory of light called for the extension +of the same theory to heat, and this promptly suggested the hypothesis +of a correlation, material connection, and transmutability of heat, +light, electricity, magnetism, etc.; which hypothesis the physicists +held in absolute suspense until very lately, but are now generally +adopting. If not already established as a system, it promises soon to +become so. At least, it is generally received as a tenable and probably +true hypothesis. + +Parallel to this, however less cogent the reasons, Darwin and others, +having shown it likely that some varieties of plants or animals have +diverged in time into cognate species, or into forms as different as +species, are led to infer that all species of a genus may have thus +diverged from a common stock, and thence to suppose a higher community +of origin in ages still farther back, and so on. Following the safe +example of the physicists, and acknowledging the fact of the +diversification of a once homogeneous species into varieties, we may +receive the theory of the evolution of these into species, even while +for the present we hold the hypothesis of a further evolution in cool +suspense or in grave suspicion. In respect to very many questions a +wise mans mind rests long in a state neither of belief nor unbelief. +But your intellectually short-sighted people are apt to be +preternaturally clear-sighted, and to find their way very plain to +positive conclusions upon one side or the other of every mooted +question. + +In fact, most people, and some philosophers, refuse to hold questions +in abeyance, however incompetent they may be to decide them. And, +curiously enough, the more difficult, recondite, and perplexing, the +questions or hypotheses are--such, for instance, as those about organic +Nature--the more impatient they are of suspense. Sometimes, and +evidently in the present case, this impatience grows out of a fear that +a new hypothesis may endanger cherished and most important beliefs. +Impatience under such circumstances is not unnatural, though perhaps +needless, and, if so, unwise. + +To us the present revival of the derivative hypothesis, in a more +winning shape than it ever before had, was not unexpected. We wonder +that any thoughtful observer of the course of investigation and of +speculation in science should not have foreseen it, and have learned at +length to take its inevitable coming patiently; the more so, as in +Darwins treatise it comes in a purely scientific form, addressed only +to scientific men. The notoriety and wide popular perusal of this +treatise appear to have astonished the author even more than the book +itself has astonished the reading world Coming as the new presentation +does from a naturalist of acknowledged character and ability and marked +by a conscientiousness and candor which have not always been +reciprocated we have thought it simply right to set forth the doctrine +as fairly and as favorably as we could There are plenty to decry it and +the whole theory is widely exposed to attack For the arguments on the +other side we may look to the numerous adverse publications which +Darwin s volume has already called out and especially to those reviews +which propose directly to refute it. Taking various lines and +reflecting very diverse modes of thought, these hostile critics may be +expected to concentrate and enforce the principal objections which can +be brought to bear against the derivative hypothesis in general, and +Darwins new exposition of it in particular. + +Upon the opposing side of the question we have read with attention--1. +An article in the North American Review for April last; 2. One in the +Christian Examiner, Boston, for May; 3. M. Pictets article in the +Bibliotheque Universelle, which we have already made considerable use +of, which seems throughout most able and correct, and which in tone and +fairness is admirably in contrast with--4. The article in the Edinburgh +Review for May, attributed--although against a large amount of internal +presumptive evidence--to the most distinguished British comparative +anatomist; 5. An article in the North British Review for May; 6. Prof. +Agassiz has afforded an early opportunity to peruse the criticisms he +makes in the forthcoming third volume of his great work, by a +publication of them in advance in the American Journal of Science for +July. + +In our survey of the lively discussion which has been raised, it +matters little how our own particular opinions may incline. But we may +confess to an impression, thus far, that the doctrine of the permanent +and complete immutability of species has not been established, and may +fairly be doubted. We believe that species vary, and that "Natural +Selection" + works; but we suspect that its operation, like every analogous natural +operation, may be limited by something else. Just as every species by +its natural rate of reproduction would soon completely fill any country +it could live in, but does not, being checked by some other species or +some other condition--so it may be surmised that variation and natural +selection have their struggle and consequent check, or are limited by +something inherent in the constitution of organic beings. + +We are disposed to rank the derivative hypothesis in its fullness with +the nebular hypothesis, and to regard both as allowable, as not +unlikely to prove tenable in spite of some strong objections, but as +not therefore demonstrably true. Those, if any there be, who regard the +derivative hypothesis as satisfactorily proved, must have loose notions +as to what proof is. Those who imagine it can be easily refuted and +cast aside, must, we think, have imperfect or very prejudiced +conceptions of the facts concerned and of the questions at issue. + +We are not disposed nor prepared to take sides for or against the new +hypothesis, and so, perhaps, occupy a good position from which to watch +the discussion and criticise those objections which are seemingly +inconclusive. On surveying the arguments urged by those who have +undertaken to demolish the theory, we have been most impressed with a +sense of their great inequality. Some strike us as excellent and +perhaps unanswerable; some, as incongruous with other views of the same +writers; others, when carried out, as incompatible with general +experience or general beliefs, and therefore as proving too much; still +others, as proving nothing at all; so that, on the whole, the effect is +rather confusing and disappointing. We certainly expected a stronger +adverse case than any which the thoroughgoing opposers of Darwin appear +to have made out. Wherefore, if it be found that the new hypothesis has +grown upon our favor as we proceeded, this must be attributed not so +much to the force of the arguments of the book itself as to the want of +force of several of those by which it has been assailed. Darwins +arguments we might resist or adjourn; but some of the refutations of it +give us more concern than the book itself did. + +These remarks apply mainly to the philosophical and theological +objections which have been elaborately urged, almost exclusively by the +American reviewers. The North British reviewer, indeed, roundly +denounces the book as atheistical, but evidently deems the case too +clear for argument. The Edinburgh reviewer, on the contrary, scouts all +such objections--as well he may, since he records his belief in "a +continuous creative operation," a constantly operating secondary +creational law," through which species are successively produced; and +he emits faint, but not indistinct, glimmerings of a transmutation +theory of his own;[III-8] so that he is equally exposed to all the +philosophical objections advanced by Agassiz, and to most of those +urged by the other American critics, against Darwin himself. + +Proposing now to criticise the critics, so far as to see what their +most general and comprehensive objections amount to, we must needs +begin with the American reviewers, and with their arguments adduced to +prove that a derivative hypothesis ought not to be true, or is not +possible, philosophical, or theistic. + +It must not be forgotten that on former occasions very confident +judgments have been pronounced by very competent persons, which have +not been finally ratified. Of the two great minds of the seventeenth +century, Newton and Leibnitz, both profoundly religious as well as +philosophical, one produced the theory of gravitation, the other +objected to that theory that it was subversive of natural religion. The +nebular hypothesis--a natural consequence of the theory of gravitation +and of the subsequent progress of physical and astronomical +discovery--has been denounced as atheistical even down to our own day. +But it is now largely adopted by the most theistical natural +philosophers as a tenable and perhaps sufficient hypothesis, and where +not accepted is no longer objected to, so far as we know, on +philosophical or religious grounds. + +The gist of the philosophical objections urged by the two Boston +reviewers against an hypothesis of the derivation of species--or at +least against Darwins particular hypothesis-- is, that it is +incompatible with the idea of any manifestation of design in the +universe, that it denies final causes. A serious objection this, and +one that demands very serious attention. + +The proposition, that things and events in Nature were not designed to +be so, if logically carried out, is doubtless tantamount to atheism. +Yet most people believe that some were designed and others were not, +although they fall into a hopeless maze whenever they undertake to +define their position. So we should not like to stigmatize as +atheistically disposed a person who regards certain things and events +as being what they are through designed laws (whatever that expression +means), but as not themselves specially ordained, or who, in another +connection, believes in general, but not in particular Providence. We +could sadly puzzle him with questions; but in return he might equally +puzzle us. Then, to deny that anything was specially designed to be +what it is, is one proposition; while to deny that the Designer +supernaturally or immediately made it so, is another: though the +reviewers appear not to recognize the distinction. + +Also, "scornfully to repudiate" or to "sneer at the idea of any +manifestation of design in the material universe,"[III-9] is one thing; +while to consider, and perhaps to exaggerate, the difficulties which +attend the practical application of the doctrine of final causes to +certain instances, is quite another thing: yet the Boston reviewers, we +regret to say, have not been duly regardful of the difference. Whatever +be thought of Darwins doctrine, we are surprised that he should be +charged with scorning or sneering at the opinions of others, upon such +a subject. Perhaps Darwins view is incompatible with final causes--we +will consider that question presently-- but as to the Examiners charge, +that he "sneers at the idea of any manifestation of design in the +material universe," though we are confident that no misrepresentation +was intended, we are equally confident that it is not at all warranted +by the two passages cited in support of it. Here are the passages: + + +"If green woodpeckers alone had existed, or we did not know that there +were many black and pied kinds, I dare say that we should have thought +that the green color was a beautiful adaptation to hide this +tree-frequenting bird from its enemies." + +"If our reason leads us to admire with enthusiasm a multitude of +inimitable contrivances in Nature, this same reason tells us, though we +may easily err on both sides, that some contrivances are less perfect. +Can we consider the sting of the wasp or of the bee as perfect, which, +when used against many attacking animals, cannot be withdrawn, owing to +the backward serratures, and so inevitably causes the death of the +insect by tearing out its viscera?" + + +If the sneer here escapes ordinary vision in the detached extracts (one +of them wanting the end of the sentence), it is, if possible, more +imperceptible when read with the context. Moreover, this perusal +inclines us to think that the Examiner has misapprehended the +particular argument or object, as well as the spirit, of the author in +these passages. The whole reads more naturally as a caution against the +inconsiderate use of final causes in science, and an illustration of +some of the manifold errors and absurdities which their hasty +assumption is apt to involve--considerations probably equivalent to +those which induced Lord Bacon to liken final causes to "vestal +virgins." So, if any one, it is here Bacon that "sitteth in the seat of +the scornful." As to Darwin, in the section from which the extracts +were made, he is considering a subsidiary question, and trying to +obviate a particular difficulty, but, we suppose, is wholly unconscious +of denying "any manifestation of design in the material universe." He +concludes the first sentence: + + +--"and consequently that it was a character of importance, and might +have been acquired through natural selection; as it is, I have no doubt +that the color is due to some quite distinct cause, probably to sexual +selection." + + +After an illustration from the vegetable creation, Darwin adds: + + +"The naked skin on the head of a vulture is generally looked at as a +direct adaptation for wallowing in putridity; and so it may be, or it +may possibly be due to the direct action of putrid matter; but we +should be very cautious in drawing any such inference, when we see that +the skin on the head of the clean-feeding male turkey is likewise +naked. The sutures in the skulls of young mammals have been advanced as +a beautiful adaptation for aiding parturition, and no doubt they +facilitate or may be indispensable for this act; but as sutures occur +in the skulls of young birds and reptiles, which have only to escape +from a broken egg, we may infer that this structure has arisen from the +laws of growth, and has been taken advantage of in the parturition of +the higher animals." + + +All this, simply taken, is beyond cavil, unless the attempt to explain +scientifically how any designed result is accomplished savors of +impropriety. + +In the other place, Darwin is contemplating the patent fact that +"perfection here below" is relative, not absolute--and illustrating +this by the circumstance that European animals, and especially plants, +are now proving to be better adapted for New Zealand than many of the +indigenous ones--that "the correction for the aberration of light is +said, on high authority, not to be quite perfect even in that most +perfect organ, the eye." And then follows the second extract of the +reviewer. But what is the position of the reviewer upon his own +interpretation of these passages? If he insists that green woodpeckers +were specifically created so in order that they might be less liable to +capture, must he not equally hold that the black and pied ones were +specifically made of these colors in order that they might be more +liable to be caught? And would an explanation of the mode in which +those woodpeckers came to be green, however complete, convince him that +the color was undesigned? + +As to the other illustration, is the reviewer so complete an optimist +as to insist that the arrangement and the weapon are wholly perfect +(quoad the insect) the normal use of which often causes the animal +fatally to injure or to disembowel itself? Either way it seems to us +that the argument here, as well as the insect, performs hari-kari. The +Examiner adds: + + +"We should in like manner object to the word favorable, as implying +that some species are placed by the Creator under unfavorable +circumstances, at least under such as might be advantageously +modified." + + +But are not many individuals and some races of men placed by the +Creator "under unfavorable circumstances, at least under such as might +be advantageously modified?" Surely these reviewers must be living in +an ideal world, surrounded by "the faultless monsters which our world +neer saw," in some elysium where imperfection and distress were never +heard of! Such arguments resemble some which we often hear against the +Bible, holding that book responsible as if it originated certain facts +on the shady side of human nature or the apparently darker lines of +Providential dealing, though the facts are facts of common observation +and have to be confronted upon any theory. + +The North American reviewer also has a world of his own--just such a +one as an idealizing philosopher would be apt to devise--that is, full +of sharp and absolute distinctions: such, for instance, as the +"absolute invariableness of instinct;" an absolute want of intelligence +in any brute animal; and a complete monopoly of instinct by the brute +animals, so that this "instinct is a great matter" for them only, since +it sharply and perfectly distinguishes this portion of organic Nature +from the vegetable kingdom on the one hand and from man on the other: +most convenient views for argumentative purposes, but we suppose not +borne out in fact. + +In their scientific objections the two reviewers take somewhat +different lines; but their philosophical and theological arguments +strikingly coincide. They agree in emphatically asserting that Darwins +hypothesis of the origination of species through variation and natural +selection "repudiates the whole doctrine of final causes," and "all +indication of design or purpose in the organic world . . . is neither +more nor less than a formal denial of any agency beyond that of a blind +chance in the developing or perfecting of the organs or instincts of +created beings. . . . It is in vain that the apologists of this +hypothesis might say that it merely attributes a different mode and +time to the Divine agency--that all the qualities subsequently +appearing in their descendants must have been implanted, and have +remained latent in the original pair." Such a view, the Examiner +declares, "is nowhere stated in this book, and would be, we are sure, +disclaimed by the author." + +We should like to be informed of the grounds of this sureness. The +marked rejection of spontaneous generation--the statement of a belief +that all animals have descended from four or five progenitors, and +plants from an equal or lesser number, or, perhaps, if constrained to +it by analogy, "from some one primordial form into which life was first +breathed"--coupled with the expression, "To my mind it accords better +with what we know of the laws impressed on matter by the Creator, that +the production and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of +the world should have been due to secondary causes," than "that each +species has been independently created"--these and similar expressions +lead us to suppose that the author probably does accept the kind of +view which the Examiner is sure he would disclaim. At least, we +charitably see nothing in his scientific theory to hinder his adoption +of Lord Bacons "Confession of Faith" in this regard-- "That, +notwithstanding God hath rested and ceased from creating, yet, +nevertheless, he doth accomplish and fulfill his divine will in all +things, great and small, singular and general, as fully and exactly by +providence as he could by miracle and new creation, though his working +be not immediate and direct, but by compass; not violating Nature, +which is his own law upon the creature." + + +However that may be, it is undeniable that Mr. Darwin has purposely +been silent upon the philosophical and theological applications of his +theory. This reticence, under the circumstances, argues design, and +raises inquiry as to the final cause or reason why. Here, as in higher +instances, confident as we are that there is a final cause, we must not +be overconfident that we can infer the particular or true one. Perhaps +the author is more familiar with natural-historical than with +philosophical inquiries, and, not having decided which particular +theory about efficient cause is best founded, he meanwhile argues the +scientific questions concerned--all that relates to secondary +causes--upon purely scientific grounds, as he must do in any case. +Perhaps, confident, as he evidently is, that his view will finally be +adopted, he may enjoy a sort of satisfaction in hearing it denounced as +sheer atheism by the inconsiderate, and afterward, when it takes its +place with the nebular hypothesis and the like, see this judgment +reversed, as we suppose it would be in such event. + +Whatever Mr. Darwins philosophy may be, or whether he has any, is a +matter of no consequence at all, compared with the important questions, +whether a theory to account for the origination and diversification of +animal and vegetable forms through the operation of secondary causes +does or does not exclude design; and whether the establishment by +adequate evidence of Darwin s particular theory of diversification +through variation and natural selection would essentially alter the +present scientific and philosophical grounds for theistic views of +Nature. The unqualified affirmative judgment rendered by the two Boston +reviewers, evidently able and practised reasoners, "must give us +pause." We hesitate to advance our conclusions in opposition to theirs. +But, after full and serious consideration, we are constrained to say +that, in our opinion, the adoption of a derivative hypothesis, and of +Darwins particular hypothesis, if we understand it, would leave the +doctrines of final causes, utility, and special design, just where they +were before. We do not pretend that the subject is not environed with +difficulties. Every view is so environed; and every shifting of the +view is likely, if it removes some difficulties, to bring others into +prominence. But we cannot perceive that Darwins theory brings in any +new kind of scientific difficulty, that is, any with which +philosophical naturalists were not already familiar. + +Since natural science deals only with secondary or natural causes, the +scientific terms of a theory of derivation of species--no less than of +a theory of dynamics--must needs be the same to the theist as to the +atheist. The difference appears only when the inquiry is carried up to +the question of primary cause--a question which belongs to philosophy. +Wherefore, Darwin s reticence about efficient cause does not disturb +us. He considers only the scientific questions. As already stated, we +think that a theistic view of Nature is implied in his book, and we +must charitably refrain from suggesting the contrary until the contrary +is logically deduced from his premises. If, however, he anywhere +maintains that the natural causes through which species are diversified +operate without an ordaining and directing intelligence, and that the +orderly arrangements and admirable adaptations we see all around us are +fortuitous or blind, undesigned results--that the eye, though it came +to see, was not designed for seeing, nor the hand for handling--then, +we suppose, he is justly chargeable with denying, and very needlessly +denying, all design in organic Nature; otherwise, we suppose not. Why, +if Darwins well-known passage about the eye[III-10] equivocal though +some of the language be--does not imply ordaining and directing +intelligence, then he refutes his own theory as effectually as any of +his opponents are likely to do. He asks: + + +"May we not believe that [under variation proceeding long enough, +generation multiplying the better variations times enough, and natural +selection securing the improvements] a living optical instrument might +be thus formed as superior to one of glass as the works of the Creator +are to those of man?" + +This must mean one of two things: either that the living instrument was +made and perfected under (which is the same thing as by) an intelligent +First Cause, or that it was not. If it was, then theism is asserted; +and as to the mode of operation, how do we know, and why must we +believe, that, fitting precedent forms being in existence, a living +instrument (so different from a lifeless manufacture) would be +originated and perfected in any other way, or that this is not the +fitting way? If it means that it was not, if he so misuses words that +by the Creator he intends an unintelligent power, undirected force, or +necessity, then he has put his case so as to invite disbelief in it. +For then blind forces have produced not only manifest adaptions of +means to specific ends--which is absurd enough--but better adjusted and +more perfect instruments or machines than intellect (that is, human +intellect) can contrive and human skill execute--which no sane person +will believe. + +On the other hand, if Darwin even admits--we will not say adopts--the +theistic view, he may save himself much needless trouble in the +endeavor to account for the absence of every sort of intermediate form. +Those in the line between one species and another supposed to be +derived from it he may be bound to provide; but as to "an infinite +number of other varieties not intermediate, gross, rude, and +purposeless, the unmeaning creations of an unconscious cause," born +only to perish, which a relentless reviewer has imposed upon his +theory--rightly enough upon the atheistic alternative--the theistic +view rids him at once of this "scum of creation." For, as species do +not now vary at all times and places and in all directions, nor produce +crude, vague, imperfect, and useless forms, there is no reason for +supposing that they ever did. Good-for-nothing monstrosities, failures +of purpose rather than purposeless, indeed, sometimes occur; but these +are just as anomalous and unlikely upon Darwins theory as upon any +other. For his particular theory is based, and even over-strictly +insists, upon the most universal of physiological laws, namely, that +successive generations shall differ only slightly, if at all, from +their parents; and this effectively excludes crude and impotent forms. +Wherefore, if we believe that the species were designed, and that +natural propagation was designed, how can we say that the actual +varieties of the species were not equally designed? Have we not similar +grounds for inferring design in the supposed varieties of species, that +we have in the case of the supposed species of a genus? When a + +naturalist comes to regard as three closely related species what he +before took to be so many varieties of one species how has he thereby +strengthened our conviction that the three forms are designed to have +the differences which they actually exhibit? Wherefore so long as +gradatory, orderly, and adapted forms in Nature argue design, and at +least while the physical cause of variation is utterly unknown and +mysterious, we should advise Mr. Darwin to assume in the philosophy of +his hypothesis that variation has been led along certain beneficial +lines. Streams flowing over a sloping plain by gravitation (here the +counterpart of natural selection) may have worn their actual channels +as they flowed; yet their particular courses may have been assigned; +and where we see them forming definite and useful lines of irrigation, +after a manner unaccountable on the laws of gravitation and dynamics, +we should believe that the distribution was designed. + +To insist, therefore, that the new hypothesis of the derivative origin +of the actual species is incompatible with final causes and design, is +to take a position which we must consider philosophically untenable. We +must also regard it as highly unwise and dangerous, in the present +state and present prospects of physical and physiological science. We +should expect the philosophical atheist or skeptic to take this ground; +also, until better informed, the unlearned and unphilosophical +believer; but we should think that the thoughtful theistic philosopher +would take the other side. Not to do so seems to concede that only +supernatural events can be shown to be designed, which no theist can +admit--seems also to misconceive the scope and meaning of all ordinary +arguments for design in Nature. This misconception is shared both by +the reviewers and the reviewed. At least, Mr. Darwin uses expressions +which imply that the natural forms which surround us, because they have +a history or natural sequence, could have been only generally, but not +particularly designed--a view at once superficial and contradictory; +whereas his true line should be, that his hypothesis concerns the order +and not the cause, the how and not the why of the phenomena, and so +leaves the question of design just where it was before. + +To illustrate this from the theists point of view: Transfer the +question for a moment from the origination of species to the +origination of individuals, which occurs, as we say, naturally. Because +natural, that is, "stated, fixed, or settled," is it any the less +designed on that account? We acknowledge that God is our maker--not +merely the originator of the race, but our maker as individuals--and +none the less so because it pleased him to make us in the way of +ordinary generation. If any of us were born unlike our parents and +grandparents, in a slight degree, or in whatever degree, would the case +be altered in this regard? + +The whole argument in natural theology proceeds upon the ground that +the inference for a final cause of the structure of the hand and of the +valves in the veins is just as valid now, in individuals produced +through natural generation, as it would have been in the case of the +first man, supernaturally created. Why not, then, just as good even on +the supposition of the descent of men from chimpanzees and gorillas, +since those animals possess these same contrivances? Or, to take a more +supposable case: If the argument from structure to design is convincing +when drawn from a particular animal, say a Newfoundland dog, and is not +weakened by the knowledge that this dog came from similar parents, +would it be at all weakened if, in tracing his genealogy, it were +ascertained that he was a remote descendant of the mastiff or some +other breed, or that both these and other breeds came (as is suspected) +from some wolf? If not, how is the argument for design in the structure +of our particular dog affected by the supposition that his wolfish +progenitor came from a post-tertiary wolf, perhaps less unlike an +existing one than the dog in question is to some other of the numerous +existing races of dogs, and that this post-tertiary came from an +equally or more different tertiary wolf? And if the argument from +structure to design is not invalidated by our present knowledge that +our + +individual dog was developed from a single organic cell, how is it +invalidated by the supposition of an analogous natural descent, through +a long line of connected forms, from such a cell, or from some simple +animal, existing ages before there were any dogs? + +Again, suppose we have two well-known and apparently most decidedly +different animals or plants, A and D, both presenting, in their +structure and in their adaptations to the conditions of existence, as +valid and clear evidence of design as any animal or plant ever +presented: suppose we have now discovered two intermediate species, B +and C, which make up a series with equable differences from A to D. Is +the proof of design or final cause in A and D, whatever it amounted to, +at all weakened by the discovery of the intermediate forms? Rather does +not the proof extend to the intermediate species, and go to show that +all four were equally designed? Suppose, now, the number of +intermediate forms to be much increased, and therefore the gradations +to be closer yet--as close as those between the various sorts of dogs, +or races of men, or of horned cattle: would the evidence of design, as +shown in the structure of any of the members of the series, be any +weaker than it was in the case of A and D? Whoever contends that it +would be, should likewise maintain that the origination of individuals +by generation is incompatible with design, or an impossibility in +Nature. We might all have confidently thought the latter, antecedently +to experience of the fact of reproduction. Let our experience teach us +wisdom. + +These illustrations make it clear that the evidence of design from +structure and adaptation is furnished complete by the individual animal +or plant itself, and that our knowledge or our ignorance of the history +of its formation or mode of production adds nothing to it and takes +nothing away. We infer design from certain arrangements and results; +and we have no other way of ascertaining it. Testimony, unless +infallible, cannot prove it, and is out of the question here. Testimony +is not the appropriate proof of design: adaptation to purpose is. Some +arrangements in Nature appear to be contrivances, but may leave us in +doubt. Many others, of which the eye and the hand are notable examples, +compel belief with a force not appreciably short of demonstration. +Clearly to settle that such as these must have been designed goes far +toward proving that other organs and other seemingly less explicit +adaptations in Nature must also have been designed, and clinches our +belief, from manifold considerations, that all Nature is a preconcerted +arrangement, a manifested design. A strange contradiction would it be +to insist that the shape and markings of certain rude pieces of flint, +lately found in drift-deposits, prove design, but that nicer and +thousand-fold more complex adaptations to use in animals and vegetables +do not a fortiori argue design. + +We could not affirm that the arguments for design in Nature are +conclusive to all minds. But we may insist, upon grounds already +intimated, that, whatever they were good for before Darwins book +appeared, they are good for now. To our minds the argument from design +always appeared conclusive of the being and continued operation of an +intelligent First Cause, the Ordainer of Nature; and we do not see that +the grounds of such belief would be disturbed or shifted by the +adoption of Darwins hypothesis. We are not blind to the philosophical +difficulties which the thoroughgoing implication of design in Nature +has to encounter, nor is it our vocation to obviate them It suffices us +to know that they are not new nor peculiar difficulties--that, as +Darwin s theory and our reasonings upon it did not raise these +perturbing spirits, they are not bound to lay them. Meanwhile, that the +doctrine of design encounters the very same difficulties in the +material that it does in the moral world is Just what ought to be +expected. + +So the issue between the skeptic and the theist is only the old one, +long ago argued out--namely, whether organic Nature is a result of +design or of chance. Variation and natural selection open no third +alternative; they concern only the question how the results, whether +fortuitous or designed, may have been brought about. Organic Nature +abounds with unmistakable and irresistible indications of design, and, +being a connected and consistent system, this evidence carries the +implication of design throughout the whole. On the other hand, chance +carries no probabilities with it, can never be developed into a +consistent system, but, when applied to the explanation of orderly or +beneficial results, heaps up improbabilities at every step beyond all +computation. To us, a fortuitous Cosmos is simply inconceivable. The +alternative is a designed Cosmos. + +It is very easy to assume that, because events in Nature are in one +sense accidental, and the operative forces which bring them to pass are +themselves blind and unintelligent (physically considered, all forces +are), therefore they are undirected, or that he who describes these +events as the results of such forces thereby assumes that they are +undirected. This is the assumption of the Boston reviewers, and of Mr. +Agassiz, who insists that the only alternative to the doctrine, that +all organized beings were supernaturally created just as they are, is, +that they have arisen spontaneously through the omnipotence of +matter.