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diff --git a/29340.txt b/29340.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d1293fc --- /dev/null +++ b/29340.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18499 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Story of the Great War, Volume IV (of 8), +Edited by Francis J. (Francis Joseph) Reynolds, Allen L. (Allen Leon) +Churchill, and Francis Trevelyan Miller + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Story of the Great War, Volume IV (of 8) + Champagne, Artois, Grodno; Fall of Nish; Caucasus; Mesopotamia; Development of Air Strategy; United States and the War + + +Editor: Francis J. (Francis Joseph) Reynolds, Allen L. (Allen Leon) +Churchill, and Francis Trevelyan Miller + +Release Date: July 7, 2009 [eBook #29340] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR, VOLUME +IV (OF 8)*** + + +E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Christine P. Travers, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from +page images generously made available by Internet Archive +(http://www.archive.org) and digitized by Google Books Library Project +(http://books.google.com/intl/en/googlebooks/library.html) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 29340-h.htm or 29340-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29340/29340-h/29340-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29340/29340-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available + through Internet Archive or Google books. See + http://www.archive.org/details/storygreatwar01ruhlgoog + or + http://books.google.com/books?id=PV4PAAAAYAAJ&oe=UTF-8 + + +Transcriber's note: + + Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. Hyphenation + and accentuation have been made consistent. All other + inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling + has been retained. + + + + + +THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR + +History of the European War from Official Sources + +Complete Historical Records of Events to Date, +Illustrated with Drawings, Maps, and Photographs + +Prefaced by + +What the War Means to America +Major General Leonard Wood, U.S.A. + +Naval Lessons of the War +Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight, U.S.N. + +The World's War +Frederick Palmer + +Theatres of the War's Campaigns +Frank H. Simonds + +The War Correspondent +Arthur Ruhl + +Edited by + +Francis J. Reynolds +Former Reference Librarian of Congress + +Allen L. Churchill +Associate Editor, The New International Encyclopedia + +Francis Trevelyan Miller +Editor in Chieft, Photographic History of the Civil War + +P. F. Collier & Son Company +New York + + +[Illustration: _Kaiser Wilhelm II, German Emperor, inspecting +Austro-Hungarian troops on the East Galician front, New Year's Day, +1916. At the Kaiser's left is General Count von Bothmer_] + + +THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR + +Champagne . Artois . Grodno +Fall of Nish . Caucasus +Mesopotamia . Development +of Air Strategy . United +States and the War + +VOLUME IV + + + + + + + +P . F . Collier & Son . New York + +Copyright 1916 +By P. F. Collier & Son + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PART I.--WAR IN SYRIA AND EGYPT + +CHAPTER Page + + I. Renewed Turkish Attempts 9 + + +PART II.--WAR IN THE AIR + + II. Raids of the Airmen 16 + + III. Zeppelins Attack London--Battles in the Air 29 + + IV. Venice Attacked--Other Raids 34 + + +PART III.--THE WESTERN FRONT + + V. Summary of First Year's Operations 39 + + VI. Fighting in Artois and the Vosges 46 + + VII. Political Crisis in France--Aeroplane Warfare--Fierce + Combats in the Vosges--Preparations for Allied + Offense 52 + + VIII. The Great Champagne Offensive 61 + + IX. The British Front in Artois 81 + + X. The Battle of Loos 90 + + XI. The Cavell Case--Accident to King George 98 + + XII. Operations in Champagne And Artois--Preparations for + Winter Campaign 104 + + XIII. Events in the Winter Campaign 117 + + XIV. The Battle of Verdun--The German Attack 131 + + +PART IV.--THE WAR AT SEA + + XV. Naval Situation at the Beginning of the Second + Year--Submarine Exploits 143 + + XVI. The Sinking of the Arabic--British Submarine Successes 150 + + XVII. Cruise of the Moewe--Loss of British Battleships 156 + + XVIII. Continuation of War on Merchant Shipping--Italian + and Russian Naval Movements--Sinking of La + Provence 165 + + +PART V.--THE WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT + + XIX. Summary of First Year's Operations 174 + + XX. The Fall of the Niemen and Nareff Fortresses 178 + + XXI. The Conquest of Grodno and Vilna 185 + + XXII. The Capture of Brest-Litovsk 193 + + XXIII. The Struggle in East Galicia and Volhynia and the + Capture of Pinsk 200 + + XXIV. In the Pripet Marshes 209 + + XXV. Fighting on the Dvina and in the Dvina-Vilna Sector 212 + + XXVI. Winter Battles on the Styr and Strypa Rivers 223 + + XXVII. On the Tracks of the Russian Retreat 229 + + XXVIII. Sidelights on the Russian Retreat and German + Advance 240 + + XXIX. Winter on the Eastern Front 250 + + +PART VI.--THE BALKANS + + XXX. Battle Clouds Gather Again 255 + + XXXI. The Invasion Begins 263 + + XXXII. Bulgaria Enters the War 269 + + XXXIII. The Teutonic Invasion Rolls on 273 + + XXXIV. The Fall of Nish--Defense of Babuna Pass 282 + + XXXV. Bulgarian Advance--Serbian Resistance 290 + + XXXVI. End of German Operations--Flight of Serb People--Greece 300 + + XXXVII. Allies Withdraw into Greece--Attitude of Greek + Government 308 + + XXXVIII. Bulgarian Attacks--Allies Concentrate at Saloniki 316 + + XXXIX. Italian Movements in Albania--Conquest of Montenegro 327 + + XL. Conditions in Serbia, Greece, and Rumania 339 + + +PART VII.--THE DARDANELLES AND RUSSO-TURKISH CAMPAIGN + + XLI. Conditions in Gallipoli--Attack at Suvla Bay 344 + + +PART VIII.--AGGRESSIVE TURKISH CAMPAIGN AT DARDANELLES + + XLII. Sari Bair--Partial Withdrawal of Allies 353 + + XLIII. Aggressive Turkish Movements--Opinion in England--Change + in Command 357 + + XLIV. Abandonment of Dardanelles--Armenian Atrocities 369 + + XLV. Campaign in Caucasus--Fall of Erzerum 380 + + +PART IX.--ITALY IN THE WAR + + XLVI. Review OF Preceding Operations--Italian Movements 393 + + XLVII. Italy's Relations to the Other Warring Nations 399 + + XLVIII. Problems of Strategy 404 + + XLIX. Move Against Germany 410 + + L. Renewed Attacks--Italy's Situation At the Beginning + of March, 1916 413 + + +PART X.--CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA + + LI. Operations Against Bagdad and Around the Tigris 419 + + LII. Advance Toward Bagdad--Battle of Kut-el-Amara 426 + + LIII. Battle of Ctesiphon 437 + + LIV. Stand at Kut-el-Amara--Attempts at Relief 444 + + +PART XI.--THE WAR IN THE AIR + + LV. Development of the Strategy and Tactics of Air + Fighting 454 + + LVI. Zeppelin Raids--Attacks on German Arms Factories--German + Over-Sea Raids 459 + + LVII. Attacks on London--Bombardment of Italian Ports--Aeroplane + as Commerce Destroyer 466 + + LVIII. Air Fighting on all Fronts--Losses 473 + + +PART XII.--THE UNITED STATES AND THE BELLIGERENTS + + LIX. Sinking of the Arabic--Another Crisis--Germany's + Defense and Concessions 480 + + LX. Issue with Austria-Hungary Over the Ancona--Surrender + to American Demands 490 + + LXI. The Lusitania Deadlock--Agreement Blocked by Armed + Merchantmen Issue--Crisis in Congress 496 + + LXII. Developments of Pro-German Propaganda--Munitions + Crusade Defended--New Aspects of American Policy 505 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Kaiser Wilhelm Inspecting His Troops _Frontispiece_ + + Opposite Page + Zigzag Trenches in the Champagne 62 + + German Infantry Storming a Hill 94 + + General Joffre and General Petain 142 + + Austrian Infantry in Russia 238 + + Constructing a Bridge Over the Danube 270 + + British Hydroplane on Guard at Saloniki 318 + + Aeroplane Guns on Turntable 462 + + Firing a Torpedo from the Deck of a Destroyer 494 + + + + +LIST OF MAPS + + Page + Middle Europe--The German Vision of an Empire from the Baltic + to the Persian Gulf (_Colored Map_) _Front Insert_ + + Champagne District, The 63 + + Battle in Champagne, September, 1915, Detail Map of 69 + + Artois Region, September, 1915, The French Gains in 86 + + Battle at Loos, The 95 + + Verdun, The Forts at 134 + + Verdun, Fighting at, up to March 1, 1916 141 + + Verdun (_Colored Map_) _Opposite_ 142 + + Kiel Canal 167 + + Russia, The Battle Front in, January 1, 1916 228 + + Balkan (Serbian) Operations, General Map of 262 + + German-Austro-Bulgar Campaign Against Serbia, The Beginning + of the 268 + + Retreat of Serbians 304 + + Saloniki, The Allies at 324 + + Montenegro, The Austrian Campaign in 335 + + Dardanelles, Operations at the 368 + + Turkish Empire, The 381 + + Turkey in Armenia, The Russian Advance on 390 + + Bagdad Railroad, The 420 + + Russian Advance Through Persia, The 438 + + Mesopotamia, The British Campaign in 451 + + + + +PART I--WAR IN SYRIA AND EGYPT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +RENEWED TURKISH ATTEMPTS + + +The leaders of the Turkish troops had been hard at work arousing the +fanaticism of the Turkish soldiery against the British foe before the +next day's battle began. It is due these noisy "Holy Warriors" that +sentries of the Fifth Egyptian Field Battery were warned of the near +presence of the enemy. + +The Indian troops now took the offensive, supported by the warships +and mountain and field artillery. The Serapeum garrison, consisting of +Ninety-second Punjabis and Rajputs, now cleared its front of the enemy +who had been stopped three-quarters of a mile away. A counterattack +made by the Sixty-second Punjabis of the Tussum garrison drove the +Turks back. Two battalions of the Turkish Twenty-eighth Regiment now +joined the fight, but the British artillery threw them into disorder, +and by 3 p. m. of February 3, 1915, the Moslems were in retreat, +leaving behind them a rear guard of a few hundred men hidden in the +gaps among the brush along the eastern bank. + +The warships on Lake Timsah had been in action since morning, and the +sand hills near Ismailia were at first crowded by civilians and +soldiers eager to witness the fight, until the Turkish guns to the +east and southeast of the Ferry post drove them in cover. + +About 11 a. m. an old unprotected Indian Marine transport, H. M. S. +_Hardinge_, was struck by two 6-inch shells. One carried away the +funnel and the other burst inboard doing much damage. Two of the crew +were killed and nine wounded. George Carew, the pilot, lost a leg, but +continued on duty and helped to bring the injured vessel into +Ismailia. The French coast guard battleship _Requin_ came now under +the Turkish fire, but her 10.8-inch guns soon silenced the enemy's +batteries. + +The morning of February 3, 1915, the Turks advanced on the Ismailia +Ferry, then held by Sikhs, Punjabi Rifles, a battery of Indian +mountain artillery and Australian engineers, digging shelter pits as +they moved forward, covered by two field batteries. Their advance was +stopped by the British guns when they had come within 1,000 yards of +the outpost line. During the afternoon the Turks kept up some +desultory firing that was ineffective; they also engaged in some +reconnoitering of British positions during the dark night that +followed, but when morning broke they had all disappeared. + +Meanwhile, at El Kantara the struggle had reached much the same +conclusion. The Indian troops had repelled an advance from the south, +in which two Turkish regiments, the Eightieth and Eighty-first of the +Twenty-seventh Division, were engaged. H.M.S. _Swiftsure_, which had +taken the place of the disabled _Hardinge_, aided by Indian and +Territorial artillery, did effective work in covering the British +positions. The nature of the ground here was so marshy that in places +the Turks sank to their waists in muddy ooze, and foredoomed their +attack to failure. Again it was demonstrated that they are poor +strategists and fail to make careful observations of the terrain +before advancing to attack. At El Ferdan, where some Turks made a +demonstration with a battery about this time, there were no losses, +though the gunboat _Clio_ was hit several times. At El Kantara, where +a part of General Cox's brigade of Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Punjabis were +engaged, there were thirty casualties. + +Between Tussum and Serapeum there was some sniping during the late +afternoon of February 3 from the east bank of the canal, during which +a British sailor was killed on H.M.S. _Swiftsure_. The desultory +firing continued during the night and through the early morning of +February 4. A deplorable incident occurred this day in which a brave +British officer and several of his men were the victims of Turkish +treachery. Several hundred Turks had been discovered by half a +battalion of Ninety-second Punjabis sent out from Serapeum. In the +encounter that followed, some of the Turks held up their hands as a +sign of surrender, while others continued to fire. Captain Cochran of +the Ninety-second company, who was advancing with his men to take the +surrender, was killed. A few of his soldiers also fell, and some +others were wounded. The British took a prompt and complete revenge +for the loss of these men. After being reenforced by Indian troops +they overpowered the enemy in a hand-to-hand struggle, in which a +Turkish officer was killed by a British officer in a sword combat. The +Turks had lost in this brisk engagement about 120 killed and wounded, +and 6 officers and 25 men were captured with 3 Maxim guns. + +The Turkish attempts at Suez on February 2, 1915, were insignificant, +and did not cost the British the loss of a single man. By nightfall, +just as their compatriots had done along other parts of the canal, the +Turks fled in the direction of Nakhl, Djebel, Habeite, and Katia. On +the afternoon of the 4th, when the fighting between Serapeum and +Tussum was concluded, Indian cavalry and various patrols captured some +men and war materials. At Ismailia preparations were under way to +pursue the retreating Turks across the canal. This plan, for some +reason, was subsequently abandoned. + +During these various fights along the canal, the British had lost 115 +killed and wounded, a small number considering the character of the +ground and the very numerous attacks and skirmishes. Nine hundred +Turks were buried or found drowned in the canal, 650 were taken +prisoners, while it is estimated that between 1,500 and 2,000 must +have been wounded. The brunt of the struggle fell on the Indian +troops, who, in general, fought with great bravery. There were some +Australian and Egyptian troops engaged who proved themselves valuable +auxiliaries. + +In these engagements along the canal the Syrian Moslems displayed even +greater bravery than the Turks, who were not lacking in intrepidity, +though they showed poor judgment. They had much to learn in the way of +taking cover, and would often blindly advance over difficult ground +that placed them at a disadvantage. + +Djemal Pasha had evidently counted on an Egyptian rising, and perhaps +a mutiny of the Indian Moslem troops, but he showed that he entirely +misjudged their sentiments, as they displayed great bitterness toward +the Turks during the fighting, and attacked them in a thoroughly +vindictive spirit. If Djemal had not counted on help from these +quarters he would probably not have attempted to break through the +British positions covering a ninety-mile front with such a small +force. It was estimated that he had about 25,000 men, but not more +than half of these were brought into action at any given point where +they might have achieved some success. The Turks had burned up some +war material and left a few deserters behind them, but they had +retreated in good order, and the British commanders had reason to +believe that they should soon be heard from again, and that a main +attack was contemplated. + +On February 6, 1915, British aeroplane observers discovered that the +Turks in front of the Tussum-Deversoir section had gathered at Djebel, +Habeite, and were strongly reenforced. It appeared that Djemal was now +preparing to attack in force. The British were quite ready for them, +having been reenforced on February 3 and 4 by the Seventh and Eighth +Australian battalions, a squadron of the Duke of Lancaster's Own +Yeomanry, and the Herts, and Second County of London Yeomanry. But the +British hopes of a decisive engagement were blighted by the general +retirement of the Turkish army with their reenforcements. + +They crossed the desert successfully, thanks to the organizing skill +of Kress von Kressenstein and Roshan Bey, and set off for the Turkish +base at Beersheba, spreading the news along the road that they had won +a victory and would soon return to Egypt and achieve another, this by +way of keeping the Syrians reassured that success was on the Moslem +side. + +In January, 1915, the commander of Turkish troops at Fort Nakhl, +hearing that the Government quarantine station at Tor was undefended, +sent a body of men under two German officers to occupy the place. The +raiders found on their arrival at Tor that about 200 Egyptian soldiers +were in occupation and waited there until they received +reenforcements, which brought their force up to 400 men. For the time +they occupied a small village about five miles north of Tor, +occasionally firing a shot at long range and sending arrogant messages +to the Egyptians. On February 11 a detachment of Ghurkas embarked +secretly from Suez, and advancing over the hills in the rear of the +Turks, surprised their position on the following morning. In the +encounter that followed the Turks were annihilated. Sixty lay dead on +the field, and over a hundred, including a Turkish officer, were made +prisoners. On the British side one Ghurka was killed and another +wounded. It was a disappointment that the German officers and a few +men had left the camp some days before for Abu Zenaima on the coast, +where there was a British-owned manganese mine, which the raiders +damaged as best they could, and then stealing some camels, departed +for the fort at Nakhl. + +The failure of the Turks to win any success at that canal, and their +subsequent retreat, had a discouraging influence on the Bedouin +levies, who had joined Djemal Pasha and Hilmi Bey, and they now chose +the first opportunity to vanish with the new rifles that had been +given to them. + +For a month the Turks did nothing but keep the British troops occupied +by petty raids and feint attacks, which were worrisome, but better +than utter stagnation. + +On March 22, 1915, a Turkish column with guns and cavalry appeared +near the canal near El Kubri, and their advance guard of about 400 +encountered a patrol of nine men under Havildar Subha Singh of the +Fifty-sixth Punjab Rifles. The Havildar retired fighting courageously, +holding the enemy back until he had got his men to safety, with a loss +of two killed and three wounded. The Havildar, who was badly wounded +himself, received the Indian Order of Merit and was promoted to +Jemadar. He had inflicted on the enemy a loss of twelve men and +fifteen wounded. + +On March 23, 1915, General Sir G. J. Younghusband set out to attack +the Turks who had been under the command of Colonel van Trommer, but +owing to delays they had had time to retreat toward Nakhl. In the +pursuit that followed, their rear guard lost about forty men and some +were taken prisoners. There were about a dozen British casualties. + +On April 29, 1915, a raiding party with Maxims attacked a detachment +of Bikanir Camel Corps and Egyptian sappers near Bir Mahadet, which +resulted in the wounding of a British officer, and five killed and +three wounded among the Egyptians and Bikaniris. A punitive expedition +sent out to attack the raiders marched through the night to Bir +Mahadet only to find that the Turks had fled. The British aeroplane +soon after "spotted" the enemy near a well six miles north. The +Patiala cavalry, who were leading, came up with the Turkish rear guard +in the afternoon and charged. The Turks stampeded, except for a small +group of Turkish soldiers led by a plucky Albanian officer, who held +their ground and attacked from the flank the advancing British +officers and Patiala cavalry. Two British officers and a native +officer were killed or badly wounded in the subsequent charge. The +Albanian, who had displayed such courage, proved to be a son of Djemal +Pasha. He fell with seven lance thrusts, none of which however proved +fatal, while all his men were killed or captured. The British had four +or five times as many men as the escaping enemy, but they did not +pursue. + +In June, 1915, Colonel von Laufer and a mixed force attempted a feeble +raid on the canal near El Kantara, but were driven off with some loss +by the Yeomanry, who had done effective work in keeping the enemy away +from the British lines. A mine having been found near the canal about +this time, the Porte informed the neutral powers that the canal must +be closed to navigation owing to the arbitrary conduct of the British +in Egypt. But the Turks were not in a position to carry out their +threats, owing to the vigorous attack on the Dardanelles. Troops were +hurried from Syria to Constantinople, and by June 6 less than 25,000 +Turkish troops remained in central and southern Syria and the Sinai +Peninsula. At Nakhl and El Arish there were left about 7,000 veteran +desert fighters, but the British air scouts kept a watchful eye on the +desert roads, and used bombs with such effect that the Turks were +kept in a constant state of apprehension by their attacks. + +At Sharkieh, the eastern province of the Delta, there had been some +uneasiness when the Turks made their unsuccessful strikes at the +canal, but the population gave no trouble. At Alexandria and Cairo +some few fanatics and ignorant people of the lower classes displayed +some opposition to the Government. The sultan was fired on April 8, +1915, by a degenerate, Mohammed Khalil, a haberdasher of Masoura, the +bullet missing the victim by only a few inches. Khalil was tried by +court-martial and executed April 24. The attempt on Sultan Hussein's +life had the effect of making him friends from among the disaffected +in the higher classes who found it wise policy to express their horror +of the attempted crime, and to proclaim their allegiance to the +Government. On April 9 the sultan received a popular ovation while on +his way to the mosque. + +As a base for the allied Mediterranean expeditionary force, and as a +training ground for Australian, Indian, and British troops, Egypt in +1915 was of the utmost military importance to the British Empire. From +the great camps around Cairo and the canal, forces could be dispatched +for service in Europe, Mesopotamia, and at the Dardanelles, while +fresh contingents of soldiers were constantly arriving to take their +places. + +On July 5, 1915, a body of Turks and Arabs from Yemen in southwest +Arabia made a threatening demonstration against Aden, the "Gibraltar +of the East," on the Strait of Perim at the entrance to the Red Sea. +They were equipped with some field guns and light artillery, and +crossing the Aden hinterland near Lahej, forced the British to retire +on Aden. + +On July 29, 1915, Sheikh Othman, which had been abandoned by the +British on their retreat on the 5th, was again occupied by them, and +the Turks and Arabs were expelled. The British troops drove the enemy +for five miles across the country, causing some casualties, when the +Turks and their allies scattered and disappeared. + + + + +PART II--WAR IN THE AIR + + + + +CHAPTER II + +RAIDS OF THE AIRMEN + + +The war in the air developed into a reign of terror during the second +half of the first year of the world catastrophe. While the armies on +the land were locked in terrific conflict, and the navies were +sweeping the seas, the huge ships of the air were hovering over cities +with a desperate resolve to win on all sides. By degrees the pilots of +the various nations learned to work in squadrons. The tactics of the +air began to be developed and opposing aerial fleets maneuvered much +as did the warships. Long raids by fifty or more machines were +reported, tons of bombs being released upon cities hundreds of miles +from the battle line. + +The German ambition to shell London was realized, and the east coast +of England grew accustomed to raids. The spirit of the British never +faltered. Perhaps it was best typified in the admonition of a Yarmouth +minister following a disastrous Zeppelin visit, who said: "It is our +privilege, we who live on the east coast, to be on the firing line, +and we should steel ourselves to face the position with brave hearts." + +Casualties grew in all quarters. French cities were the greatest +sufferers, although French airmen performed prodigies of valor in +defending the capital and in attacks upon German defensive positions. +But the stealthy Zeppelin took heavy toll on many occasions. It was +shown that there was no really adequate defense against sudden attack +from the air. Constant watchfulness and patrolling machines might be +eluded at night and death rained upon the sleeping city beneath. + +The spring of 1915 found the air service of every army primed for a +dash. The cold months were spent in repairing, reorganizing and +extending aerial squadrons. Everything awaited the advent of good +weather conditions. + +During February, 1915, the hand of tragedy fell upon the German air +service. Two Zeppelins and another large aircraft were wrecked within +a couple of days. + +In a storm over the North Sea on February 16, 1915, a Zeppelin fought +heroically. Contrary air currents compelled the Zeppelin commander to +maneuver over a wide zone in an effort to reach land. Caught in the +gale the big dirigible was at the mercy of the elements. Snow, sleet, +and fog enveloped it and added to its peril. The craft caught in the +February storm, fought a losing battle for twenty-four hours and +finally made a landing on Fanoe Island, in Danish territory. The +officers and men were interned, several of whom were suffering from +exposure in an acute form and nearly all of them with frostbitten +hands and feet. + +Another Zeppelin was lost in this same February storm. It is presumed +that the two started on a raiding trip against England and were caught +in the storm before reaching their destination. Details of the second +Zeppelin's fate never have been told. It fell into the sea, where +parts of the wreckage were found by Dutch fishermen. All on board lost +their lives. The third airship wrecked that month was of another type +than the Zeppelin. It foundered off the west coast of Jutland and four +of its crew were killed. The others escaped, but the airship was a +total loss. + +This trio of accidents shocked the German official world to its depths +and had a chilling effect upon the aerial branch of its military +organization for some weeks. The Zeppelins remained at home until the +return of better weather. England, for a time, was practically freed +from the new menace. + +It was not accident alone, nor an adverse fortune, which caused the +loss of the three airships. The position of the British Isles, on the +edge of the Atlantic, enabled British weather forecasters to tell with +almost unfailing exactness when a storm was to be expected. The French +also had an excellent service in this direction. Realizing that bad +weather was the worst foe of the Zeppelin, aside from its own inherent +clumsiness, the two governments agreed to suppress publication of +weather reports, thereby keeping from the Germans information of a +vital character. The German Government maintained a skilled weather +department, but the geographical location of the country is such that +its forecasters could not foretell with the same accuracy the +conditions on the Atlantic. The shrewd step of the French and British +therefore resulted in the destruction of three dirigibles in a single +month, a much higher average than all the efforts of land guns and +aviators had been able to achieve. + +February, 1915, was a bleak, drear month. Aviators of all the armies +made daily scouting trips, but wasted little time in attacking each +other. Few raids of importance took place on any of the fronts. But +British airmen descended upon German positions in Belgium on several +occasions. Zeebrugge, Ostend, and Blankenberghe received their +attention in a half dozen visits between February 5 and 20. + +On February 16, 1915, a large fleet of aeroplanes, mostly British, +swept along the Flanders coast, attacking defensive positions wherever +sighted. At the same time, French airmen shelled the aeroplane center +at Ghistelles, preventing the Germans from sending a squadron against +the other flotilla. + +Paris, Dunkirk, and Calais glimpsed an occasional enemy aeroplane, but +they were bent on watching troop movements and only a few stray bombs +were dropped. The inactivity of the armies, burrowed in their winter +quarters, was reflected in the air. + +It was announced by the French Foreign Office that from the beginning +of hostilities up to February 1, 1915, French aircraft had made 10,000 +reconnaissances, covering a total of more than 1,250,000 miles. This +represented 18,000 hours spent in the air. + +Antwerp, which had surrendered to the Germans, was visited by British +flyers on March 7, 1915. They bombarded the submarine plant at +Hoboken, a suburb. The plant at this point had been quickly developed +by the conquerors and the harbor served as a refuge for many undersea +boats. Numerous attacks on ships off the Dutch mainland persuaded the +British authorities that a blow at Hoboken would be a telling stroke +against German submarines, and so the event proved. Several craft were +sunk or badly damaged. Bombs set fire to the submarine works and much +havoc was wrought among the material stored there. A number of +employees were injured. The Antwerp populace cheered the airmen on +their trip across the city and back to the British lines, for which a +fine was imposed upon the city. + +During March, 1915, there was some activity in the East, where +Zeppelins shelled Warsaw in Poland, killing fifty persons and causing +many fires. One of the raiders was brought down on March 18, and her +crew captured. The Russian service suffered losses, Berlin announcing +the capture of six aeroplanes in a single week. One of these was of +the Sikorsky type, a giant battle plane carrying a half dozen men. + +Shortly after one o'clock on the morning of March 21, 1915, two +Zeppelins appeared above Paris. Four of the raiders started from the +German lines originally, but two were forced to turn back. They were +first seen above Compiegne, north of which the