[III-11] + +As to all this, nothing is easier than to bring out in the conclusion +what you introduce in the premises. If you import atheism into your +conception of variation and natural selection, you can readily exhibit +it in the result. If you do not put it in, perhaps there need be none +to come out. While the mechanician is considering a steamboat or +locomotive-engine as a material organism, and contemplating the fuel, +water, and steam, the source of the mechanical forces, and how they +operate, he may not have occasion to mention the engineer. But, the +orderly and special results accomplished, the why the movements are in +this or that particular direction, etc., is inexplicable without him. +If Mr. Darwin believes that the events which he supposes to have +occurred and the results we behold were undirected and undesigned, or +if the physicist believes that the natural forces to which he refers +phenomena are uncaused and undirected, no argument is needed to show +that such belief is atheism. But the admission of the phenomena and of +these natural processes and forces does not necessitate any such +belief, nor even render it one whit less improbable than before. + +Surely, too, the accidental element may play its part in Nature without +negativing design in the theists view. He believes that the earths +surface has been very gradually prepared for man and the existing +animal races, that vegetable matter has through a long series of +generations imparted fertility to the soil in order that it may support +its present occupants, that even beds of coal have been stored up for +mans benefit Yet what is more accidental, and more simply the +consequence of physical agencies than the accumulation of vegetable +matter in a peat bog and its transformation into coal? No scientific +person at this day doubts that our solar system is a progressive +development, whether in his conception he begins with molten masses, or +aeriform or nebulous masses, or with a fluid revolving mass of vast +extent, from which the specific existing worlds have been developed one +by one What theist doubts that the actual results of the development in +the inorganic worlds are not merely compatible with design but are in +the truest sense designed re suits? Not Mr. Agassiz, certainly, who +adopts a remarkable illustration of design directly founded on the +nebular hypothesis drawing from the position and times of the +revolution of the world, so originated direct evidence that the +physical world has been ordained in conformity with laws which obtain +also among living beings But the reader of the interesting +exposition[III-12] will notice that the designed result has been +brought to pass through what, speaking after the manner of men, might +be called a chapter of accidents. + +A natural corollary of this demonstration would seem to be, that a +material connection between a series of created things--such as the +development of one of them from another, or of all from a common +stock--is highly compatible with their intellectual connection, namely, +with their being designed and directed by one mind. Yet upon some +ground which is not explained, and which we are unable to conjecture, +Mr. Agassiz concludes to the contrary in the organic kingdoms, and +insists that, because the members of such a series have an intellectual +connection, "they cannot be the result of a material differentiation of +the objects themselves,"[III-13] that is, they cannot have had a +genealogical connection. But is there not as much intellectual +connection between the successive generations of any species as there +is between the several species of a genus, or the several genera of an +order? As the intellectual connection here is realized through the +material connection, why may it not be so in the case of species and +genera? On all sides, therefore, the implication seems to be quite the +other way. + + +Returning to the accidental element, it is evident that the strongest +point against the compatibility of Darwins hypothesis with design in +Nature is made when natural selection is referred to as picking out +those variations which are improvements from a vast number which are +not improvements, but perhaps the contrary, and therefore useless or +purposeless, and born to perish. But even here the difficulty is not +peculiar; for Nature abounds with analogous instances. Some of our race +are useless, or worse, as regards the improvement of mankind; yet the +race may be designed to improve, and may be actually improving. Or, to +avoid the complication with free agency--the whole animate life of a +country depends absolutely upon the vegetation, the vegetation upon the +rain. The moisture is furnished by the ocean, is raised by the suns +heat from the oceans surface, and is wafted inland by the winds. But +what multitudes of raindrops fall back into the ocean--are as much +without a final cause as the incipient varieties which come to +nothing! Does it therefore follow that the rains which are bestowed +upon the soil with such rule and average regularity were not designed +to support vegetable and animal life? Consider, likewise, the vast +proportion of seeds and pollen, of ova and young--a thousand or more to +one--which come to nothing, and are therefore purposeless in the same +sense, and only in the same sense, as are Darwins unimproved and unused +slight variations. The world is full of such cases; and these must +answer the argument--for we cannot, except by thus showing that it +proves too much. + +Finally, it is worth noticing that, though natural selection is +scientifically explicable, variation is not. Thus far the cause of +variation, or the reason why the offspring is sometimes unlike the +parents, is just as mysterious as the reason why it is generally like +the parents. It is now as inexplicable as any other origination; and, +if ever explained, the explanation will only carry up the sequence of +secondary causes one step farther, and bring us in face of a somewhat +different problem, but which will have the same element of mystery that +the problem of variation has now. Circumstances may preserve or may +destroy the variations man may use or direct them but selection whether +artificial or natural no more originates them than man originates the +power which turns a wheel when he dams a stream and lets the water fall +upon it The origination of this power is a question about efficient +cause. The tendency of science in respect to this obviously is not +toward the omnipotence of matter, as some suppose, but to ward the +omnipotence of spirit. + +So the real question we come to is as to the way in which we are to +conceive intelligent and efficient cause to be exerted, and upon what +exerted. Are we bound to suppose efficient cause in all cases exerted +upon nothing to evoke something into existence--and this thousands of +times repeated, when a slight change in the details would make all the +difference between successive species? Why may not the new species, or +some of them, be designed diversifications of the old? + +There are, perhaps, only three views of efficient cause which may claim +to be both philosophical and theistic: + +1. The view of its exertion at the beginning of time, endowing matter +and created things with forces which do the work and produce the +phenomena. + +2. This same view, with the theory of insulated interpositions, or +occasional direct action, engrafted upon it--the view that events and +operations in general go on in virtue simply of forces communicated at +the first, but that now and then, and only now and then, the Deity puts +his hand directly to the work. + +3. The theory of the immediate, orderly, and constant, however +infinitely diversified, action of the intelligent efficient Cause. + +It must be allowed that, while the third is preeminently the Christian +view, all three are philosophically compatible with design in Nature. +The second is probably the popular conception. Perhaps most thoughtful +people oscillate from the middle view toward the first or the +third--adopting the first on some occasions, the third on others. Those +philosophers who like and expect to settle all mooted questions will +take one or the other extreme. The Examiner inclines toward, the North +American reviewer fully adopts, the third view, to the logical extent +of maintaining that "the origin of an individual, as well as the origin +of a species or a genus, can be explained only by the direct action of +an intelligent creative cause." To silence his critics, this is the +line for Mr. Darwin to take; for it at once and completely relieves his +scientific theory from every theological objection which his reviewers +have urged against it. + +At present we suspect that our author prefers the first conception, +though he might contend that his hypothesis is compatible with either +of the three. That it is also compatible with an atheistic or +pantheistic conception of the universe, is an objection which, being +shared by all physical, and some ethical or moral science, cannot +specially be urged against Darwins system. As he rejects spontaneous +generation, and admits of intervention at the beginning of organic +life, and probably in more than one instance, he is not wholly excluded +from adopting the middle view, although the interventions he would +allow are few and far back. Yet one interposition admits the principle +as well as more. Interposition presupposes particular necessity or +reason for it, and raises the question, when and how often it may have +been necessary. It might be the natural supposition, if we had only one +set of species to account for, or if the successive inhabitants of the +earth had no other connections or resemblances than those which +adaptation to similar conditions, which final causes in the narrower +sense, might explain. But if this explanation of organic Nature +requires one to "believe that, at innumerable periods in the earths +history, certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash +into living tissues," and this when the results are seen to be strictly +connected and systematic, we cannot wonder that such interventions +should at length be considered, not as interpositions or interferences, +but rather--to use the reviewers own language--as "exertions so +frequent and beneficent that we come to regard them as the ordinary +action of Him who laid the foundation of the earth, and without whom +not a sparrow falleth to the ground."[III-14] What does the difference +between Mr. Darwin and his reviewer now amount to? If we say that +according to one view the origination of species is natural, according +to the other miraculous, Mr. Darwin agrees that "what is natural as +much requires and presupposes an intelligent mind to render it so-- +that is, to effect it continually or at stated times--as what is +supernatural does to effect it for once."[III-15] He merely inquires +into the form of the miracle, may remind us that all recorded miracles +(except the primal creation of matter) were transformations or actions +in and upon natural things, and will ask how many times and how +frequently may the origination of successive species be repeated before +the supernatural merges in the natural. + +In short, Darwin maintains that the origination of a species, no less +than that of an individual, is natural; the reviewer, that the natural +origination of an individual, no less than the origination of a +species, requires and presupposes Divine power. A fortiori, then, the +origination of a variety requires and presupposes Divine power. And so +between the scientific hypothesis of the one and the philosophical +conception of the other no contrariety remains. And so, concludes the +North American reviewer, "a proper view of the nature of causation +places the vital doctrine of the being and the providence of a God on +ground that can never be shaken."[III-16] A worthy conclusion, and a +sufficient answer to the denunciations and arguments of the rest of the +article, so far as philosophy and natural theology are concerned. If a +writer must needs use his own favorite dogma as a weapon with which to +give coup de grace to a pernicious theory, he should be careful to +seize his edge-tool by the handle, and not by the blade. + +We can barely glance at a subsidiary philosophical objection of the +North American reviewer, which the Examiner also raises, though less +explicitly. Like all geologists, Mr. Darwin draws upon time in the +most unlimited manner. He is not peculiar in this regard. Mr. Agassiz +tells us that the conviction is "now universal, among well-informed +naturalists, that this globe has been in existence for innumerable +ages, and that the length of time elapsed since it first became +inhabited cannot be counted in years;" Pictet, that the imagination +refuses to calculate the immense number of years and of ages during +which the faunas of thirty or more epochs have succeeded one another, +and developed their long succession of generations. Now, the reviewer +declares that such indefinite succession of ages is "virtually +infinite," "lacks no characteristic of eternity except its name," at +least, that "the difference between such a conception and that of the +strictly infinite, if any, is not appreciable." But infinity belongs to +metaphysics. Therefore, he concludes, Darwin supports his theory, not +by scientific but by metaphysical evidence; his theory is "essentially +and completely metaphysical in character, resting altogether upon that +idea of the infinite which the human mind can neither put aside nor +comprehend."[III-17] And so a theory which will be generally regarded +as much too physical is transferred by a single syllogism to +metaphysics. + +Well, physical geology must go with it: for, even on the soberest view, +it demands an indefinitely long time antecedent to the introduction of +organic life upon our earth. A fortiori is physical astronomy a branch +of metaphysics, demanding, as it does, still larger "instalments of +infinity," as the reviewer calls them, both as to time and number. +Moreover, far the greater part of physical inquiries now relate to +molecular actions, which, a distinguished natural philosopher informs +us, "we have to regard as the results of an infinite number of in +finitely small material particles, acting on each other at infinitely +small distances"--a triad of infinities--and so physics becomes the +most metaphysical of sciences. Verily, if this style of reasoning is +to prevail-- + +"Thinking is but an idle waste of thought, + And naught is everything, and everything is naught." + + +The leading objection of Mr. Agassiz is likewise of a philosophical +character. It is, that species exist only "as categories of +thought"--that, having no material existence, they can have had no +material variation, and no material community of origin. Here the +predication is of species in the subjective sense, the inference in the +objective sense. Reduced to plain terms, the argument seems to be: +Species are ideas; therefore the objects from which the idea is derived +cannot vary or blend, and cannot have had a genealogical connection. + +The common view of species is, that, although they are generalizations, +yet they have a direct objective ground in Nature, which genera, +orders, etc., have not. According to the succinct definition of +Jussieu--and that of Linnaeus is identical in meaning--a species is the +perennial succession of similar individuals in continued generations. +The species is the chain of which the individuals are the links. The +sum of the genealogically-connected similar individuals constitutes the +species, which thus has an actuality and ground of distinction not +shared by genera and other groups which were not supposed to be +genealogically connected. How a derivative hypothesis would modify this +view, in assigning to species only a temporary fixity, is obvious. Yet, +if naturalists adopt that hypothesis, they will still retain Jussieus +definition, which leaves untouched the question as to how and when the +"perennial successions" were established. The practical question will +only be, How much difference between two sets of individuals entitles +them to rank under distinct species? and that is the practical question +now, on whatever theory. The theoretical question is--as stated at the +beginning of this article--whether these specific lines were always as +distinct as now. + +Mr. Agassiz has "lost no opportunity of urging the idea that, while +species have no material existence, they yet exist as categories of +thought in the same way [and only in the same way] as genera, families, +orders, classes," etc. He + +"has taken the ground that all the natural divisions in the animal +kingdom are primarily distinct, founded upon different categories of +characters, and that all exist in the same way, that is, as categories +of thought, embodied in individual living forms. I have attempted to +show that branches in the animal kingdom are founded upon different +plans of structure, and for that very reason have embraced from the +beginning representatives between which there could be no community of +origin; that classes are founded upon different modes of execution of +these plans, and therefore they also embrace representatives which +could have no community of origin; that orders represent the different +degrees of complication in the mode of execution of each class, and +therefore embrace representatives which could not have a community of +origin any more than the members of different classes or branches; that +families are founded upon different patterns of form, and embrace, +representatives equally independent in their origin; that genera are +founded upon ultimate peculiarities of structure, embracing +representatives which, from the very nature of their peculiarities, +could have no community of origin; and that, finally, species are based +upon relations--and proportions that exclude, as much as all the +preceding distinctions, the idea of a common descent. + +"As the community of characters among the beings belonging to these +different categories arises from the intellectual connection which +shows them to be categories of thought, they cannot be the result of a +gradual + +material differentiation of the objects themselves. The argument on +which these views are founded may be summed up in the following few +words: Species, genera, families, etc., exist as thoughts, individuals +as facts."[III-18] + +An ingenious dilemma caps the argument: + + +"It seems to me that there is much confusion of ideas in the general +statement of the variability of species so often repeated lately. If +species do not exist at all, as the supporters of the transmutation +theory maintain, how can they vary? And if individuals alone exist, how +can the differences which may be observed among them prove the +variability of species?" + + +Now, we imagine that Mr. Darwin need not be dangerously gored by either +horn of this curious dilemma. Although we ourselves cherish +old-fashioned prejudices in favor of the probable permanence, and +therefore of a more stable objective ground of species, yet we +agree--and Mr. Darwin will agree fully with Mr. Agassiz--that species, +and he will add varieties, "exist as categories of thought," that is, +as cognizable distinctions--which is all that we can make of the phrase +here, whatever it may mean in the Aristotelian metaphysics. Admitting +that species are only categories of thought, and not facts or things, +how does this prevent the individuals, which are material things, from +having varied in the course of time, so as to exemplify the present +almost innumerable categories of thought, or embodiments of Divine +thought in material forms, or--viewed on the human side--in forms +marked with such orderly and graduated resemblances and differences as +to suggest to our minds the idea of species, genera, orders, etc., and +to our reason the inference of a Divine Original? We have no clear idea +how Mr. Agassiz intends to answer this question, in saying that +branches are founded upon different plans of structure, classes upon +different mode of execution of these plans, orders on different degrees +of complication in the mode of execution, families upon different +patterns of form, genera upon ultimate peculiarities of structure, and +species upon relations and proportions. That is, we do not perceive how +these several "categories of thought" exclude the possibility or the +probability that the individuals which manifest or suggest the thoughts +had an ultimate community of origin. + +Moreover, Mr. Darwin might insinuate that the particular philosophy of +classification upon which this whole argument reposes is as purely +hypothetical and as little accepted as is his own doctrine. If both are +pure hypotheses, it is hardly fair or satisfactory to extinguish the +one by the other. If there is no real contradiction between them, +nothing is gained by the attempt. + +As to the dilemma propounded, suppose we try it upon that category of +thought which we call chair. This is a genus, comprising a common chair +(Sella vulgaris), arm or easy chair (S. cathedra), the rocking-chair +(S. oscillans)--widely distributed in the United States--and some +others, each of which has sported, as the gardeners say, into many +varieties. But now, as the genus and the species have no material +existence, how can they vary? If only individual chairs exist, how can +the differences which may be observed among them prove the variability +of the species? To which we reply by asking, Which does the question +refer to, the category of thought, or the individual embodiment? If the +former, then we would remark that our categories of thought vary from +time to time in the readiest manner. And, although the Divine thoughts +are eternal, yet they are manifested to us in time and succession, and +by their manifestation only can we know them, how imperfectly! Allowing +that what has no material existence can have had no material connection +or variation, we should yet infer that what has intellectual existence +and connection might have intellectual variation; and, turning to the +individuals, which represent the species, we do not see how all this +shows that they may not vary. Observation shows us that they do. +Wherefore, taught by fact that successive individuals do vary, we +safely infer that the idea must have varied, and that this variation of +the individual representatives proves the variability of the species, +whether objectively or subjectively regarded. + +Each species or sort of chair, as we have said, has its varieties, and +one species shades off by gradations into another. And--note it +well--these numerous and successively slight variations and gradations, +far from suggesting an accidental origin to chairs and to their forms, +are very proofs of design. + +Again, edifice is a generic category of thought. Egyptian, Grecian, +Byzantine, and Gothic buildings are well-marked species, of which each +individual building of the sort is a material embodiment. Now, the +question is, whether these categories or ideas may not have been +evolved, one from another in succession, or from some primal, less +specialized, edificial category. What better evidence for such +hypothesis could we have than the variations and grades which connect +these species with each other? We might extend the parallel, and get +some good illustrations of natural selection from the history of +architecture, and the origin of the different styles under different +climates and conditions. Two considerations may qualify or limit the +comparison. One, that houses do not propagate, so as to produce +continuing lines of each sort and variety; but this is of small moment +on Agassizs view, he holding that genealogical connection is not of the +essence of a species at all. The other, that the formation and +development of the ideas upon which human works proceed are gradual; +or, as the same great naturalist well states it, "while human thought +is consecutive, Divine thought is simultaneous." But we have no right +to affirm this of Divine action. + +We must close here. We meant to review some of the more general +scientific objections which we thought not altogether tenable. But, +after all, we are not so anxious just now to know whether the new +theory is well founded on facts, as whether it would be harmless if it +were. Besides, we feel quite unable to answer some of these objections, +and it is pleasanter to take up those which one thinks he can. + +Among the unanswerable, perhaps the weightiest of the objections, is +that of the absence, in geological deposits, of vestiges of the +intermediate forms which the theory requires to have existed. Here all +that Mr. Darwin can do is to insist upon the extreme imperfection of +the geological record and the uncertainty of negative evidence. But, +withal, he allows the force of the objection almost as much as his +opponents urge it--so much so, indeed, that two of his English critics +turn the concession unfairly upon him, and charge him with actually +basing his hypothesis upon these and similar difficulties--as if he +held it because of the difficulties, and not in spite of them; a +handsome return for his candor! + +As to this imperfection of the geological record, perhaps we should get +a fair and intelligible illustration of it by imagining the existing +animals and plants of New England, with all their remains and products +since the arrival of the Mayflower, to be annihilated; and that, in the +coming time, the geologists of a new colony, dropped by the New Zealand +fleet on its way to explore the ruins of London, undertake, after fifty +years of examination, to reconstruct in a catalogue the flora and fauna +of our day, that is, from the close of the glacial period to the +present time. With all the advantages of a surface exploration, what a +beggarly account it would be! How many of the land animals and plants +which are enumerated in the Massachusetts official reports would it be +likely to contain? + +Another unanswerable question asked by the Boston reviewers is, Why, +when structure and instinct or habit vary-- as they must have varied, +on Darwins hypothesis--they vary together and harmoniously, instead of +vaguely? We cannot tell, because we cannot tell why either varies at +all. Yet, as they both do vary in successive generations--as is seen +under domestication--and are correlated, we can only adduce the fact. +Darwin may be precluded from our answer, but we may say that they vary +together because designed to do so. A reviewer says that the chance of +their varying together is inconceivably small; yet, if they do not, the +variant individuals must all perish. Then it is well that it is not +left to chance. To refer to a parallel case: before we were born, +nourishment and the equivalent to respiration took place in a certain +way. But the moment we were ushered into this breathing world, our +actions promptly conformed, both as to respiration and nourishment, to +the before unused structure and to the new surroundings. + +"Now," says the Examiner, "suppose, for instance, the gills of an +aquatic animal converted into lungs, while instinct still compelled a +continuance under water, would not drowning ensue?" No doubt. +But--simply contemplating the facts, instead of theorizing--we notice +that young frogs do not keep their heads under water after ceasing to +be tadpoles. The instinct promptly changes with the structure, without +supernatural interposition--just as Darwin would have it, if the +development of a variety or incipient species, though rare, were as +natural as a metamorphosis. + +"Or if a quadruped, not yet furnished with wings, were suddenly +inspired with the instinct of a bird, and precipitated itself from a +cliff, would not the descent be hazardously rapid?" Doubtless the +animal would be no better supported than the objection. But Darwin +makes very little indeed of voluntary efforts as a cause of change, and +even poor Lamarck need not be caricatured. He never supposed that an +elephant would take such a notion into his wise head, or that a +squirrel would begin with other than short and easy leaps; yet might +not the length of the leap be increased by practice? + +The North American reviewers position, that the higher brute animals +have comparatively little instinct and no intelligence, is a heavy blow +and great discouragement to dogs, horses, elephants, and monkeys. Thus +stripped of their all, and left to shift for themselves as they may in +this hard world, their pursuit and seeming attainment of knowledge +under such peculiar difficulties are interesting to contemplate. +However, we are not so sure as is the critic that instinct regularly +increases downward and decreases upward in the scale of being. Now that +the case of the bee is reduced to moderate proportions,[III-19] we know +of nothing in instinct surpassing that of an animal so high as a bird, +the talegal, the male of which plumes himself upon making a hot-bed in +which to batch his partners eggs--which he tends and regulates the beat +of about as carefully and skillfully as the unplumed biped does an +eccaleobion.[III-20] + +As to the real intelligence of the higher brutes, it has been ably +defended by a far more competent observer, Mr. Agassiz, to whose +conclusions we yield a general assent, although we cannot quite place +the best of dogs "in that respect upon a level with a considerable +proportion of poor humanity," nor indulge the hope, or indeed the +desire, of a renewed acquaintance with the whole animal kingdom in a +future life. + +The assertion that acquired habitudes or instincts, and acquired +structures, are not heritable, any breeder or good observer can +refute. + That "the human mind has become what it is out of a developed +instinct," is a statement which Mr. Darwin nowhere makes, and, we +presume, would not accept. That he would have us believe that +individual animals acquire their instincts gradually,[III-21] is a +statement which must have been penned in inadvertence both of the very +definition of instinct, and of everything we know of in Mr. Darwins +book. + +It has been attempted to destroy the very foundation of Darwins +hypothesis by denying that there are any wild varieties, to speak of, +for natural selection to operate upon. We cannot gravely sit down to +prove that wild varieties abound. We should think it just as necessary +to prove that snow falls in winter. That variation among plants cannot +be largely due to hybridism, and that their variation in Nature is not +essentially different from much that occurs in domestication, and, in +the long-run, probably hardly less in amount, we could show if our +space permitted. + +As to the sterility of hybrids, that can no longer be insisted upon as +absolutely true, nor be practically used as a test between species and +varieties, unless we allow that hares and rabbits are of one species. +That such sterility, whether total or partial, subserves a purpose in +keeping species apart, and was so designed, we do not doubt. But the +critics fail to perceive that this sterility proves nothing whatever +against the derivative origin of the actual species; for it may as well +have been intended to keep separate those forms which have reached a +certain amount of divergence, as those which were always thus +distinct. + +The argument for the permanence of species, drawn from the identity +with those now living of cats, birds, and other animals preserved in +Egyptian catacombs, was good enough as used by Cuvier against +St.-Hilaire, that is, against the supposition that time brings about a +gradual alteration of whole species; but it goes for little against +Darwin, unless it be proved that species never vary, or that the +perpetuation of a variety necessitates the extinction of the parent +breed. For Darwin clearly maintains--what the facts warrant--that the +mass of a species remains fixed so long as it exists at all, though it +may set off a variety now and then. The variety may finally supersede +the parent form, or it may coexist with it; yet it does not in the +least hinder the unvaried stock from continuing true to the breed, +unless it crosses with it. The common law of inheritance may be +expected to keep both the original and the variety mainly true as long +as they last, and none the less so because they have given rise to +occasional varieties. The tailless Manx cats, like the curtailed fox in +the fable, have not induced the normal breeds to dispense with their +tails, nor have the Dorkings (apparently known to Pliny) affected the +permanence of the common sort of fowl. + +As to the objection that the lower forms of life ought, on Darwins +theory, to have been long ago improved out of existence, and replaced +by higher forms, the objectors forget what a vacuum that would leave +below, and what a vast field there is to which a simple organization is +best adapted, and where an advance would be no improvement, but the +contrary. To accumulate the greatest amount of being upon a given +space, and to provide as much enjoyment of life as can be under the +conditions, is what Nature seems to aim at; and this is effected by +diversification. + +Finally, we advise nobody to accept Darwins or any other derivative +theory as true. The time has not come for that, and perhaps never will. +We also advise against a similar credulity on the other side, in a +blind faith that species--that the manifold sorts and forms of existing +animals and vegetables--"have no secondary cause." The contrary is +already not unlikely, and we suppose will hereafter become more and +more probable. But we are confident that, if a derivative hypothesis +ever is established, it will be so on a solid theistic ground. + +Meanwhile an inevitable and legitimate hypothesis is on trial--an +hypothesis thus far not untenable--a trial just now very useful to +science, and, we conclude, not harmful to religion, unless injudicious +assailants temporarily make it so. + +One good effect is already manifest; its enabling the advocates of the +hypothesis of a multiplicity of human species to perceive the double +insecurity of their ground. When the races of men are admitted to be of +one species, the corollary, that they are of one origin, may be +expected to follow. Those who allow them to be of one species must +admit an actual diversification into strongly-marked and persistent +varieties, and so admit the basis of fact upon which the Darwinian +hypothesis is built; while those, on the other hand, who recognize +several or numerous human species, will hardly be able to maintain that +such species were primordial and supernatural in the ordinary sense of +the word. + +The English mind is prone to positivism and kindred forms of +materialistic philosophy, and we must expect the derivative theory to +be taken up in that interest. We have no predilection for that school, +but the contrary. If we had, we might have looked complacently upon a +line of criticism which would indirectly, but effectively, play into +the hands of positivists and materialistic atheists generally. The +wiser and stronger ground to take is, that the derivative hypothesis +leaves the argument for design, and therefore for a designer, as valid +as it ever was; that to do any work by an instrument must require, and +therefore presuppose, the exertion rather of more than of less power +than to do it directly; that whoever would be a consistent theist +should believe that Design in the natural world is coextensive with +Providence, and hold as firmly to the one as he does to the other, in +spite of the wholly similar and apparently insuperable difficulties +which the mind encounters whenever it endeavors to develop the idea +into a system, either in the material and organic, or in the moral +world. It is enough, in the way of obviating objections, to show that +the philosophical difficulties of the one are the same, and only the +same, as of the other. + + + + IV. + + CAPITAL--THE MOTHER OF LABOUR + + AN ECONOMICAL PROBLEM DISCUSSED FROM A + PHYSIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW + + [1890.] + +THE first act of a new-born child is to draw a deep breath. In fact, it +will never draw a deeper, inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the +lungs, once distended with air, do not empty themselves again; it is +only a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the +flow and the ebb of the respiratory tide. Mechanically, this act of +drawing breath, or inspiration, is of the same nature as that by which +the handles of a bellows are separated, in order to fill the bellows +with air; and, in like manner, it involves that expenditure of energy +which we call exertion, or work, or labour. It is, therefore, no mere +metaphor to say that man is destined to a life of toil: the work of +respiration which began with his first breath ends only with his last; +nor does one born in the purple get off with a lighter task than the +child who first sees light under a hedge. + +[148] How is it that the new-born infant is enabled to perform this +first instalment of the sentence of life-long labour which no man may +escape? Whatever else a child may be, in respect of this particular +question, it is a complicated piece of mechanism, built up out of +materials supplied by its mother; and in the course of such +building-up, provided with a set of motors--the muscles. Each of these +muscles contains a stock of substance capable of yielding energy under +certain conditions, one of which is a change of state in the nerve +fibres connected with it. The powder in a loaded gun is such another +stock of substance capable of yielding energy in consequence of a +change of state in the mechanism of the lock, which intervenes between +the finger of the man who pulls the trigger and the cartridge. If that +change is brought about, the potential energy of the powder passes +suddenly into actual energy, and does the work of propelling the +bullet. The powder, therefore, may be appropriately called work-stuff, +not only because it is stuff which is easily made to yield work in the +physical sense, but because a good deal of work in the economical sense +has contributed to its production. Labour was necessary to collect, +transport, and purify the raw sulphur and saltpetre; to cut wood and +convert it into powdered charcoal; to mix these ingredients in the +right proportions; to give the mixture the proper grain, and so on. +The powder [149] once formed part of the stock, or capital, of a +powder-maker: and it is not only certain natural bodies which are +collected and stored in the gunpowder, but the labour bestowed on the +operations mentioned may be figuratively said to be incorporated in +it. + +In principle, the work-stuff stored in the muscles of the new-born +child is comparable to that stored in the gun-barrel. The infant is +launched into altogether new surroundings; and these operate through +the mechanism of the nervous machinery, with the result that the +potential energy of some of the work-stuff in the muscles which bring +about inspiration is suddenly converted into actual energy; and this, +operating through the mechanism of the respiratory apparatus, gives +rise to an act of inspiration. As the bullet is propelled by the +"going off" of the powder, as it might be said that the ribs are +raised and the midriff depressed by the "going off" of certain +portions of muscular work-stuff. This work-stuff is part of a stock or +capital of that commodity stored up in the child's organism before +birth, at the expense of the mother; and the mother has made good her +expenditure by drawing upon the capital of food-stuffs which furnished +her daily maintenance. + +Under these circumstances, it does not appear to me to be open to doubt +that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily +accompany [150] the life of man is dependent upon the pre-existence of +a stock of material which is not only of use to him, but which is +disposed in such a manner as to be utilisable with facility. And I +further imagine that the propriety of the application of the term +'capital' to this stock of useful substance cannot be justly called in +question; inasmuch as it is easy to prove that the essential +constituents of the work-stuff accumulated in the child's muscles have +merely been transferred from the store of food-stuffs, which everybody +admits to be capital, by means of the maternal organism to that of the +child, in which they are again deposited to await use. Every +subsequent act of labour, in like manner, involves an equivalent +consumption of the child's store of work-stuff--its vital capital; and +one of the main objects of the process of breathing is to get rid of +some of the effects of that consumption. It follows, then, that, even +if no other than the respiratory work were going on in the organism, +the capital of work-stuff, which the child brought with it into the +world, must sooner or later be used up, and the movements of breathing +must come to an end; just as the see-saw of the piston of a +steam-engine stops when the coal in the fireplace has burnt away. + +Milk, however, is a stock of materials which essentially consists of +savings from the food-stuffs supplied to the mother. And these savings +are [151] in such a physical and chemical condition that the organism +of the child can easily convert them into work-stuff. That is to say, +by borrowing directly from the vital capital of the mother, indirectly +from the store in the natural bodies accessible to her, it can make +good the loss of its own. The operation of borrowing, however, +involves further work; that is, the labour of sucking, which is a +mechanical operation of much the same nature as breathing. The child +thus pays for the capital it borrows in labour; but as the value in +work-stuff of the milk obtained is very far greater than the value of +that labour, estimated by the consumption of work-stuff it involves, +the operation yields a large profit to the infant. The overplus of +food-stuff suffices to increase the child's capital of work-stuff; and +to supply not only the materials for the enlargement of the "buildings +and machinery" which is expressed by the child's growth, but also the +energy required to put all these materials together, and to carry them +to their proper places. Thus, throughout the years of infancy, and so +long thereafter as the youth or man is not thrown upon his own +resources, he lives by consuming the vital capital provided by others. +To use a terminology which is more common than appropriate, whatever +work he performs (and he does a good deal, if only in mere locomotion) +is unproductive. + +[152] Let us now suppose the child come to man's estate in the +condition of a wandering savage, dependent for his food upon what he +can pick up or catch, after the fashion of the Australian aborigines. +It is plain that the place of mother, as the supplier of vital +capital, is now taken by the fruits, seeds, and roots of plants and by +various kinds of animals. It is they alone which contain stocks of +those substances which can be converted within the man's organism into +work-stuff; and of the other matters, except air and water, required +to supply the constant consumption of his capital and to keep his +organic machinery going. In no way does the savage contribute to the +production of these substances. Whatever labour he bestows upon such +vegetable and animal bodies, on the contrary, is devoted to their +destruction; and it is a mere matter of accident whether a little +labour yields him a great deal--as in the case, for example, of a +stranded whale; or whether much labour yields next to nothing--as in +times of long-continued drought. The savage, like the child, borrows +the capital he needs, and, at any rate, intentionally, does nothing +towards repayment; it would plainly be an improper use of the word +"produce" to say that his labour in hunting for the roots, or the +fruits, or the eggs, or the grubs and snakes, which he finds and eats, +"produces" or contributes to "produce" them. The same thing is true +of more advanced tribes, who [153] are still merely hunters, such as +the Esquimaux. They may expend more labour and skill; but it is spent +in destruction. + +When we pass from these to men who lead a purely pastoral life, like +the South American Gauchos, or some Asiatic nomads, there is an +important change. Let us suppose the owner of a flock of sheep to live +on the milk, cheese, and flesh which they yield. It is obvious that +the flock stands to him in the economic relation of the mother to the +child, inasmuch as it supplies him with food-stuffs competent to make +good the daily and hourly losses of his capital of workstuff. If we +imagine our sheep-owner to have access to extensive pastures and to be +troubled neither by predacious animals nor by rival shepherds, the +performance of his pastoral functions will hardly involve the +expenditure of any more labour than is needful to provide him with the +exercise required to maintain health. And this is true, even if we +take into account the trouble originally devoted to the domestication +of the sheep. It surely would be a most singular pretension for the +shepherd to talk of the flock as the "produce" of his labour in any +but a very limited sense. In truth, his labour would have been a mere +accessory of production of very little consequence. Under the +circumstances supposed, a ram and some ewes, left to themselves for a +few years, would probably generate as large a flock; [154] and the +superadded labour of the shepherd would have little more effect upon +their production than upon that of the blackberries on the bushes +about the pastures. For the most part the increment would be +thoroughly unearned; and, if it is a rule of absolute political ethics +that owners have no claim upon "betterment" brought about +independently of their own labour, then the shepherd would have no +claim to at least nine-tenths of the increase of the flock. + +But if the shepherd has no real claim to the title of "producer," who +has? Are the rams and ewes the true "producers"? Certainly their +title is better if, borrowing from the old terminology of chemistry, +they only claim to be regarded as the "proximate principles" of +production. And yet, if strict justice is to be dispensed, even they +are to be regarded rather as collectors and distributors than as +"producers." For all that they really do is to collect, slightly +modify, and render easily accessible, the vital capital which already +exists in the green herbs on which they feed, but in such a form as to +be practically out of the reach of man. + +Thus, from an economic point of view, the sheep are more comparable to +confectioners than to producers. The usefulness of biscuit lies in the +raw flour of which it is made; but raw flour does not answer as an +article of human diet, and biscuit does. So the usefulness of mutton +lies mainly in certain chemical compounds which it [155] contains: the +sheep gets them out of grass; we cannot live on grass, but we can on +mutton. + +Now, herbaceous and all other green plants stand alone among +terrestrial natural bodies, in so far as, under the influence of +light, they possess the power to build up, out of the carbonic acid +gas in the atmosphere, water and certain nitrogenous and mineral +salts, those substances which in the animal organism are utilised as +work-stuff. They are the chief and, for practical purposes, the sole +producers of that vital capital which we have seen to be the necessary +antecedent of every act of labour. Every green plant is a laboratory +in which, so long as the sun shines upon it, materials furnished by +the mineral world, gases, water, saline compounds, are worked up into +those foodstuffs without which animal life cannot be carried on. And +since, up to the present time, synthetic chemistry has not advanced so +far as to achieve this feat, the green plant may be said to be the +only living worker whose labour directly results in the production of +that vital capital which is the necessary antecedent of human labour.