German lines came +nearest to Paris. The news was flashed ahead. The French airmen rose +to meet them. Two of the Zeppelins eluded the patrol. Their coming was +expected and when they approached the city searchlights picked them up +and kept the raiders in view as they maneuvered above the French +capital. The French defenders and the Zeppelin commanders met in a +bold battle in the air. The Zeppelins kept up a running fight with +pursuing aeroplanes while dropping bombs. They sailed across Mt. +Valerien, one of the most powerful Paris forts, dropping missiles +which did little harm. A searchlight from the Eiffel Tower kept them +in full view. They were forced to move rapidly. Finally they swung in +a big arc toward Versailles, and then turned suddenly and sailed for +the heart of the city. Twenty-five bombs were dropped. Eight persons +were struck and a number of fires started. + +The Parisians flocked to the streets and watched the strange combat +with rapt interest. Although the raiders had come before, the +spectacle had not lost its fascination. Even though the authorities +issued strict orders and troops tried to drive the throngs indoors, +Parisians persisted in risking life and limb to see the Zeppelins +battle in the night skies. Upon this occasion the battle aloft lasted +until after four o'clock in the morning, or more than three hours. + +On the same night, March 21, 1915, three bombs were thrown upon +Villers-Cotterets, fifteen miles southwest of Soissons. There was +small damage and no casualties. But the two raids emphasized that a +few weeks more would see intensive resumption of war in the air. + +French aviators shelled Bazincourt, Briey, Brimont, and Vailly on +March 22, 1915. At Briey, the station was damaged and the railway line +cut, two of the birdmen descending to within a few hundred yards of +the track. Enemy batteries at Brimont suffered damage. The next day a +German machine was shot down near Colmar, in Alsace, and its two +occupants captured. + +With the return of spring, 1915, came renewed activity among airmen on +all fronts. The first day of April was marked by the loss of two +German machines, one near Soissons and the other near Rheims. The +first fell a victim to gunfire, both occupants being killed. The +second, an Albatross model, was discovered prowling above Rheims. +French pilots immediately gave chase and after a circuitous flight +back and forth across the city, compelled the enemy machine to land. +The pilot and observer were overpowered before they had time to set it +afire, the usual procedure when captured. + +A typical day of this season with the birdmen of France was April 2, +1915. A War Office report of that day tells of forty-three +reconnoitering flights and twenty others for the purpose of attacking +enemy positions or ascertaining the direction of gunfire. Bombs were +dropped upon the hangars and aviation camp at Habsheim. The munition +factories at Dietweiler, and the railway station in Walheim. The +station at Bensdorf and the barracks at the same place were shelled +from the air. Much damage was done. + +Seven French aeroplanes flew over the Woevre region on this day, +penetrating as far as Vigneulles, where the aerial observers +discovered barracks covered with heavy corrugated iron. The machines +descended in long spirals and dropped a number of bombs, setting the +barracks afire. Troops were seen rushing in all directions from the +burning structures. + +The aviation camp at Coucu-le-Chateau, north of Soissons, and the +station at Comines, Belgium, were under fire from the air. In +Champagne a quantity of shells were unloosed upon the station at +Somme-Py and Dontrein, near Eacille and St. Etienne-sur-Suippe enemy +bivouacs were bombarded. Other bivouacs at Basancourt and Pont +Faverger were struck by arrows dropped from the skies. + +These numerous raids and reconnaissances were repeated every day at +many points. German airmen were not less active than those of the +Allies. Neither side allowed a fine day to pass without watching the +enemy from the air and striking him at such places and times as they +could. + +Early on the morning of April 13, 1915, a Zeppelin was discovered +surveying allied gun positions near Ypres, in Belgium. The batteries +immediately opened fire and several shells found their target, judging +from the heavy list which the airship developed. It was seen to be in +serious trouble as it made its escape. Amsterdam reported the +following day that the craft fell near Thielt, a complete wreck. What +became of the crew never was learned. + +The raids on England were now resumed. On April 13, 1915, a Zeppelin +visited Newcastle-on-Tyne and several near-by towns. Newcastle, a +great naval station and manufacturing city, had been the objective of +previous air attacks that brought forth little result. The Zeppelin +commander, who directed the bombardment of the thirteenth, was well +informed and proceeded straight to the arsenal and naval workshops. +More than a dozen bombs fell. Strangely enough none of these caused +material loss, and there were no casualties. Dwellings were set afire +in other quarters of the city. The stir that followed brought England +to the realization that better weather was dawning and with it an +imminent peril. Efforts were redoubled to ward off aerial raiders. + +A flotilla of Zeppelins shelled Blyth, Wallsend, and South Shields, on +the northeastern coast of England on the night of April 14, 1915. This +attack was directed primarily at the industrial and shipping centers +of Tyneside. Berlin claimed a distinct success, but the British denied +that extensive harm had been done. + +French airmen drove home an attack on April 15, 1915, that had +important results. The station at Saint-Quentin was shelled from the +air and upward of 150 freight cars and extensive freight sheds +destroyed. Some of the cars contained benzol, the explosion of which +spread burning liquid in every direction. Adjacent buildings were +consumed by the spreading fire and it seemed that Saint-Quentin itself +might go. Twenty-four German soldiers were killed and the fire burned +from four o'clock in the afternoon until six the next morning, the +explosion of shells being frequently heard. These facts were +communicated to the French by spies and prisoners and thus written +into the war's record. + +Lowestoft and Maldon, only thirty miles from London, were the mark of +bombs on the morning of April 16, 1915. The raiders arrived at +Lowestoft about midnight and released three bombs, one of which killed +two horses. A half hour later they appeared over Maldon, where six +bombs were dropped. Several fires broke out. There was a panic when +searchlights revealed one of the raiders still hovering above the +city. But he apparently was merely bent on learning the extent of his +success, as he passed on to Hebridge, two miles away, where a building +was fired by a bursting shell. + +Another German squadron of six craft was sighted at Ipswich, +approaching from the direction of the channel. A few fires in Ipswich +and two persons hurt at Southwold were the only evidences of the +visit. This raid was made significant by the fact that the squadron +paid small attention to towns in its route, proceeding to Henham Hall, +residence of the Countess Stradbroke, near Southwold. It then was used +as a hospital for wounded soldiers. A half dozen bombs fell in close +proximity to the main building, but fortunately none of them struck +their mark. + +The evening of that day, April 26, 1915, the third raid on England in +less than twenty-four hours took place. Canterbury, Sittingbourne, and +Faversham were shelled, all three towns being within thirty miles of +London. British machines drove the invaders off. About half past one +of the next morning a Zeppelin dropped seven bombs in the +neighborhood of Colchester. It was evident from these frequent +visitations that the German authorities were bent on reaching London +itself. Nearly every raid brought the enemy craft nearer. The gain of +almost a mile was made on each raid. The Germans were wary and +evidently suspected that London's air defenses were adequate. The +small towns which they shelled were of no importance whatever from a +military standpoint, and such casualties as resulted were +insignificant as compared to the death roll that London might be +expected to yield. + +A French squadron engaged in a raid of some consequence on April 16, +1915. Leopoldshoehe, east of Rurigue, fell a victim. Workshops, where +shells were made, came in for a heavy aerial bombardment. Fire started +which swept away several buildings. Equipment and supplies were +smashed. Other bombs dropped on a powder magazine at Rothwell caused a +second fire. The electric plant at Maixienes-les-Metz, ten miles north +of Metz, which supplied the city with light and power, was rendered +useless. Munition plants and the station in Metz itself suffered, and +three German aeroplanes guarding the city were compelled to land under +the guns of the fortress when the French squadron turned about. This +dash was a profitable one for the French and showed a new organization +that promised well for the future. Just how many machines took part +was not learned, but there probably were forty or fifty. North of +Ypres French gunners brought down a German aeroplane which fell behind +the enemy's trenches, ablaze from end to end. + +The Germans took similar toll. Several of their flyers shelled Amiens +on April 17, 1915, dropping bombs which killed or wounded ten persons +in the vicinity of the cathedral. The invaders sailed up in the night +and descended to a point just above the city before dropping the first +bomb. They were off in a couple of minutes, before pursuing machines +could engage them. + +All of these raids were more or less effective. At the time they +attracted wide attention, but as the war wore on the world became +accustomed to aerial attacks. The total of lives lost and the +destruction caused never will be accurately known. + +On April 21, 1915, came news of another trip to Warsaw by Zeppelins, a +dozen persons being killed. Bombs fell in the center of the city and +the post-office building was struck. A resumption of activity in that +quarter was productive of raids, clashes in the air and Zeppelin +alarms, such as were common in the western theatre, but on a lesser +scale, as the Russians and Austrians possessed only a limited air +equipment and the Germans were compelled to concentrate the bulk of +their machines elsewhere. + +In the southern war zone the aerial operations recommenced with April, +1915. The Austrians made several more or less futile attacks on +Venice. Italian cities, especially Venice, Verona, and others near the +border removed many of their art works to safe places, including +stained-glass windows from cathedrals, canvases, and statuary. The +base of the Campanile, Venice, and other historic edifices were +protected with thousands of sandbags. The famous horses brought from +Constantinople were taken down. This denuding process robbed the +ancient seat of Venetian power of its many splendors, but assured +their preservation and future restoration. + +The Austrian bombs started numerous fires, tore up a few streets, and +caused some casualties. In turn, the Italians dashed across the +Austrian lines and attacked supply bases, railway stations, and other +vantage points in the same way that the Allies were harrowing the +Germans on the western front. In this work the Italians made use to +some extent of their dirigibles, a type smaller than the Zeppelin but +highly efficient. + +Thirty persons were killed or wounded in Calais on April 26, 1915, +when a Zeppelin succeeded in reaching a point above one of the thickly +populated sections of the city. The raid took place before midnight. +The visitor was quickly driven away by a French machine, but not until +the damage had been done. An orphanage was among the buildings struck, +many of the victims being children. A fleet of aeroplanes visited +Amiens at about the same hour, their efforts being directed to the +bombardment of ammunition depots near that city. The invaders were +driven off with small results to show for their work. + +In a raid on April 28, 1915, upon Friedrichshafen, so often the mark +of airmen, several airship sheds and a Zeppelin were damaged. A nearly +simultaneous bombardment of Leopoldshoehe, Loerrach, and the station at +Haltinge resulted in the destruction of train sheds and two +locomotives. Forty-two members of the Landsturm were killed or wounded +at Loerrach and two aeroplanes put out of commission, service being cut +on the railway line. This was the official French version. Geneva gave +a different and more vivid account. According to the Swiss, the French +airmen visited Friedrichshafen twice within thirty-six hours, +destroying five airships, setting fire to several buildings, and +causing at least $1,000,000 damage. The report said that they returned +by way of Metz, dropping arrows and bombs, and wrecking the station at +Loerrach. + +The east coast of England was the victim of an air raid on April 30, +1915. Hostile aircraft were sighted over Ipswich, about sixty-five +miles from London, shortly after midnight. The alarm was spread +westward, whence the craft were bound. Five bombs fell upon Ipswich, +but no one was killed. A few dwellings and commercial buildings were +struck, fires starting which the local department soon controlled. +Only a few minutes after the machines shelled Ipswich, they were seen +to approach Bury St. Edmunds, fourteen miles to the northwest of +Ipswich. Three bombs failed to produce casualties, but fires were +started. Little damage resulted. + +On the first day of May, 1915, announcement was made in Paris that +experiments conducted at Issy les Molineaux over several months had +brought about successful tests in firing a three-inch gun from an +aeroplane. This had never been accomplished before, and had seemed a +well-nigh impossible task. An entirely new piece was developed, firing +a shell of about the same size as the regular 75-millimeter field gun. +It was made lighter by half, with an effective range of 2,500 meters, +considerably less than the standard gun. + +French skill in designing weapons, always a trait of the race, was +evidenced here. The heavy steel breechblock of the seventy-five was +replaced by a wooden block. When fired the explosion of the powder +charge automatically blew the wooden breechblock backward, thus +neutralizing the shock. But owing to the open breech much of the +powder's driving force was lost. Nothing to equal the new arm had +there been up to that time. The wooden breechblock completely did away +with the heavy hydraulic recoil cylinders which were one of the +distinguishing features of the seventy-five. These cylinders were +esteemed by many authorities to be the finest in the world, absorbing +maximum shock with a minimum of effort. + +The coming of this new gun marked a big step forward in aerial war and +gave the French machines so equipped a decided advantage. Its effect +was to make the German flyers more wary, avoiding combat except when +impossible to avoid the issue. But its use was confined to the larger +machines as a rule, particularly the Voisin biplane, the machine gun +being favored by many airmen because of its lightness and the ease +with which it could be handled. + +The