* +Nor is this statement a paradox involving perpetual motion, because +the energy by which the plant does its work is supplied by the +sun--the primordial capitalist so far as we are concerned. But [156] +it cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind that sunshine, air, +water, the best soil that is to be found on the surface of the earth, +might co-exist; yet without plants, there is no known agency competent +to generate the so-called "protein compounds," by which alone animal +life can be permanently supported. And not only are plants thus +essential; but, in respect of particular kinds of animals, they must +be plants of a particular nature. If there were no terrestrial green +plants but, say, cypresses and mosses, pastoral and agricultural life +would be alike impossible; indeed, it is difficult to imagine the +possibility of the existence of any large animal, as the labour +required to get at a sufficiency of the store of food-stuffs, +contained in such plants as these, could hardly extract from them an +equivalent for the waste involved in that expenditure of work. + + * It remains to be seen whether the plants which have no + chlorophyll, and flourish in darkness, such as the Fungi, can + live upon purely mineral food. + +We are compact of dust and air; from that we set out, and to that +complexion must we come at last. The plant either directly, or by some +animal intermediary, lends us the capital which enables us to carry on +the business of life, as we flit through the upper world, from the one +term of our journey to the other. Popularly, no doubt, it is +permissible to speak of the soil as a "producer," just as we may talk +of the daily movement of the sun. But, as I have elsewhere remarked, +propositions which are to bear any deductive strain that may be put +upon them must run the risk of [157] seeming pedantic, rather than +that of being inaccurate. And the statement that land, in the sense of +cultivable soil, is a producer, or even one of the essentials of +economic production, is anything but accurate. The process of +water-culture, in which a plant is not "planted" in any soil, but is +merely supported in water containing in solution the mineral +ingredients essential to that plant, is now thoroughly understood; +and, if it were worth while, a crop yielding abundant food-stuffs +could be raised on an acre of fresh water, no less than on an acre of +dry land. In the Arctic regions, again, land has nothing to do with +"production" in the social economy of the Esquimaux, who live on seals +and other marine animals; and might, like Proteus, shepherd the flocks +of Poseidon if they had a mind for pastoral life. But the seals and +the bears are dependent on other inhabitants of the sea, until, +somewhere in the series, we come to the minute green plants which +float in the ocean, and are the real "producers" by which the whole of +its vast animal population is supported.* Thus, when we find set forth +as an "absolute" [158] truth the statement that the essential factors +in economic production are land, capital and labour--when this is +offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other important truths may be +deduced--it is needful to remember that the assertion is true only +with a qualification. Undoubtedly "vital capital" is essential; for, +as we have seen, no human work can be done unless it exists, not even +that internal work of the body which is necessary to passive life. +But, with respect to labour (that is, human labour) I hope to have +left no doubt on the reader's mind that, in regard to production, the +importance of human labour may be so small as to be almost a vanishing +quantity. Moreover, it is certain that there is no approximation to a +fixed ratio between the expenditure of labour and the production of +that vital capital which is the foundation of all wealth. For, suppose +that we introduce into our suppositious pastoral paradise beasts of +prey and rival shepherds, the amount of labour thrown upon the +sheep-owner may increase almost indefinitely, and its importance as a +condition of production may be enormously augmented, while the +quantity of produce remains stationary. Compare for a moment the +unimportance of the shepherd's labour, under the circumstances first +defined, with its indispensability in countries in which the water for +the sheep has to be drawn from deep [159] wells, or in which the flock +has to be defended from wolves or from human depredators. As to land, +it has been shown that, except as affording mere room and standing +ground, the importance of land, great as it may be, is secondary. The +one thing needful for economic production is the green plant, as the +sole producer of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies. Men +might exist without labour (in the ordinary sense) and without land; +without plants they must inevitably perish. + + * In some remarkable passages of the Botany of Sir James Ross's + Antarctic voyage, which took place half a century ago, Sir + Joseph Hooker demonstrated the dependence of the animal life of + the sea upon the minute, indeed microscopic, plants which float + in it: a marvellous example of what may be done by + water-culture. One might indulge in dreams of cultivating and + improving diatoms, until the domesticated bore the same + relation to the wild forms, as cauliflowers to the primitive + Brassica oleracea, without passing beyond the limits of fair + scientific speculation. + +That which is true of the purely pastoral condition is a fortiori true +of the purely agricultural* condition, in which the existence of the +cultivator is directly dependent on the production of vital capital by +the plants which he cultivates. Here, again, the condition precedent +of the work of each year is vital capital. Suppose that a man lives +exclusively upon the plants which he cultivates. It is obvious that he +must have food-stuffs to live upon, while he prepares the soil for +sowing and throughout the period which elapses between this and +harvest. These food-stuffs must be yielded by the stock remaining over +from former crops. The result is the same as before--the pre-existence +of vital capital is the necessary antecedent of labour. Moreover, the +amount of labour which contributes, as an accessory condition, to the +production [160] of the crop varies as widely in the case of +plant-raising as in that of cattle-raising. With favourable soil, +climate and other conditions, it may be very small, with unfavourable, +very great, for the same revenue or yield of food-stuffs. + + * It is a pity that we have no word that signifies plant-culture + exclusively. But for the present purpose I may restrict + agriculture to that sense. + +Thus, I do not think it is possible to dispute the following +proposition: the existence of any man, or of any number of men, +whether organised into a polity or not, depends on the production of +foodstuffs (that is, vital capital) readily accessible to man, either +directly or indirectly, by plants. But it follows that the number of +men who can exist, say for one year, on any given area of land, taken +by itself, depends upon the quantity of food-stuffs produced by such +plants growing on the area in one year. If a is that quantity, and b +the minimum of food-stuffs required for each man, A/B=N, the maximum +number of men who can exist on the area. Now the amount of production +(a) is limited by the extent of area occupied; by the quantity of +sunshine which falls upon the area; by the range and distribution of +temperature; by the force of the winds; by the supply of water; by the +composition and the physical characters of the soil; by animal and +vegetable competitors and destroyers. The labour of man neither does, +nor can, produce vital capital; all that it can do is to modify, +favourably or unfavourably, the conditions of its production. The most +important of these-- [161] namely, sunshine, range of daily and +nightly temperature, wind--are practically out of men's reach.* On the +other hand, the supply of water, the physical and chemical qualities +of the soil, and the influences of competitors and destroyers, can +often, though by no means always, be largely affected by labour and +skill. And there is no harm in calling the effect of such labour +"production," if it is clearly understood that "production" in this +sense is a very different thing from the "production" of food-stuffs +by a plant. + + * I do not forget electric lighting, greenhouses and hothouses, + and the various modes of affording shelter against violent + winds: but in regard to production of food-stuffs on the large + scale they may be neglected. Even if synthetic chemistry should + effect the construction of proteids, the Laboratory will + hardly enter into competition with the Farm within any time + which the present generation need trouble itself about. + +We have been dealing hitherto with suppositions the materials of which +are furnished by everyday experience, not with mere a priori +assumptions. Our hypothetical solitary shepherd with his flock, or the +solitary farmer with his grain field, are mere bits of such +experience, cut out, as it were, for easy study. Still borrowing from +daily experience, let us suppose that either sheep-owner or farmer, +for any reason that may be imagined, desires the help of one or more +other men; and that, in exchange for their labour, he offers so many +sheep, or quarts of milk, or pounds of [162] cheese, or so many +measures of grain, for a year's service. I fail to discover any a +priori "rights of labour" in virtue of which these men may insist on +being employed, if they are not wanted. But, on the other hand, I +think it is clear that there is only one condition upon which the +persons to whom the offer of these "wages" is made can accept it; and +that is that the things offered in exchange for a year's work shall +contain at least as much vital capital as a man uses up in doing the +year's work. For no rational man could knowingly and willingly accept +conditions which necessarily involve starvation. Therefore there is an +irreducible minimum of wages; it is such an amount of vital capital as +suffices to replace the inevitable consumption of the person hired. +Now, surely, it is beyond a doubt that these wages, whether at or +above the irreducible minimum, are paid out of the capital disposable +after the wants of the owner of the flock or of the crop of grain are +satisfied; and, from what has been said already, it follows that there +is a limit to the number of men, whether hired, or brought in any other +way, who can be maintained by the sheep owner or landowner out of his +own resources. Since no amount of labour can produce an ounce of +foodstuff beyond the maximum producible by a limited number of plants, +under the most favourable circumstances in regard to those conditions +which are not affected by labour, it follows [163] that, if the number +of men to be fed increases indefinitely, a time must come when some +will have to starve. That is the essence of the so-called Malthusian +doctrine; and it is a truth which, to my mind, is as plain as the +general proposition that a quantity which constantly increases will, +some time or other, exceed any greater quantity the amount of which is +fixed. + +The foregoing considerations leave no doubt about the fundamental +condition of the existence of any polity, or organised society of men, +either in a purely pastoral or purely agricultural state, or in any +mixture of both states. It must possess a store of vital capital to +start with, and the means of repairing the consumption of that capital +which takes place as a consequence of the work of the members of the +society. And, if the polity occupies a completely isolated area of the +earth's surface, the numerical strength of that polity can never +exceed the quotient of the maximum quantity of food-stuffs producible +by the green plants on that area, in each year, divided by the +quantity necessary for the maintenance of each person during the year. +But, there is a third mode of existence possible to a polity; it may, +conceivably, be neither purely pastoral nor purely agricultural, but +purely manufacturing. Let us suppose three islands, like Gran Canaria, +Teneriffe and Lanzerote, in the Canaries, to be quite cut off from the +rest of the world. Let Gran Canaria be [164] inhabited by +grain-raisers, Teneriffe by cattle-breeders; while the population of +Lanzerote (which we may suppose to be utterly barren) consists of +carpenters, woollen manufacturers, and shoemakers. Then the facts of +daily experience teach us that the people of Lanzerote could never +have existed unless they came to the island provided with a stock of +food-stuffs; and that they could not continue to exist, unless that +stock, as it was consumed, was made up by contributions from the vital +capital of either Gran Canaria, or Teneriffe, or both. Moreover, the +carpenters of Lanzerote could do nothing, unless they were provided +with wood from the other islands; nor could the wool spinners and +weavers or the shoemakers work without wool and skins from the same +sources. The wood and the wool and the skins are, in fact, the capital +without which their work as manufacturers in their respective trades +is impossible--so that the vital and other capital supplied by Gran +Canaria and Teneriffe is most indubitably the necessary antecedent of +the industrial labour of Lanzerote. It is perfectly true that by the +time the wood, the wool, and the skins reached Lanzerote a good deal +of labour in cutting, shearing, skinning, transport, and so on, would +have been spent upon them. But this does not alter the fact that the +only "production" which is essential to the existence of the +population of Teneriffe and Gran Canaria is that effected by the [165] +green plants in both islands; and that all the labour spent upon the +raw produce useful in manufacture, directly or indirectly yielded by +them--by the inhabitants of these islands and by those of Lanzerote +into the bargain--will not provide one solitary Lanzerotian with a +dinner, unless the Teneriffians and Canariotes happen to want his +goods and to be willing to give some of their vital capital in +exchange for them. + +Under the circumstances defined, if Teneriffe and Gran Canaria +disappeared, or if their inhabitants ceased to care for carpentry, +clothing, or shoes, the people of Lanzerote must starve. But if they +wish to buy, then the Lanzerotians, by "cultivating" the buyers, +indirectly favour the cultivation of the produce of those buyers. + +Thus, if the question is asked whether the labour employed in +manufacture in Lanzerote is "productive" or "unproductive" there can +be only one reply. If anybody will exchange vital capital, or that +which can be exchanged for vital capital, for Lanzerote goods, it is +productive; if not, it is unproductive. + +In the case of the manufacturer, the dependence of labour upon capital +is still more intimate than in that of the herdsman or agriculturist. +When the latter are once started they can go on, without troubling +themselves about the existence of any other people. But the +manufacturer depends on pre-existing capital, not only at the [166] +beginning, but at the end of his operations. However great the +expenditure of his labour and of his skill, the result, for the +purpose of maintaining his existence, is just the same as if he had +done nothing, unless there is a customer able and willing to exchange +food-stuffs for that which his labour and skill have achieved. + +There is another point concerning which it is very necessary to have +clear ideas. Suppose a carpenter in Lanzerote to be engaged in making +chests of drawers. Let us suppose that a, the timber, and b, the grain +and meat needful for the man's sustenance until he can finish a chest +of drawers, have to be paid for by that chest. Then the capital with +which he starts is represented by a + b. He could not start at all +unless he had it; day by day, he must destroy more or less of the +substance and of the general adaptability of a in order to work it up +into the special forms needed to constitute the chest of drawers; and, +day by day, he must use up at least so much of b as will replace his +loss of vital capital by the work of that day. Suppose it takes the +carpenter and his workmen ten days to saw up the timber, to plane the +boards, and to give them the shape and size proper for the various +parts of the chest of drawers. And suppose that he then offers his +heap of boards to the advancer of a + b as an equivalent for the wood ++ ten days' supply of vital capital? The latter will surely say: "No. +[167] I did not ask for a heap of boards. I asked for a chest of +drawers. Up to this time, so far as I am concerned, you have done +nothing and are as much in my debt as ever." And if the carpenter +maintained that he had "virtually" created two-thirds of a chest of +drawers, inasmuch as it would take only five days more to put together +the pieces of wood, and that the heap of boards ought to be accepted +as the equivalent of two-thirds of his debt, I am afraid the creditor +would regard him as little better than an impudent swindler. It +obviously makes no sort of difference whether the Canariote or +Teneriffian buyer advanced the wood and the food-stuffs, on which the +carpenter had to maintain himself; or whether the carpenter had a stock +of both, the consumption of which must be recouped by the exchange of +a chest of drawers for a fresh supply. In the latter case, it is even +less doubtful that, if the carpenter offered his boards to the man who +wanted a chest of drawers, the latter would laugh in his face. And if +he took the chest of drawers for himself, then so much of his vital +capital would be sunk in it past recovery. Again, the payment of goods +in a lump, for the chest of drawers, comes to the same thing as the +payment of daily wages for the fifteen days that the carpenter was +occupied in making it. If, at the end of each day, the carpenter chose +to say to himself "I have 'virtually' created, by my day's labour, a +fifteenth of what I shall get for the chest [168] of +drawers--therefore my wages are the produce of my day's labour"--there +is no great harm in such metaphorical speech, so long as the poor man +does not delude himself into the supposition that it represents the +exact truth. "Virtually" is apt to cover more intellectual sins than +"charity" does moral delicts. After what has been said, it surely must +be plain enough that each day's work has involved the consumption of +the carpenter's vital capital, and the fashioning of his timber, at +the expense of more or less consumption of those forms of capital. +Whether the a + b to be exchanged for the chest has been advanced as a +loan, or is paid daily or weekly as wages, or, at some later time, as +the price of a finished commodity--the essential element of the +transaction, and the only essential element, is, that it must, at +least, effect the replacement of the vital capital consumed. Neither +boards nor chest of drawers are eatable; and, so far from the +carpenter having produced the essential part of his wages by each +day's labour, he has merely wasted that labour, unless somebody who +happens to want a chest of drawers offers to exchange vital capital, +or something that can procure it, equivalent to the amount consumed +during the process of manufacture.* + + * See the discussion of this subject further on. + +That it should be necessary, at this time of day, to set forth such +elementary truths as these may [169] well seem strange; but no one who +consults that interesting museum of political delusions, "Progress and +Poverty," some of the treasures of which I have already brought to +light, will doubt the fact, if he bestows proper attention upon the +first book of that widely-read work. At page 15 it is thus written: + +"The proposition I shall endeavour to prove is: that wages, instead of +being drawn from capital, are, in reality, drawn from the product of +the labour for which they are paid." + +Again at page 18:-- + +"In every case in which labour is exchanged for commodities, +production really precedes enjoyment . . . wages are the +earnings--that is to say, the makings--of labour--not the advances +of capital." + +And the proposition which the author endeavours to disprove is the +hitherto generally accepted doctrine + + ..."that labour is maintained and paid out of existing capital, + before the product which constitutes the ultimate object is + secured" (p. 16). + +The doctrine respecting the relation of capital and wages, which is +thus opposed in "Progress and Poverty," is that illustrated in the +foregoing pages; the truth of which, I conceive, must be plain to any +one who has apprehended the very simple arguments by which I have +endeavoured to [170] demonstrate it. One conclusion or the other must +be hopelessly wrong; and, even at the cost of going once more over +some of the ground traversed in this essay and that on "Natural and +Political Rights,"* I propose to show that the error lies with +"Progress and Poverty"; in which work, so far as political science is +concerned, the poverty is, to my eye, much more apparent than the +progress. + + * Collected Essays, vol. i. pp. 359-382. + +To begin at the beginning. The author propounds a definition of +wealth: "Nothing which nature supplies to man without his labour is +wealth" (p. 28). Wealth consists of "natural substances or products +which have been adapted by human labour to human use or gratification, +their value depending upon the amount of labour which, upon the +average, would be required to produce things of like kind" (p. 27). +The following examples of wealth are given:-- + + . . . "Buildings, cattle, tools, machinery, agricultural and + mineral products, manufactured goods, ships, waggons, + furniture, and the like" (p. 27). + +I take it that native metals, coal and brick clay, are "mineral +products"; and I quite believe that they are properly termed "wealth." +But when a seam of coal crops out at the surface, and lumps of coal +are to be had for the picking up; or when native copper lies about in +nuggets, or [171] when brick clay forms a superficial stratum, it +appears to me that these things are supplied to, nay almost thrust +upon, man without his labour. According to the definition, therefore, +they are not "wealth." According to the enumeration, however, they are +"wealth": a tolerably fair specimen of a contradiction in terms. Or +does "Progress and Poverty" really suggest that a coal seam which +crops out at the surface is not wealth; but that if somebody breaks +off a piece and carries it away, the bestowal of this amount of labour +upon that particular lump makes it wealth; while the rest remains "not +wealth"? The notion that the value of a thing bears any necessary +relation to the amount of labour (average or otherwise) bestowed upon +it, is a fallacy which needs no further refutation than it has already +received. The average amount of labour bestowed upon warming-pans +confers no value upon them in the eyes of a Gold-Coast negro; nor +would an Esquimaux give a slice of blubber for the most elaborate of +ice-machines. + +So much for the doctrine of "Progress and Poverty" touching the nature +of wealth. Let us now consider its teachings respecting capital as +wealth or a part of wealth. Adam Smith's definition "that part of a +man's stock which he expects to yield him a revenue is called his +capital" is quoted with approval (p. 32); elsewhere capital is said to +be that part of wealth "which [172] is devoted to the aid of +production" (p. 28); and yet again it is said to be + + . . . "wealth in course of exchange,* understanding exchange to + include, not merely the passing from hand to hand, but + also such transmutations as occur when the reproductive + or transforming forces of nature are utilised for the + increase of wealth" (p. 32). + + * The italics are the author's. + +But if too much pondering over the possible senses and scope of these +definitions should weary the reader, he will be relieved by the +following acknowledgment:-- + + . . . "Nor is the definition of capital I have suggested of + any importance" (p. 33). + +The author informs us, in fact, that he is "not writing a text-book," +thereby intimating his opinion that it is less important to be clear +and accurate when you are trying to bring about a political revolution +than when a merely academic interest attaches to the subject treated. +But he is not busy about anything so serious as a textbook: no, he "is +only attempting to discover the laws which control a great social +problem"--a mode of expression which indicates perhaps the high-water +mark of intellectual muddlement. I have heard, in my time, of "laws" +which control other "laws"; but this is the first occasion on which +"laws" which "control a problem" have come under my notice. Even the +disquisitions "of [173] those flabby writers who have burdened the +press and darkened counsel by numerous volumes which are dubbed +political economy" (p. 28) could hardly furnish their critics with a +finer specimen of that which a hero of the "Dunciad," by the one flash +of genius recorded of him, called "clotted nonsense." + +Doubtless it is a sign of grace that the author of these definitions +should attach no importance to any of them; but since, unfortunately, +his whole argument turns upon the tacit assumption that they are +important, I may not pass them over so lightly. The third I give up. +Why anything should be capital when it is "in course of exchange," and +not be capital under other circumstances, passes my understanding. We +are told that "that part of a farmer's crop held for sale or for seed, +or to feed his help, in part payment of wages, would be accounted +capital; that held for the care of his family would not be" (p. 31). +But I fail to discover any ground of reason or authority for the +doctrine that it is only when a crop is about to be sold or sown, or +given as wages, that it may be called capital. On the contrary, +whether we consider custom or reason, so much of it as is stored away +in ricks and barns during harvest, and remains there to be used in any +of these ways months or years afterwards, is customarily and rightly +termed capital. Surely, the meaning of the clumsy phrase that capital +is "wealth in the [174] course of exchange" must be that it is "wealth +capable of being exchanged" against labour or anything else. That, in +fact, is the equivalent of the second definition, that capital is +"that part of wealth which is devoted to the aid of production." +Obviously, if you possess that for which men will give labour, you can +aid production by means of that labour. And, again, it agrees with the +first definition (borrowed from Adam Smith) that capital is "that part +of a man's stock which he expects to yield him a revenue." For a +revenue is both etymologically and in sense a "return." A man gives +his labour in sowing grain, or in tending cattle, because he expects a +"return"--a "revenue"--in the shape of the increase of the grain or of +the herd; and also, in the latter case, in the shape of their labour +and manure which "aid the production" of such increase. The grain and +cattle of which he is possessed immediately after harvest is his +capital; and his revenue for the twelvemonth, until the next harvest, +is the surplus of grain and cattle over and above the amount with +which he started. This is disposable for any purpose for which he may +desire to use it, leaving him just as well off as he was at the +beginning of the year. Whether the man keeps the surplus grain for +sowing more land, and the surplus cattle for occupying more pasture; +whether he exchanges them for other commodities, such as the use of +the land (as rent); or labour (as [175] wages); or whether he feeds +himself and his family, in no way alters their nature as revenue, or +affects the fact that this revenue is merely disposable capital. + +That (even apart from etymology) cattle are typical examples of +capital cannot be denied ("Progress and Poverty," p. 25); and if we +seek for that particular quality of cattle which makes them "capital," +neither has the author of "Progress and Poverty" supplied, nor is any +one else very likely to supply, a better account of the matter than +Adam Smith has done. Cattle are "capital" because they are "stock +which yields revenue." That is to say, they afford to their owner a +supply of that which he desires to possess. And, in this particular +case, the "revenue" is not only desirable, but of supreme importance, +inasmuch as it is capable of maintaining human life. The herd yields a +revenue of food-stuffs as milk and meat; a revenue of skins; a revenue +of manure; a revenue of labour; a revenue of exchangeable commodities +in the shape of these things, as well as in that of live cattle. In +each and all of these capacities cattle are capital; and, conversely, +things which possess any or all of these capacities are capital. + +Therefore what we find at page 25 of "Progress and Poverty" must be +regarded as a welcome lapse into clearness of apprehension:-- + +"A fertile field, a rich vein of ore, a falling stream which supplies +power, may give the possessor advantages [176] equivalent to the +possession of capital; but to class such things as capital would be to +put an end to the distinction between land and capital." + +Just so. But the fatal truth is that these things are capital; and +that there really is no fundamental distinction between land and +capital. Is it denied that a fertile field, a rich vein of ore, or a +falling stream, may form part of a man's stock, and that, if they do, +they are capable of yielding revenue? Will not somebody pay a share of +the produce in kind, or in money, for the privilege of cultivating the +first royalties for that of working the second; and a like equivalent +for that of erecting a mill on the third? In what sense, then, are +these things less "capital" than the buildings and tools which on page +27 of "Progress and Poverty" are admitted to be capital? Is it not +plain that if these things confer "advantages equivalent to the +possession of capital," and if the "advantage" of capital is nothing +but the yielding of revenue, then the denial that they are capital is +merely a roundabout way of self-contradiction? + +All this confused talk about capital, however, is lucidity itself +compared with the exposition of the remarkable thesis, "Wages not +drawn from capital, but produced by labour," which occupies the third +chapter of "Progress and Poverty." + +"If, for instance, I devote my labour to gathering birds' eggs or +picking wild berries, the eggs or berries I thus [177] get are my +wages. Surely no one will contend that, in such a case, wages are +drawn from capital. There is no capital in the case" (p. 34). + +Nevertheless, those who have followed what has been said in the first +part of this essay surely neither will, nor can, have any hesitation +about substantially adopting the challenged contention, though they +may possibly have qualms as to the propriety of the use of the term +"wages."* They will have no difficulty in apprehending the fact that +birds' eggs and berries are stores of foodstuffs, or vital capital; +that the man who devotes his labour to getting them does so at the +expense of his personal vital capital; and that, if the eggs and the +berries are "wages" for his work, they are so because they enable him +to restore to his organism the vital capital which he has consumed in +doing the work of collection. So that there is really a great deal of +"capital in the case." + + * Not merely on the grounds stated below, but on the strength + of Mr. George's own definition. Does the gatherer of eggs, or + berries, produce them by his labour? If so, what do the hens + and the bushes do? + +Our author proceeds:-- + +"An absolutely naked man, thrown on an island where no human being has +before trod, may gather birds' eggs or pick berries" (p. 34). + +No doubt. But those who have followed my argument thus far will be +aware that a man's vital capital does not reside in his clothes; and, +therefore, [178] they will probably fail, as completely as I do, to +discover the relevancy of the statement. + +Again:-- + + . . . Or, if I take a piece of leather and work it up into a + pair of shoes, the shoes are my wages--the reward of my + exertion. Surely they are not drawn from capital--either + my capital or anybody else's capital--but are brought + into existence by the labour of which they became the + wages; and, in obtaining this pair of shoes as the wages + of my labour, capital is not even momentarily lessened + one iota. For if we call in the idea of capital, my + capital at the beginning consists of the piece of + leather, the thread, &c. (p. 34). + +It takes away one's breath to have such a concatenation of fallacies +administered in the space of half a paragraph. It does not seem to +have occurred to our economical reformer to imagine whence his +"capital at the beginning," the "leather, thread, &c." came. I venture +to suppose that leather to have been originally cattle-skin; and since +calves and oxen are not flayed alive, the existence of the leather +implies the lessening of that form of capital by a very considerable +iota. It is, therefore, as sure as anything can be that, in the long +run, the shoes are drawn from that which is capital par excellence; to +wit, cattle. It is further beyond doubt that the operation of tanning +must involve loss of capital in the shape of bark, to say nothing of +other losses; and that the use of the awls and knives of the shoemaker +involves loss of capital in the shape of the store of [179] iron; +further, the shoemaker has been enabled to do his work not only by the +vital capital expended during the time occupied in making the pair of +shoes, but by that expended from the time of his birth, up to the time +that he earned wages that would keep him alive. + +"Progress and Poverty" continues:-- + + . . . As my labour goes on, value is steadily added until, + when my labour results in the finished shoes, I have my + capital plus the difference in value between the + material and the shoes. In obtaining this additional + value--my wages--how is capital, at any time, drawn + upon? (p, 34). + +In return we may inquire, how can any one propound such a question? +Capital is drawn upon all the time. Not only when the shoes are +commenced, but while they are being made, and until they are either +used by the shoemaker himself or are purchased by somebody else; that +is, exchanged for a portion of another man's capital. In fact +(supposing that the shoemaker does not want shoes himself), it is the +existence of vital capital in the possession of another person and the +willingness of that person to part with more or less of it in exchange +for the shoes--it is these two conditions, alone, which prevent the +shoemaker from having consumed his capital unproductively, just as +much as if he had spent his time in chopping up the leather into +minute fragments. + +Thus, the examination of the very case selected [180] by the advocate +of the doctrine that labour bestowed upon manufacture, without any +intervention of capital, can produce wages, proves to be a delusion of +the first magnitude; even though it be supported by the dictum of Adam +Smith which is quoted in its favour (p. 34)-- + + . . . "The produce of labour constitutes the natural recompense + or wages of labour. In that original state of things which + precedes both the appropriation of land and the + accumulation of stock, the whole produce of labour belongs + to the labourer. He has neither landlord nor master to + share with him" ("Wealth of Nations," ch. viii). + +But the whole of this passage exhibits the influence of the French +Physiocrats by whom Adam Smith was inspired, at their worst; that is to +say, when they most completely forsook the ground of experience for a +priori speculation. The confident reference to "that original state of +things" is quite in the manner of the Essai sur l'Inegalie. Now, the +state of men before the "appropriation of land" and the "accumulation +of stock" must surely have been that of purely savage hunters. As, by +the supposition, nobody would have possessed land, certainly no man +could have had a landlord; and, if there was no accumulation of stock +in a transferable form, as surely there could be no master, in the +sense of hirer. But hirer and hire (that is, wages) are correlative +terms, like mother and child. As "child" implies "mother," so does +"hire" or "wages" imply a [181] "hirer" or "wage-giver." Therefore, +when a man in "the original state of things" gathered fruit or killed +game for his own sustenance, the fruit or the game could be called his +"wages" only in a figurative sense; as one sees if the term "hire," +which has a more limited connotation, is substituted for "wage." If +not, it must be assumed that the savage hired himself to get his own +dinner; whereby we are led to the tolerably absurd conclusion that, as +in the "state of nature" he was his own employer, the "master" and the +labourer, in that model age, appropriated the produce in equal shares! +And if this should be not enough, it has already been seen that, in +the hunting state, man is not even an accessory of production of vital +capital; he merely consumes what nature produces. + +According to the author of "Progress and Poverty" political economists +have been deluded by a "fallacy which has entangled some of the most +acute minds in a web of their own spinning." + +"It is in the use of the term capital in two senses. In the primary +proposition that capital is necessary to the exertion of productive +labour, the term "capital" is understood as including all food, +clothing, shelter, &c.; whereas in the deductions finally drawn from +it, the term is used in its common and legitimate meaning of wealth +devoted, not to the immediate gratification of desire, but to the +procurement of more wealth--of wealth in the hands of employers as +distinguished from labourers" (p. 40). + +[182] I am by no means concerned to defend the political economists who +are thus charged with blundering; but I shall be surprised to learn +that any have carried the art of self-entanglement to the degree of +perfection exhibited by this passage. Who has ever imagined that +wealth which, in the hands of an employer, is capital, ceases to be +capital if it is in the hands of a labourer? Suppose a workman to be +paid thirty shillings on Saturday evening for six days' labour, that +thirty shillings comes out of the employer's capital, and receives the +name of "wages" simply because it is exchanged for labour. In the +workman's pocket, as he goes home, it is a part of his capital, in +exactly the same sense as, half an hour before, it was part of the +employer's capital; he is a capitalist just as much as if he were a +Rothschild. Suppose him to be a single man, whose cooking and +household matters are attended to by the people of the house in which +he has a room; then the rent which he pays them out of this capital +is, in part, wages for their labour, and he is, so far, an employer. +If he saves one shilling out of his thirty, he has, to that extent, +added to his capital when the next Saturday comes round. And if he +puts his saved shillings week by week into the Savings Bank, the +difference between him and the most bloated of bankers is simply one +of degree. + +At page 42, we are confidently told that [183] "labourers by receiving +wages" cannot lessen "even temporarily" the "capital of the employer," +while at page 44 it is admitted that in certain cases the capitalist +"pays out capital in wages." One would think that the "paying out" of +capital is hardly possible without at least a "temporary" diminution +of the capital from which payment is made. But "Progress and Poverty" +changes all that by a little verbal legerdemain:-- + + . . . "For where wages are paid before the object of the labour + is obtained, or is finished--as in agriculture, where + ploughing and sowing must precede by several months the + harvesting of the crop; as in the erection of buildings, + the construction of ships, railroads, canals, &c.--it is + clear that the owners of the capital paid in wages cannot + expect an immediate return, but, as the phrase is, must + "outlay it" or "lie out of it" for a time which sometimes + amounts to many years. And hence, if first principles are + not kept in mind, it is easy to jump to the conclusion + that wages are advanced by capital" (p. 44). + +Those who have paid attention to the argument of former parts of this +paper may not be able to understand how, if sound "first principles +are kept in mind," any other conclusion can be reached, whether by +jumping, or by any other mode of logical progression. But the first +principle which our author "keeps in mind" possesses just that amount +of ambiguity which enables him to play hocus-pocus with it. It is +this; that "the creation of value does not depend upon the finishing +of the product" (p. 44). + +[184] There is no doubt that, under certain limitations, this +proposition is correct. It is not true that "labour always adds to +capital by its exertion before it takes from capital its wages" (p. +44), but it is true that it may, and often does, produce that effect. + +To take one of the examples given, the construction of a ship. The +shaping of the timbers undoubtedly gives them a value (for a +shipbuilder) which they did not possess before. When they are put +together to constitute the framework of the ship, there is a still +further addition of value (for a shipbuilder); and when the outside +planking is added, there is another addition (for a shipbuilder). +Suppose everything else about the hull is finished, except the one +little item of caulking the seams, there is no doubt that it has still +more value for a shipbuilder. But for whom else has it any value, +except perhaps for a fire-wood merchant? What price will any one who +wants a ship--that is to say, something that will carry a cargo from +one port to another--give for the unfinished vessel which would take +water in at every seam and go down in half an hour, if she were +launched? Suppose the shipbuilder's capital to fail before the vessel +is caulked, and that he cannot find another shipbuilder who cares to +buy and finish it, what sort of proportion does the value created by +the labour, for which he has paid out of his capital, stand to that of +his advances? + +[185] Surely no one will give him one-tenth of the capital disbursed +in wages, perhaps not so much even as the prime cost of the raw +materials. Therefore, though the assertion that "the creation of +value does not depend on the finishing of the product" may be strictly +true under certain circumstances, it need not be and is not always +true. And, if it is meant to imply or suggest that the creation of +value in a manufactured article does not depend upon the finishing of +that article, a more serious error could hardly be propounded. + +Is there not a prodigious difference in the value of an uncaulked and +in that of a finished ship; between the value of a house in which only +the tiles of the roof are wanting and a finished house; between that +of a clock which only lacks the escapement and a finished clock? + +As ships, house, and clock, the unfinished articles have no value +whatever--that is to say, no person who wanted to purchase one of +these things, for immediate use, would give a farthing for either. The +only value they can have, apart from that of the materials they +contain, is that which they possess for some one who can finish them, +or for some one who can make use of parts of them for the construction +of other things. A man might buy an unfinished house for the sake of +the bricks; or he might buy an incomplete clock to use the works for +some other piece of machinery. + +Thus, though every stage of the labour [186] bestowed on raw material, +for the purpose of giving rise to a certain product, confers some +additional value on that material in the estimation of those who are +engaged in manufacturing that product, the ratio of that accumulated +value, at any stage of the process, to the value of the finished +product is extremely inconstant, and often small; while, to other +persons, the value of the unfinished product may be nothing, or even a +minus quantity. A house-timber merchant, for example, might consider +that wood which had been worked into the ribs of a ship was +spoiled--that is, had less value than it had as a log. + +According to "Progress and Poverty," there was, really, no advance of +capital while the great St. Gothard tunnel was cut. Suppose that, as +the Swiss and the Italian halves of the tunnel approached to within +half a kilometre, that half-kilometre had turned out to be composed of +practically impenetrable rock--would anybody have given a centime for +the unfinished tunnel? And if not, how comes it that "the creation of +value does not depend on the finishing of the product"? + +I think it may be not too much to say that, of all the political +delusions which are current in this queer world, the very stupidest +are those which assume that labour and capital are necessarily +antagonistic; that all capital is produced by labour and therefore, by +natural right, is the property of [187] the labourer; that the +possessor of capital is a robber who preys on the workman and +appropriates to himself that which he has had no share in producing. + +On the contrary, capital and labour are, necessarily, close allies; +capital is never a product of human labour alone; it exists apart from +human labour; it is the necessary antecedent of labour; and it +furnishes the materials on which labour is employed. The only +indispensable form of capital--vital capital--cannot be produced by +human labour. All that man can do is to favour its formation by the +real producers. There is no intrinsic relation between the amount of +labour bestowed on an article and its value in exchange. The claim of +labour to the total result of operations which are rendered possible +only by capital is simply an a priori iniquity. + +[188] + + + V. + + SOCIAL DISEASES AND WORSE REMEDIES + + LETTERS TO THE "TIMES" ON MR. BOOTH'S SCHEME. + WITH A PREFACE AND INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. + + [1891] + + PREFACE + +The letters which are here collected together were published in the +"Times" in the course of the months of December, 1890, and January, +1891. + +The circumstances which led me to write the first letter are +sufficiently set forth in its opening sentences; and the materials on +which I based my criticisms of Mr. Booth's scheme, in this and in the +second letter, were wholly derived from Mr. Booth's book. I had some +reason to know, however, that when anybody allows his sense of duty so +far to prevail over his sense of the blessedness of peace as to write +a letter to the "Times," on any subject of public interest, his +reflections, before he has done with the business, will be very like +[189] those of Johnny Gilpin, "who little thought, when he set out, of +running such a rig." Such undoubtedly are mine when I contemplate +these twelve documents, and call to mind the distinct addition to the +revenue of the Post Office which must have accrued from the mass of +letters and pamphlets which have been delivered at my door; to say +nothing of the unexpected light upon my character, motives, and +doctrines, which has been thrown by some of the "Times'" +correspondents, and by no end of comments elsewhere. + +If self-knowledge is the highest aim of man, I ought by this time to +have little to learn. And yet, if I am awake, some of my +teachers--unable, perhaps, to control the divine fire of the poetic +imagination which is so closely akin to, if not a part of, the +mythopoeic faculty--have surely dreamed dreams. So far as my humbler +and essentially prosaic faculties of observation and comparison go, +plain facts are against them. But, as I may be mistaken, I have +thought it well to prefix to the letters (by way of "Prolegomena") an +essay which appeared in the "Nineteenth Century" for January, 1888, in +which the principles that, to my mind, lie at the bottom of the +"social question" are stated. So far as Individualism and Regimental +Socialism are concerned, this paper simply emphasizes and expands the +opinions expressed in an address to the members of the Midland +Institute, delivered seventeen years earlier, [190] and still more +fully developed in several essays published in the "Nineteenth +Century" in 1889, which I hope, before long, to republish.* + + * See Collected Essays, vol. i. p. 290 to end; and this volume, + p. 147. + +The fundamental proposition which runs through the writings, which +thus extend over twenty years, is, that the common a priori +doctrines and methods of reasoning about political and social +questions are essentially vicious; and that argumentation on this +basis leads, with equal logical force, to two contradictory and +extremely mischievous systems, the one that of Anarchaic +Individualism, the other that of despotic or Regimental Socialism. +Whether I am right or wrong, I am at least consistent in opposing both +to the best of my ability. Mr. Booth's system appears to me, and, as I +have shown, is regarded by Socialists themselves, to be mere +autocratic Socialism, masked by its theological exterior. That the +"fantastic" religious skin will wear away, and the Socialistic reality +it covers will show its real nature, is the expressed hope of one +candid Socialist, and may be fairly conceived to be the unexpressed +belief of the despotic leader of the new Trades Union, who has shown +his zeal, if not his discretion, in championing Mr. Booth's projects. +[See Letter VIII.] + +Yet another word to commentators upon my letters. There are some who +rather chuckle, and [191] some who sneer, at what they seem to +consider the dexterity of an "old controversial hand," exhibited by +the contrast which I have drawn between the methods of conversion +depicted in the New Testament and those pursued by fanatics of the +Salvationist type, whether they be such as are now exploited by Mr. +Booth, or such as those who, from the time of the Anabaptists, to go +no further back, have worked upon similar lines. + +Whether such observations were intended to be flattering or sarcastic, +I must respectfully decline to accept the compliment, or to apply the +sarcasm to myself. I object to obliquity of procedure and ambiguity of +speech in all shapes. And I confess that I find it difficult to +understand the state of mind which leads any one to suppose, that deep +respect for single-minded devotion to high aims is incompatible with +the unhesitating conviction that those aims include the propagation of +doctrines which are devoid of foundation--perhaps even mischievous. + +The most degrading feature of the narrower forms of Christianity (of +which that professed by Mr. Booth is a notable example) is their +insistence that the noblest virtues, if displayed by those who reject +their pitiable formulae, are, as their pet phrase goes, "splendid +sins." But there is, perhaps, one step lower; and that is that men, +who profess freedom of thought, should fail to see and [192] +appreciate that large soul of goodness which often animates even the +fanatical adherents of such tenets. I am sorry for any man who can +read the epistles to the Galatians and the Corinthians without +yielding a large meed of admiration to the fervent humanity of Paul of +Tarsus; who can study the lives of Francis of Assisi, or of Catherine +of Siena, without wishing that, for the furtherance of his own ideals, +he might be even as they; or who can contemplate unmoved the steadfast +veracity and true heroism which loom through the fogs of mystical +utterance in George Fox. In all these great men and women there lay +the root of the matter; a burning desire to amend the condition of +their fellow-men, and to put aside all other things for that end. If, +in spite of all the dogmatic helps or hindrances in which they were +entangled, these people are not to be held in high honour, who are? + +I have never expressed a doubt--for I have none--that, when Mr. Booth +left the Methodist connection, and started that organisation of the +Salvation Army upon which, comparatively recently, such ambitious +schemes of social reform have been grafted, he may have deserved some +share of such honour. I do not say that, so far as his personal +desires and intentions go, he may not still deserve it. But the +correlate of despotic authority is unlimited responsibility. If Mr. +Booth is to take [193] credit for any good that the Army system has +effected, he must be prepared to bear blame for its inherent evils. As +it seems to me, that has happened to him which sooner or later happens +to all despots: he has become the slave of his own creation--the +prosperity and glory of the soul-saving machine have become the end, +instead of a means, of soul-saving; and to maintain these at the +proper pitch, the "General" is led to do things which the Mr. Booth of +twenty years ago would probably have scorned. + +And those who desire, as I most emphatically desire, to be just to Mr. +Booth, however badly they may think of the working of the organization +he has founded, will bear in mind that some astute backers of his +probably care little enough for Salvationist religion; and, perhaps, +are not very keen about many of Mr. Booth's projects. I have referred +to the rubbing of the hands of the Socialists over Mr. Booth's +success;* but, unless I err greatly, there are politicians of a +certain school to whom it affords still greater satisfaction. Consider +what electioneering agents the captains of the Salvation Army, +scattered through all our towns, and directed from a political +"bureau" in London, would make! Think how political adversaries could +be harassed by our local attorney--"tribune of the people," I mean; +and how a troublesome man, on the other side, could be "hunted [194] +down" upon any convenient charge, whether true or false, brought by +our Vigilance-familiar!** + + * See Letter VIII. + ** See Letter II. + +I entirely acquit Mr. Booth of any complicity in far-reaching schemes +of this kind; but I did not write idly when, in my first letter, I +gave no vague warning of what might grow out of the organised force, +drilled in the habit of unhesitating obedience, which he has created. + +[195] + + + INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. + + THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN HUMAN SOCIETY. + + [1888]. + +The vast and varied procession of events, which we call Nature, affords +a sublime spectacle and an inexhaustible wealth of attractive problems +to the speculative observer. If we confine our attention to that +aspect which engages the attention of the intellect, nature appears a +beautiful and harmonious whole, the incarnation of a faultless logical +process, from certain premises in the past to an inevitable conclusion +in the future. But if it be regarded from a less elevated, though more +human, point of view; if our moral sympathies are allowed to influence +our judgment, and we permit ourselves to criticise our great mother as +we criticise one another; then our verdict, at least so far as +sentient nature is concerned, can hardly be so favourable. + +In sober truth, to those who have made a study of the phenomena of life +as they exhibited by the higher forms of the animal world, [196] the +optimistic dogma, that this is the best of all possible worlds, will +seem little better than a libel upon possibility. It is really only +another instance to be added to the many extant, of the audacity of a +priori speculators who, having created God in their own image, find no +difficulty in assuming that the Almighty must have been actuated by +the same motives as themselves. They are quite sure that, had any +other course been practicable, He would no more have made infinite +suffering a necessary ingredient of His handiwork than a respectable +philosopher would have done the like. + +But even the modified optimism of the time-honoured thesis of +physico-theology, that the sentient world is, on the whole, regulated +by principles of benevolence, does but ill stand the test of impartial +confrontation with the facts of the case. No doubt it is quite true +that sentient nature affords hosts of examples of subtle contrivances +directed towards the production of pleasure or the avoidance of pain; +and it may be proper to say that these are evidences of benevolence. +But if so, why is it not equally proper to say of the equally numerous +arrangements, the no less necessary result of which is the production +of pain, that they are evidences of malevolence? + +If a vast amount of that which, in a piece of human workmanship, we +should call skill, is [197] visible in those parts of the organization +of a deer to which it owes its ability to escape from beasts of prey, +there is at least equal skill displayed in that bodily mechanism of +the wolf which enables him to track, and sooner or later to bring +down, the deer. Viewed under the dry light of science, deer and wolf +are alike admirable; and, if both were non-sentient automata, there +would be nothing to qualify our admiration of the action of the one on +the other. But the fact that the deer suffers, while the wolf inflicts +suffering, engages our moral sympathies. We should call men like the +deer innocent and good, men such as the wolf malignant and bad; we +should call those who defended the deer and aided him to escape brave +and compassionate, and those who helped the wolf in his bloody work +base and cruel. Surely, if we transfer these judgments to nature +outside the world of man at all, we must do so impartially. In that +case, the goodness of the right hand which helps the deer, and the +wickedness of the left hand which eggs on the wolf, will neutralize +one another: and the course of nature will appear to be neither moral +nor immoral, but non-moral. + +This conclusion is thrust upon us by analogous facts in every part of +the sentient world; yet, inasmuch as it not only jars upon prevalent +prejudices, but arouses the natural dislike to that which is painful, +much ingenuity has been exercised in devising an escape from it. + +From the theological side, we are told that [198] this is a state of +probation, and that the seeming injustices and immoralities of nature +will be compensated by and by. But how this compensation is to be +effected, in the case of the great majority of sentient things, is not +clear. I apprehend that no one is seriously prepared to maintain that +the ghosts of all the myriads of generations of herbivorous animals +which lived during the millions of years of the earth's duration, +before the appearance of man, and which have all that time been +tormented and devoured by carnivores, are to be compensated by a +perennial existence in clover; while the ghosts of carnivores are to +go to some kennel where there is neither a pan of water nor a bone +with any meat on it. Besides, from the point of view of morality, the +last stage of things would be worse than the first. For the +carnivores, however brutal and sanguinary, have only done that which, +if there is any evidence of contrivance in the world, they were +expressly constructed to do. Moreover, carnivores and herbivores +alike have been subject to all the miseries incidental to old age, +disease, and over-multiplication, and both might well put in a claim +for "compensation" on this score. + +On the evolutionist side, on the other hand, we are told to take +comfort from the reflection that the terrible struggle for existence +tends to final good, and that the suffering of the ancestor is paid +for by the increased perfection of the progeny. There would be +something in this argument if, in [199] Chinese fashion, the present +generation could pay its debts to its ancestors; otherwise it is not +clear what compensation the Eohippus gets for his sorrows in the fact +that, some millions of years afterwards, one of his descendants wins +the Derby. And, again, it is an error to imagine that evolution +signifies a constant tendency to increased perfection. That process +undoubtedly involves a constant remodelling of the organism in +adaptation to new conditions; but it depends on the nature of those +conditions whether the direction of the modifications effected shall +be upward or downward. Retrogressive is as practicable as progressive +metamorphosis. If what the physical philosophers tell us, that our +globe has been in a state of fusion, and, like the sun, is gradually +cooling down, is true; then the time must come when evolution will +mean adaptation to an universal winter, and all forms of life will die +out, except such low and simple organisms as the Diatom of the arctic +and antarctic ice and the Protococcus of the red snow. If our globe is +proceeding from a condition in which it was too hot to support any but +the lowest living thing to a condition in which it will be too cold to +permit of the existence of any others, the course of life upon its +surface must describe a trajectory like that of a ball fired from a +mortar; and the sinking half of that course is as much a part of the +general process of evolution as the rising. + +From the point of view of the moralist the [200] animal world is on +about the same level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are fairly +well treated, and set to fight--whereby the strongest, the swiftest, +and the cunningest live to fight another day. The spectator has no +need to turn his thumbs down, as no quarter is given. He must admit +that the skill and training displayed are wonderful. But he must shut +his eyes if he would not see that more or less enduring suffering is +the meed of both vanquished and victor. And since the great game is +going on in every corner of the world, thousands of times a minute; +since, were our ears sharp enough, we need not descend to the gates of +hell to hear-- + + . . . sospiri, pianti, ed alti guai. + Voci alte e floche, e suon di man con elle + +--it seems to follow that, if the world is governed by benevolence, it +must be a different sort of benevolence from that of John Howard. + +But the old Babylonians wisely symbolized Nature by their great +goddess Istar, who combined the attributes of Aphrodite with those of +Ares. Her terrible aspect is not to be ignored or covered up with +shams; but it is not the only one. If the optimism of Leibnitz is a +foolish though pleasant dream, the pessimism of Schopenhauer is a +nightmare, the more foolish because of its hideousness. Error which is +not pleasant is surely the worst form of wrong. + +[201] This may not be the best of all possible worlds, but to say that +it is the worst is mere petulant nonsense. A worn-out voluptuary may +find nothing good under the sun, or a vain and inexperienced youth, +who cannot get the moon he cries for, may vent his irritation in +pessimistic moanings; but there can be no doubt in the mind of any +reasonable person that mankind could, would, and in fact do, get on +fairly well with vastly less happiness and far more misery than find +their way into the lives of nine people out of ten. If each and all of +us had been visited by an attack of neuralgia, or of extreme mental +depression, for one hour in every twenty-four--a supposition which +many tolerably vigorous people know, to their cost, is not +extravagant--the burden of life would have been immensely increased +without much practical hindrance to its general course. Men with any +manhood in them find life quite worth living under worse conditions +than these. + +There is another sufficiently obvious fact, which renders the +hypothesis that the course of sentient nature is dictated by +malevolence quite untenable. A vast multitude of pleasures, and these +among the purest and the best, are superfluities, bits of good which +are to all appearances unnecessary as inducements to live, and are, so +to speak, thrown into the bargain of life. To those who experience +them, few delights can be more entrancing than such as are afforded by +natural [202] beauty, or by the arts, and especially by music; but +they are products of, rather than factors in, evolution, and it is +probable that they are known, in any considerable degree, to but a +very small proportion of mankind. + +The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be that, if Ormuzd has not +had his way in this world, neither has Ahriman. Pessimism is as little +consonant with the facts of sentient existence as optimism. If we +desire to represent the course of nature in terms of human thought, +and assume that it was intended to be that which it is, we must say +that its governing principle is intellectual and not moral; that it is +a materialized logical process, accompanied by pleasures and pains, +the incidence of which, in the majority of cases, has not the +slightest reference to moral desert. That the rain falls alike upon +the just and the unjust, and that those upon whom the Tower of Siloam +fell were no worse than their neighbours, seem to be Oriental modes of +expressing the same conclusion. + +In the strict sense of the word "nature," it denotes the sum of the +phenomenal world, of that which has been, and is, and will be; and +society, like art, is therefore a part of nature. But it is +convenient to distinguish those parts of nature in which man plays the +part of immediate cause, as some thing apart; and, therefore, society, +like art, [203] is usefully to be considered as distinct from nature. +It is the more desirable, and even necessary, to make this +distinction, since society differs from nature in having a definite +moral object; whence it comes about that the course shaped by the +ethical man--the member of society or citizen--necessarily runs +counter to that which the non-ethical man--the primitive savage, or +man as a mere member of the animal kingdom--tends to adopt. The latter +fights out the struggle for existence to the bitter end, like any +other animal; the former devotes his best energies to the object of +setting limits to the struggle.* + +In the cycle of phenomena presented by the life of man, the animal, no +more moral end is discernible than in that presented by the lives of +the wolf and of the deer. However imperfect the relics of prehistoric +men may be, the evidence which they afford clearly tends to the +conclusion that, for thousands and thousands of years, before the +origin of the oldest known civilizations, men were savages of a very +low type. They strove with their enemies and their competitors; they +preyed upon things weaker or less cunning than themselves; they were +born, multiplied without stint, and died, for thousands of generations +alongside the mammoth, the urus, the lion, and the hyaena, whose lives +were spent in the same way; [204] and they were no more to be praised +or blamed on moral grounds, than their less erect and more hairy +compatriots. + + * [The reader will observe that this is the argument of the + Romanes Lecture, in brief.--1894.] + +As among these, so among primitive men, the weakest and stupidest went +to the wall, while the toughest and shrewdest, those who were best +fitted to cope with their circumstances, but not the best in any other +sense, survived. Life was a continual free fight, and beyond the +limited and temporary relations of the family, the Hobbesian war of +each against all was the normal state of existence. The human species, +like others, plashed and floundered amid the general stream of +evolution, keeping its head above water as it best might, and thinking +neither of whence nor whither. + +The history of civilization--that is, of society--on the other hand, is +the record of the attempts which the human race has made to escape +from this position. The first men who substituted the state of mutual +peace for that of mutual war, whatever the motive which impelled them +to take that step, created society. But, in establishing peace, they +obviously put a limit upon the struggle for existence. Between the +members of that society, at any rate, it was not to be pursued a +outrance. And of all the successive shapes which society has taken, +that most nearly approaches perfection in which the war of individual +against individual is most strictly limited. + +[205] The primitive savage, tutored by Istar, appropriated whatever +took his fancy, and killed whomsoever opposed him, if he could. On the +contrary, the ideal of the ethical man is to limit his freedom of +action to a sphere in which he does not interfere with the freedom of +others; he seeks the common weal as much as his own; and, indeed, as +an essential part of his own welfare. Peace is both end and means with +him; and he founds his life on a more or less complete self-restraint, +which is the negation of the unlimited struggle for existence. He +tries to escape from his place in the animal kingdom, founded on the +free development of the principle of non-moral evolution, and to +establish a kingdom of Man, governed upon the principle of moral +evolution. For society not only has a moral end, but in its +perfection, social life, is embodied morality. + +But the effort of ethical man to work towards a moral end by no means +abolished, perhaps has hardly modified, the deep-seated organic +impulses which impel the natural man to follow his non-moral course. +One of the most essential conditions, if not the chief cause, of the +struggle for existence, is the tendency to multiply without limit, +which man shares with all living things. It is notable that "increase +and multiply" is a commandment traditionally much older than the ten; +and that it is, perhaps, the only one which has been spontaneously and +ex animo obeyed by [206] the great majority of the human race. But, in +civilized society, the inevitable result of such obedience is the +re-establishment, in all its intensity, of that struggle for +existence--the war of each against all--the mitigation or abolition of +which was the chief end of social organization. + +It is conceivable that, at some period in the history of the fabled Atlantis, +the production of food should have been exactly sufficient to meet the +wants of the population, that the makers of the commodities of the +artificer should have amounted to just the number supportable by the +surplus food of the agriculturists. And, as there is no harm in adding +another monstrous supposition to the foregoing, let it be imagined +that every man, woman, and child was perfectly virtuous, and aimed at +the good of all as the highest personal good. In that happy land, the +natural man would have been finally put down by the ethical man. There +would have been no competition, but the industry of each would have +been serviceable to all; nobody being vain and nobody avaricious, +there would have been no rivalries; the struggle for existence would +have been abolished, and the millennium would have finally set in. But +it is obvious that this state of things could have been permanent only +with a stationary population. Add ten fresh mouths; and as, by the +supposition, there was only exactly enough before, somebody must go on +short rations. The [207] Atlantis society might have been a heaven +upon earth, the whole nation might have consisted of just men, needing +no repentance, and yet somebody must starve. Reckless Istar, non-moral +Nature, would have riven the ethical fabric. I was once talking with a +very eminent physician* about the vis medicatrix naturae. "Stuff!" +said he; "nine times out of ten nature does not want to cure the man: +she wants to put him in his coffin." And Istar-Nature appears to have +equally little sympathy with the ends of society. "Stuff! she wants +nothing but a fair field and free play for her darling the strongest." + + * The late Sir W. Gull + +Our Atlantis may be an impossible figment, but the antagonistic +tendencies which the fable adumbrates have existed in every society +which was ever established, and, to all appearance, must strive for +the victory in all that will be. Historians point to the greed and +ambition of rulers, to the reckless turbulence of the ruled, to the +debasing effects of wealth and luxury, and to the devastating wars +which have formed a great part of the occupation of mankind, as the +causes of the decay of states and the foundering of old civilizations, +and thereby point their story with a moral. No doubt immoral motives +of all sorts have figured largely among the minor causes of these +events. But beneath all this [208] superficial turmoil lay the +deep-seated impulse given by unlimited multiplication. In the swarms +of colonies thrown out by Phoenicia and by old Greece; in the ver +sacrum of the Latin races; in the floods of Gauls and of Teutons which +burst over the frontiers of the old civilization of Europe; in the +swaying to and fro of the vast Mongolian hordes in late times, the +population problem comes to the front in a very visible shape. Nor is +it less plainly manifest in the everlasting agrarian questions of +ancient Rome than in the Arreoi societies of the Polynesian Islands. + +In the ancient world, and in a large part of that in which we live, +the practice of infanticide was, or is, a regular and legal custom; +famine, pestilence, and war were and are normal factors in the +struggle for existence, and they have served, in a gross and brutal +fashion, to mitigate the intensity of the effects of its chief cause. + +But, in the more advanced civilizations, the progress of private and +public morality has steadily tended to remove all these checks. We +declare infanticide murder, and punish it as such; we decree, not +quite so successfully, that no one shall die of hunger; we regard +death from preventible causes of other kinds as a sort of constructive +murder, and eliminate pestilence to the best of our ability; we +declaim against the curse [209] of war, and the wickedness of the +military spirit, and we are never weary of dilating on the blessedness +of peace and the innocent beneficence of Industry. In their moments of +expansion, even statesmen and men of business go thus far. The finer +spirits look to an ideal civitas Dei; a state when, every man having +reached the point of absolute self-negation, and having nothing but +moral perfection to strive after, peace will truly reign, not merely +among nations, but among men, and the struggle for existence will be +at an end. + +Whether human nature is competent, under any circumstances, to reach, +or even seriously advance towards, this ideal condition, is a question +which need not be discussed. It will be admitted that mankind has not +yet reached this stage by a very long way, and my business is with the +present. And that which I wish to point out is that, so long as the +natural man increases and multiplies without restraint, so long will +peace and industry not only permit, but they will necessitate, a +struggle for existence as sharp as any that ever went on under the +regime of war. If Istar is to reign on the one hand, she will demand +her human sacrifices on the other. + +Let us look at home. For seventy years peace and industry have had +their way among us with less interruption and under more favourable +conditions than in any other country on the face of the earth. The +wealth of Croesus was nothing to [210] that which we have accumulated, +and our prosperity has filled the world with envy. But Nemesis did not +forget Croesus: has she forgotten us? + +I think not. There are now 36,000,000 of people in our islands, and +every year considerably more than 300,000 are added to our numbers.