beginning of May, 1915, found aerial warfare in full progress again. +The British defense squadrons showed somewhat better generalship and it +was not until the tenth of the month that Zeppelins obtained any +appreciable advantage in that quarter. But two of the raiders evaded the +patrols on the night of May 10, 1915, and dropped bombs upon +Westcliff-on-Sea, near Southend, at the mouth of the Thames, a bare +twenty-five miles from London. There were no fatalities, but a man and +his wife were badly burned when their home caught fire from a bursting +bomb. At Leigh, near Southend, several shops were burned. It was +reported that four Zeppelins had been seen at Leigh, whereas +Westcliff-on-Sea saw but two. If the larger number were correct it would +indicate that the Germans were becoming more determined to reach London. +One feature of the raid at Westcliff-on-Sea was that of sixty bombs +dropped only a few struck in the town. Most of them fell on the beach +and the sand neutralized any effects that the missiles might have had. + +The Bull and George Hotel at Ramsgate was completely wrecked by bombs +which struck it on the night of May 17, 1915. An instance of the +vagaries of explosives was furnished by this raid. One of the bombs +which struck the hotel penetrated the roof and fell upon a bed on +which a woman was sleeping. It wrecked the room and tore a great hole +in the floor through which the bed and occupant fell to the cellar. +The sleeper was badly hurt and the bed practically uninjured. Fires +started by other bombs in Ramsgate soon were extinguished. + +Advices from Rotterdam stated that during this raid a Zeppelin fell +into the Gierlesche Woods, Belgium, two men being hurt. The cause of +the airship's plight was unknown, but the damage made it necessary +that the frame be taken apart and sent to Germany for repairs. + +One of the oddest combats of the war was staged on this day--May 17, +1915. A Zeppelin, flying from the direction of the English coast, was +sighted in the channel by a French torpedo boat. The craft was at a +comparatively low altitude and furnished an excellent mark. Only a few +shots had been fired when it was seen to be in distress. The Zeppelin +made several frantic efforts to rise, then fell into the sea within +four miles of Gravelines. It sank before aid could be given the crew. + +May 17, 1915, was a bad day for Zeppelins. One of the dirigibles +supposed to have attacked Ramsgate early that morning was discovered +off Nieuport, Belgium, by a squadron of eight British naval machines +which had made a sortie from Dunkirk. They surrounded the enemy craft +and three of the pilots succeeded in approaching close to the +Zeppelin. Four bombs were dropped upon the airship from a height of +200 feet. A column of smoke arose. The Zeppelin looked as though it +would fall for a moment, but righted itself and mounted to an altitude +of some 11,000 feet, finally eluding its pursuers. + +Two Zeppelins and two Taubes were caught by daylight after a +frustrated raid upon Calais on May 18, 1915. They were fired upon from +many points. A battery at Gris Nez succeeded in hitting one of the +dirigibles. The other craft of the flotilla stood by their injured +fellow as long as they dared, but made off after a few minutes, as +French machines were closing in from all sides. The injured Zeppelin +dropped on the beach near Fort Mardick, about two miles from Dunkirk. +Forty men aboard were taken prisoners, including several officers. + +Two women in Southend, England, met death on May 27, 1915, when +Zeppelins visited that city. A child was badly injured. The lighting +plant and several industrial establishments suffered damage. Repeated +attacks on Southend had resulted in the installation of searchlights +and the detailing of more aviators to guard its citizens. Neither +availed to prevent the loss of life, but they did succeed in driving +away the raiders after their first appearance. + +Of all the raids carried out during the spring and summer of 1915, one +of the most important was that upon Ludwigshafen, in Bavaria. Here the +laboratories of the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik were located. This +plant was said to produce two-thirds of the nitrates used in the +production of ammunition for the German armies. Since the start of the +war it had been the object of several attacks, none of which had +noteworthy results. + +But on the morning of May 26, 1915, eighteen French aeroplanes started +at daybreak from a border stronghold and headed straight for +Ludwigshafen. They had a supply of gasoline to last seven hours and +rose to a height of 6,500 feet in order to escape detection. In this +they did not succeed, but ran into several lively cannonades before +reaching their destination. Once there, they circled above the big +chemical works, dropping bomb after bomb. More than a ton of +explosives were hurled upon the buildings in a quarter of an hour. +Columns of smoke rose from the burning structures. Loud explosions +issued from the smokestacks, sounding like the report of heavy guns. +Workmen fled in all directions and the whole plant soon was wrapped in +flames. The airmen lingered about for a short time, watching the +results of their work. It became evident that the plant would be a +total loss, and the flames spread to near-by buildings, for a time +threatening a good part of the city. + +Swiss reports of a few days later said that upward of a hundred +workmen lost their lives, that scores were hurt and the property loss +ran well into the millions. The blow was severe, the heaviest up to +that time which German industries, far from the battle front, had +sustained. It revealed a new chapter of war in the air to communities +which would be snugly secure under any other condition. On the return +trip, ill fortune overtook the French flotilla. The machine of its +commander found it necessary to make a landing. Chief of Squadron, De +Goys, and Adjutant Bunau-Varilla were captured. They burned their +aeroplane before being taken prisoners. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +ZEPPELINS ATTACK LONDON--BATTLES IN THE AIR + + +England's insularity disappeared on the night of May 31, 1915. The +isolation by sea which had kept her immune from attack since the days +of the Normans failed to save London from the Zeppelin. After ten +months of war the British capital looked upon its dead for the first +time. Four children, one woman, and one man were killed. An old apple +woman died of fright. There were numerous fires, only three of which +assumed serious proportions and these were extinguished by the fire +department after a few hours. + +London's initial glimpse of a Zeppelin was obtained about 11.30 p. m., +when the theatre section was filled with homeward bound throngs. The +lights attracted the raiders to this district, where a half dozen +bombs were dropped. No sooner had the first of the missiles fallen +than antiaircraft guns began to open a bombardment from many +directions. Searchlights mounted at advantageous points threw their +narrow pencils of light into the skies. The people in different +sections of the city caught a fleeting glance of a huge airship that +floated sullenly along, like some bird of prey from out of the past--a +new pterodactyl that instead of seizing its victims dropped death upon +them. + +One shell fell in Trafalgar Square. The Zeppelins passed over the +Houses of Parliament, Westminster, and other famous buildings, but +apparently did not have their location well in mind as these noted +monuments escaped harm. + +But the Zeppelins had come. And they left scars which greeted +Londoners the following morning to prove that the raid was not a bad +dream which would disappear with the morning mists. In addition to the +four persons killed, seventy others were injured, some of whom +suffered the loss of limbs and other injuries that incapacitated them. +Immediately there was a cry for revenge. Some of the newspapers +advocated reprisals upon German cities. This the government refused to +do and steadfastly adhered to a policy of war upon fortified places +and armed men alone. Rioting took place in many districts where +Germans were numerous. Shops and homes were looted. Every German who +appeared in the streets, or any person who looked like one, was liable +to attack. A number of aliens were badly handled. The public declared +a spontaneous boycott upon every person having a name that seemed to +be of German origin. There was a united movement to obtain some +reparation for the Zeppelin raids. But the results were only trifling +and the indignation died down with the passing days, British calmness +soon succeeding the excitement of a moment. + +Italian frontier towns became the goal of Austrian airmen on June 1, +1915. A half dozen persons were killed or injured and there was some +property damaged. With warm weather and good flying conditions raids +were in order every day. + +On June 3, 1915, British aviators made a successful attack upon German +airship sheds at Evere, Belgium. The same day French machines +bombarded the headquarters of the crown prince in the Argonne, with +what results never was definitely established, although there were +reports that several high officers had been killed. + +It was made known in London on June 3, 1915, that Great Britain and +Germany had agreed to a plan for the protection of public buildings +from air raids. According to this agreement hospitals, churches, +museums, and similar buildings were to have large white crosses marked +upon their roofs. Both governments pledged themselves to respect these +crosses. Much importance was attached to the idea at the time, but +its effects were disappointing. The marks either were not readily +perceivable from an aeroplane or the pilots did not trouble themselves +too much about the crosses. Public buildings continued to suffer. + +On the night of June 4, 1915, German dirigibles attacked towns at the +mouth of the Humber, the port and shipping of Hardwich, in England. +There were some casualties and considerable property loss, but the +British Government would not make public the extent of the damage as +the places attacked were of naval importance. Calais, on the French +coast was raided the next day by two German airmen. There was one +casualty. England's east coast was visited by Zeppelins on the night +of June 6, 1915, twenty-four persons being killed and forty hurt. +There was much damage, all details of which were suppressed. + +Just after the break of day on June 7, 1915, a British monoplane was +returning from a scouting trip over Belgium. At the same hour a +Zeppelin flew homeward from the English coast. The two met between +Ghent and Brussels. Four persons had been killed and forty injured +during the night at Yarmouth and other near-by towns on the East +channel coast. Raids had been frequent of late and the British pilot +sensed the fact that this Zeppelin was one of the dreaded visitors. He +was several miles away when the big aircraft hove into view. Uncertain +for a few minutes how to proceed, he rose until he was two thousand +feet above the Zeppelin. His maneuver was not appreciated at first, or +the Zeppelin crew did not see him. There was no attempt either to flee +or give battle. + +But as the monoplane drew nearer it was sighted and a combat followed +such as never was seen before. Sub-Lieutenant R. A. J. Warneford, a +young Canadian who had not reached twenty-one years of age, matched +his pygmy machine against the great aerial dreadnought. The fight +started at a height of 6,000 feet. Lieutenant Warneford released his +first bomb when about 1,000 feet above the Zeppelin. He saw it strike +the airbag and disappear, followed by a puff of smoke. Because of the +sectional arrangement this did not disable the airship. The +Lieutenant circled off and again approached the Zeppelin. Every gun +was trained upon him that could be brought to bear. The wings of his +machine were shattered many times, but he kept on fighting. When once +more above the enemy craft, he released another bomb. It also struck +the Zeppelin, but appeared to glance off. + +The antagonists resorted to every conceivable ruse, one to escape, the +other to bring down its quarry. All efforts of the Zeppelin commander +to reach the height of his antagonist were defeated. His lone enemy +kept above him. The battle varied from an altitude of 6,000 to 10,000 +feet. Three other bombs struck the airship, and each time there was +the telltale wisp of smoke. + +The Zeppelin was mortally injured. Her commander turned to earth for +refuge. Seeing this, Lieutenant Warneford came nearer. He had but one +bomb left. Descending to within a few hundred feet of the airship, +while its machine guns played upon him, he released this remaining +bomb. It struck the Zeppelin amidship. There was a flash, a roar, and +a great burst of smoke as the vanquished craft exploded and plunged +nose downward. The rush of air caused by the explosion upset the +equilibrium of the victorious machine, which dropped toward the ground +and turned completely over before its pilot could regain control. The +presence of mind which he showed at this juncture, was one of the most +remarkable features of this remarkable conflict. + +The young Canadian pilot righted his machine in time to see the +Zeppelin end its career. Like a flaming comet it fell upon the convent +of Le Grand Beguinage de Sainte Elizabeth, located in Mont Saint +Amand, a suburb of Ghent. This convent was used as an orphanage. The +burning airship set fire to several buildings, causing the death of +two sisters and two children. The twenty-eight men aboard were killed. +Accounts from Amsterdam a day or two later gave a vivid description of +the charred remnants of the machine, the burned convent buildings, and +the victims all piled together. + +Lieutenant Warneford saw the Zeppelin fall and knew that its raiding +days were over. Then he discovered that his own machine was in +trouble. In another moment he realized the impossibility of returning +to the British lines, and was compelled to volplane toward earth, +cutting off his driving power. Descending in a soft field, he found +that his motor was out of order. Thirty precious minutes were spent +repairing the damage. It took him as long again to get his machine +started, a task not often accomplished by one man. But he sailed +serenely home and brought the news of his strange victory. + +Within twenty-four hours Lieutenant Warneford was the hero of the +world. His name and achievement had been flashed to the four corners +of the earth. Every newspaper rang with acclaim for the boyish aviator +who had shown that one man of skill and daring was a match for the +huge Zeppelin. It was the old story of David and Goliath, of the Roman +youth who bested the Gaul, of Drake's improvised fleet against the +Armada. The lieutenant was called to London and presented with the +Victoria Cross by King George, who thanked him in the name of the +British Empire for adding another laurel to the long list of its +honors. A day or two later President Poincare received him in Paris +and pinned the Legion of Honor cross upon his breast. + +But this same week saw the climax of this war romance--a tragic ending +to a war epic. Lieutenant Warneford was practicing with a new French +machine at Versailles. He either lost control or the motor failed him. +It dropped to earth, killing the pilot and an American newspaper +correspondent who was in the observer's seat. This sudden end to a +career so brilliant, the cutting off of a future so promising, cast a +pall over the minds of both the French and British airmen. The body of +Lieutenant Warneford lay in state at the French capital and afterward +in London, where every honor was shown his memory. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +VENICE ATTACKED--OTHER RAIDS + + +British airmen visited Ghent on June 8, 1915, where several ammunition +depots were fired. The railway station was hit and a number of German +troops in a train standing there killed or hurt. + +On June 9, 1915, Venice was shelled by Austrian aviators, bombs +falling near St. Mark's and setting a number of fires. There were no +casualties as far as known. + +An Italian airship squadron raided Pola, the principal Austrian naval +base, on June 14, 1915. Pola has one of the best harbors on the +Adriatic and is an exceptionally strong position. It was from there +that Austrian warships and aircraft made their attacks upon Italian +and other allied shipping. The city had a big arsenal and +miscellaneous war plants. The arsenal was struck by some of the bombs +dropped during this raid, shipping in the harbor was bombarded, and +one warship badly damaged. This was perhaps the most valuable +accomplishment of the Italian air service in offensive actions up to +that time. Contrary to what might be expected from the Latin +temperament, Italy had confined herself to the use of aircraft for +scouting purposes almost exclusively. The campaign in Tripoli had +taught her their value, and she had not shown a disposition to bombard +Austrian cities in reply to attacks upon her own people. + +The visit of the Zeppelins to London had aroused not only the ire of +Britain, but that of her French allies. It was decided to take +reprisals. Forty-five French machines left the eastern border during +the night of June 15, 1915, and set their journey toward Karlsruhe. +Some of the craft were large battle planes; all of them had speed and +carrying capacity. Approaching Karlsruhe they at first were taken for +German machines, by reason of the location of Karlsruhe far from the +front. + +The squadron divided and approached the city from a half dozen +different directions, dripping bombs as they came. One of the largest +chemical plants in Germany was set afire and burned to the ground. +Both wings of the Margrave's Palace were struck and one of them +practically ruined. In the opposite wing, which escaped with only +slight damage, the Queen of Sweden, who is a German by birth, was +sleeping. She was said to have missed death only by a few inches. +Other titled persons in the palace had narrow escapes. A collection of +art works was ruined. Despite the fire of antiaircraft guns the French +machines hovered above the city and dropped bombs at will, again +proving that there was no sufficient protection against air attacks +except by flotillas of equal force. + +Within a half hour flames started in many sections of the city. The +chemical and other plants were burned. Karlsruhe's citizens were made +to realize the losses which German airmen had inflicted upon the +noncombatants of other countries. According to the best advices 112 +persons were killed and upward of 300 wounded. The maximum number +admitted by the Germans to have been injured was 19 killed and 14 +wounded. But persons arriving in Geneva, for weeks after the raid, +told of the wholesale destruction and large casualties. The victims +were buried with honors, and the German Government issued a statement +deploring the "senseless" attack. This was one of the few raids made +by aviators of the allied powers in which the lives of noncombatants +were lost. That it was a warning and not an adopted policy is +indicated by the fact that it was not followed up with other raids. + +Zeppelins were seen off the east coast of England about midnight on +June 16, 1915. They left in their wake one of the longest casualty +lists resulting from aerial raids upon England up to that time. South +Shields was the principal sufferer. Sixteen persons were killed and +forty injured. The Zeppelins devoted their attention to the big +Armstrong works principally. Guns and munitions of almost every +description were being made there, and the raid was planned to wreck +the establishment. This attempt was partially successful, but the +buildings destroyed soon were replaced and operations at the plant +never ceased. The extent of the damage was kept secret, but the number +of victims again caused indignation throughout the British Empire. + +One result of this raid was a demand in the House of Commons on June +24, 1915, that the public be informed as to defense measures against +air raids. The Government had evaded the question at every +opportunity, and up to that time kept discussion of the subject down +to the minimum. But on this occasion the Commons were not to be easily +disposed of, and insisted upon an answer. This was promised for a +future day, but Home Secretary Brace announced that 24 men, 21 women, +and 11 children had died as a result of attacks from the air since the +war began. He said that 86 men, 35 women, and 17 children had been +wounded. Of these a percentage died later. The secretary intimated +that the Government was keeping a record of every pound's worth of +damage and every person injured, with the expectation of making +Germany reimburse. + +The South Shields attack led to further expansion of the air service +and redoubled measures to check the raiders. It seems likely that not +a few aircraft have been captured about which the British Government +made no report. What the motives for this secrecy are it would be hard +to decide. But a guess may be hazarded that, as in the case of certain +submarine crews, it is intended to charge some aviators and Zeppelin +crews with murder after the war is over, and try them by due process +of law. For a time the Government kept a number of men taken from +submarines, known to have caused the loss of noncombatant lives, in +close confinement. Germany retaliated upon army officers, and the +British were compelled to retire from their position. It has been +hinted that in the case of the Zeppelin raiders she had quietly locked +up a number of them without announcing her purpose to the world. + +The closing days of June, 1915, brought two raids on Paris. Taubes in +one instance, and Zeppelins in another were held up by the air patrol +and driven back, a few bombs being dropped on Saint Cloud. The work of +the Paris defense forces was notably good during the summer of 1915, +countless incursions being halted before the capital was reached. + +What may have been intended as a raid equal to the Cuxhaven attack was +attempted on July 4, 1915, but was foiled by the watchfulness of the +Germans. Cruisers and destroyers approached German positions on an +unnamed bay of the North Sea, and a squadron of British seaplanes rose +from the vessels. German airmen promptly went aloft and drove off the +invaders. The set-to took place near the island of Terschelling off +the Netherlands. When convinced that the Germans were fully ready to +meet them the British turned back and put out to the open sea. It was +intimated from Berlin that a considerable naval force had been engaged +on the British side. There was a good deal of mystery about the +incident. + +Perhaps the most important accomplishment of the British flying men +during July, 1915, as concerns actual fighting, was the destruction of +three Taubes at the mouth of the Thames. The invaders were sighted +while still at sea and the word wirelessed ahead. Four British +machines mounted to give battle, and after a stirring contest above +the city brought down two of the Taubes. They were hit in midair, and +one of them caught fire. The burning machine dropping headlong to +earth furnished a spectacle that the watchers are not likely to +forget. The third Taube was winged after a long flight seaward and +sank beneath the waves, carrying down both occupants. This contest +took place July 20, 1915, and followed several visits to England by +Zeppelins, none of which had important results. + +On July 21, 1915, French aviators made three conspicuous raids. A +squadron of six machines descended upon Colmar in Alsace, dropping +ninety-one shells upon the passenger and freight stations. Both broke +into flames, and the former was almost wholly destroyed, tying up +traffic on the line, the object of all attacks upon railroad stations, +except at such times as troops were concentrated there or trains were +standing on the tracks ready to load or unload soldiers. + +The second raid of this day was especially interesting, because a +dirigible and not an aeroplane was employed, the French seldom using +the big craft so much favored by the Germans. Vigneulles and the +Hatton Chattel in the St. Mihiel salient were the objectives of the +dirigible. A munition depot and the Vigneulles station were shelled +successfully. The third air attack was made upon Challerange, near +Vouziers, by four French aeroplanes. Forty-eight bombs were dropped on +the station there, a junction point and one of the German lesser +supply bases. The damage was reported to have halted reenforcements +for a position near-by where the French took a trench section on this +same day. Accepting the report as true, it exemplifies the unison of +army units striving for the same purpose by remarkably different +methods and weapons. + +The French kept busy during this month of July, 1915, with raids upon +Metz and intermediate positions. Metz is the first objective of what +the French hope will be a march to the Rhine, and since the start of +the war the Germans there have had no rest. + +On July 28, 1915, Nancy was visited by a flock of Zeppelins and a +number of bombs dropped which did considerable damage in that +war-scarred city. Eleven or twelve persons were killed. + +During the night of July 29-30, 1915, a French aviator shelled a plant +in Dornach, Alsace, where asphyxiating gas was being made. Several of +his bombs went home and a tremendous explosion took place that almost +wrecked the machine. But the driver returned safely. An air squadron +also visited Freiburg, so often the target of airmen, and released +bombs upon the railway station. + +French airmen were extremely active on July 29, 1915. One flotilla +bombarded the railroad between Ypres and Roulers, near Passchendaele, +tearing up the track for several hundred yards. German bivouacs in the +region of Longueval, west of Combles, also were shelled from the air, +and German organizations on the Brimont Hill, near Rheims, served as +targets for French birdmen. A military station on the railway at +Chattel was shelled, and the station at Burthecourt in Lorraine +damaged. Forty-five French machines dropped 103 bombs on munition +factories and adjoining buildings at Pechelbronn, near Wissemburg. + + + + +PART III--THE WESTERN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SUMMARY OF FIRST YEAR'S OPERATIONS + + +The first anniversary of the war on the western front fell on August +2, 1915. It was on Tuesday, July 28, of the previous year that Count +Berchtold, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, had pressed the +button in "the powder magazine of Europe"--the Balkans--by declaring +war on Serbia. + +For two days the world looked on in breathless, wondering suspense. +Then, like a series of titanic thunderbolts hurled in quick +succession, mighty events shaped themselves with a violence and a +rapidity that staggered the imagination. + +On July 31, 1914, "a state of war" was proclaimed in Germany; the next +day (August 1) that country declared war on Russia; on August 2, 1914, +Germany delivered her ultimatum to Belgium and invaded both France and +Luxemburg, following up these acts with a declaration of war against +France on the 3d of the same month. + +Before the sun had risen and set again there came the climax to that +most sensational week: Great Britain had thrown her weight into the +scales against the Teutonic Powers. This occurred on August 4, 1914, +the same day that the German frontier force under General von Emmich +came into contact with the Belgian pickets before Liege. + +After thirty-six hours of fighting the southern forts were captured +and the city fell into German hands on August 7, 1914. It was not +until the 15th, however, that General Leman, the Belgian commander, +was conquered in his last stronghold, the northern fort of Loncin. +When that fell, the railway system of the Belgian plains lay open to +the invaders. Leman's determined stand had delayed the German advance +for at least a week, and afforded an extremely valuable respite for +the unprepared French and British armies. + +The first drafts of the British Expeditionary Force landed in France +on August 16, 1914. On August 7, 1914, a French brigade from Belfort +had crossed the frontier into Alsace and taken the towns of Altkirch +and Muelhausen, which, however, they were unable to hold for more than +three days. Between August 7 and August 15, 1914, large bodies of +German cavalry with infantry supports crossed the Meuse between Liege +and the Dutch frontier, acting as a screen for the main advance. The +Belgian army, concentrated on the Dyle, scored some successes against +the Germans at Haelen, Tirlemont, and Engherzee on the 12th and 13th, +but after the fall of Fort Loncin the German advance guards fell back +and the main German right under Von Kluck advanced toward Brussels. On +the 19th the Belgians began to withdraw to the fortress of Antwerp. +Brussels fell to the Germans on the 20th. Von Kluck turned toward the +Sambre and Von Buelow advanced along the Meuse to Namur. On the +opposite bank (the right) of the Meuse the Saxon army of Von Hausen +moved against Namur and Dinant, while farther south the German Crown +Prince and the Duke of Wuerttemberg pushed their forces toward the +French frontier. Meanwhile, General de Castelnau, commanding the +French right, had seized most of the passes of the Vosges, overrun +upper Alsace almost to the Rhine, and had reached Saarburg on the +Metz-Strassburg railway. On August 20, 1914, the Germans attacked +Namur, captured it on the 23d, and demolished the last forts on the +24th. This unexpected event placed the Allies in an extremely critical +situation, which led to serious reverses. The British force on the +left was in danger of being enveloped in Von Kluck's wheeling +movement; the fall of Namur had turned the flank of the Fourth and +Fifth French armies; the latter was defeated by Von Buelow at Charleroi +on the 22d; the pressure exerted by the armies of the Duke of +Wuerttemberg and the crown prince also contributed to render inevitable +an immediate retirement of the allied right and center. The French +army that had invaded Lorraine--a grave strategical blunder--had also +come to grief. The Bavarians from Metz had broken its left wing on the +20th and driven it back over the frontier. De Castelnau was fighting +desperately for Nancy on a long front from Pont-a-Mousson down to St. +Die. On the 24th the British line fell back to the vicinity of +Maubeuge, where Von Kluck attempted to close it in. Sir John French +frustrated the plan by further retiring to a line running through Le +Cateau and Landrecies, August 