* +That is to say, about every hundred seconds, or so, a new claimant to +a share in the common stock or maintenance presents him or herself +among us. At the present time, the produce of the soil does not +suffice to feed half its population. The other moiety has to be +supplied with food which must be bought from the people of +food-producing countries. That is to say, we have to offer them the +things which they want in exchange for the things we want. And the +things they want and which we can produce better than they can are +mainly manufactures--industrial products. + + * These numbers are only approximately accurate. In 1881, our + population amounted to 35,241,482, exceeding the number in 1871 + by 3,396,103. The average annual increase in the decennial. + 1871--1881 is therefore 339,610. The number of minutes in a + calendar year is 525,600. + +The insolent reproach of the first Napoleon had a very solid +foundation. We not only are, but, under penalty of starvation, we are +bound to be, a nation of shopkeepers. But other nations also lie under +the same necessity of keeping shop, and some of them deal in the same +goods as ourselves. Our customers naturally seek to get the most and +[211] the best in exchange for their produce. If our goods are +inferior to those of our competitors, there is no ground, compatible +with the sanity of the buyers, which can be alleged, why they should +not prefer the latter. And, if that result should ever take place on a +large and general scale, five or six millions of us would soon have +nothing to eat. We know what the cotton famine was; and we can +therefore form some notion of what a dearth of customers would be. + +Judged by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satisfactory than +the position in which we find ourselves. In a real, though incomplete, +degree we have attained the condition of peace which is the main +object of social organization; and, for argument's sake, it may be +assumed that we desire nothing but that which is in itself innocent +and praiseworthy--namely, the enjoyment of the fruits of honest +industry. And lo! in spite of ourselves, we are in reality engaged in +an internecine struggle for existence with our presumably no less +peaceful and well-meaning neighbours. We seek peace and we do not +ensue it. The moral nature in us asks for no more than is compatible +with the general good; the non-moral nature proclaims and acts upon +that fine old Scottish family motto, "Thou shalt starve ere I want." +Let us be under no illusions, then. So long as unlimited multiplication +goes on, no social organization which has ever been devised, or is +likely to [212] be devised, no fiddle-faddling with the distribution +of wealth, will deliver society from the tendency to be destroyed by +the reproduction within itself, in its intensest form, of that +struggle for existence the limitation of which is the object of +society. And however shocking to the moral sense this eternal +competition of man against man and of nation against nation may be; +however revolting may be the accumulation of misery at the negative +pole of society, in contrast with that of monstrous wealth at the +positive pole;* this state of things must abide, and grow continually +worse, so long as Istar holds her way unchecked. It is the true riddle +of the Sphinx; and every nation which does not solve it will sooner or +later be devoured by the monster itself has generated. + +The practical and pressing question for us, just now, seems to me to be +how to gain time. "Time brings counsel," as the Teutonic proverb has +it; and wiser folk among our posterity may see their way out of that +which at present looks like an impasse. + +It would be folly to entertain any ill-feeling towards those neighbours +and rivals who, like ourselves, are slaves of Istar; but, if somebody +is to be starved, the modern world has no Oracle of Delphi to which +the nations can appeal for an [213] indication of the victim. It is +open to us to try our fortune; and, if we avoid impending fate, there +will be a certain ground for believing that we are the right people to +escape. Securus judicat orbis. + + * [It is hard to say whether the increase of the unemployed + poor, or that of the unemployed rich, is the greater social + evil. -- 1894] + +To this end, it is well to look into the necessary condition of our +salvation by works. They are two, one plain to all the world and +hardly needing insistence; the other seemingly not so plain, since too +often it has been theoretically and practically left out of sight. The +obvious condition is that our produce shall be better than that of +others. There is only one reason why our goods should be preferred to +those of our rivals--our customers must find them better at the price. +That means that we must use more knowledge, skill, and industry in +producing them, without a proportionate increase in the cost of +production; and, as the price of labour constitutes a large element in +that cost, the rate of wages must be restricted within certain limits. +It is perfectly true that cheap production and cheap labour are by no +means synonymous; but it is also true that wages cannot increase +beyond a certain proportion without destroying cheapness. Cheapness, +then, with, as part and parcel of cheapness, a moderate price of +labour, is essential to our success as competitors in the markets of +the world. + +The second condition is really quite as plainly indispensable as the +first, if one thinks seriously [214] about the matter. It is social +stability. Society is stable, when the wants of its members obtain as +much satisfaction as, life being what it is, common sense and +experience show may be reasonably expected. Mankind, in general, care +very little for forms of government or ideal considerations of any +sort; and nothing really stirs the great multitude to break with +custom and incur the manifest perils of revolt except the belief that +misery in this world, or damnation in the next, or both, are +threatened by the continuance of the state of things in which they +have been brought up. But when they do attain that conviction, society +becomes as unstable as a package of dynamite, and a very small matter +will produce the explosion which sends it back to the chaos of +savagery. + +It needs no argument to prove that when the price of labour sinks below +a certain point, the worker infallibly falls into that condition which +the French emphatically call la misere--a word for which I do not +think there is any exact English equivalent. It is a condition in +which the food, warmth, and clothing which are necessary for the mere +maintenance of the functions of the body in their normal state cannot +be obtained; in which men, women, and children are forced to crowd +into dens wherein decency is abolished and the most ordinary +conditions of healthful existence are impossible of attainment; in +which the [215] pleasures within reach are reduced to bestiality and +drunkenness; in which the pains accumulate at compound interest, in +the shape of starvation, disease, stunted development, and moral +degradation; in which the prospect of even steady and honest industry +is a life of unsuccessful battling with hunger, rounded by a pauper's +grave. + +That a certain proportion of the members of every great aggregation of +mankind should constantly tend to establish and populate such a Slough +of Despond as this is inevitable, so long as some people are by nature +idle and vicious, while others are disabled by sickness or accident, +or thrown upon the world by the death of their bread-winners. So long +as that proportion is restricted within tolerable limits, it can be +dealt with; and, so far as it arises only from such causes, its +existence may and must be patiently borne. But, when the organization +of society, instead of mitigating this tendency, tends to continue and +intensify it; when a given social order plainly makes for evil and not +for good, men naturally enough begin to think it high time to try a +fresh experiment. The animal man, finding that the ethical man has +landed him in such a slough, resumes his ancient sovereignty, and +preaches anarchy; which is, substantially, a proposal to reduce the +social cosmos to chaos, and begin the brute struggle for existence +once again. + +Any one who is acquainted with the state of [216] the population of +all great industrial centres, whether in this or other countries, is +aware that, amidst a large and increasing body of that population, la +misere reigns supreme. I have no pretensions to the character of a +philanthropist, and I have a special horror of all sorts of +sentimental rhetoric; I am merely trying to deal with facts, to some +extent within my own knowledge, and further evidenced by abundant +testimony, as a naturalist; and I take it to be a mere plain truth +that, throughout industrial Europe, there is not a single large +manufacturing city which is free from a vast mass of people whose +condition is exactly that described; and from a still greater mass +who, living just on the edge of the social swamp, are liable to be +precipitated into it by any lack of demand for their produce. And, +with every addition to the population, the multitude already sunk in +the pit and the number of the host sliding towards it continually +increase. + +Argumentation can hardly be needful to make it clear that no society +in which the elements of decomposition are thus swiftly and surely +accumulating can hope to win in the race of industries. + +Intelligence, knowledge, and skill are undoubtedly conditions of +success; but of what avail are they likely to be unless they are +backed up by honesty, energy, goodwill, and all the physical and moral +faculties that go to the making of manhood, and unless they are +stimulated by hope of such [217] reward as men may fairly look to? And +what dweller in the slough of want, dwarfed in body and soul, +demoralized, hopeless, can reasonably be expected to possess these +qualities? + +Any full and permanent development of the productive powers of an +industrial population, then, must be compatible with and, indeed, +based upon a social organization which will secure a fair amount of +physical and moral welfare to that population; which will make for +good and not for evil. Natural science and religious enthusiasm rarely +go hand in hand, but on this matter their concord is complete; and the +least sympathetic of naturalists can but admire the insight and the +devotion of such social reformers as the late Lord Shaftesbury, whose +recently published "Life and Letters" gives a vivid picture of the +condition of the working classes fifty years ago, and of the pit which +our industry, ignoring these plain truths, was then digging under its +own feet. + +There is, perhaps, no more hopeful sign of progress among us, in the +last half-century, than the steadily increasing devotion which has +been and is directed to measures for promoting physical and moral +welfare among the poorer classes. Sanitary reformers, like most other +reformers whom I have had the advantage of knowing, seem to need a +good dose of fanaticism, as a sort of moral coca, to keep them up to +the mark, and, doubtless, they have made many mistakes; but that the +[218] endeavour to improve the condition under our industrial +population live, to amend the drainage of densely peopled streets, to +provide baths, washhouses, and gymnasia, to facilitate habits of +thrift, to furnish some provision for instruction and amusement in +public libraries and the like, is not only desirable from a +philanthropic point of view, but an essential condition of safe +industrial development, appears to me to be indisputable. It is by +such means alone, so far as I can see, that we can hope to check the +constant gravitation of industrial society towards la misere, until +the general progress of intelligence and morality leads men to grapple +with the sources of that tendency. If it is said that the carrying out +of such arrangements as those indicated must enhance the cost of +production, and thus handicap the producer in the race of competition, +I venture, in the first place, to doubt the fact; but if it be so, it +results that industrial society has to face a dilemma, either +alternative of which threatens destruction. + +On the one hand, a population the labour of which is sufficiently +remunerated may be physically and morally healthy and socially stable, +but may fail in industrial competition by reason of the dearness of +its produce. On the other hand, a population the labour of which is +insufficiently remunerated must become physically and morally +unhealthy, and socially unstable; and though it [219] may succeed for +a while in industrial competition, by reason of the cheapness of its +produce, it must in the end fall, through hideous misery and +degradation, to utter ruin. + +Well, if these are the only possible alternatives, let us for ourselves +and our children choose the former, and, if need be, starve like men. +But I do not believe that the stable society made up of healthy, +vigorous, instructed, and self-ruling people would ever incur serious +risk of that fate. They are not likely to be troubled with many +competitors of the same character, just yet; and they may be safely +trusted to find ways of holding their own. + +Assuming that the physical and moral well-being and the stable social +order, which are the indispensable conditions of permanent industrial +development, are secured, there remains for consideration the means of +attaining that knowledge and skill without which, even then, the +battle of competition cannot be successfully fought. Let us consider +how we stand. A vast system of elementary education has now been in +operation among us for sixteen years, and has reached all but a very +small fraction of the population. I do not think that there is any +room for doubt that, on the whole, it has worked well, and that its +indirect no less than its direct benefits have been immense. But, as +might be expected, it exhibits the defects of all our educational +systems--fashioned [220] as they were to meet the wants of a bygone +condition of society. There is a widespread and, I think, +well-justified complaint that it has too much to do with books and too +little to do with things. I am as little disposed as any one can well +be to narrow early education and to make the primary school a mere +annexe of the shop. And it is not so much in the interests of +industry, as in that of breadth of culture, that I echo the common +complaint against the bookish and theoretical character of our primary +instruction. + +If there were no such things as industrial pursuits, a system of +education which does nothing for the faculties of observation, which +trains neither the eye nor the hand, and is compatible with utter +ignorance of the commonest natural truths, might still be reasonably +regarded as strangely imperfect. And when we consider that the +instruction and training which are lacking are exactly; those which +are of most importance for the great mass of our population, the fault +becomes almost a crime, the more that there is no practical difficulty +in making good these defects. There really is no reason why drawing +should not be universally taught, and it is an admirable training for +both eye and hand. Artists are born, not made; but everybody may be +taught to draw elevations, plans, and sections; and pots and pans are +as good, indeed better, models for [221] this purpose than the Apollo +Belvedere. The plant is not expensive; and there is this excellent +quality about drawing of the kind indicated, that it can be tested +almost as easily and severely as arithmetic. Such drawings are either +right or wrong, and if they are wrong the pupil can be made to see +that they are wrong. From the industrial point of view, drawing has +the further merit that there is hardly any trade in which the power of +drawing is not of daily and hourly utility. In the next place, no +good reason, except the want of capable teachers, can be assigned why +elementary notions of science should not be an element in general +instruction. In this case, again, no expensive or elaborate apparatus +is necessary. The commonest thing--a candle, a boy's squirt, a piece +of chalk--in the hands of a teacher who knows his business, may be +made the starting-point whence children may be led into the regions of +science as far as their capacity permits, with efficient exercise of +their observational and reasoning faculties on the road. If object +lessons often prove trivial failures, it is not the fault of object +lessons, but that of the teacher, who has not found out how much the +power of teaching a little depends on knowing a great deal, and that +thoroughly; and that he has not made that discovery is not the fault +of the teachers, but of the detestable system of training them which +is widely prevalent.* + + * Training in the use of simple tools is no doubt desirable, + on all grounds. From the point of view of "culture," the + man whose "fingers are all thumbs" is but a stunted + creature. But the practical difficulties in the way of + introducing handiwork of this kind into elementary schools + appear to me to be considerable. + +[222] As I have said, I do not regard the proposal to add these to the +present subjects of universal instruction as made merely in the +interests of industry. Elementary science and drawing are just as +needful at Eton (where I am happy to say both are now parts of the +regular course) as in the lowest primary school. But their importance +in the education of the artisan is enhanced, not merely by the fact +that the knowledge and skill thus gained--little as they may amount +to--will still be of practical utility to him; but, further, because +they constitute an introduction to that special training which is +commonly called "technical education." + +I conceive that our wants in this last direction may be grouped under +three heads: (1) Instruction in the principles of those branches of +science and of art which are peculiarly applicable to industrial +pursuits, which may be called preliminary scientific education. (2) +Instruction in the special branches of such applied science and art, +as technical education proper. (3) Instruction of teachers in both +these branches. (4) Capacity-catching machinery. + +A great deal has already been done in each of these directions, but +much remains to be done. If elementary education is amended in the way +[223] that has been suggested, I think that the school boards will +have quite as much on their hands as they are capable of doing well. +The influences under which the members of these bodies are elected do +not tend to secure fitness for dealing with scientific or technical +education; and it is the less necessary to burden them with an +uncongenial task as there are other organizations, not only much +better fitted to do the work, but already actually doing it. + +In the matter of preliminary scientific education, the chief of these +is the Science and Art Department, which has done more during the last +quarter of a century for the teaching of elementary science among the +masses of the people than any organization which exists either in this +or in any other country. It has become veritably a people's +university, so far as physical science is concerned. At the foundation +of our old universities they were freely open to the poorest, but the +poorest must come to them. In the last quarter of a century, the +Science and Art Department, by means of its classes spread all over +the country and open to all, has conveyed instruction to the poorest. +The University Extension movement shows that our older learned +corporations have discovered the propriety of following suit. + +Technical education, in the strict sense, has become a necessity for +two reasons. The old apprenticeship system has broken down, partly by +[224] reason of the changed conditions of industrial life, and partly +because trades have ceased to be "crafts," the traditional secrets +whereof the master handed down to his apprentices. Invention is +constantly changing the face of our industries, so that "use and +wont," "rule of thumb," and the like, are gradually losing their +importance, while that knowledge of principles which alone can deal +successfully with changed conditions is becoming more and more +valuable. Socially, the "master" of four or five apprentices is +disappearing in favour of the "employer" of forty, or four hundred, or +four thousand, "hands," and the odds and ends of technical knowledge, +formerly picked up in a shop, are not, and cannot be, supplied in the +factory. The instruction formerly given by the master must therefore +be more than replaced by the systematic teaching of the technical +school. + +Institutions of this kind on varying scales of magnitude and +completeness, from the splendid edifice set up by the City and Guilds +Institute to the smallest local technical school, to say nothing of +classes, such as those in technology instituted by the Society of Arts +(subsequently taken over by the City Guilds), have been established in +various parts of the country, and the movement in favour of their +increase and multiplication is rapidly growing in breadth and +intensity. But there is much difference of opinion as to the best +[225] way in which the technical instruction, so generally desired, +should be given. Two courses appear to be practicable: the one is the +establishment of special technical schools with a systematic and +lengthened course of instruction demanding the employment of the whole +time of the pupils. The other is the setting afoot of technical +classes, especially evening classes, comprising a short series of +lessons on some special topic, which may be attended by persons +already earning wages in some branch of trade or commerce. + +There is no doubt that technical schools, on the plan indicated under +the first head, are extremely costly; and, so far as the teaching of +artisans is concerned, it is very commonly objected to them that, as +the learners do not work under trade conditions, they are apt to fall +into amateurish habits, which prove of more hindrance than service in +the actual business of life. When such schools are attached to +factories under the direction of an employer who desires to train up a +supply of intelligent workmen, of course this objection does not +apply; nor can the usefulness of such schools for the training of +future employers and for the higher grade of the employed be doubtful; +but they are clearly out of the reach of the great mass of the people, +who have to earn their bread as soon as possible. We must therefore +look to the classes, and especially to evening classes, as the great +instrument for the technical [226] education of the artisan. The +utility of such classes has now been placed beyond all doubt; the only +question which remains is to find the ways and means of extending +them. + +We are here, as in all other questions of social organization, met by +two diametrically opposed views. On the one hand, the methods pursued +in foreign countries are held up as our example. The State is exhorted +to take the matter in hand and establish a great system of technical +education. On the other hand, many economists of the individualist +school exhaust the resources of language in condemning and +repudiating, not merely the interference of the general government in +such matters, but the application of a farthing of the funds raised by +local taxation to these purposes. I entertain a strong conviction +that, in this country, at any rate, the State had much better leave +purely technical and trade instruction alone. But, although my +personal leanings are decidedly towards the individualists, I have +arrived at that conclusion on merely practical grounds. In fact, my +individualism is rather of a sentimental sort, and I sometimes think I +should be stronger in the faith if it were less vehemently advocated.* +I am unable to see that civil society is anything but a corporation +established [227] for a moral object only--namely, the good of its +members--and therefore that it may take such measures as seem fitting +for the attainment of that which the general voice decides to be the +general good. That the suffrage of the majority is by no means a +scientific test of social good and evil is unfortunately too true; +but, in practice, it is the only test we can apply, and the refusal to +abide by it means anarchy. The purest despotism that ever existed is +as much based upon that will of the majority (which is usually +submission to the will of a small minority) as the freest republic. +Law is the expression of the opinion of the majority; and it is law, +and not mere opinion, because the many are strong enough to enforce +it. + + * In what follows I am only repeating and emphasizing + opinions which I expressed seventeen years ago, in an + Address to the members of the Midland Institute + (republished in Critiques and Addresses in 1873, and in Vol. + I. of these Essays ). I have seen no reason to modify them, + notwithstanding high authority on the other side. + +I am as strongly convinced as the most pronounced individualist can be, +that it is desirable that every man should be free to act in every way +which does not limit the corresponding freedom of his fellow-man. But +I fail to connect that great induction of political science with the +practical corollary which is frequently drawn from it: that the +State--that is, the people in their corporate capacity--has no +business to meddle with anything but the administration of justice and +external defence. It appears to me that the [228] amount of freedom +which incorporate society may fitly leave to its members is not a +fixed quantity, to be determined a priori by deduction from the +fiction called "natural rights"; but that it must be determined by, +and vary with, circumstances. I conceive it to be demonstrable that +the higher and the more complex the organization of the social body, +the more closely is the life of each member bound up with that of the +whole; and the larger becomes the category of acts which cease to be +merely self-regarding, and which interfere with the freedom of others +more or less seriously. + +If a squatter, living ten miles away from any neighbour, chooses to +burn his house down to get rid of vermin, there may be no necessity +(in the absence of insurance offices) that the law should interfere +with his freedom of action; his act can hurt nobody but himself. But, +if the dweller in a street chooses to do the same thing, the State +very properly makes such a proceeding a crime, and punishes it as +such. He does meddle with his neighbour's freedom, and that seriously. +So it might, perhaps, be a tenable doctrine, that it would be +needless, and even tyrannous, to make education compulsory in a sparse +agricultural population, living in abundance on the produce of its own +soil; but, in a densely populated manufacturing country, struggling +for existence with competitors, every ignorant person tends to [229] +become a burden upon, and, so far, an infringer of the liberty of, his +fellows, and an obstacle to their success. Under such circumstances an +education rate is, in fact, a war tax, levied for purposes of defence. + +That State action always has been more or less misdirected, and always +will be so, is, I believe, perfectly true. But I am not aware that it +is more true of the action of men in their corporate capacity than it +is of the doings of individuals. The wisest and most dispassionate man +in existence, merely wishing to go from one stile in a field to the +opposite, will not walk quite straight--he is always going a little +wrong, and always correcting himself; and I can only congratulate the +individualist who is able to say that his general course of life has +been of a less undulatory character. To abolish State action, because +its direction is never more than approximately correct, appears to me +to be much the same thing as abolishing the man at the wheel +altogether, because, do what he will, the ship yaws more or less. "Why +should I be robbed of my property to pay for teaching another man's +children?" is an individualist question, which is not unfrequently put +as if it settled the whole business. Perhaps it does, but I find +difficulties in seeing why it should. The parish in which I live makes +me pay my share for the paving and lighting of a great many streets +that I never pass through; [230] and I might plead that I am robbed to +smooth the way and lighten the darkness of other people. But I am +afraid the parochial authorities would not let me off on this plea; +and I must confess I do not see why they should. + +I cannot speak of my own knowledge, but I have every reason to believe +that I came into this world a small reddish person, certainly without +a gold spoon in my mouth, and in fact with no discernible abstract or +concrete "rights" or property of any description. If a foot was not +set upon me, at once, as a squalling nuisance, it was either the +natural affection of those about me, which I certainly had done +nothing to deserve, or the fear of the law which, ages before my +birth, was painfully built up by the society into which I intruded, +that prevented that catastrophe. If I was nourished, cared for, +taught, saved from the vagabondage of a wastrel, I certainly am not +aware that I did anything to deserve those advantages. And, if I +possess anything now, it strikes me that, though I may have fairly +earned my day's wages for my day's work, and may justly call them my +property--yet, without that organization of society, created out of +the toil and blood of long generations before my time, I should +probably have had nothing but a flint axe and an indifferent hut to +call my own; and even those would be mine only so long as no stronger +savage came my way. + +So that if society, having, quite gratuitously, [231] done all these +things for me, asks me in turn to do something towards its +preservation--even if that something is to contribute to the teaching +of other men's children--I really in spite of all my individualist +leanings, feel rather ashamed to say no. And if I were not ashamed, I +cannot say that I think that society would be dealing unjustly with me +in converting the moral obligation into a legal one. There is a +manifest unfairness in letting all the burden be borne by the willing +horse. + +It does not appear to me, then, that there is any valid objection to +taxation for purposes of education; but, in the case of technical +schools and classes, I think it is practically expedient that such a +taxation should be local. Our industrial population accumulates in +particular towns and districts; these districts are those which +immediately profit by technical education; and it is only in them that +we can find the men practically engaged in industries, among whom some +may reasonably be expected to be competent judges of that which is +wanted, and of the best means of meeting the want. + +In my belief, all methods of technical training are at present +tentative, and, to be successful, each must be adapted to the special +peculiarities of its locality. This is a case in which we want twenty +years, not of "strong government," but of cheerful and hopeful +blundering; and we may be [232] thankful if we get things straight in +that time. + +The principle of the Bill introduced, but dropped, by the Government +last session, appears to me to be wise, and some of the objections to +it I think are due to a misunderstanding. The bill proposed in +substance to allow localities to tax themselves for purposes of +technical education--on the condition that any scheme for such purpose +should be submitted to the Science and Art Department, and declared by +that department to be in accordance with the intention of the +Legislature. + +A cry was raised that the Bill proposed to throw technical education +into the hands of the Science and Art Department. But, in reality, no +power of initiation, nor even of meddling with details, was given to +that Department--the sole function of which was to decide whether any +plan proposed did or did not come within the limits of "technical +education." The necessity for such control, somewhere, is obvious. No +legislature, certainly not ours, is likely to grant the power of +self-taxation without setting limits to that power in some way; and it +would neither have been practicable to devise a legal definition of +technical education, nor commendable to leave the question to the +Auditor-General, to be fought out in the law-courts. The only +alternative was to leave the decision to an appropriate State +authority. If it is [233] asked what is the need of such control if +the people of the localities are the best judges, the obvious reply is +that there are localities and localities, and that while Manchester, +or Liverpool, or Birmingham, or Glasgow might, perhaps, be safely left +to do as they thought fit, smaller towns, in which there is less +certainty of full discussion by competent people of different ways of +thinking, might easily fall a prey to crocheteers. + +Supposing our intermediate science teaching and our technical schools +and classes are established, there is yet a third need to be supplied, +and that is the want of good teachers. And it is necessary not only to +get them, but to keep them when you have got them. + +It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the fact that the +efficient teachers of science and of technology are not to be made by +the processes in vogue at ordinary training colleges. The memory +loaded with mere bookwork is not the thing wanted--is, in fact, rather +worse than useless--in the teacher of scientific subjects. It is +absolutely essential that his mind should be full of knowledge and not +of mere learning, and that what he knows should have been learned in +the laboratory rather than in the library. There are happily already, +both in London and in the provinces, various places in which such +training is to be had, and the main thing at present is to make it in +the first place accessible, and in the next [234] indispensable, to +those who undertake the business of teaching. But when the well-trained +men are supplied, it must be recollected that the profession of +teacher is not a very lucrative or otherwise tempting one, and that it +may be advisable to offer special inducements to good men to remain in +it. These, however, are questions of detail into which it is +unnecessary to enter further. + +Last, but not least, comes the question of providing the machinery for +enabling those who are by nature specially qualified to undertake the +higher branches of industrial work, to reach the position in which +they may render that service to the community. If all our educational +expenditure did nothing but pick one man of scientific or inventive +genius, each year, from amidst the hewers of wood and drawers of +water, and give him the chance of making the best of his inborn +faculties, it would be a very good investment. If there is one such +child among the hundreds of thousands of our annual increase, it would +be worth any money to drag him either from the slough of misery, or +from the hotbed of wealth, and teach him to devote himself to the +service of his people. Here, again, we have made a beginning with our +scholarships and the like, and need only follow in the tracks already +worn. + +The programme of industrial development briefly set forth in the +preceding pages is not what Kant calls a "Hirngespinnst," a cobweb +[235] spun in the brain of a Utopian philosopher. More or less of it +has taken bodily shape in many parts of the country, and there are +towns of no great size or wealth in the manufacturing districts +(Keighley, for example) in which almost the whole of it has, for some +time, been carried out, so far as the means at the disposal of the +energetic and public-spirited men who have taken the matter in hand +permitted. The thing can be done; I have endeavoured to show good +grounds for the belief that it must be done, and that speedily, if we +wish to hold our own in the war of industry. I doubt not that it will +be done, whenever its absolute necessity becomes as apparent to all +those who are absorbed in the actual business of industrial life as it +is to some of the lookers on. + +Perhaps it is necessary for me to add that technical education is not +here proposed as a panacea for social diseases, but simply as a +medicament which will help the patient to pass through an imminent +crisis. + +An ophthalmic surgeon may recommend an operation for cataract in a man +who is going blind, without being supposed to undertake that it will +cure him of gout. And I may pursue the metaphor so far as to remark, +that the surgeon is justified in pointing out that a diet of +pork-chops and burgundy will probably kill his patient, though he may +be quite able to suggest a mode of living [236] which will free him +from his constitutional disorder. + +Mr. Booth asks me, Why do you not propose some plan of your own? +Really, that is no answer to my argument that his treatment will make +the patient very much worse. [Note added in Social Diseases and Worse +Remedies, January, 1891.] + +[237] + + + LETTERS TO THE "Times" + + ON THE + + "DARKEST ENGLAND SCHEME." + + I. + +The "Times," December 1st, 1890 + +SIR: A short time ago a generous and philanthropic friend wrote to me, +placing at my disposal a large sum of money for the furtherance of the +vast scheme which the "General" of the Salvation Army has propounded, +if I thought it worthy of support. The responsibility of advising my +benevolent correspondent has weighed heavily upon me, but I felt that +it would be cowardly, as well as ungracious, to refuse to accept it. I +have therefore studied Mr. Booth's book with some care, for the +purpose of separating the essential from the accessory features of his +project, and I have based my judgment--I am sorry to say an +unfavourable one--upon the data thus obtained. Before communicating my +conclusions to my friend, however, I am desirous to know what there +may be to be said in arrest of that judgment; [238] and the matter is +of such vast public importance that I trust you will aid me by +publishing this letter, notwithstanding its length. + +There are one or two points upon which I imagine all thinking men have +arrived at the same convictions as those from which Mr. Booth starts. +It is certain that there is an immense amount of remediable misery +among us, that, in addition to the poverty, disease, and degradation +which are the consequences of causes beyond human control, there is a +vast, probably a very much larger, quantity of misery which is the +result of individual ignorance, or misconduct, and of faulty social +arrangements. Further, I think it is not to be doubted that, unless +this remediable misery is effectually dealt with, the hordes of vice +and pauperism will destroy modern civilization as effectually as +uncivilized tribes of another kind destroyed the great social +organization which preceded ours. Moreover, I think all will agree +that no reforms and improvements will go to the root of the evil +unless they attack it in its ultimate source--namely, the motives of +the individual man. Honest, industrious, and self-restraining men will +make a very bad social organization prosper; while vicious, idle, and +reckless citizens will bring to ruin the best that ever was, or ever +will be, invented. + +The leading propositions which are peculiar to Mr. Booth I take to be +these:-- + +[239] (1) That the only adequate means to such reformation of the +individual man is the adoption of that form of somewhat corybantic +Christianity of which the soldiers of the Salvation Army are the +militant missionaries. This implies the belief that the excitement of +the religious emotions (largely by processes described by their +employers as "rousing" and "convivial") is a desirable and trustworthy +method of permanently amending the conduct of mankind. + +I demur to these propositions. I am of opinion that the testimony of +history, no less than the cool observation of that which lies within +the personal experience of many of us, is wholly adverse to it. + + (2) That the appropriate instrument for the propagation and +maintenance of this peculiar sacramental enthusiasm is the Salvation +Army--a body of devotees, drilled and disciplined as a military +organization, and provided with a numerous hierarchy of officers, +every one of whom is pledged to blind and unhesitating obedience to +the "General," who frankly tells us that the first condition of the +service is "implicit, unquestioning obedience." "A telegram from me +will send any of them to the uttermost parts of the earth"; every one +"has taken service on the express condition that he or she will obey, +without questioning, or gainsaying, the orders from headquarters" +("Darkest England," p. 243). + +[240] This proposition seems to me to be indisputable. History confirms +it. Francis of Assisi and Ignatius Loyola made their great +experiments on the same principle. Nothing is more certain than that a +body of religious enthusiasts (perhaps we may even say fanatics) +pledged to blind obedience to their chief, is one of the most +efficient instruments for effecting any purpose that the wit of man +has yet succeeded in devising. And I can but admire the insight into +human nature which has led Mr. Booth to leave his unquestioning and +unhesitating instruments unbound by vows. A volunteer slave is worth +ten sworn bondsmen. + + (3) That the success of the Salvation Army, with its present force +of 9416 officers "wholly engaged in the work," its capital of three +quarters of a million, its income of the same amount, its 1375 corps +at home, and 1499 in the colonies and foreign countries (Appendix, pp. +3 and 4), is a proof that Divine assistance has been vouchsafed to its +efforts. + +Here I am not able to agree with the sanguine Commander-in-chief of +the new model, whose labours in creating it have probably interfered +with his acquisition of information respecting the fate of previous +enterprises of like kind. + +It does not appear to me that his success is in any degree more +remarkable than that of Francis of Assisi or that of Ignatius Loyola, +than that [241] of George Fox, or even than that of the Mormons, in +our own time. When I observe the discrepancies of the doctrinal +foundations from which each of these great movements set out, I find +it difficult to suppose that supernatural aid has been given to all of +them; still more, that Mr. Booth's smaller measure of success is +evidence that it has been granted to him. + +But what became of the Franciscan experiment?