25, 1914. After a violent holding battle +during two days the whole British front had fallen back to St. Quentin +and the upper valley of the Oise. + +It was General Joffre's plan to retreat to a position south of the +Marne, where his reserves would be available, a movement which was +successfully carried out by all parts of the allied line during the +following week. By September 5, 1914, this line extended from the +southeast of Paris, along the southern tributaries of the Marne, +across the Champagne to a point south of Verdun. Beyond that, De +Castelnau was still holding the heights in front of Nancy. The +powerful German advance had forced the Allies back some hundred and +thirty miles, almost to the shelter of the Paris fortifications. It +seemed only a matter of hours to the fall of Paris when General Joffre +began his counteroffensive on September 6, 1914. Attempting to pierce +and envelop the allied left center, Von Kluck marched across the front +of the British to strike at the Fifth French Army commanded by General +d'Esperey, who had replaced Lanrezac after the Charleroi defeat. But +the turn of the tide was at hand. The Sixth French Army from Paris, +under General Manoury, fiercely attacked Von Kluck's rear guards on +the Ourcq; Sir John French drove against the right of the main German +advance; the Fifth and Ninth French armies held the front of Von Kluck +and Von Buelow; the Fourth French Army south of Vitry resisted the +piercing movement of the Duke of Wuerttemberg, and the Third French +Army (General Sarrail) checked the crown prince at Verdun, while De +Castelnau at Nancy entered upon the final stage of the battle of +Lorraine. The first great German offensive had failed in its purpose. +By September 12, 1914, the whole German front was retreating +northward. The Aisne plateau, where the Germans came to a halt, is +considered one of the strongest defensive positions in Europe, and +General Joffre soon realized that it could not be taken by direct +assault. He therefore attempted to envelop the German right and +extended his left wing--with a new army--up the valley of the Oise. +Some desperate German counterattacks were met at Rheims and south of +Verdun, but they achieved small success beyond creating a sharp +salient in their line at St. Mihiel, where the invaders managed to +cross the Meuse, General Sarrail defended Verdun with a field army in +a wide circle of intrenchments, with the result that the crown prince +was unable to bring the great howitzers within range of the fortress, +and his army suffered a severe defeat in the Argonne. + +The allied stand on the Marne and the resultant battle not only +checked the German avalanche and saved Paris, but dislocated the +fundamental principle of the whole German plan of campaign--to crush +France speedily with one mighty blow and then deal with Russia. + +On September 3, 1914, the Russians had already captured Lemberg--two +days before the allied retreat from Mons came to a sudden halt on the +Marne. On that same day, too, the French Government had been removed +from Paris to Bordeaux in anticipation of the worst. Having secured +the capital against immediate danger, General Joffre now began to +extend his line for a great enveloping movement against the German +right. He placed the new Tenth Army under Maud'huy north of De +Castelnau's force, reaching almost to the Belgian frontier. The small +British army under Sir John French moved north of that, and the new +Eighth French Army, under General d'Urbal, was intended to fill the +gap to the Channel. With remarkable flexibility the Germans initiated +the movement with their right as fast as the French extended their +left, and the whole strategy of both sides developed into a feverish +race for the northern shore. Before General d'Urbal could reach his +appointed sector, however, that "gap" had been filled by the remnants +of the Belgian army, liberated after the fall of Antwerp on October +9, 1914. By a narrow margin the Allies had won the race, but were +unable to carry out the intended offensive. Desperate conflicts raged +for a month, but they succeeded in holding the gate to the Channel +ports. The first battle of Ypres-Armentieres opened on October 11, +1914, when the Germans attacked simultaneously at Ypres, Armentieres, +Arras, and La Bassee. As a victory at either of the two last-named +places would have amply sufficed for the German purpose, this fourfold +attack appears to be a rather curious division of energy. The passages +at Arras and La Bassee were held by General Maud'huy and General +Smith-Dorrien respectively. The former defended his position for the +first three weeks in October when the German attacks weakened; the +latter, with the British Second Corps, had reached the farthest point +in the La Bassee position by October 19, 1914. Violent fighting +occurred round this sector during the latter part of October, and, +though compelled to yield ground occasionally, the British force +prevented any serious German advance. In the early stage of the +struggle the Belgian army and a brigade of French marines held the +Yser line. A British squadron, operating from the Channel, broke the +attack of the German right, and during the last week of October the +Belgians held the middle crossings, with the assistance of part of the +French Eighth Army. All immediate danger was removed from this section +by October 31, 1914, after the Belgians had flooded the country and +driven the Wuerttembergers back at Ramscapelle. + +Returning to Ypres, we have stated that the Germans attacked four +different points in this region, on October 11, 1914. By the 20th, +however, it became apparent that their main objective was the Ypres +salient--neither the best nor the easiest route to the sea. What, +then, was the motive underlying this particular phase of the German +strategic plan? It would be pure presumption--taking that word at its +worst meaning--to criticize the deep, long-headed calculations of the +German war staff. A reason--and a good reason--there must have been. +What the historian cannot explain he may, perhaps, be permitted to +speculate upon in order to arrive at some working hypothesis. Hence, +would it be considered an extravagant flight of fancy to assume that +the German decision was influenced by the very simple fact that the +British Expeditionary Force was concentrated in and around Ypres? +Skillful stage management is useful even in the grim drama of war, and +the defeat or elimination of the British forces in the first great +battle of the war would indeed have produced a most sensational effect +with almost incalculable results. Be that as it may, the first battle +of Ypres has already been accorded its position in the British +calendar as "the greatest fight in the history of our army." There is +yet another distinction that battle can claim: it was the first mighty +collision between Anglo-Saxon and Teuton in the history of mankind. +They had fought shoulder to shoulder in the past--never face to face. +French troops also took part in the battle; they consisted of +territorials, some cavalry, and Dubois's Ninth Corps; but the heaviest +blows were delivered with whole-hearted force and energy upon the +British line. This remarkable fight lasted nearly a month. During its +progress the Allies withstood some half a million German troops with a +force that never exceeded 150,000 in number. + +Before the last thunderous echoes of Ypres had melted away in space, +dreary winter spread its mantle over the combatants with impartial +severity. During the next three months the opposing forces settled +down and heavily intrenched themselves and then began that warfare at +present familiar to the world, resembling huge siege operations. The +Allies were fighting for time--the Germans against it. The allied +commanders aimed at wearing down the man-power of the enemy by a +series of indecisive actions in which his losses should be +disproportionally greater than their own. + +The most important events of the winter campaign were the fight near +La Bassee in December, 1914, where the British Indian Corps +distinguished itself; the fighting at Givenchy in January and +February, 1915; the battle at Soissons in January, 1915, where the +French lost some ground; the long struggle in northern Champagne +during February and March, 1915, where the French first made use of +artillery on a grand scale; and some considerable actions in the +neighborhood of Pont-a-Mousson and the southeast valleys of the +Vosges. + +In March, 1915, the Allies began what has been described as a +tentative offensive. Between March 10 and March 12, 1915, the British +advanced about a mile on a front of three miles at Neuve Chapelle, but +the aim of the operations, which were directed against Lille, could +not be achieved. Early in April the French carried the heights of Les +Eparges, which commanded the main communications of the Woevre, an +action that led to a general belief that the Allies' summer offensive +would be aimed at Metz. But the plan--if it ever was entertained--was +abandoned toward the end of April, 1915, when the critical situation +of the Russians in Galicia made it imperative to create a diversion in +another area, where the effects would be more quickly felt. Before the +French attack could mature, however, the second battle of Ypres was +developing. + +The Germans began shelling Ypres on April 20, 1915, to prevent +reenforcements from entering the salient, and in the evening of April +22, 1915, they made their first attack with poisonous gas. A French +division lying between the canal and the Pilken road had the first +experience of this new horror added to the methods of warfare. Much +has been written in condemnation of employing poisonous gas, and the +practice has been widely discussed from the "moral" and "humane" point +of view. The Germans claim that the French used it first--a contention +not supported by evidence. "On the general moral question," says Mr. +John Buchan, the well-known English writer on military subjects, "it +is foolish to dogmatize." He points out that all war is barbarous in +essence, and that a man who died in torture from the effects of poison +gas might have suffered equal agony from a shrapnel wound. Hence he +draws the conclusion that the German innovation, if not particularly +more barbarous than other weapons, was at least impolitic, since its +employment raised a storm of indignation and exasperated the feelings +of Germany's enemies. Be that as it may, the poison clouds proved very +effective at Ypres during April and May, 1915. The French line was +driven in and the left brigade of the Canadians on their right was +forced back in a sharp angle. For the first five days the northern +side of the salient was steadily pressed in by gas and artillery +attacks. This, the second battle of Ypres, ended about May 24, 1915; +it had lasted practically as long as the first battle, though the +fighting had been less continuous. The Germans were meanwhile striving +desperately to force a decision in Galicia and Poland, simultaneously +fighting a long-range holding battle in the west with fewer men and +more guns. + +On May 10, 1915, began the great attack by the French in the Artois, +aimed at securing Lens and the communications of the Scheldt valley. +After violent artillery-fire preparations, the French center south of +Carency was pushed forward a distance of three miles. In a few days +they took the towns of Albain, Carency, Neuville St. Vaast, and most +of Souchez, besides the whole plateau of Lorette. But the Germans had +prepared a number of fortins, which had to be captured before any +general advance could be made. This mode of warfare enables a +numerically inferior force well supplied with ammunition to resist for +a considerable time the most resolute attacks. The French army was +still engaged in this operation when the first anniversary of the war +dawned. The situation at the moment is summarized in a French official +communique as follows: "There has been no great change on the western +front for many months. Great battles have been fought, the casualties +have been heavy on both sides, but territorial gains have been +insignificant." + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FIGHTING IN ARTOIS AND THE VOSGES + + +On the first of August, 1915, the situation on the western front was +as follows: The position of the Belgian troops has been described; the +British held the line from the north of Ypres to the south of La +Bassee. The Germans had closed in to some extent round Ypres during +the two big battles, and the trenches now ran in a semicircle about +the city at a distance of from two and one-half to three miles. The +line turned south at St. Eloi, skirted the west of the Messines ridge, +turned east again at Ploegstreet Wood, and south to the east of +Armentieres. Hence the trenches extended southwestward to Neuve +Chapelle and Festhubert to La Bassee. The remainder of the front--down +to the Swiss frontier--was defended by the French, along by Lille, +Rheims, and the fortresses of Verdun, Toul, Epinal, and Belfort. + +After the battles of May and June, 1915, in Artois, activity on the +western front became concentrated in the Vosges, where the French by a +series of comparatively successful engagements had managed to secure +possession of more favorable positions and to retain them in spite of +incessant and violent counterattacks. The supreme object of the allied +commanders at this stage was to wear down their opponents through vain +and costly counteroffensives, and to absorb the German local resources +in that sector. It had been decided by the Allies to begin a fresh +offensive on the western front in August, 1915, but owing to +incomplete preparations, the attempt was of necessity postponed till +the third week in September. It was extremely urgent that some +determined move should be made as speedily as possible; the Russians +were suffering defeat and disaster in the east, and were already +retreating from Warsaw in the first days of August, 1915. The British +and the French meanwhile could do little more than engage in local +actions until their arrangements for offensive operations on a vast +scale should be completed. On the other side, the Germans were also +busily making preparations to provide against every possibility in +case of retreat. New lines of defenses were constructed across +Belgium; formidable complex trenches guarded by barbed-wire +entanglements; concrete bases for heavy guns connected by railways; +and a large fortified station was erected. These preparations rendered +possible a very rapid transportation of troops and munitions to +Brabant and Antwerp. + +The fighting on the western front during August, 1915, may be +described as a fierce, continuous battle, a lively seesaw of capturing +and recapturing positions, followed at regular intervals by the +publication of the most contradictory "official" reports from the +German, French, and British headquarters. Many of them gave +diametrically opposite accounts of the same events. In the first week +of the month the Germans made furious attacks against the French +positions at Lingekopf and Barrenkopf. All through the Argonne forest +the combatants pelted each other with bombs, hand grenades, and other +newly invented missiles. Several determined attempts were made by the +Germans to recapture