* If there was one rule +rather than another on which the founder laid stress, it was that his +army of friars should be absolute mendicants, keeping themselves +sternly apart from all worldly entanglements. Yet, even before the +death of Francis, in 1226, a strong party, headed by Elias of Cortona, +the deputy of his own appointment, began to hanker after these very +things; and, within thirty years of that time, the Franciscans had +become one of the most powerful, wealthy, and worldly corporations in +Christendom, with their fingers in every sink of political and social +corruption, if so be profit for the order could be fished out of it; +their principal interest being to fight their rivals, the Dominicans, +and to persecute such of their own brethren as were honest enough to +try to carry out their founder's plainest injunctions. We also know +what has become of Loyola's experiment. For two centuries the Jesuits +have been the hope of the enemies of the Papacy; whenever it becomes +too prosperous, they are sure to bring about a catastrophe by their +corrupt use of the political and social influence which their +organization and their wealth secure. + + * See note pp. 245-247] + +[242] With these examples of that which may happen to institutions +founded by noble men, with high aims, in the hands of successors of a +different stamp, armed with despotic authority, before me, common +prudence surely requires that, before advising the handing over of a +large sum of money to the general of a new order of mendicants, I +should ask what guarantee there is that, thirty years hence, the +"General" who then autocratically controls the action, say, of 100,000 +officers pledged to blind obedience, distributed through the whole +length and breadth of the poorer classes, and each with his finger on +the trigger of a mine charged with discontent and religious +fanaticism; with the absolute control, say, of eight or ten millions +sterling of capital and as many of income; with barracks in every town, +with estates scattered over the country, and with settlements in the +colonies--will exercise his enormous powers, not merely honestly, but +wisely? What shadow of security is there that the person who wields +this uncontrolled authority over many thousands of men shall use it +solely for those philanthropic and religious objects which, I do not +doubt, are alone in the mind of Mr. Booth? Who is to say that the +Salvation Army, in the year [243] 1920, shall not be a replica of what +the Franciscan order had become in the year 1260? + +The personal character and the intentions of the founders of such +organizations as we are considering count for very little in the +formation of a forecast of their future; and if they did, it is no +disrespect to Mr. Booth to say that he is not the peer of Francis of +Assisi. But if Francis's judgment of men was so imperfect as to permit +him to appoint an ambitious intriguer of the stamp of Brother Elias +his deputy, we have no right to be sanguine about the perspicacity of +Mr. Booth in a like matter. + +Adding to all these considerations the fact that Mr. Llewelyn Davies, +the warmth of whose philanthropy is beyond question, and in whose +competency and fairness I, for one, place implicit reliance, flatly +denies the boasted success of the Salvation Army in its professed +mission, I have arrived at the conclusion that, as at present advised, +I cannot be the instrument of carrying out my friend's proposal. + +Mr. Booth has pithily characterized certain benevolent schemes as +doing sixpennyworth of good and a shilling's worth of harm. I grieve +to say that, in my opinion, the definition exactly fits his own +project. Few social evils are of greater magnitude than uninstructed +and unchastened religious fanaticism; no personal habit more surely +degrades the conscience and the intellect than [244] blind and +unhesitating obedience to unlimited authority. Undoubtedly, harlotry +and intemperance are sore evils, and starvation is hard to bear, or +even to know of; but the prostitution of the mind, the soddening of +the conscience, the dwarfing of manhood are worse calamities. It is a +greater evil to have the intellect of a nation put down by organized +fanaticism; to see its political and industrial affairs at the mercy +of a despot whose chief thought is to make that fanaticism prevail; to +watch the degradation of men, who should feel themselves individually +responsible for their own and their country's fates, to mere brute +instruments, ready to the hand of a master for any use to which he may +put them. + +But that is the end to which, in my opinion, all such organizations as +that to which kindly people, who do not look to the consequences of +their acts, are now giving their thousands, inevitably tend. Unless +clear proof that I am wrong is furnished, another thousand shall not +be added by my instrumentality. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + +[245] + + NOTE. + +An authoritative contemporary historian, Matthew Paris, writes thus of +the Minorite, or Franciscan, Friars in England in 1235, just nine +years after the death of Francis of Assisi:-- + +"At this time some of the Minorite brethren, as well as some of the +Order of Preachers, unmindful of their profession and the restrictions +of their order, impudently entered the territories of some noble +monasteries, under pretense of fulfilling their duties of preaching, +as if intending to depart after preaching the next day. Under pretence +of sickness, or on some other pretext, however, they remained, and, +constructing an altar of wood, they placed on it a consecrated stone +altar, which they had brought with them, and clandestinely and in a +low voice performed mass, and even received the confessions of many of +the parishioners, to the prejudice of the priests. And if by chance +they were not satisfied with this, they broke forth in insults and +threats, reviling every other order except their own, and asserting +that all the rest were doomed to damnation, and that they would not +spare the soles of their feet till they had exhausted the wealth of +their opposers, however great it might be. The religious men, +therefore, gave way to them in many points, yielding to avoid scandal, +and offending those in power. For they were the councillors and +messengers of the nobles, and even secretaries of the Pope, and +therefore obtained much [246] secular favour. Some, however, finding +themselves opposed by the Court of Rome, were restrained by obvious +reasons, and went away in confusion; for the Supreme Pontiff, with a +scowling look, said to them, 'What means this, my brethren? To what +lengths are you going? Have you not professed voluntary poverty, and +that you would traverse towns and castles and distant places, as the +case required, barefooted and unostentatiously, in order to preach the +word of God in all humility? And do you now presume to usurp these +estates to yourselves against the will of the lords of these fees? +Your religion appears to be in a great measure dying away, and your +doctrines to be confuted." + +Under date of 1243, Matthew writes:-- + +"For three or four hundred years or more the monastic order did not +hasten to destruction so quickly as their order [Minorites and +Preachers] of whom now the brothers, twenty-four years having scarcely +elapsed, had first built in England dwellings which rivalled regal +palaces in height. These are they who daily expose to view their +inestimable treasures, in enlarging their sumptuous edifices, and +erecting lofty walls, thereby impudently transgressing the limits of +their original poverty and violating the basis of their religion, +according to the prophecy of German Hildegarde. When noblemen and rich +men are at the point of death, whom they know to be possessed of great +riches, they, in their love of gain, diligently urge them, to the +injury and loss of the ordinary pastors, and extort confessions and +hidden wills, lauding themselves and their own order only, [247] and +placing themselves before all others. So no faithful man now believes +he can be saved, except he is directed by the counsels of the +Preachers and Minorites."--Matthew Paris's English History. Translated +by the Rev. J. A. Giles, 1889, Vol. I. + + + II + +The "Times," December 9th, 1890 + +Sir,--The purpose of my previous letter about Mr. Booth's scheme was +to arouse the contributors to the military chest of the Salvation Army +to a clear sense of what they are doing. I thought it desirable that +they should be distinctly aware that they are setting up and endowing +a sect, in many ways analogous to the "Ranters" and "Revivalists" of +undesirable notoriety in former times; but with this immensely +important difference, that it possesses a strong, far-reaching, +centralized organization, the disposal of the physical, moral, and +financial strength of which rests with an irresponsible chief, who, +according to his own account, is assured of the blind obedience of +nearly 10,000 subordinates. I wish them to ask themselves, Ought +prudent men and good citizens to aid in the establishment of an +organization which, under sundry, by no means improbable, +contingencies, may easily become a worse and more [248] dangerous +nuisance than the mendicant friars of the middle ages? If this is an +academic question, I really do not know what questions deserve to be +called practical. As you divined, I purposely omitted any +consideration of the details of the Salvationist scheme, and of the +principles which animate those who work it, because I desired that the +public appreciation of the evils, necessarily inherent in all such +plans of despotic social and religious regimentation should not be +obscured by the raising of points of less comparative, however great +absolute, importance. + +But it is now time to undertake a more particular criticism of +"Darkest England." At the outset of my examination of that work, I was +startled to find that Mr. Booth had put forward his scheme with an +almost incredibly imperfect knowledge of what had been done and is +doing in the same direction. A simple reader might well imagine that +the author of "Darkest England" posed as the Columbus, or at any rate +the Cortez, of that region. "Go to Mudie's," he tells us, and you +will be surprised to see how few books there are upon the social +problem. That may or may not be correct; but if Mr. Booth had gone to +a certain reading-room not far from Mudie's, I undertake to say that +the well-informed and obliging staff of the national library in +Bloomsbury would have provided him with more books on this topic, in +almost all European languages, than he would [249] read in three +months. Has socialism no literature? And what is socialism but an +incarnation of the social question? Moreover, I am persuaded that even +"Mudie's" resources could have furnished Mr. Booth with the "Life of +Lord Shaftesbury" and Carlyle's works. Mr. Booth seems to have +undertaken to instruct the world without having heard of "Past and +Present" or of "Latter-Day Pamphlets"; though, somewhat late in the +day, a judicious friend calls his attention to them. To those of my +contemporaries on whom, as on myself, Carlyle's writings on this topic +made an ineffaceable impression forty years ago, who know that, for +all that time, hundreds of able and devoted men, both clerical and +lay, have worked heart and soul for the permanent amendment of the +condition of the poor, Mr. Booth's "Go to Mudie's" affords an apt +measure of the depth of his preliminary studies. However, I am bound +to admit that these earlier labourers in the field laboured in such a +different fashion, that the originality of the plan started by Mr. +Booth remains largely unaffected. For them no drums have beat, no +trombones brayed; no sanctified buffoonery, after the model of the +oration of the Friar in Wallenstein's camp dear to the readers of +Schiller, has tickled the ears of the groundlings on their behalf. +Sadly behind the great age of rowdy self-advertisement in which their +lot has fallen, they seem not to have advanced one whit [250] beyond +John the Baptist and the Apostles, 1800 years ago, in their notions of +the way in which the metanoia, the change of mind of the ill-doer, is +to be brought about. Yet the new model was there, ready for the +imitation of those ancient savers of souls. The ranting and roaring +mystagogues of some of the most venerable of Greek and Syrian cults +also had their processions and banners, their fifes and cymbals and +holy chants, their hierarchy of officers to whom the art of making +collections was not wholly unknown; and who, as freely as their modern +imitators, promised an Elysian future to contributory converts. The +success of these antique Salvation armies was enormous. Simon Magus +was quite as notorious a personage, and probably had as strong a +following as Mr. Booth. Yet the Apostles, with their old-fashioned +ways, would not accept such a success as a satisfactory sign of the +Divine sanction, nor depart from their own methods of leading the way +to the higher life. + +I deem it unessential to verify Mr. Booth's statistics. The exact +strength of the population of the realm of misery, be it one, two, or +three millions, has nothing to do with the efficacy of any means +proposed for the highly desirable end of reducing it to a minimum. The +sole question for consideration at present is whether the scheme, +keeping specially in view the spirit in which it is to be worked, is +likely to do more good than harm. + +[251] Mr. Booth tells us, with commendable frankness, that "it is +primarily and mainly for the sake of saving the soul that I seek the +salvation of the body" (p. 45), which language, being interpreted, +means that the propagation of the special Salvationist creed comes +first, and the promotion of the physical, intellectual, and purely +moral welfare of mankind second in his estimation. Men are to be made +sober and industrious, mainly, that, as washed, shorn, and docile +sheep, they may be driven into the narrow theological fold which Mr. +Booth patronizes. If they refuse to enter, for all their moral +cleanliness, they will have to take their place among the goats as +sinners, only less dirty than the rest. + +I have been in the habit of thinking (and I believe the opinion is +largely shared by reasonable men) that self-respect and thrift are the +rungs of the ladder by which men may most surely climb out of the +slough of despond of want; and I have regarded them as perhaps the +most eminent of the practical virtues. That is not Mr. Booth's +opinion. For him they are mere varnished sins--nothing better than +"Pride re-baptised" (p. 46). Shutting his eyes to the necessary +consequences of the struggle for life, the existence of which he +accepts as fully as any Darwinian,* Mr. Booth tells men, whose evil +case is one of those consequences, that envy is a corner-stone of our +[252] competitive system. With thrift and self-respect denounced as +sin, with the suffering of starving men referred to the sins of the +capitalist, the gospel according to Mr. Booth may save souls, but it +will hardly save society. + + * See p. 100 + +In estimating the social and political influence which the Salvation +Army is likely to exert, it is important to reflect that the officers +(pledged to blind obedience to their "General") are not to confine +themselves to the functions of mere deacons and catechists (though, +under a "General" like Cyril, Alexandria knew to her cost what even +they could effect); they are to be "tribunes of the people," who are +to act as their gratuitous legal advisers; and, when law is not +sufficiently effective, the whole force of the army is to obtain what +the said tribunes may conceive to be justice, by the practice of +ruthless intimidation. Society, says Mr. Booth, needs "mothering"; and +he sets forth, with much complacency, a variety of "cases," by which +we may estimate the sort of "mothering" to be expected at his parental +hands. Those who study the materials thus set before them will, I +think, be driven to the conclusion that the "mother" has already +proved herself a most unscrupulous meddler, even if she has not fallen +within reach of the arm of the law. + +Consider this "case." A, asserting herself to have been seduced twice, +"applied to our people. We hunted up the man, followed him to the +country, [253] threatened him with public exposure, and forced from +him the payment to his victim of [Pounds] 60 down, an allowance of +[Pounds] 1 a week, and an insurance policy on his life for [Pounds] +450 in her favour" (p. 222) . + +Jedburgh justice this. We "constitute ourselves prosecutor, judge, +jury, sheriff's officer, all in one;" we "practice intimidation as +deftly as if we were a branch of another League; and, under threat of +exposure," we "extort a tolerably heavy hush-money in payment of our +silence. " + +Well, really, my poor moral sense is unable to distinguish these +remarkable proceedings of the new popular tribunate from what, in +French, is called chantage and, in plain English, blackmailing. And +when we consider that anybody, for any reason of jealousy, or personal +spite, or party hatred, might be thus "hunted," "followed," +"threatened," and financially squeezed or ruined, without a particle +of legal investigation, at the will of a man whom the familiar charged +with the inquisitorial business dare not hesitate to obey, surely it +is not unreasonable to ask how far does the Salvation Army, in its +"tribune of the people" aspect, differ from a Sicilian Mafia? I am no +apologist of men guilty of the acts charged against the person who +yet, I think, might be as fairly called a "victim," in this case, as +his partner in wrong-doing. It is possible that, in so peculiar a +case, Solomon himself might have been puzzled [254] to apportion the +relative moral delinquency of the parties. However that may be, the +man was morally and legally bound to support his child, and any one +would have been justified in helping the woman to her legal rights, +and the man to the legal consequences (in which exposure is included) +of his fault. + +The action of the "General" of the Salvation Army in extorting the +heavy fine he chose to impose as the price of his silence, however +excellent his motives, appears to me to be as immoral as, I hope, it +is illegal. + +So much for the Salvation Army as a teacher of questionable ethics and +of eccentric economics, as the legal adviser who recommends and +practices the extraction of money by intimidation, as the fairy +godmother who proposes to "mother" society, in a fashion which is not +to my taste, however much it may commend itself to some of Mr. Booth's +supporters. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + +[255] + + + III + + The "Times," December 11th, 1890 + +Sir,--When I first addressed you on the subject of the projected +operations of the Salvation Army, all that I knew about that body was +derived from the study of Mr. Booth's book, from common repute, and +from occasional attention to the sayings and doings of his noisy +squadrons, with which my walks about London, in past years, have made +me familiar. I was quite unaware of the existence of evidence +respecting the present administration of the Salvation forces, which +would have enabled me to act upon the sagacious maxim of the American +humourist, "Don't prophesy unless you know." The letter you were good +enough to publish has brought upon me a swarm of letters and +pamphlets. Some favour me with abuse; some thoughtful correspondents +warmly agree with me, and then proceed to point out how much worthier +certain schemes of their own are of my friend's support; some send +valuable encouragement, for which I offer my hearty thanks, and ask +them to excuse any more special acknowledgment. But that which I find +most to the purpose, just now, is the revelation made by some of the +documents which have reached me, of a fact of which I was wholly +ignorant--namely, that [256] persons who have faithfully and zealously +served in the Salvation Army, who express unchanged attachment to its +original principles and practice, and who have been in close official +relations with the "General" have publicly declared that the process +of degradation of the organization into a mere engine of fanatical +intolerance and personal ambition, which I declared was inevitable, +has already set in and is making rapid progress. + +It is out of the question, Sir, that I should occupy the columns of +the "Times" with a detailed exposition and criticism of these pieces +justificatives of my forecast. I say criticism, because the assertions +of persons who have quitted any society must, in fairness, be taken +with the caution that is required in the case of all ex parte +statements of hostile witnesses. But it is, at any rate, a notable +fact that there are parts of my first letter, indicating the inherent +and necessary evil consequences of any such organization, which might +serve for abstracts of portions of this evidence, long since printed +and published under the public responsibility of the witnesses. + +Let us ask the attention of your readers, in the first place, to "An +ex-Captain's Experience of the Salvation Army," by J. J. R. Redstone, +the genuineness of which is guaranteed by the preface (dated April +5th, 1888) which the Rev. Dr. Cunningham Geikie has supplied. Mr. +Redstone's story is well worth reading on its own account. + +[257] Told in simple, direct language such as John Bunyan might have +used, it permits no doubt of the single-minded sincerity of the man, +who gave up everything to become an officer of the Salvation Army, +but, exhibiting a sad want of that capacity for unhesitating and blind +obedience on which Mr. Booth lays so much stress, was thrown aside, +penniless--no, I am wrong, with 2s. 4d. for his last week's salary--to +shift, with his equally devoted wife, as he best might. I wish I could +induce intending contributors to Mr. Booth's army chest to read Mr. +Redstone's story. I would particularly ask them to contrast the pure +simplicity of his plain tale with the artificial pietism and +slobbering unction of the letters which Mr. Ballington Booth addresses +to his "dear boy" (a married man apparently older than himself), so +long as the said "dear boy" is facing brickbats and starvation, as per +order. + +I confess that my opinion of the chiefs of the Salvation Army has been +so distinctly modified by the perusal of this pamphlet that I am glad +to be relieved from the necessity of expressing it. It will be much +better that I should cite a few sentences from the preface written by +Dr. Cunningham Geikie, who expresses warm admiration for the early and +uncorrupted work of the Salvation Army, and cannot possibly be accused +of prejudice against it on religious grounds:-- + + (1) "The Salvation Army is emphatically a [258] family concern. Mr. +Booth, senior, is General; one son is chief of the staff, and the +remaining sons and daughters engross the other chief positions. It is +Booth all over; indeed, like the sun in your eyes, you can see nothing +else wherever you turn. And, as Dr. Geikie shrewdly remarks, 'to be +the head of a widely spread sect carries with it many advantages--not +all exclusively spiritual.'" + + (2) "Whoever becomes a Salvation officer is henceforth a slave, +helplessly exposed to the caprice of his superiors." + +"Mr. Redstone bore an excellent character both before he entered the +army and when he left it. To join it, though a married man, he gave up +a situation which he had held for five years, and he served Mr. Booth +two years, working hard in most difficult posts. His one fault, Major +Lawley tells us, was, that he was 'too straight'--that is, too honest, +truthful, and manly--or, in other words, too real a Christian. Yet +without trial, without formulated charges, on the strength of secret +complaints which were never, apparently, tested, he was dismissed with +less courtesy than most people would show a beggar--with 2s. 4d. for +his last week's salary. If there be any mistake in this matter, I +shall be glad to learn it." + + (3) Dr. Geikie confirms, on the ground of information given +confidentially by other officers, [259] Mr. Redstone's assertion that +they are watched and reported by spies from headquarters. + + (4) Mr. Booth refuses to guarantee his officers any fixed amount of +salary. While he and his family of high officials live in comfort, if +not in luxury, the pledged slaves whose devotion is the foundation of +any true success the Army has met with often have "hardly food enough +to sustain life. One good fellow frankly told me that when he had +nothing he just went and begged." + +At this point, it is proper that I should interpose an apology for +having hastily spoken of such men as Francis of Assisi, even for +purposes of warning, in connection with Mr. Booth. Whatever may be +thought of the wisdom of the plans of the founders of the great +monastic orders of the middle ages, they took their full share of +suffering and privation, and never shirked in their own persons the +sacrifices they imposed on their followers. + +I have already expressed the opinion, that whatever the ostensible +purpose of the scheme under discussion, one of its consequences will +be the setting up and endowment of a new Ranter-Socialist sect. I may +now add that another effect will be--indeed, has been--to set up and +endow the Booth dynasty with unlimited control of the physical, moral, +and financial resources of the sect. Mr. Booth is already a printer +and publisher, who, it is plainly declared, utilizes the officers of +the [260] Army as agents for advertising and selling his publications; +and some of them are so strongly impressed with the belief that active +pushing of Mr. Booth's business is the best road to their master's +favour, that when the public obstinately refuse to purchase his papers +they buy them themselves and send the proceeds to headquarters. Mr. +Booth is also a retail trader on a large scale, and the Dean of Wells +has, most seasonably, drawn attention to the very notable banking +project which he is trying to float. Any one who follows Dean +Plumptre's clear exposition of the principles of this financial +operation can have little doubt that, whether they are, or are not, +adequate to the attainment of the first and second of Mr. Booth's +ostensible objects, they may be trusted to effect a wide extension of +any kingdom in which worldly possessions are of no value. We are, in +fact, in sight of a financial catastrophe like that of Law a century +ago. Only it is the poor who will suffer. + +I have already occupied too much of your space, and yet I have drawn +upon only one of the sources of information about the inner working of +the Salvation Army at my disposition. Far graver charges than any here +dealt with are publicly brought in the others. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + +[261] P.S.-- I have just read Mr. Buchanan's letter in the Times of +to-day. Mr. Buchanan is, I believe, an imaginative writer. I am not +acquainted with his works, but nothing in the way of fiction he has +yet achieved can well surpass his account of my opinions and of the +purport of my writings. + + + + IV + +The "Times" December 20th, 1890 + +Sir,--In discussing Mr. Booth's projects I have hitherto left in the +background a distinction which must be kept well in sight by those who +wish to form a fair judgment of the influence, for good or evil, of +the Salvation Army. Salvationism, the work of "saving souls" by +revivalist methods, is one thing; Boothism, the utilization of the +workers for the furtherance of Mr. Booth's peculiar projects, is +another. Mr. Booth has captured, and harnessed with sharp bits and +effectual blinkers, a multitude of ultra-Evangelical missionaries of +the revivalist school who were wandering at large. It is this +skilfully, if somewhat mercilessly, driven team which has dragged the +"General's" coach-load of projects into their present position. + +[262] Looking, then, at the host of Salvationists proper, from the +"captains" downwards (to whom, in my judgment, the family hierarchy +stands in the relation of the Old Man of the Sea to Sinbad), as an +independent entity, I desire to say that the evidence before me, +whether hostile or friendly to the General and his schemes, is +distinctly favourable to them. It exhibits them as, in the main, +poor, uninstructed, not unfrequently fanatical, enthusiasts, the +purity of whose lives, the sincerity of whose belief, and the +cheerfulness of whose endurance of privation and rough usage, in what +they consider a just cause, command sincere respect. For my part, +though I conceive the corybantic method of soul-saving to be full of +dangers, and though the theological speculations of these good people +are to me wholly unacceptable, yet I believe that the evils which must +follow in the track of such errors, as of all other errors, will be +largely outweighed by the moral and social improvement of the people +whom they convert. I would no more raise my voice against them (so +long as they abstain from annoying their neighbours) than I would +quarrel with a man, vigorously sweeping out a stye, on account of the +shape of his broom, or because he made a great noise over his work. I +have always had a strong faith in the principle of the injunction, +"Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn." If a +kingdom is worth a Mass, as a great [263] ruler said, surely the reign +of clean living, industry, and thrift is worth any quantity of +tambourines and eccentric doctrinal hypotheses. All that I have +hitherto said, and propose further to say, is directed against Mr. +Booth's extremely clever, audacious, and hitherto successful attempt +to utilize the credit won by all this honest devotion and +self-sacrifice for the purposes of his socialistic autocracy. + +I now propose to bring forward a little more evidence as to how things +really stand where Mr. Booth's system has had a fair trial. I obtain +it, mainly, from a curious pamphlet, the title of which runs: "The New +Papacy. Behind the Scenes in the Salvation Army," by an ex-Staff +Officer. "Make not my Father's house a house of merchandise" (John ii. +16). 1889. Published at Toronto, by A. Britnell. On the cover it is +stated that "This is the book which was burned by the authorities of +the Salvation Army." I remind the reader, once more, that the +statements which I shall cite must be regarded as ex parte; all I can +vouch for is that, on grounds of internal evidence and from other +concurrent testimony respecting the ways of the Booth hierarchy, I +feel justified in using them. + +This is the picture the writer draws of the army in the early days of +its invasion of the Dominion of Canada:-- + +[264] "Then, it will be remembered, it professed to be the humble +handmaid of the existing churches; its professed object was the +evangelization of the masses. It repudiated the idea of building up a +separate religious body, and it denounced the practice of gathering +together wealth and the accumulation of property. Men and women other +than its own converts gathered around it and threw themselves heart +and soul into the work, for the simple reason that it offered, as they +supposed, a more extended and widely open field for evangelical +effort. Ministers everywhere were invited and welcomed to its +platforms, majors and colonels were few and far between, and the +supremacy and power of the General were things unknown . . . Care was +taken to avoid anything like proselytism; its converts were never +coerced into joining its ranks... In a word, the organization +occupied the position of an auxiliary mission and recruiting agency +for the various religious bodies.... The meetings were crowded, people +professed conversion by the score, the public liberally supplied the +means to carry on the work in their respective communities; therefore +every corps was wholly self-supporting, its officers were properly, if +not luxuriously, cared for, the local expenditure was amply provided, +and, under the supervision of the secretary, a local member, and the +officer in charge, the funds were disbursed in the towns where they +were collected, and the [265] spirit of satisfaction and confidence +was mutual all around" (pp. 4, 5). + +Such was the army as the green tree. Now for the dry:-- + +"Those who have been daily conversant with the army's machinery are +well aware how entirely and radically the whole system has changed, +and how, from a band of devoted and disinterested workers, united in +the bonds of zeal and charity for the good of their fellows, it has +developed into a colossal and aggressive agency for the building up of +a system and a sect, bound by rules and regulations altogether +subversive of religious liberty and antagonistic to every (other?) +branch of Christian endeavour, and bound hand and foot to the will of +one supreme head and ruler.... As the work has spread through the +country, and as the area of its endeavours has enlarged, each leading +position has been filled, one after the other, by individuals strangers +to the country, totally ignorant of the sentiments and idiosyncrasies +of the Canadian people, trained in one school under the teachings and +dominance of a member of the Booth family, and out of whom every idea +has been crushed, except that of unquestioning obedience to the +General, and the absolute necessity of going forward to his bidding +without hesitation or question" (p. 6). + +[266] "What is the result of all this? In the first place, whilst +material prosperity has undoubtedly been attained, spirituality has +been quenched, and, as an evangelical agency, the army has become +almost a dead letter... In seventy-five per cent of its stations its +officers suffer need and privation, chiefly on account of the heavy +taxation that is placed upon them to maintain an imposing headquarters +and a large ornamental staff. The whole financial arrangements are +carried on by a system of inflation and a hand-to-mouth extravagance +and blindness as to future contingencies. Nearly all of its original +workers and members have disappeared" (p. 7). "In reference to the +religious bodies at large the army has become entirely antagonistic. +Soldiers are forbidden by its rules to attend other places of worship +without the permission of their officers... Officers or soldiers who +may conscientiously leave the service or the ranks are looked upon and +often denounced publicly as backsliders... Means of the most +despicable description have been resorted to in order to starve them +back to the service" (p. 8). "In its inner workings the army system is +identical with Jesuitism... That 'the end justifies the means,' if +not openly taught, is as tacitly agreed as in that celebrated order" +(p. 9). + +Surely a bitter, overcharged, anonymous libel, is the reflection which +will occur to many who read [267] these passages, especially the last. +Well, I turn to other evidence which, at any rate, is not anonymous. +It is contained in a pamphlet entitled "General Booth, the Family, and +the Salvation Army, showing its Rise, Progress, and Moral and +Spiritual Decline," by S. H. Hodges, LL.B., late Major in the Army, +and formerly private secretary to General Booth (Manchester, 1890). I +recommend potential contributors to Mr. Booth's wealth to study this +little work also. I have learned a great deal from it. Among other +interesting novelties, it tells me that Mr. Booth has discovered "the +necessity of a third step or blessing, in the work of Salvation. He +said to me one day, 'Hodges, you have only two barrels to your gun; I +have three'" (p. 31). And if Mr. Hodges's description of this third +barrel is correct--"giving up your conscience" and, "for God and the +army, stooping to do things which even honourable worldly men would +not consent to do" (p. 32)--it is surely calculated to bring down a +good many things, the first principles of morality among them. + +Mr. Hodges gives some remarkable examples of the army practice with +the "General's" new rifle. But I must refer the curious to his +instructive pamphlet. The position I am about to take up is a serious +one; and I prefer to fortify it by the help of evidence which, though +some of it may be anonymous, cannot be sneered away. And I shall [268] +be believed, when I say that nothing but a sense of the great social +danger of the spread of Boothism could induce me to revive a scandal, +even though it is barely entitled to the benefit of the Statute of +Limitations. + +On the 7th of July, 1883, you, Sir, did the public a great service by +writing a leading article on the notorious "Eagle" case, from which I +take the following extract:-- + +"Mr. Justice Kay refused the application, but he was induced to refuse +it by means which, as Mr. Justice Stephen justly remarked, were highly +discreditable to Mr. Booth. Mr. Booth filed an affidavit which appears +totally to have misled Mr. Justice Kay, as it would have misled any one +who regarded it as a frank and honest statement by a professed teacher +of religion." + +When I addressed my first letter to you I had never so much as heard of +the "Eagle" scandal. But I am thankful that my perception of the +inevitable tendency of all religious autocracies towards evil was +clear enough to bring about a provisional condemnation of Mr. Booth's +schemes in my mind. Supposing that I had decided the other way, with +what sort of feeling should I have faced my friend, when I had to +confess that the money had passed into the absolute control of a +person about the character of whose administration this [269] +concurrence of damnatory evidence was already extant? + +I have nothing to say about Mr. Booth personally, for I know nothing. +On that subject, as on several others, I profess myself an agnostic. +But, if he is, as he may be, a saint actuated by the purest of +motives, he is not the first saint who, as you have said, has shown +himself "in the ardour of prosecuting a well-meant object" to be +capable of overlooking "the plain maxims of every-day morality." If I +were a Salvationist soldier, I should cry with Othello, "Cassio, I +love thee; but never more be officer of mine." + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + + + V + +The "Times," December 24th, 1890-- + +Sir,--If I have any strong points, finance is certainly not one of +them. But the financial, or rather fiscal, operations of the General +of the Salvation Army, as they are set forth and exemplified in "The +New Papacy," possess that grand simplicity which is the mark of +genius; [270] and even I can comprehend them--or, to be more modest, I +can portray them in such a manner that every lineament, however harsh, +and every shade, however dark, can be verified by published evidence. + +Suppose there is a thriving, expanding colonial town, and that, +scattered among its artisans and labourers, there is a sprinkling of +Methodists, or other such ultra-evangelical good people, doing their +best, in a quiet way, to "save souls." Clearly, this is an outpost +which it is desirable to capture. "We," therefore, take measures to +get up a Salvation "boom" of the ordinary pattern. Enthusiasm is +roused. A score or two of soldiers are enlisted into the ranks of the +Salvation Army. "We" select the man who promises to serve our purposes +best, make a "captain" of him, and put him in command of the "corps." +He is very pleased and grateful; and indeed he ought to be. All he has +done is that he has given up his trade; that he has promised to work +at least nine hours a day in our service (none of your eight-hour +nonsense for us) as collector, bookseller, general agent, and anything +else we may order him to be. "We," on the other hand, guarantee him +nothing whatever; to do so might weaken his faith and substitute +worldly for spiritual ties between us. Knowing that, if he exerts +himself in a right spirit, his labours will surely be blessed, we +content ourselves with telling him that if, after all [271] expenses +are paid and our demands are satisfied each week, 25s. remains, he may +take it. And, if nothing remains, he may take that, and stay his +stomach with what the faithful may give him. With a certain grim +playfulness, we add that the value of these contributions will be +reckoned as so much salary. So long as our "captain" is successful, +therefore, a beneficent spring of cash trickles unseen into our +treasury; when it begins to dry up we say, "God bless you, dear boy," +turn him adrift (with or without 2s. 4d. in his pocket), and put some +other willing horse in the shafts. + +The "General," I believe, proposes, among other things, to do away +with "sweating." May he not as well set a good example by beginning at +home? My little sketch, however, looks so like a monstrous caricature +that, after all, I must produce the original from the pages of my +Canadian authority. He says that a "captain" "has to pay 10 per cent. +of all collections and donations to the divisional fund for the +support of his divisional officer, who has also the privilege of +arranging for such special meetings as he shall think fit, the +proceeds of which he takes away for the general needs of the division. +Headquarters, too, has the right to hold such special meetings at the +corps and send around such special attractions as its wisdom sees fit, +and to take away the proceeds for the purposes it decides upon. + +[272] He has to pay the rent of his building, either to headquarters or +a private individual; he has to send the whole collection of the +afternoon meeting of the first Sunday in the month to the 'Extension +Fund' at headquarters; he has to pay for the heating, lighting, and +cleaning of his hall, together with such necessary repairs as may be +needed; he has to provide the food, lodging, and clothing of his +cadet, if he has one; headquarters taxes him with so many copies of +the army papers each week, for which he has to pay, sold or unsold; +and when he has done this, he may take $6 (or $5, being a woman), or +such proportion of it as may be left, with which to clothe and feed +himself and to pay the rent and provide for the heating and lighting +of his quarters. If he has a lieutenant he has to pay him $6 per week, +or such proportion of it as he himself gets, and share the house +expenses with him. Now, it will be easily understood that at least 60 +per cent. of the stations in Canada the officer gets no money at all, +and he has to beg specially amongst his people for his house-rent and +food. There are few places in the Dominion in which the soldiers do +not find their officers in all the food they need; but it must be +remembered that the value of the food so received has to be accounted +for at headquarters and entered upon the books of the corps as cash +received, the amount being deducted from any moneys that the officer +is able to take from the [273] week's collections. So that, no matter +how much may be specially given, the officer cannot receive more than +the value of $6 per week. The officer cannot collect any arrears of +salary, as each week has to pay its own expenses; and if there is any +surplus cash after all demands are met it must be sent to the 'war +chest' at headquarters."--"The New Papacy" (pp. 35, 36). + +Evidently, Sir, "headquarters" has taken to heart the injunction about +casting your bread upon the waters. It casts the crumb of a day or +two's work of an emissary, and gets back any quantity of loaves of +cash, so long as "captains" present themselves to be used up and +replaced by new victims. What can be said of these devoted poor +fellows except, O sancta simplicitas! + +But it would be a great mistake to suppose that the money-gathering +efficacy of Mr. Booth's fiscal agencies is exhausted by the foregoing +enumeration of their regular operations. Consider the following +edifying history of the "Rescue Home" in Toronto:-- + +"It is a fine building in the heart of the city; the lot cost $7,000, +and a building was put up at a cost of $7,000 more, and there is a +mortgage on it amounting to half the cost of the whole. The land +to-day would probably fetch double its original price, and every year +enhances its value....In the first five months of its [274] existence +this institution received from the public an income of $1,812 70c.; +out of this $600 was paid to headquarters for rent, $590 52c. was +spent upon the building in various ways, and the balance of $622 18c. +paid the salaries of the staff and supported the inmates" (pp. 24, +25). + +Said I not truly that Mr. Booth's fisc bears the stamp of genius? Who +else could have got the public to buy him a "corner lot," put a +building upon it, pay all its working expenses: and then, not content +with paying him a heavy rent for the use of the handsome present they +had made him, they say not a word against his mortgaging it to half +its value? And, so far as any one knows, there is nothing to stop +headquarters from selling the whole estate tomorrow, and using the +money as the "General" may direct. + +Once more listen to the author of "The New Papacy," who affirms that +"out of the funds given by the Dominion for the evangelization of the +people by means of the Salvation Army, one sixth had been spent in the +extension of the Kingdom of God, and the other five sixths had been +invested in valuable property, all handed over to Mr. Booth and his +heirs and assigns, as we have already stated" (p. 26). + +And this brings me to the last point upon which I wish to touch. The +answer to all inquiries as to what has become of the enormous [275] +personal and real estate which has been given over to Mr. Booth is +that it is held "in trust." The supporters of Mr. Booth may feel +justified in taking that statement "on trust." I do not. Anyhow, the +more completely satisfactory this "trust" is, the less can any man who +asks the public to put blind faith in his integrity and his wisdom +object to acquaint them exactly with its provisions. Is the trust +drawn up in favour of the Salvation Army? But what is the legal status +of the Salvation Army? Have the soldiers any claim? Certainly not. +Have the officers any legal interest in the "trust"? Surely not. The +"General" has taken good care to insist on their renouncing all claims +as a condition of their appointment. Thus, to all appearance, the +army, as a legal person, is identical with Mr. Booth. And, in that +case, any "trust" ostensibly for the benefit of the army is--what +shall we say that is at once accurate and polite? + +I conclude with these plain questions--Will Mr. Booth take counsel's +opinion as to whether there is anything in such legal arrangements as +he has at present made which prevents him from disposing of the wealth +he has accumulated at his own will and pleasure? Will anybody be in a +position to set either the civil or the criminal law in motion against +him or his successors if he or they choose to spend every farthing in +ways very different from those contemplated by the donors? + +[276] I may add that a careful study of the terms of a "Declaration of +Trust by William Booth in favour of the Christian Mission," made in +1878, has not enabled persons of much greater competence than myself +to answer these questions satisfactorily.* + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + * See Preface to this volume, pp. ix-xiii. + +On December 24th a letter appeared in the "Times" signed "J. S. +Trotter," in which the following passages appear:-- + +"It seems a pity to put a damper on the spirits of those who agree +with Professor Huxley in his denunciation of General Booth and all his +works. May I give a few particulars as to the 'book' which was +published in Canada? I had the pleasure of an interview with the +author of a book written in Canada. The book was printed at Toronto, +and two copies only struck off by the printers; one of these copies +was stolen from the printer, and the quotation sent to you by +Professor Huxley was inserted in the book, and is consequently a +forgery. The book was published without the consent and against the +will of the author. + +[277] "So the quotation is not only 'a bitter, overcharged anonymous +libel,' as Professor Huxley intimates, but a forgery as well. As to +Mr. Hodges, it seems to me to be simply trifling with your readers to +bring him in as an authority. He was turned out of the army, out of +kindness taken on again, and again dismissed. If this had happened to +one of your staff, would his opinion of the 'Times' as a newspaper be +taken for gospel?" + +But in the "Times" of December 29th Mr. J. S. Trotter writes:-- + +"I find I was mistaken in saying, in my letter of Wednesday, to the +'Times' that Mr. Hodges was dismissed from the service of General +Booth, and regret any inconvenience the statement may have caused to +Mr. Hodges." + +And on December 30th the "Times" published a letter from Mr. Hodges in +which he says that Mr. Trotter's statements as they regard himself +"are the very reverse of truth.--I was never turned out of the +Salvation Army. Nor, so far as I was made acquainted with General +Booth's motives, was I taken on again out of kindness. In order to +rejoin the Salvation Army, I resigned the position of manager in a +mill where I was in [278] receipt of a salary of [Pounds] 250 per +annum, with house-rent and one third of the profits. Instead of this +Mr. Booth allowed me [Pounds] 2 per week and house-rent." + + + + VI + +The "Times," December 26th, 1890 + +Sir,--I am much obliged to Mr. J. S. Trotter for the letter which you +published this morning. It furnishes evidence, which I much desired to +possess on the following points:-- + + 1. The author of "The New Papacy" is a responsible, trustworthy +person; otherwise Mr. Trotter would not speak of having had "the +pleasure of an interview" with him. + + 2. After this responsible person had taken the trouble to write a +pamphlet of sixty-four closely printed pages, some influence was +brought to bear upon him, the effect of which was that he refused his +consent to its publication. Mr. Trotter's excellent information will +surely enable him to tell us what influence that was. + + 3. How does Mr. Trotter know that any passage I have quoted is an +interpolation? Does he possess that other copy of the "two" which +alone, as he affirms, were printed? + +[279] 4. If so, he will be able to say which of the passages I have +cited is genuine and which is not; and whether the tenor of the whole +uninterpolated copy differs in any important respect from that of the +copy I have quoted. + +It will be interesting to hear what Mr. J. S. Trotter has to say upon +these points. But the really important thing which he has done is that +he has testified, of his own knowledge, that the anonymous author of +"The New Papacy" is no mere irresponsible libeller, but a person of +whom even an ardent Salvationist has to speak with respect. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + +[I may add that the unfortunate Mr. Trotter did me the further service +of eliciting the letter from Mr. Hodges referred to on p. 277--which +sufficiently establishes that gentleman's credit, and leads me to +attach full weight to his evidence about the third barrel.] + + January, 1891. + +[280] + + + VII + +The "Times," December 27th, 1890 + +SIR,--In making use of the only evidence of the actual working of Mr. +Booth's autocratic government accessible to me, I was fully aware of +the slippery nature of the ground upon which I was treading. For, as I +pointed out in my first letter, "no personal habit more surely +degrades the conscience and the intellect than blind and unhesitating +obedience to unlimited authority." Now we have it, on Mr. Booth's own +showing that every officer of his has undertaken to "obey without +questioning or gainsaying the orders from headquarters." And the +possible relations of such orders to honour and veracity are +demonstrated not only by the judicial deliverance on Mr. Booth's +affidavit in the "Eagle" case, which I have already cited; not only by +Mr. Bramwell Booth's admission before Mr. Justice Lopes that he had +stated what was "not quite correct" because he had "promised Mr. Stead +not to divulge" the facts of the case (the "Times," November 4th, +1885); but by the following passage in Mr. Hodges's account of the +reasons of his withdrawal from the Salvation Army:-- + +"The general and Chief did not and could [281] not deny doing these +things; the only question was this, Was it right to practise this +deception? These points of difference were fully discussed between +myself and the Chief of the Staff on my withdrawal, especially the +Leamington incident, which was the one that finally drove me to +decision. I had come to the conclusion, from the first, that they had +acted as they supposed with a single eye to the good of God's cause, +and had persuaded myself that the things were, as against the devil, +right to be done, that as in battle one party captured and turned the +enemy's own guns upon them, so, as they were fighting against the +devil, it would be fair to use against him his weapons. And I wrote to +this effect to the "General" (p. 63)." + +Now, I do not wish to say anything needlessly harsh, but I ask any +prudent man these questions. Could I, under these circumstances, trust +any uncorroborated statement emanating from headquarters, or made by +the General's order? Had I any reason to doubt the truth of Mr. +Hodges's naive confession of the corrupting influence of Mr. Booth's +system? And did it not behove me to pick my way carefully through the +mass of statements before me, many of them due to people whose moral +sense might, by possibility, have been as much blunted by the army +discipline in the [282] use of the weapons of the devil as Mr. Hodges +affirms that his was? + +Therefore, in my third letter, I commenced my illustrations of the +practical working of Boothism with the evidence of Mr. Redstone, +fortified and supplemented by that of a non-Salvationist, Dr. +Cunningham Geikie. That testimony has not been challenged, and, until +it is, I shall assume that it cannot be. In my fourth letter, I cited +a definite statement by Mr. Hodges in evidence of the Jesuitical +principles of headquarters. What sort of answer is it to tell us that +Mr. Hodges was dismissed the army? A child might expect that some such +red herring would be drawn across the trail; and, in anticipation of +the stale trick, I added the strong prima facie evidence of the +trustworthiness of my witness, in this particular, which is afforded +by the "Eagle" case. It was not until I wrote my fourth letter to you, +Sir--until the exploitation of the "captains" and the Jesuitry of +headquarters could be proved up to the hilt--that I ventured to have +recourse to "The New Papacy." So far as the pamphlet itself goes, this +is an anonymous work; and, for sufficient reasons, I did not choose to +go beyond what was to be found between its covers. To any one +accustomed to deal with the facts of evolution, the Boothism of "The +New Papacy" was merely the natural and necessary development of the +Boothism of Mr. Redstone's case and of the [283] "Eagle" case. +Therefore, I felt fully justified in using it, at the same time +carefully warning my readers that it must be taken with due caution. + +Mr. Trotter's useful letter admits that such a book was written by a +person with whom he had the "pleasure of an interview," and that a +version of it (interpolated, according to his assertion) was published +against the will of the author. Hence I am justified in believing that +there is a foundation of truth in certain statements, some of which +have long been in my possession, but which for lack of Mr. Trotter's +valuable corroboration I have refrained from using. The time is come +when I can set forth some of the heads of this information, with the +request that Mr. Trotter, who knows all about the business, will be so +good as to point out any error that there may be in them. I am bound +to suppose that his sole object, like mine, is the elucidation of the +truth, and to assume his willingness to help me therein to the best of +his ability. + + 1. "The author of 'The New Papacy' is a Mr. Sumner, a person of +perfect respectability, and greatly esteemed in Toronto, who held a +high position in the Army. When he left, a large public meeting, +presided over by a popular Methodist minister, passed a vote of +sympathy with him." + +[284] Is this true or false? + + 2. "On Saturday last, about noon, Mr. Sumner, the author of the +book, and Mr. Fred Perry, the Salvation Army printer, accompanied by a +lawyer, went down to Messrs. Imrie and Graham's establishment, and +asked for all the manuscript, stereotype plates, &c., of the book. Mr. +Sumner explained that the book had been sold to the Army, and, on a +cheque for the amount due being given, the printing material was +delivered up." + +Did these paragraphs appear in the "Toronto Telegram" of April 24th, +1889, or did they not? Are the statements they contain true or false? + +3. "Public interest in the fate or probable outcome of that mysterious +book called 'The New Papacy; or, Behind the Scenes in the Salvation +Army,' continues unabated, though the line of proceedings by the +publisher and his solicitor, Mr. Smoke, of Watson, Thorne, Smoke, and +Masten, has not been altered since yesterday. The book, no doubt, will +be issued in some form. So far as known, only one complete copy +remains, and the whereabouts of this is a secret which will be +profoundly kept. It is safe to say that if the Commissioner kept on +guessing until the next anniversary, he would not strike the secluded +[285] location of the one volume among five thousand which escaped, +when he and his assistant, Mr. Fred Perry, believed they had cast +every vestige of the forbidden work into the fiery furnace. On Tuesday +last, when the discovery was made that a copy of 'The New Papacy' was +in existence, Publisher Britnell, of Yonge Street, was at once the +suspected holder, and in a short time his book-store was the resort of +army agents sent to reconnoitre" ("Toronto News," April 28th, 1889). + +Is this a forgery, or is it not? Is it in substance true or false? + +When Mr. Trotter has answered these inquiries categorically, we may +proceed to discuss the question of interpolations in Mr. Sumner's +book. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + +[On the 26th of December a letter, signed J. T. Cunningham, late Fellow of +University College, Oxford, called forth the following commentary.] + +[286] + + + + VIII + +The "Times," December 29th, 1890-- + +Sir,--If Mr. Cunningham doubts the efficacy of the struggle for +existence, as a factor in social conditions, he should find fault with +Mr. Booth and not with me. + +"I am labouring under no delusion as to the possibility of inaugurating +the millennium by my social specific. In the struggle of life the +weakest will go to the wall, and there are so many weak. The fittest +in tooth and claw will survive. All that we can do is to soften the +lot of the unfit, and make their suffering less horrible than it is at +present" ("In Darkest England," p. 44). + +That is what Mr. Cunningham would have found if he had read Mr. Booth's +book with attention. And, if he will bestow equal pains on my second +letter, he will discover that he has interpolated the word "wilfully" +in his statement of my "argument," which runs thus: "Shutting his eyes +to the necessary consequences of the struggle for life, the existence +of which he admits as fully as any Darwinian, Mr. Booth tells men +whose evil case is one of those consequences that envy is a +corner-stone of our competitive system." Mr. [287] Cunningham's +physiological studies will have informed him that the process of +"shutting the eyes," in the literal sense of the words, is not always +wilful; and I propose to illustrate, by the crucial instance his own +letter furnishes, that the "shutting of the eyes" of the mind to the +obvious consequences of accepted propositions may also be involuntary. +At least, I hope so. + + 1. "Sooner or later," says Mr. Cunningham, "the population problem +will block the way once more." What does this mean, except that +multiplication, excessive in relation to the contemporaneous means of +support, will create a severe competition for those means? And this +seems to me to be a pretty accurate "reflection of the conceptions of +Malthus" and the other poor benighted folks of a past generation at +whom Mr. Cunningham sneers. + + 2. By way of leaving no doubt upon this subject, Mr. Cunningham +further tells us, "The struggle for existence is always going on, of +course; let us thank Darwin for making us realize it." It is pleasant +to meet with a little gratitude to Darwin among the epigoni who are +squabbling over the heritage he conquered for them, but Mr. +Cunningham's personal expression of that feeling is hasty. For it is +obvious that he has not "realized" the significance of Darwin's +teaching--indeed, I fail to discover in Mr. Cunningham's letter any +sign that he has even "realized" what [288] he would be at. If the +"struggle for existence is always going on"; and if, as I suppose will +be granted, industrial competition is one phase of that struggle, I +fail to see how my conclusion that it is sheer wickedness to tell +ignorant men that "envy" is a corner-stone of competition can be +disputed. + +Mr. Cunningham has followed the lead of that polished and instructed +person, Mr. Ben Tillett, in rebuking me for (as the associates say) +attacking Mr. Booth's personal character. Of course, when I was +writing, I did not doubt that this very handy, though not too clean, +weapon would be used by one or other of Mr. Booth's supporters. And my +action was finally decided by the following considerations: I happen +to be a member of one of the largest life insurance societies. There +is a vacancy in the directory at present, for which half a dozen +gentlemen are candidates. Now, I said to myself, supposing that one of +these gentlemen (whose pardon I humbly beg for starting the +hypothesis), say Mr. A., in his administrative capacity and as a man +of business, has been the subject of such observations as a Judge on +the Bench bestowed upon Mr. Booth, is he a person for whom I can +properly vote? And, if I find, when I go to the meeting of the +policy-holders, that most of them know nothing of this and other +evidences of what, by the mildest judgment, must be termed Mr. A.'s +unfitness for administrative [289] responsibilities, am I to let them +remain in their ignorance? I leave the answer and its application to +men of sense and integrity. + +The mention of Mr. Cunningham's ally reminds me that I have omitted to +thank Mr. Tillett for his very useful and instructive letter; and I +hasten to repair a neglect which I assure Mr. Tillett was more +apparent than real. Mr. Tillett's letter is dated December 20th. On +the 21st the following pregnant (however unconscious) commentary upon +it appeared in "Reynolds's Newspaper":- + +"I have always maintained that the Salvation Army is one of the +mightiest Socialistic agencies in the country; and now Professor +Huxley comes in to confirm that view. How could it be otherwise? The +fantastic religious side of Salvationism will disappear in the course +of time, and what will be left? A large number of men and women who +have been organized, disciplined, and taught to look for something +better than their present condition, and who have become public +speakers and not afraid of ridicule. There you have the raw materials +for a Socialist army." + +Mr. Ben Tillett evidently knows Latin enough to construe proximus +ardet. + +I trust that the public will not allow themselves to be led away by +the false issues which are [290] dangled before them. A man really may +love his fellow-men; cherish any form of Christianity he pleases; and +hold not only that Darwinism is "tottering to its fall," but, if he +pleases, the equally sane belief that it never existed; and yet may +feel it his duty to oppose, to the best of his capacity, despotic +Socialism in all its forms, and, more particularly, in its Boothian +disguise. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T.H. Huxley. + +[Persons who have not had the advantage of a classical education might +fairly complain of my use of the word epigoni. To say truth, I had +been reading Droysen's "Geschichte des Hellenismus," and the familiar +historical title slipped out unawares. In replying to me, however, the +late "Fellow of University College," Oxford, declares he had to look +the word out in a Lexicon. I commend the fact to the notice of the +combatants over the desirability of retaining the present compulsory +modicum of Greek in our Universities.] + +[291] + + + IX. + +The "Times," December 30th, 1890 + +Sir,--I am much obliged to Messrs. Ranger, Burton, and Matthews for +their prompt answer to my questions. I presume it applies to all money +collected by the agency of the Salvation Army, though not specifically +given for the purposes of the "Christian Mission" named in the deed of +1878; to all sums raised by mortgage upon houses and land so given; +and, further, to funds subscribed for Mr. Booth's various projects, +which have no apparent reference to the objects of the "Christian +Mission" as defined in the deed. Otherwise, to use a phrase which has +become classical, "it does not assist us much." But I must leave these +points to persons learned in the law. + +And, indeed, with many thanks to you, Sir, for the amount of valuable +space which you have allowed me to occupy, I now propose to leave the +whole subject. My sole purpose in embarking upon an enterprise which +was extremely distasteful to me was to prevent the skilful "General," +or rather "Generals," who devised the plan of campaign from sweeping +all before them with a rush. I found the pass already held by such +stout defenders as Mr. Loch and the Dean [292] of Wells, and, with +your powerful help, we have given time for the reinforcements, sure to +be sent by the abundant, though somewhat slowly acting, common sense +of our countrymen, to come up. + +I can no longer be useful, and I return to more congenial occupations. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + +The following letter appeared in the "Times" of January 2nd, 1891:-- + +"Dear Mr. Tillett,--I have not had patience to read Professor Huxley's +letters. The existence of hunger, nakedness, misery, 'death from +insufficient food,' even of starvation, is certain, and no agency as +yet reaches it. How can any man hinder or discourage the giving of +food or help? Why is the house called a workhouse? Because it is for +those who cannot work? No, because it was the house to give work or +bread. The very name is an argument. I am very sure what Our Lord and +His Apostles would do if they were in London. Let us be thankful even +to have a will to do the same. + +"Yours faithfully, +Henry E. Card. Manning." + +[293] + + + X. + +The "Times," January 3rd, 1891 + +SIR,--In my old favourite, "The Arabian Nights," the motive of the +whole series of delightful narratives is that the sultan, who refuses +to attend to reason, can be got to listen to a story. May I try +whether Cardinal Manning is to be reached in the same way? When I was +attending the meeting of the British Association in Belfast nearly +forty years ago, I had promised to breakfast with the eminent scholar +Dr. Hincks. Having been up very late the previous night, I was behind +time; so, hailing an outside car, I said to the driver as I jumped on, +"Now drive fast, I am in a hurry." Whereupon he whipped up his horse +and set off at a hand-gallop. Nearly jerked off my seat, I shouted, +"My good friend, do you know where I want to go?" "No, yer honner," +said the driver, "but, any way, I am driving fast." I have never +forgotten this object-lesson in the dangers of ill-regulated +enthusiasm. We are all invited to jump on to the Salvation Army car, +which Mr. Booth is undoubtedly driving very fast. Some of us have a +firm conviction, not only that he is taking a very different direction +from that in which we wish to go, but that, before long, car and +driver will come to grief. Are we to accept [294] the invitation, even +at the bidding of the eminent person who appears to think himself +entitled to pledge the credit of "Our Lord and His Apostles" in favour +of Boothism? + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + + + XI. + +The "Times," January 13th, 1891 + +SIR,--A letter from Mr. Booth-Clibborn, dated January 3rd, appeared in +the "Times" of yesterday. This elaborate document occupies three +columns of small print--space enough, assuredly, for an effectual +reply to the seven letters of mine to which the writer refers, if any +such were forthcoming. Mr. Booth-Clibborn signs himself "Commissioner +of the Salvation Army for France and Switzerland," but he says that he +accepts my "challenge" without the knowledge of his chiefs. +Considering the self-damaging character of his letter, it was, +perhaps, hardly necessary to make that statement. + +Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn speaks of my "challenge." I presume +that he refers to my request for information about the authorship and +fate of "The New Papacy," in the letter [295] published in the "Times" +on December 27th, 1890. The "Commissioner" deals with this matter in +paragraph No. 4 of his letter; and I observe, with no little +satisfaction, that he does not venture to controvert any one of the +statements of my witnesses. He tacitly admits that the author of "The +New Papacy" was a person "greatly esteemed in Toronto," and that he +held "a high position in the army"; further, that the Canadian +"Commissioner" thought it worth while to pay the printer's bill, in +order that the copies already printed off might be destroyed and the +pamphlet effectually suppressed. Thus the essential facts of the case +are admitted and established beyond question. + +How does Mr. Booth-Clibborn try to explain them away? + +"Mr. Sumner, who wrote the little book in a hot fit, soon regretted it +(as any man would do whose conscience showed him in a calmer moment +when his 'respectability' returned with his repentance, that he had +grossly misrepresented), and just before it appeared offered to order +its suppression if the army would pay the costs already incurred, and +which he was unable to bear." + +"The New Papacy" fills sixty closely printed duodecimo pages. It is +carefully written, and for the most part in studiously moderate +language; moreover, it contains many precise details and [296] +figures, the ascertainment of which must have taken much time and +trouble. Yet, forsooth, it was written in "a hot fit." + +I sincerely hope, for the sake of his own credit, that Mr. +"Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn does not know as much about this +melancholy business as I do. My hands are unfortunately tied, and I +am not at liberty to use all the information in my possession. I must +content myself with quoting the following passage from the preface to +"The New Papacy":-- + +"It has not been without considerable thought and a good deal of urging +that the following pages have been given to the public. But though we +would have shrunk from a labour so distasteful, and have gladly +avoided a notoriety anything but pleasant to the feelings, or +conducive to our material welfare, we have felt that in the interests +of the benevolent public, in the interests of religion, in the +interests of a band of devoted men and women whose personal ends are +being defeated, and the fruit of whose labour is being destroyed, and, +above all, in the interests of that future which lies before the +Salvation Army itself, if purged and purified in its executive and +returned to its original position in the ranks of Canadian Christian +effort, it is no more than our duty to throw such light as we are able +upon its true inwardness, and with that object and for the [297] +furtherance of those ends we offer our pages to the public view." + +The preface is dated April 1889. According to the statement in the +"Toronto Telegram" which Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn does not +dare to dispute, his Canadian fellow-"Commissioner" bought and +destroyed the whole edition of "The New Papacy" about the end of the +third week in April. It is clear that the writer of the paragraph +quoted from the preface was well out of a "hot fit," if he had ever +been in one, while he had not entered on the stage of repentance +within three weeks of that time. Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn's +scandalous insinuations that Mr. Sumner was bribed by "a few +sovereigns," and that he was "bought off," in the face of his own +admission that Mr. Sumner "offered to order its suppression if the +army would pay the costs already incurred, and which he was unable to +bear" is a crucial example of that Jesuitry with which the officials +of the army have been so frequently charged. + +Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn says that when "London headquarters +heard of the affair, it disapproved of the action of the +Commissioner." That circumstance indicates that headquarters is not +wholly devoid of intelligence; but it has nothing to do with the value +of Mr. Sumner's evidence, which is all I am concerned about. Very +likely London headquarters will disapprove of its French [298] +"Commissioner's" present action. But what then? The upshot of all this +is that Mr. Booth-Clibborn has made as great a blunder as simple Mr. +Trotter did. The pair of Balaams greatly desired to curse, but have +been compelled to bless. They have, between them, completely justified +my reliance on Mr. Sumner as a perfectly trustworthy witness; and +neither of them has dared to challenge the accuracy of one solitary +statement made by that worthy gentleman, whose full story I hope some +day or other to see set before the public. Then the true causes of his +action will be made known. + +Paragraph 2 of the "Commissioner's" letter says many things, but not +much about Mr. Hodges. The columns of the "Times" recently showed that +Mr. Hodges was able to compel an apology from Mr. Trotter. I leave it +to him to deal with the "Commissioner." + +As to the "Eagle" case, treated of in paragraph No. 3, a gentleman +well versed in the law, who was in court during the hearing of the +appeal, has assured me that the argument was purely technical; that +the facts were very slightly gone into; and that, so far as he knows, +no dissenting comment was made on the strictures of the Judge before +whom the case first came. Moreover, in the judgment of the Master of +the Rolls, fully recorded in the "Times" of February 14th, 1884, the +following passages occur:-- + +[299] "The case had been heard by a learned Judge, who had exercised +his discretion upon it, and the Court would not interfere with his +discretion unless they could see that he was wrong. The learned Judge +had taken a strong view of the conduct of the defendant, but +nevertheless had said that he would have given relief if he could have +seen how far protection and compensation could be given. And if this +Court differed from him in that view, and could give relief without +forfeiture, they would be acting on his own principle in doing so. +Certain suggestions had been made with that view, and the Court had to +consider the case under all the circumstances.... He himself (the +Master of the Rolls) considered that it was probable the defendant, +with his principles, had intended to destroy the property as a +public-house, and that it was not right thus to take property under a +covenant to keep it up as a public-house, intending to destroy it as +such. He did not, however, think this was enough to deprive him of +all relief. The defendant could only expect severe terms." + +Yet, Sir, Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn, this high official of the +Salvation Army, has the audacity to tell the public that if I had made +inquiries I should have found that "in the Court of Appeal the Judge +reversed the decision of his predecessor as regards seven eighths of +the property, and the General was declared to have acted [300] all +along with straight forwardness and good faith." + +But the nature of Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn's conceptions of +straightforwardness and good faith is so marvellously illustrated by +the portions of his letter with which I have dealt that I doubt not +his statements are quite up to the level of the "Army" Regulations and +Instructions in regard to those cardinal virtues. As I pointed out must +be the case, the slave is subdued to that he works in. + +For myself, I must confess that the process of wading through Mr. +"Commissioner's" verbose and clumsy pleadings has given me a "hot +fit," which, I undertake to say, will be followed by not so much as a +passing shiver of repentance. And it is under the influence of the +genial warmth diffused through the frame, on one of those rare +occasions when one may be "angry and sin not," that I infringe my +resolution to trouble you with no more letters. On reflection, I am +convinced that it is undesirable that the public should be misled, for +even a few days, by misrepresentations so serious. + +I am copiously abused for speaking of the Jesuitical methods of the +superior officials of the Salvation Army. But the following facts have +not been, and, I believe, cannot be, denied:-- + + 1. Mr. Booth's conduct in the "Eagle" case has been censured by two +of the Judges. + +[301] 2. Mr. Bramwell Booth admitted before Mr. Justice Lopes that he +had made an untrue statement because of a promise he had made to Mr. +Stead.