the positions lost at Schratzmannele and +Reichsackerkopf, but the French artillery fire proved too strong. +Soissons was again bombarded; desperate night attacks were delivered +around Souchez, on the plateau of Quennevieres, and in the valley of +the Aisne; local engagements were fought in Belgium and along parts of +the British front; trenches were mined and shattered, while aeroplanes +scattered bombs and fought thrilling duels in the air. The Belgians +were forced partly to evacuate their advanced positions over the river +Yser, near Hernisse, south of Dixmude. In the Argonne the Germans, by +a strong infantry charge, penetrated the first line of the French +trenches, but were unable to hold their ground. + +On August 9, 1915, a squadron of thirty-two large French aeroplanes +carrying explosives, and accompanied by a number of lighter machines +to act as scouts, set out to bombard the important mining and +manufacturing town of Saarbruecken, on the river Saar, in Rhenish +Prussia. This was where the first engagement in the Franco-Prussian +War of 1870 was fought. Owing to mist and heavy clouds, only +twenty-eight of the aeroplanes succeeded in locating the town, where +they dropped one hundred and sixty bombs of large caliber. A number of +German aviators ascended as soon as the flotilla's arrival had been +signaled, and a lively skirmish ensued between them and the French +scouts. The results and casualties of the raid have not leaked out. + +The German General Staff was evidently not unacquainted with the fact +that the Allies had a big "drive" in contemplation. Most of the +fighting had been forced by the Germans with ever-increasing violence +and energy. Toward the middle of August, 1915, their attacks became +fiercer still. After a deadly bombardment that literally flattened the +countryside, and in which shells of all calibers as well as +asphyxiating gas bombs were hurled against the French positions +between the Binarville-Vienne-le-Chateau road and the Houyette ravine +in the Argonne, the German infantry dashed from their trenches in +great numbers and close formation and charged across the intervening +ground. So furious was the onslaught that the French were driven well +back out of their shattered defenses. Within a few hours strong +reenforcements hurried to the spot enabled the French to deliver a +counterattack and recover some of the lost ground. Simultaneously, the +Germans attempted to storm the French position in the neighborhood of +La Fontaine-aux-Charmes, but with less success. During the last week +of July and the first half of August, 1915, large bodies of German +troops were detached from the armies operating on the eastern front +and poured into France and Flanders. Different estimates fix the +numbers at from 140,000 to 200,000. + +On August 18, 1915, violent fighting broke out in the region north of +Arras, in the course of which the French took an important field +position. In a desperate bayonet charge the following night the +Germans vainly endeavored to recover the ground. The French also +captured a trench in a long battle spread over a wide section of the +Alsatian front. In the Artois they seized the junction of the +highroads between Bethune and Arras and between Ablain and Angres. +North of Carleul they held the Germans in check against a heavy +artillery, infantry, and bomb attack, but were driven out of some +trenches they had previously won on Lingekopf. By the 20th the Germans +had regained some of the trenches on the Ablain-Angres road, but lost +them again in a French bayonet charge two days later. French aviators +bombarded the railway stations at Lens, Henin-Lietard and Loos, in the +Department of Pas de Calais. Arras, the scene of some of the severest +conflicts in the war, was subjected to another prolonged bombardment +by the heavy German artillery. Thus the pendulum swung to and fro; the +main strength of Germany and Austria-Hungary was strenuously being +exerted in the Polish salient, while on the western front the Germans +also conducted a harassing and exhausting defensive. Meanwhile the +Allies were gradually completing their preparations for the great coup +from which so much was expected. + +On August 31, 1915, the science of aviation lost one of its most +daring and brilliant exponents by the death of Alphonse Pegoud. No man +before him ever took such liberties with the law of gravitation or +performed such dare-devil pranks at dizzy altitudes up in the sky. He +was the first to demonstrate the possibility of "looping the loop" +thousands of feet from the earth; many have done the trick since, but +for the pioneer it was a pure gamble with almost certain death. Even +into the serious business of war Pegoud carried his freak aeronautics, +though it must be added that his remarkable skill in that direction +had enabled him to escape from many a perilous situation. A few days +before he fell Pegoud carried out a flight of 186 miles over German +territory. He returned unscathed, while the planes of his machine were +riddled with bullet holes. On the occasion of decorating Pegoud with +the Military Medal in March, 1915, the French Minister for War said: +"Time and again he has pursued the enemy's aeroplanes successfully. On +one day he brought down a monoplane and a biplane and compelled +another biplane to land while he was all the time within range of +fire." The following two of his innumerable thrilling exploits deserve +to be recorded: "At one time Pegoud caught sight of a German +ammunition depot and dropped nine bombs on it. The air concussion was +so great from the explosion of the ammunition that his machine was all +but wrecked, and he regained his equilibrium only after performing +more than exhibition acrobatics. On another occasion, having located a +captive German balloon, he ascended to a great height behind the +clouds and then literally fell out of the sky toward his target. At a +distance of only fifty yards he dropped a bomb which struck the +balloon squarely. The vibration waves caused his aeroplane to bounce +about like a toy boat on a rough pond. But Pegoud still carried his +good luck and, managing to steady the craft, sailed away amid a hail +of German bullets."[1] + + [Footnote 1: New York "Sun."] + +Of all the fighting on the western front during the month of August, +1915, the main interest attaches to that carried on in the struggle for +the important mountain peaks in the Vosges which dominated German +positions in the Alsatian valleys and plain. According to the French +official reports, these operations resulted in the capture of the peaks +named Lingekopf, Schratzmannele and Barrenkopf. The German official +statement of September 2, 1915, however, claimed that the first and last +of these had been recaptured. The French preparations for the attack on +Lingekopf included the building of a mountain road eight miles long with +communication trenches extending even farther, and also the construction +of innumerable camps, sheds, ammunition and repair depots, as well as +ambulance stations. The mountain road proved to be a triumph of +engineering, as more than a hundred tons of war material passed over it +daily without a single breakdown. The slopes which had to be stormed +were thickly wooded, which greatly facilitated their defense, while the +main French approach trenches were exposed to a double enfilade fire, +rendering their use impossible in daytime. Between Schratzmannele and +Barrenkopf there was a German blockhouse with cement walls ten feet +thick. This was surrounded with barbed-wire entanglements and +chevaux-de-frise. The French delivered their first attack on July 20, +1915. After a violent bombardment of ten hours, chasseur battalions +stormed the German positions, capturing the Linge summit to the left and +the Barren to the right. The Germans, however, firmly retained their +hold on Schratzmannele. They caught the exposed French flanks with a +stream of machine-gun fire and forced the chasseurs to retire to +sheltered positions lower down the slopes. Two days later the French +made another attack, and for quite a month, judging from the +contradictory "official" reports, these peaks changed hands about twice +a week. The French claim that they obtained "complete possession" on +August 22, 1915, and that "the enemy, who had employed seven brigades +against us, had to accept defeat." The German version, on the other +hand, ran: "The battle line of Lingekopf-Barrenkopf thus passed again +into our possession. All counterattacks have been repulsed." + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +POLITICAL CRISIS IN FRANCE--AEROPLANE WARFARE--FIERCE COMBATS IN THE +VOSGES--PREPARATIONS FOR ALLIED OFFENSE + + +It was also during the month of August, 1915, that the political horizon +in France was temporarily overcast by one of those peculiar "crises" +which seem to happen chiefly in countries enjoying the most liberal +institutions and the greatest freedom of speech and press. On the 6th it +was announced from Paris that the Government had decided to replace +General H. J. E. Gouraud, Commander of the French Expeditionary Force at +the Dardanelles, by General Sarrail, who had been designated Commander +in Chief of the Army in the Orient. That Gouraud would have to be +relieved of his command was painfully obvious, for that gallant officer +had been struck by a shell while visiting a base hospital on July 8, +hopelessly shattering his right arm, which had to be amputated. As, +however, the French military contingent in the ill-starred Gallipoli +adventure was but a small affair, the appointment of General Sarrail to +the command thereof could only be regarded as the reverse of a +promotion. In the first great German offensive toward Paris it was +General Sarrail who had successfully defended the fortress of Verdun +against the attacks of the German Crown Prince. Gradually the story came +out that the general was the victim of a political intrigue--a plot to +displace him as well as M. Millerand, the Minister for War. An +acrimonious discussion developed in the French Chamber on August 14, +1915, in which some of the members nearly came to blows. The political +truce, arranged between the conflicting parties at the beginning of the +war, hung in the balance. Faithful to the old tradition that the duty of +the Opposition is to oppose anything and everything, the +Radical-Socialists and the Socialist party were loud in their +denunciation of the conduct of the war, and desired to allocate +responsibility for the military failures of the previous year. A number +of high officers had already been "retired" in connection with those +failures, which were serious enough. But the charge alleged against +Sarrail was that he had omitted to supply his men adequately with +antipoison gas masks. In one of the German attacks in which gas was +used, Sarrail's front was pierced and a thousand men were forced to +surrender. Some accounts gave the number as 5,000. For this the general +was at first suspended, and then offered the other command, which he +refused on the ground that if he was guilty he deserved punishment; if +not, he was entitled to reinstatement. The real motive underlying the +prosecution, however, was generally believed to have been one of a +purely political nature. Sarrail, a "Republican," as opposed to a +"Reactionary," which latter signifies a conservative in politics and, +frequently also, a professed churchman--in short, General Sarrail had +attracted the animosity of both the clerical and radical parties. When, +finally, the Government promised to increase the Dardanelles force to +80,000 men, he accepted the appointment. + +The first week in September, 1915, saw considerable artillery activity +along the whole front. Except in the Vosges, where French and German +bayonets clashed on mountain peaks and in underground tunnels, +infantry action had been suspended for nearly two weeks. Heavy +bombardments had been maintained by both sides--those of the Allies +being especially deliberate and persistent. As a fireman would sway +the nozzle of his streaming hose from side to side, so the Allies +poured a continuous, sweeping torrent of shot and shell over the +German positions in certain well-defined zones along the line. It +began from the extreme left on the Belgian front, thence swung into +the region of Souchez, then around Arras, farther on along the Aisne, +particularly at the two extremities of the Aisne plateau, turned to +the right in Champagne, spread to the Argonne, next in the Woevre and +finally in Lorraine. Beneath the cyclone and out of sight trench +mortar actions were fought, mining operations carried on, bombs and +hand grenades thrown. + +On September 1, 1915, four German aeroplanes had dropped bombs on the +open town of Luneville, killing many civilians. As a measure of +reprisal forty French aeroplanes returned the compliment by making +another air raid on Saarbruecken, where they bombarded the station, +factories, and military establishments. A squadron of thirty or forty +vessels of the British Fleet bombarded the whole of the Belgian coast +in German possession as far as Ostend. French artillery stationed in +the vicinity of Nieuport cooperated to shell the German coast +batteries at Westende. In retaliation for the bombardment of the open +towns of St. Die and Gerardmer by German aeroplanes, a French +aeroplane squadron assailed the railroad and military establishments +of Freiburg in Breisgau. Aerial operations had by this time become a +powerful auxiliary to the combatants on each side. The aeroplane +attained a definite position as a weapon even in trench and field +warfare. Machines hovered over the lines every day, reconnoitering and +dropping bombs on positions, stores, transports, moving troops, +trenches, and munition depots. Bombardment by aeroplane was, in fact, +quite as serious and formidable a business as any artillery attack. +The bombs carried by these machines were exactly of the same caliber +as those used by heavy guns. Constant practice afforded by daily +opportunities had enormously increased the skill of the aviators, many +of whom could hit a small house from high altitudes without much +trouble. Duels and pitched battles in the air were of daily occurrence +on the western front. As soon as an "enemy flyer" hove in sight on +either side of the lines, locally attached aviators rose and attacked +the intruder. This, the most "modern" method of fighting, has produced +a crop of thrilling incidents and stirring examples of bravery +exhibited by the German, French, and British flying men. A code of +what might be called "aerial chivalry" has spontaneously grown up +among the flying fraternity. Two pretty incidents will suffice to +demonstrate: A German aviator had been attacked and brought to earth +by a French airman. The German was killed in the contest. In the dead +man's pocket was found a diary of his adventures in the war, and other +happenings, from day to day. It was written in conversational style +addressed throughout to his wife, together with a letter to her of the +same day's date. The next morning a French aeroplane flew over the +German line. Descending to within a few hundred yards of the ground, +despite the hail of bullets that whistled around him, the aviator +dropped a neatly wrapped parcel, rose suddenly to a great height and +was gone. That parcel contained all the dead