* + + * This statement has been disputed, but not yet publicly. (See p. 305.) + +And I have just proved that Mr. "Commissioner" Booth-Clibborn asserts +the exact contrary of that which your report of the judgment of the +Master of the Rolls tells us that distinguished judge said. + +Under these circumstances, I think that my politeness in applying no +harder adjective than "Jesuitical" to these proceedings is not +properly appreciated. + + I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + + + XII. + +The "Times," January 22nd, 1891 + +SIR,--I think that your readers will be interested in the accompanying +opinion, written in consultation with an eminent Chancery Queen's +Counsel, with which I have been favoured. It will be observed that +this important legal deliverance [302] justifies much stronger +language than any which I have applied to the only security (?) for +the proper administration of the funds in Mr. Booth's hands which +appears to be in existence. + +I am, Sir, your obedient servant, + T. H. Huxley. + + 1, Dr. Johnson's Buildings, Temple, E.C., + January 14, 1891. + +MR. BOOTH'S DECLARATION OF TRUST DEED, 1878. + +"I am of opinion, subject to the question whether there may be any +provision in the Charitable Trusts Acts which can be made available +for enforcing some scheme for the appropriation of the property, and +with regard to the real and leasehold properties whether the +conveyances and leases are not altogether void, as frauds on the +Mortmain Acts, that nothing can be done to control or to interfere +with Booth in the disposition or application of the properties or +moneys purported to be affected by the deed. + +"As to the properties vested in Booth himself, it appears to me that +such are placed absolutely under his power and control both as to the +disposal and application thereof, and that there are no trusts for any +specific purposes declared which [303] could be enforced, and that +there are no defined persons nor classes of persons who can claim to +be entitled to the benefits of them, or at whose instance they could +be enforced by any legal process. + +"As to the properties (if any) vested in trustees appointed by Booth, +it appears to me that the only person who has a locus standi to +enforce these trusts is Booth himself, and that he would have absolute +power over the trusts and the property, and might deal with the +property as he pleased, and that, as in the former case, nothing could +be done in the way of enforcing any trusts against him. + +"As to the moneys contributed or raised by mortgage for the general +purposes of the mission, it appears to me that Booth may expend them +as he pleases, without being subject to any legal control, and that he +cannot even be compelled to publish any balance-sheets. + +"Whether there are any provisions in the Charitable Trusts Acts which +could be made available for enforcing some scheme for the application +of the property or funds is a question to which I should require to +give a closer consideration should it become necessary to go into it; +but at present, after perusing these Acts, and especially 16 and 17 +Vict. c. 137 and 18 and 19 Vict. c. 124, I cannot see how they could +be made applicable to the trusts as declared in this deed. + +[304] "As to the Mortmain Acts, the matter is clearly charitable, and +unless in the conveyances and leases to Booth, or to the trustees (if +any) named by him, all the provisions of the Acts have been complied +with, and the deeds have been enrolled under the Acts, they would be +void. It is probable, however, that every conveyance and lease has +been taken without disclosing any charitable trust, for the purpose of +preventing it from being void on the face of it. It is to be noted +that the deed is a mere deed poll by Booth himself, without any other +party to it, who, as a contracting party, would have a right to +enforce it. + +"Whether there are any objects of the trust I cannot say. If there is, +as the recital indicates, a society of enrolled members called 'The +Christian Mission,' those members would be objects of the trust, but +then, it appears to me, Booth has entire control and determination of +the application. And, as to the trusts enuring for the benefit of the +'Salvation Army,' I am not aware what is the constitution of the +'Salvation Army,' but there is no reference whatever to any such body +in the deed. I have understood the army as being merely the +missionaries, and not the society of worshippers. + +"If there is no Christian Mission Society of enrolled members, then +there are no objects of the trust. The trusts are purely religious, +and trading is entirely beyond its purposes. Booth can [305] 'give +away' the property, simply because there is no one who has any right +to prevent his doing so. + +"Ernest Hatton." + +It is probably my want of legal knowledge which prevents me from +appreciating the value of the professed corrections of Mr. Hatton's +opinion contained in the letters of Messrs. Ranger, Burton, and +Matthews, "Times," January 28th and 29th, 1891. + +The note on page 301 refers to a correspondence, incomplete at the +time fixed for the publication of my pamphlet, the nature of which is +sufficiently indicated by the subjoined extracts from Mr. Stead's +letter in the "Times" of January 20th, and from my reply in the +"Times" of January 24th. Referring to the paragraphs numbered 1, 2, at +the end of my letter XI., Mr. Stead says:-- + +"On reading this, I at once wrote to Professor Huxley, stating that, as +he had mentioned my name, I was justified in intervening to explain +that, so far as the second count in his indictment went--for the Eagle +dispute is no concern of mine--he had been misled by an error in the +reports of the case which appeared in the daily papers [306] of +November 4, 1885. I have his reply to-day, saying that I had better +write to you direct. May I ask you, then, seeing that my name has been +brought into the affair, to state that, as I was in the dock when Mr. +Bramwell Booth was in the witness-box, I am in a position to give the +most unqualified denial to the statement as to the alleged admission +on his part of falsehood? Nothing was heard in Court of any such +admission. Neither the prosecuting counsel nor the Judge who tried the +case ever referred to it, although it would obviously have had a +direct bearing on the credit of the witness; and the jury, by +acquitting Mr. Bramwell Booth, showed that they believed him to be a +witness of truth. But fortunately the facts can be verified beyond all +gainsaying by a reference to the official shorthand-writer's report of +the evidence. During the hearing of the case for the prosecution, +Inspector Borner was interrupted by the Judge, who said:-- + +"'I want to ask you a question. During the whole of that conversation, +did Booth in any way suggest that that child had been sold?' Borner +replied:-- + +"'Not at that interview, my Lord.' + +"It was to this that Mr. Bramwell Booth referred when, after +examination, cross-examination, [307] and re-examination, during which +no suggestion had been made that he had ever made the untrue statement +now alleged against him, he asked and received leave from the Judge to +make the following explanation, which I quote from the official +report:-- + +"'Will you allow me to explain a matter mentioned yesterday in +reference to a question asked by your Lordship some days ago with +respect to one matter connected with my conduct? Your Lordship asked, +I think it was Inspector Borner, whether I had said to him at either +of our interviews that the child was sold by her parents, and he +replied "No." That is quite correct; I did not say so to him, and what +I wish to say now is that I had been specially requested by Mr. Stead, +and had given him a promise, that I would not under any circumstances +divulge the fact of that sale to any person which would ma ke it at +all probable that any trouble would be brought upon the persons who +had taken part in this investigation.' (Central Criminal Court Reports, +Vol. CII., part 612, pp. 1,035-6.) + +"In the daily papers of the following day this statement was +misreported as follows:-- + +"'I wish to explain, in regard to your Lordship's condemnation of my +having said "No" to [308] Inspector Borner when he asked me whether +the child had been sold by her parents--the reason why I stated what +was not correct was that I had promised Mr. Stead not to divulge the +fact of the sale to any person which would make it probable that any +trouble should be brought on persons taking part in this proceeding.' + +"Hence the mistake into which Professor Huxley has unwittingly fallen. + +"I may add that, so far from the statement never having been challenged +for five years, it was denounced as 'a remarkably striking lie' in the +'War Cry' of November 14th, and again the same official organ of the +Salvation Army of November 18th specifically adduced this misreport as +an instance of 'the most disgraceful way' in which the reports of the +trial were garbled by some of the papers. What, then, becomes of one +of the two main pillars of Professor Huxley's argument?" + +In my reply, I point out that, on the 10th of January, Mr. Stead +addressed to me a letter, which commences thus: "I see in the 'Times' +of this morning that you are about to republish your letters on +Booth's book." + +I replied to this letter on the 12th of January:-- + +[309] "Dear Mr. Stead,--I charge Mr. Bramwell Booth with nothing. I +simply quote the 'Times' report, the accuracy of which, so far as I +know, has never been challenged by Mr. Booth. I say I quote the +'Times' and not Mr. Hodges,* because I took some pains about the +verification of Mr. Hodges's citation. + + * This is a slip of the pen. Mr. Hodges had nothing to do + with the citation of which I made use. + +"I should have thought it rather appertained to Mr. Bramwell Booth to +contradict a statement which refers, not to what you heard, but to what +he said. However, I am the last person to wish to give circulation to +a story which may not be quite correct; and I will take care, if you +have no objection (your letter is marked 'private'), to make public as +much of your letter as relates to the point to which you have called +my attention. + + "I am, yours very faithfully, + T. H. Huxley." + +To this Mr. Stead answered, under date of January 13th, 1891:-- + +"Dear Professor Huxley,--I thank you for your letter of the 12th inst. +I am quite sure you would not wish to do any injustice in this matter. +But, instead of publishing any extract from my letter, might I ask you +to read the passage as it [310] appears in the verbatim report of the +trial which was printed day by day, and used by counsel on both sides, +and by the Judge during the case? I had hoped to have got you a copy +to-day, but find that I was too late. I shall have it first thing +to-morrow morning. You will find that it is quite clear, and +conclusively disposes of the alleged admission of untruthfulness. +Again thanking you for your courtesy, + + "I am, yours faithfully, + W. T. Stead." + +Thus it appears that the letter which Mr. Stead wrote to me on the 13th +of January does not contain one word of that which he ways it +contains, in the statement which appears in the "Times" to-day. +Moreover, the letter of mine to which Mr. Stead refers in his first +communication to me is not the letter which appeared on the 13th, as +he states, but that which you published on December 27th, 1890. +Therefore, it is not true that Mr. Stead wrote "at once." On the +contrary, he allowed nearly a fortnight to elapse before he addressed +me on the 10th of January 1891. Furthermore, Mr. Stead suppresses the +fact that, since the 13th of January, he has had in his possession my +offer to publish his version of the story; and he leads the reader to +suppose that my only answer was that he "had better write to [311] you +direct. All the while, Mr. Stead knows perfectly well that I was +withheld from making public use of his letter of the 10th by nothing +but my scruples about using a document which was marked "private"; and +that he did not give me leave to quote his letter of the 10th of +January until after he had written that which appeared yesterday. + +And I add:-- + +As to the subject-matter of Mr. Stead's letter, the point which he +wishes to prove appears to be this--that Mr. Bramwell Booth did not +make a false statement, but that he withheld from the officers of +justice, pursuing a most serious criminal inquiry, a fact of grave +importance, which lay within his own knowledge. And this because he +had promised Mr. Stead to keep the fact secret. In short, Mr. Bramwell +Booth did not say what was wrong; but he did what was wrong. + +I will take care to give every weight to the correction. Most people, +I think, will consider that one of the "main pillars of my argument," +as Mr. Stead is pleased to call them, has become very much +strengthened. + +[312] + + LEGAL OPINIONS RESPECTING + "GENERAL" BOOTH'S ACTS. + +In referring to the course of action adopted by "General" Booth and +Mr. Bramwell Booth in respect of their legal obligations to other +persons, or to the criminal and civil law, I have been as careful as I +was bound to be, to put any difficulties suggested by mere lay +commonsense in an interrogative or merely doubtful form; and to +confine myself, for any positive expressions, to citations from +published declarations of the judges before whom the acts of "General" +Booth came; from reports of the Law Courts; and from the deliberate +opinions of legal experts. I have now some further remarks to make on +these topics. + + I. The observations at p. 305 express, with due reserve, the +impression which the counsel's opinions, quoted by "General" Booth's +solicitors, made on my mind. They were written and sent to the printer +before I saw the letter from a "Barrister NOT Practising on the Common +Law Side," and those from Messrs. Clarke and Calkin and Mr. George +Kebbell, which appeared in the "Times" of February 3rd and 4th. + +These letters fully bear out the conclusion which I had formed, but +which it would have [313] been presumptuous on my part to express, +that the opinions cited by "General" Booth's solicitors were like the +famous broken tea-cups "wisely ranged for show"; and that, as Messrs. +Clarke and Calkin say, they "do not at all meet the main points on +which Mr. Hatton advised." I do not think that any one who reads +attentively the able letter of "A Barrister NOT Practicing on the +Common Law Side" will arrive at any other conclusion; or who will not +share the very natural desire of Mr. Kebbell to be provided with clear +and intelligible answers to the following inquiries:-- + + (1) Does the trust deed by its operation empower any one legally to +call upon Mr. Booth to account for the application of the funds? + + (2) In the event of the funds not being properly accounted for, is +any one, and, if so, who, in a position to institute civil or criminal +proceedings against any one, and whom, in respect of such refusal or +neglect to account? + + (3) In the event of the proceedings, civil or criminal, failing to +obtain restitution of misapplied funds, is or are any other person or +persons liable to make good the loss? + +On December 24th, 1890, a letter of mine appeared in the "Times" (No. +V. above) in which I put questions of the same import, and asked Mr. +Booth if he would not be so good as to take counsel's opinion on the +"trusts" of which so [314] much has been heard and so little seen, not +as they stood in 1878, or in 1888, but as they stand now? Six weeks +have elapsed, and I wait for a reply. + +It is true that Dr. Greenwood has been authorized by Mr. Booth to +publish what he calls a "Rough outline of the intended Trust Deed" +("General Booth and His Critics," p. 120), but unfortunately we are +especially told that it "does not profess to be an absolutely accurate +analysis." Under these circumstances I am afraid that neither lawyers +nor laymen of moderate intelligence will pay much attention to the +assertion, that "it gives a fair idea of the general effect of the +draft," even although "the words in quotation marks are taken from it +verbatim." + +These words, which I give in italics, (1) define the purposes of the +scheme to be "for the social and moral regeneration and improvement of +persons needy, destitute, degraded, or criminal, in some manner +indicated, implied, or suggested in the book called 'In Darkest +England.'" Whence I apprehend that, if the whole funds collected are +applied to "mothering society" by the help of speculative attorney +"tribunes of the people," the purposes of the trust will be +unassailably fulfilled. (2) The name is to be "Darkest England +Scheme," (3) the General of the Salvation Army is to be "Director of +the Scheme." Truly valuable information all this! But taking it for +what it is worth, the [315] public must not be misled into supposing +that it has the least bearing upon the questions to which neither I, +nor anybody else, has yet been able to obtain an intelligible answer, +and that is, where are the vast funds which have been obtained, in one +way or another, during the last dozen years in the name of the +Salvation Army? Where is the presumably amended Trust Deed of 1888? I +ask once more: Will Mr. Booth submit to competent and impartial legal +scrutiny the arrangements by which he and his successors are prevented +from dealing with the funds of the so-called "army chest" exactly as +he or they may please? + +II. With respect to the "Eagle" case, I am advised that Dr. Greenwood, +whose good faith I do not question, has been misled into +misrepresenting it in the appendix to his pamphlet. And certainly, the +evidence of authoritative records which I have had the opportunity of +perusing, appears to my non-legal mind to be utterly at variance with +the statement to which Dr. Greenwood stands committed. I may observe, +further, that the excuse alleged on behalf of Mr. Booth, that he +signed the affidavit set before him by his solicitors without duly +considering its contents, is one which I should not like to have put +forward were the case my own. It may be, and often is, necessary for a +person to sign an affidavit without [316] being able fully to +appreciate the technical language in which it is couched. But his +solicitor will always instruct him as to the effect of these terms. +And, in this particular case where the whole matter turns on Mr. +Booth's personal intentions, it was his plainest duty to inquire, very +seriously, whether the legal phraseology employed would convey neither +more nor less than such intentions to those who would act on the +affidavit, before he put his name to it. + +III. With respect to Mr. Bramwell Booth's case, I refer the reader to +p. 311. + +IV. As to Mr. Booth-Clibborn's misrepresentations, see above, pp. 298, +299. + +This much for the legal questions which have been raised by various +persons since the first edition of the pamphlet was published. + +DR. GREENWOOD'S "GENERAL BOOTH AND HIS CRITICS" + +So far as I am concerned, there is little or nothing in this brochure +beyond a reproduction of the vituperative stuff which has been going +the round of those newspapers which favour "General" Booth for some +weeks. Those who do not want to see the real worth of it all will not +read [317] the preceding pages; and those who do will need no help +from me. + +I fear, however, that in justice to other people I must put one of Dr. +Greenwood's paragraphs in the pillory. He says that I have "built up, +on the flimsy foundation of stories told by three or four deserters +from the Army" (p. 114), a sweeping indictment against General Booth. +This is the sort of thing to which I am well accustomed at the hands +of anonymous newspaper writers. But in view of the following easily +verifiable statements, I do not think that an educated and, I have no +doubt, highly respectable gentleman like Dr. Greenwood can, in cold +blood, contemplate that assertion with satisfaction. + +The persons here alluded to as "three or four deserters from the army" +are:-- + + (1) Mr. Redstone, for whose character Dr. Cunningham Geikie is +guarantee, and whom it has been left to Dr. Greenwood to attempt to +besmirch. + + (2) Mr. Sumner, who is a gentleman quite as worthy of respect as +Dr. Greenwood, and whose published evidence not one of the champions +of the Salvation Army has yet ventured to impugn. + + (3) Mr. Hodges, similarly libelled by that unhappy meddler Mr. +Trotter, who was compelled to the prompt confession of his error (see +p. 277). + + (4) Notwithstanding this evidence of Mr. Trotter's claims to +attention, Dr. Greenwood quotes a [318] statement of his as evidence +that a statement quoted by me from Mr. Sumner's work is a "forgery." +But Dr. Greenwood unfortunately forgets to mention that on the 27th of +December 1890 (Letter No. VII. above) Mr. Trotter was publicly +required to produce proof of his assertion; and that he has not +thought fit to produce that proof. + +If I were disposed to use to Dr. Greenwood language of the sort he so +freely employs to me, I think that he could not complain of a handsome +scolding. For what is the real state of the case? Simply this--that +having come to the conclusion, from the perusal of "In Darkest +England," that "General" Booth's colossal scheme (as apart from the +local action of Salvationists) was bad in principle and must produce +certain evil consequences, and having warned the public to that +effect, I quite unexpectedly found my hands full of evidence that the +exact evils predicted had, in fact, already shown themselves on a +great scale; and, carefully warning the public to criticize this +evidence, I produced a small part of it. When Dr. Greenwood talks +about my want of "regard to the opinion of the nine thousand odd who +still remain among the faithful" (p. 114), he commits an imprudence. +He would obviously be surprised to learn the extent of the support, +encouragement, and information which I have received from active and +sincere members of the Salvation Army [319] --but of which I can make +no use, because of the terroristic discipline and systematic espionage +which my correspondents tell me is enforced by its chief. Some of +these days, when nobody can be damaged by their use, a curious light +may be thrown upon the inner workings of the organization which we are +bidden to regard as a happy family, by these documents. + +[320] (blank page) +[321] + + + + THE SALVATION ARMY + ARTICLES OF WAR, + +To be signed by all who wish to be entered on the roll as soldiers. + +Having received with all my heart the Salvation offered to me by the +tender mercy of Jehovah, I do here and now publicly acknowledge God to +be my Father and King, Jesus Christ to be my Saviour, and the Holy +Spirit to be my Guide, Comforter, and Strength; and that I will, by +His help, love, serve, worship, and obey this glorious God through all +time and through all eternity. + +Believing solemnly that The Salvation Army has been raised up by God, +and is sustained and directed by Him, I do here declare my full +determination, by God's help, to be a true soldier of the Army till I +die. + + I am thoroughly convinced of the truth of the Army's teaching. + + I believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus +Christ, and conversion by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to Salvation, +and that all men may be saved. + + I believe that we are saved by grace, through faith in our Lord +Jesus Christ, and he that believeth hath the witness of it in himself. +I have got it. Thank God! + + I believe that the Scriptures were given by inspiration of God, and +that they teach that not only does continuance in the favour of God +depend upon continued faith in, and obedience to, Christ, [322] but +that it is possible for those who have been truly converted to fall +away and be eternally lost. + + I believe that it is the privilege of all God's people to be +"wholly sanctified," and that "their whole spirit and soul and body" +may "be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ." +That is to say, I believe that after conversion there remain in the +heart of the believer inclinations to evil, or roots of bitterness, +which, unless overpowered by Divine grace, produce actual sin; but +these evil tendencies can be entirely taken away by the Spirit of God, +and the whole heart thus cleansed from anything contrary to the will +of God, or entirely sanctified, will then produce the fruit of the +Spirit only. And I believe that persons thus entirely sanctified may, +by the power of God, be kept unblamable and unreprovable before Him. + + I believe in the immortality of the soul; in the resurrection of +the body; in the general judgment at the end of the world; in the +eternal happiness of the righteous; and in the everlasting punishment +of the wicked. + +THEREFORE, I do here, and now, and for ever, renounce the world with +all its sinful pleasures, companionship treasures, and objects, and +declare my full determination boldly to show myself a Soldier of Jesus +Christ in all places and companies, no matter what I may have to +suffer, do, or lose, by so doing. + + I do here and now declare that I will abstain from the use of all +intoxicating liquors, and also from the habitual use of opium, +laudanum, morphia, and all other baneful drugs, except when in illness +such drugs shall be ordered for me by a doctor. + + I do here and now declare that I will abstain from [323] the use of +all low or profane language; from the taking of the name of God in +vain; and from all impurity, or from taking part in any unclean +conversation or the reading of any obscene book or paper at any time, +in any company, or in any place. + + I do here declare that I will not allow myself in any falsehood, +deceit, misrepresentation, or dishonesty; neither will I practise any +fraudulent conduct, either in my business, my home, or in any other +relation in which I may stand to my fellow men, but that I will deal +truthfully, fairly, honourably, and kindly with all those who may +employ me or whom I may myself employ. + + I do here declare that I will never treat any woman, child, or +other person, whose life, comfort, or happiness may be placed within +my power, in an oppressive, cruel, or cowardly manner, but that I will +protect such from evil and danger so far as I can, and promote, to the +utmost of my ability, their present welfare and eternal salvation. + + I do here declare that I will spend all the time, strength, money, +and influence I can in supporting and carrying on this War, and that I +will endeavour to lead my family, friends, neighbours, and all others +whom I can influence, to do the same, believing that the sure and only +way to remedy all the evils in the world is by bringing men to submit +themselves to the government of the Lord Jesus Christ. + + I do here declare that I will always obey the lawful orders of my +Officers, and that I will carry out to the utmost of my power all the +Orders and Regulations of The Army; and further, that I will be an +example of faithfulness to its principles, advance to the utmost of my +ability its operations, and never allow, where I can prevent it, any +injury to its interests or hindrance to its success. + +[324] And I do here and now call upon all present to witness that I +enter into this undertaking and sign these Articles of War of my own +free will, feeling that the love of Christ who died to save me +requires from me this devotion of my life to His service for the +Salvation of the whole world, and therefore wish now to be enrolled as +a Soldier of the Salvation Army. + +________________________________________ + +_____________CORPS______________ 18___ + + ____________________________________ + ______________________________ Corps + ___________________________ Division + _____________________ 18____ + + (SINGLE) + + FORM OF APPLICATION + FOR AN APPOINTMENT AS AN + OFFICER IN THE SALVATION ARMY + +Name _____________________________________________________________________ + +Address __________________________________________________________________ + +1. What was your AGE last birthday? ___________________ + What is the date of your birthday? _________________ + +2. What is your height? __________________ + +3. Are you free from bodily defect or disease? ____ + +4. What serious illnesses have you had, and when? ________________________ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +5. Have you ever had fits of any kind? __________________ +If so how long, and what kind? ___________________________________________ + +6. Do you consider your health good, and that you are strong enough for +the work of an officer? __________________________________________________ +If not, or if you are doubtful, write a letter and explain the matter. + +7. Is your doctor's certificate a full and correct statement so far as you +know? ___________________________________________________________ + +8. Are you, or have you ever been, married? ___________ + +9. When and where CONVERTED? ____________________________ + +10. What other Religious Societies have you belonged to? _________________ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +11. Were you ever a Junior Soldier? _____________________ +If so, how long? ________________________________________ + +12. How long have you been enrolled as a SOLDIER? _______ +and signed Articles of War? ____________________ + +13. If you hold any office in your Corps, say what and how long held? ____ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +14. Do you intend to live and die in the ranks of the Salvation Army? ____ + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + +15. Have you ever been an open BACKSLIDER? ______________ +If so, how long? ________________________________________ + +16. Why? _________________________________________________________________ +Date of your Restoration? ___________________ + +17. Are you in DEBT? __________________ +If so, how much? ______________________ + +18. How long owing? ______________________________________________________ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +19. Did you ever use Intoxicating Drink? _____________ +If so, how long is it since you entirely gave up its use? ________________ + +20. Did you ever use Tobacco or Snuff? _________ +If so, how long is it since you gave up using either? ____________________ + + ------------------------ + +21. What UNIFORM do you wear? ____________________________________________ + +22. How long have you worn it? ___________________________________________ + +23. Do you agree to dress in accordance with the direction of Headquarters? +_________________ + +24. Can you provide your own uniform and "List of Necessaries" before +entering the Service? ____________________________________________________ + + -------------------------------- + +25. Are you in a Situation? _____________ +If so, how long? ________________________ + +26. Nature of duties, and salary _________________________________________ + +27. Name and address of employer? ________________________________________ + +28. If out, date of leaving last situation? _________________________ +How long there? _____________________________________________________ + +29. Why did you leave? ___________________________________________________ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +30. Name and address of last employer? ___________________________________ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +31. Can you start the SINGING? __________ + +32. Can you play any musical instrument? _________________ +If so, what? _____________________________________________________________ + +33. Is this form filled up by you? ________________________ +Can you read well at first sight? _________________________ + +34. Can you write SHORTHAND? _________________________ +If so, what speed and system? ____________________________________________ + +35. Can you speak any language other than English? _______________________ +If so, what? _____________________________________________________________ + +36. Have you had any experience and success in the JUNIOR SOLDIERS' WAR? _ + +37. If so, what? _________________________________________________________ +__________________________________________________________________________ +_ + +38. Are you willing to sell the "WAR CRY" on Sundays? ____________ + +39. Do you engage not to publish any books, songs, or music except for the +benefit of the Salvation Army, and then only with the consent of +Headquarters? ________________ + +40. Do you promise not to engage in any trade, profession, or other money- +making occupation, except for the benefit of the Salvation Army, and then +only with the consent of Headquarters? _________________________ + +41. Would you be willing to go ABROAD if required? _______________________ + +42. Do you promise to do your utmost to help forward the Junior Soldiers' +work if accepted? _____________ + +43. Do you pledge yourself to spend not less than nine hours every day in +the active service of the Army, of which not less than three hours of each +week day shall be spent in VISITATION? ______________________ + +44. Do you pledge yourself to fill up and send to Headquarters forms as to +how your day is spent? ______________________ + + ---------------------------- + +45. Have you read, and do you believe, the DOCTRINES printed on the other +side? ____________________ + +46. Have you read the "Orders and Regulations for Field Officers" of the +Army? ________________________________ + +If you have not got a copy of "Orders and Regulations," get one from +Candidates' Department at once. The price to Candidates is 2s. 6d. + +47. Do you pledge yourself to study and carry out and to endeavour to +train others to carry out all Orders and Regulations of the Army? ________ + +48. Have you read the Order on page 3 of this Form as to PRESENTS and +TESTIMONIALS, and do you engage to carry it out? _________________________ + +49. Do you pledge yourself never to receive any sum in the form of pay +beyond the amount of allowances granted under the scale which follows? +___________ + + ALLOWANCES-- From the day of arrival at his station, each officer is +entitled to draw the following allowances, provided the amount remains in +hand after meeting all local expenses, namely: + +-- For Single Men: Lieutenants, 16s. weekly, and Captains, 18s. + +-- for Single Women: Lieutenants, 12s. weekly, and Captains, 15s. weekly. + +-- Married Men, 27s. per week, and ls. per week for each child under 14 +years of age; in all cases without house-rent. + +50. Do you perfectly understand that no salary or allowance is guaranteed +to you, and that you will have no claim against the Salvation Army, or +against any one connected therewith, on account of salary or allowances +not received by you? _____________________________________________________ + + ----------------------------- + +51. Have you ever APPLIED BEFORE? ___ If so, when? ______________________ + +52. With what result? ____________________________________________________ + +53. If you have ever been in the service of the Salvation Army in any +position, say what? ______________________________________________________ + +54. Why did you leave? ___________________________________________________ + +55. Are you willing to come into TRAINING that we may see whether you +have the necessary goodness and ability for an Officer in the Salvation +Army, and should we conclude that you have not the necessary qualifications, +do you pledge yourself to return home and work in your Corps without +creating any dissatisfaction? ____________________________________________ + +56. Will you pay your own travelling expenses if we decide to receive you +in Training? _____________________________________________________________ + +57. How much can you pay for your maintenance while in Training? _________ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +58. Can you deposit [Pound] 1 so that we can provide you with a suit of +Uniform when you are Commissioned? +______________________________________________________ + +59. What is the shortest NOTICE you require should we want you? __________ + +60. Are your PARENTS willing that you should become an Officer? __________ + +61. Does any one depend upon you for support? _________ If so, who? ______ +__________________________________________________________________________ + +62. To what extent? ______________________________________________________ + +63. Give your parents', or nearest living relatives', full address _______ +__________________________________________________________________________ + + --------------------------------- + +64. Are you COURTING? ________ If so, give name and address of the person: +__________________________________________________________________________ + +65. How long have you been engaged? _____________ What is the person's age? +__________________________________________ + +66. What is the date of Birthday? _______________________ +How long enrolled as a SOLDIER? _________________________ + +67. What Uniform does the person wear? ___________________________________ +How long worn? ______________________ + +68. What does the person do in the Corps? ________________________________ + +69. Has the person applied for the work? _________________________________ + +70. If not, when does the person intend doing so? ________________________ + +71. Do the parents agree to the person coming into Training? _____________ + + --------------------------------- + +72. Do you understand that you may not be allowed to marry until three +years after your appointment as an Officer, and do you engage to abide +by this? __________________ + +73. If you are not courting, do you pledge yourself to abstain from +anything of the kind during Training and for at least twelve months +after your appointment as a Commissioned Field Officer? __________________ + +74. Do you pledge yourself not to carry on courtship with any one at the +station to which you are at the time appointed? __________________________ + +75. Do you pledge yourself never to commence, or allow to commence, or +break off anything of the sort, without first informing your Divisional +Officer, or Headquarters, of your intention to do so? ____________________ + +76. Do you pledge yourself never to marry any one marriage with whom would +take you out of the Army altogether? _____________________________________ + +77. Have you read, and do you agree to carry out, the following +Regulations as to Courtship and Marriage? ___________________ + +(a) "Officers must inform their Divisional Officer or Headquarters of +their desire to enter into or break off any engagement, and no Officer is +permitted to enter into or break off an engagement without the consent of +his or her D.O. + +(b) "Officers will not be allowed to carry on any courtship in the Town in +which they are appointed; nor until twelve months after the date of their +Commission. + +(c) "Headquarters cannot consent to the engagement of Male Lieutenants, +until their Divisional Officer is prepared to recommend them for command +of a Station as Captain. + +(d) "Before Headquarters can consent to the marriage of any Officer, the +Divisional Officer must be prepared to give him three stations as a married +man. + +(e) "No Officer accepted will be allowed to marry until he or she has been +at least three years in the field, except in cases of long-standing +engagements before application for the work. + +(f) "No Male Officer will, under any circumstances, be allowed to marry +before he is twenty-two years of age, unless required by Headquarters for +special service. + +(g) "Headquarters will not agree to the Marriage of any Male Officer +(except under extraordinary circumstances) until twelve months after +consenting to his engagement. + +(h) "Consent will not be given to the engagement of any male Officer +unless the young woman is likely to make a suitable wife for an Officer, +and (if not already an Officer) is prepared to come into Training at once. + +(i) "Consent will be given to engagements between Female Officers and +Soldiers, on condition that the latter are suitable for Officers, and are +willing to come into Training if called upon. + +(j) "Consent will never be given to any engagement or marriage which would +take an Officer out of the Army. + +(k) "Every Officer must sign before marriage the Articles of Marriage, +contained in the Orders and Regulations for Field Officers." + + ---------------------------- + + PRESENTS AND TESTIMONIALS. + +1. Officers are expected to refuse utterly, and to prevent, if possible, +even the proposal of any present or testimonial to them. + +2. Of course, an Officer who is receiving no salary, or only part salary, +may accept food or other gifts, such as are needed to meet his wants; but +it is dishonourable for any one who is receiving their salary to accept +gifts of food also. + + THE DOCTRINES OF THE SALVATION ARMY. + +The principal Doctrines taught in the Army are as follows: -- + +1. We believe that the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament were given +by inspiration of God, and that they only constitute the Divine rule of +Christian faith and practice. + +2. We believe there is only one God, who is infinitely perfect, the +Creator, Preserver, and Governor of all things. + +3. We believe that there are three persons in the Godhead--the Father, the +Son, and the Holy Ghost, undivided in essence, coequal in power and glory, +and the only proper object of religious worship. + +4. We believe that, in the person of Jesus Christ, the Divine and human +natures are united, so that He is truly and properly God, and truly and +properly man. + +5. We believe that our first parents were created in a state of innocency, +but by their disobedience they lost their purity and happiness; and that, +in consequence of their fall, all men have become sinners, totally +depraved, and as such are justly exposed to the wrath of God. + +6. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ has, by His suffering and death, +made an atonement for the whole world, so that whosoever will may be +saved. + +7. We believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, +and regeneration by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to Salvation. + +8. We believe that we are justified by grace, through faith in our Lord +Jesus Christ, and that he that believeth hath the witness in himself. + +9. We believe the Scriptures teach that not only does continuance in the +favour of God depend upon continued faith in, and obedience to, Christ, +but that it is possible for those who have been truly converted to fall +away and be eternally lost. + +10. We believe that it is the privilege of all believers to be "wholly +sanctified," and that "the whole spirit and soul and body" may "be +preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ." That is to +say, we believe that after conversion there remain in the heart of the +believer inclinations to evil, or roots of bitterness, which, unless +overpowered by Divine grace, produce actual sin; but that these evil +tendencies can be entirely taken away by the Spirit of God, and the whole +heart, thus cleansed from everything contrary to the will of God, or +entirely sanctified, will then produce the fruit of the Spirit only. And +we believe that persons thus entirely sanctified may, by the power of God, +be kept unblamable and unreprovable before Him. + +11. We believe in the immortality of the soul; in the resurrection of the +body; in the general judgment at the end of the world; in the eternal +happiness of the righteous; and in the everlasting punishment of the +wicked. + + ----------------------------- + + DECLARATION. + +I HEREBY DECLARE that I will never, on any consideration, do anything +calculated to injure The Salvation Army, and especially, that I will +never, without first having obtained the consent of The General, take any +part in any religious services or in carrying on services held in +opposition to the Army. + +I PLEDGE MYSELF to make true records, daily, on the forms supplied to me, +of what I do, and to confess, as far as I am concerned, and to report, as +far as I may see in others, any neglect or variation from the orders or +directions of The General. + +I FULLY UNDERSTAND that he does not undertake to employ or to retain in +the service of The Army any one who does not appear to him to be fitted +for the work, or faithful and successful in it, and I solemnly pledge +myself quietly to leave any Army Station to which I may be sent, without +making any attempt to disturb or annoy The Army in any way, should The +General desire me to do so. And I hereby discharge The Army and The +General from all liability, and pledge myself to make no claim on account +of any situation, property, or interest I may give up in order to secure +an engagement in The Army. + +I understand that The General will not be responsible in any way for any +loss I may suffer in consequence of being dismissed from Training; as I am +aware that the Cadets are received into Training for the very purpose of +testing their suitability for the work of Salvation Army Officers. + +I hereby declare that the foregoing answers appear to me to fully express +the truth as to the questions put to me, and that I know of no other facts +which would prevent my engagement by The General, if they were known to +him. + +Candidate to sign here......................................... + + -------------------------- + + NOTICE TO CANDIDATES. + +1. All Candidates are expected to fill up and sign this form themselves, +if they can write at all. + +2. You are expected to have obtained and read "Orders and Regulations for +Field Officers" before you make this application. + +3. Making this application does NOT imply that we can receive you as an +officer, and you are, therefore, NOT to leave your home, or give notice to +leave your situation, until you hear again from us. + +4. If you are appointed as an Officer, or received into Training and it is +afterwards discovered that any of the questions in this form have not been +truthfully answered, you will be instantly dismissed. + +5. If you do not understand any question in this form, or if you do not +agree to any of the requirements stated upon it, return it to +Headquarters, and say so in a straightforward manner. + +6. Make the question for this appointment a matter of earnest prayer, as +it is the most important step you have taken since your conversion. + +We must have your Photo. Please enclose it with your forms, and address +them to "Candidate Department," 101, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C. + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays + diff --git a/old/old-2024-02-10/2940.zip b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..26adf2d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old-2024-02-10/2940.zip |