German aviator's private +property, his papers, medals, etc., with a note of sympathy from the +victor. A few days after the death of Pegoud, who was killed in midair +before he fell, a German aviator flew at great height over an Alsatian +commune on the old frontier and dropped a wreath bearing the +inscription: "In memory of Pegoud, who died a hero's death, from his +adversary." + +The French method of aerial maneuvering is interesting as well as +effective. Their air squadrons operate in the following manner: ten +machines rise 6,000 feet along the enemy's line; ten others rise 9,000 +feet. If an enemy machine attempts to pass the Frenchmen attack +simultaneously from above and below, while, if necessary, two other +machines come to their aid. Thus the intruder is always at a +disadvantage. On several occasions the Germans attempted to fly across +the French lines in force, but always with disastrous consequences. +When the French set out in squadrons to make a raid or bombard a +position they pursue the same tactics and achieve very important +results. + +Early in September, 1915, General Joffre paid a visit to Rome, was +received in audience by King Victor Emmanuel, and decorated with the +highest Italian military distinction--the Grand Cross of the Military +Order of Savoy--as proof of his majesty's esteem for the French army. +General Joffre afterward made a tour of the Italian battle front and +conferred with General Cadorna. + +About September 8, 1915, the Germans recommenced to attack in the +Argonne, where the German Crown Prince had failed to break the French +line in June and July. After a violent artillery preparation, +including the use of a large number of asphyxiating shells, two +infantry divisions were flung against the French. The Germans rushed +the first-line trenches at several points. Strong attacks were +launched against them and prevented any further advance. + +French and British airmen raided the aviation sheds at Ostend; another +air squadron dropped sixty shells on the aviation ground at Saint +Medard and on the railway station at Dieuze, in Lorraine, twenty-five +miles northeast of Nancy. A bombardment of Zeebrugge by the British +fleet caused much damage, the Germans losing forty dead and some +hundred wounded. Here the submarine port, with two submersibles and +two guns on the harbor wall were destroyed, while the central airship +shed, containing at the time two dirigibles, was also severely +damaged. The semaphore tower was shot to pieces and some sluices +crippled. Perhaps the most exciting incident at this period was the +great allied air raid on the Forest of Houlthulst, about halfway +between Ypres and Dixmude. The forest was quite sheltered from the +ravages of the allied guns, and had been converted into a regular +garrison district, with comfortable barracks full of soldiers, +provision stores, and large munition depots. The whole camp was +brilliantly illuminated with electric light. + +At ten o'clock on the night of September 9, 1915, sixty French, +British and Belgian aeroplanes started out in clear moonlight. +Immediately the aerial flotilla had announced its approach by the +well-known buzzing of sixty industrious propellers, the whole +neighborhood was plunged in sudden darkness. The moon, however, +supplied the necessary light to guide the sky raiders to their goal. +Besides, French flyers had already photographed the region in broad +daylight, so that the situation of the main buildings was thoroughly +known to all the pilots. It is stated that four tons of high +explosives and incendiary bombs were scattered with deadly effect; +some of the aircraft whose stock became exhausted flew back to their +base, landed, refilled, and returned to the scene of action--two and +three times. The greatest consternation naturally prevailed among the +soldiers below, running in panic-stricken groups to escape from the +blasting shower let loose over their heads. Indescribable confusion +prevailed; frequent explosions were heard as some aerial missile found +a piled-up accumulation of its own kind. By 11.30, an hour and a half +after the squadron had set sail, the entire forest and the buildings +it contained were in flames. The next morning a German aeroplane, +"adorned with sixteen Iron Crosses," was forced to descend near Calais +owing to engine trouble and was captured by the French. + +By way of reprisals for the continued attacks on Luneville and +Compiegne by German aviators, a squadron of French aeroplanes flew +over the German town of Trier (Treves) on September 13, 1915, and +deposited one hundred bombs. After returning to the base and taking on +board further supplies, they set out again in the afternoon and +dropped fifty-eight shells on the station of Dommary Baroncourt. Other +aeros bombarded the railway stations at Donaueschingen on the Danube +and at Marbach, where movements of troops had been reported. Activity +grew in intensity all along the front. Artillery fighting on the Yser, +the north and south of Arras, in the sectors of Neuville, Roclincourt +and Mailly. To the north of the Oise the French artillery carried out +a destructive fire on the German defenses and the works of +Beuvraignes. Infantry attacks occurred in front of Andrechy. On the +canal from the Aisne to the Marne the French bombarded the trenches, +batteries and cantonments of the Germans in the environs of Sapigneul +and of Neuville, near Berry-au-Bac. Grenade engagements took place +near the Bethune-Arras road and north of Souchez. South of the Somme, +before Fay, there were constant and stubborn mine duels, while fierce +bombardments in the sectors of Armancourt (southwest of Compiegne), +Beuvraignes (south of Roye), as well as on the plateau of. +Quennevieres (northeast of Compiegne) and Nouvron (northwest of +Soissons), continued uninterruptedly. In Champagne and in the Argonne +also, long range artillery fighting rent the air. + +On the Lorraine front, in the environs of Embermenil, Leintrey, and +Ancerviller, near Luneville, the German trenches and works were +subjected to heavy fire. Poison shells and liquid fire played an +important part in the furious fighting that was gradually developing +in the Vosges, and assisted the Germans to gain some initial +successes. On the Lingekopf-Barrenkopf front the French were driven +out of a first-line trench on the Schratzmannele, but they recovered +most of the ground by a counterattack. Similarly on the summit of the +Hartmannsweilerkopf, where the Germans had also obtained a footing in +the French trenches, they were subsequently ejected again. These +trenches had been captured with the aid of blazing liquids. Our first +knowledge of this "blazing liquid" (outside of Germany) was derived +from a document which fell into French hands early in the war. It was +Note 32 of the Second Army, dated October 16, 1914, at St. Quentin. In +it were published the following instructions under the heading of +"Arms at the disposal of Pioneers (Sappers) for fighting at close +quarters": + +"The flame projectors (Flammenwerfer), which are very similar to +portable fire extinguishers, are worked by specially trained pioneers +and throw a liquid which at once catches fire spontaneously. The jet +of fire has an effective range of 30 meters. The effect is immediate +and deadly, and the great heat developed forces the enemy back a long +way. As they burn from one and a half to two minutes, and can be +stopped whenever necessary, short and isolated jets of flame are +advisable, so that one charge is sufficient to spray several +objectives. Flame projectors will be mainly employed in street and +house-to-house fighting, and will be kept in readiness at the place +from which an attack starts." + +There is no doubt that some engines of this nature were employed by +the Germans during August and September, 1914, to destroy portions of +the towns and villages destroyed by them. One captured apparatus, +actually examined, comprised a portable reservoir for holding the +inflammable liquid and the means of spraying it. The former, which is +carried strapped on to a man's back, is a steel cylinder containing +oil and compressed air in separate chambers. The latter consists of a +suitable length of metal pipe fitted with universal joints and a +nozzle capable of rotation in any direction. When a valve is turned +on, the air pressure forces the oil out of the nozzle in a fine spray +for a distance of over twenty yards. The oil is ignited automatically +at the nozzle and continues to issue in a sheet of flame until the air +pressure falls too low or the oil is exhausted. The heat given out is +terrific in its intensity. A similar method employed by the German +troops consists of a liquid substance which is squirted into the +trenches. Bombs are then thrown which on explosion ignite the fluid. +Yet another sort of projectile took the form of an incendiary bomb or +shell which was discharged noiselessly, possibly from a catapult. It +bursts on impact, tearing a hole and burning a circle of ground about +eight feet in diameter. + +By the middle of the month, September, 1915, the liveliest activity +obtained everywhere in the west--each side apparently doing its utmost +to harass the other. Nothing of a definite nature was achieved by +either. The Germans were merely sitting tight along most of the line +while taking the offensive only in those sectors where they had reason +to believe the Allies would attempt to strike the great blow. The +Allies, on the other hand, endeavored to weaken their opponents as +much as possible in order to create an easier passage for the great +"drive" they contemplated. The innumerable engagements about this time +throughout the western theatre of the war form a bewildering conflict +of unconnected and minor battles and skirmishes. When, years hence, +the "official" histories are written and published, the student may be +able to read the riddle and trace some thread of continuity and +intention through the labyrinth of these operations. For the present +they must be regarded as mere incidents in the overture leading to a +great battle. The actions were described from day to day with some +detail by the Allies, and as "unimportant attempts" by the German +official communiques. The latter generally consisted of few words that +gave little or no indication of what had happened, and frequently +wound up with the phrase: "There was no change on the front." The +following translation may be given as a typical example; "The French +attempted an attack but were repulsed by our fire. An enemy aeroplane +was shot down. We successfully attacked in the Argonne. The situation +is unchanged." + +On September 18, 1915, the British fleet again bombarded the German +defenses on the Belgian coast, in conjunction with the British +artillery in the Nieuport district. Unabated fighting raged along the +whole front, and it was all summed up in the German official +communique of September 20, 1915, with commendable brevity: + +"The hostile vessels which unsuccessfully bombarded Westende and +Middelkerke, southwest of Ostend, withdrew before our fire. Several +hits were observed. Along the land front there were no important +events." + +Nevertheless, important events were shaping themselves about this +time. German artillery attacks increased in violence against the +British front. Aeroplanes were particularly busy observing all moves +on the board. In Champagne the Germans kept the French occupied with +heavy shells and "lachrymatory projectiles." These projectiles have +been described as "tearful and wonderful engines of war." They are +ordinary hand grenades with a charge that rips open the grenade and +liberates a liquid chemical. When that happens, the effect of the +fumes brings water to the eyes of the men in such quantities that they +are quite unable to defend themselves in the event of an attack. +Shooting is entirely out of the question. The stinging sensation +produced in the eyes is not pleasant, but it is not painful, and the +effect wears off in a few minutes. The troops humorously refer to +these grenades as "onions." + +On September 21, 1915, a party of French airmen carried out the most +daring of the many raids on German towns and positions they had +hitherto accomplished. An aero squadron flew to Stuttgart, which is +about 140 miles due east from Nancy, and dropped thirty shells on the +palace of the King of Wuerttemberg and the railway station of the town. +They were fired at from many points, but safely completed their double +journey of nearly 300 miles. Before this exploit, which was undertaken +as a reprisal, the longest distances traveled by raiding squadrons of +French aeroplanes were those to the Friedrichshafen Zeppelin +factories on June 28, 1915, involving a double journey of 240 miles +from Belfort; and to the explosives factory at Ludwigshafen, on the +Rhine, which represented a distance of 230 miles from Nancy and back. +The Berlin official report thus describes the event: + +"At 8.15 this morning enemy airmen with German marks on their aeros +attacked Stuttgart and dropped several bombs on the town, killing four +persons and wounding a number of soldiers and civilians. The material +damage was quite unimportant." + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE GREAT CHAMPAGNE OFFENSIVE + + +The day fixed for the opening of the Allies' long-projected offensive +dawned on September 22, 1915. Gigantic preparations had been in the +making. Large drafts of fresh British troops had been poured into +France, which enabled Sir John French to take over the defense of a +portion of the lines hitherto held by General Joffre's men. Defensive +organizations had been improved all round; immense supplies of +munitions had been accumulated; units had been carefully regrouped and +new ones created; all that skill, foresight and arduous toil could +accomplish had been attained. The spirit of the human fighting +material was all that could be desired. In order not to interrupt the +course of the narrative later, we insert here the interesting general +order that the French commander in chief issued to his troops on +September 23, 1915, when it was read to the regiments by their +officers: + +"_Soldiers of the Republic:_ + +"After months of waiting, which have enabled us to increase our forces +and our resources, while the adversary has been using up his own, the +hour has come to attack and conquer and to add fresh glorious pages +to those of the Marne and Flanders, the Vosges and Arras. + +"Behind the whirlwind of iron and fire let loose, thanks to the +factories of France, where your brothers have, night and day, worked +for us, you will proceed to the attack, all together, on the whole +front, in close union with the armies of our allies. + +"Your _elan_ will be irresistible. It will carry you at a bound up to +the batteries of the adversary, beyond the fortified lines which he +has placed before you. + +"You will give him neither pause nor rest until victory has been +achieved. + +"Set to with all your might for the deliverance of the soil of la +Patrie, for the triumph of justice and liberty. + + "J. JOFFRE." + +The general outlines of the plan of campaign may be briefly described: +The British were to deliver a main attack on the German trenches +between Lens and La Bassee, in close cooperation with the French on +their immediate right in Artois, and to hold the enemy by secondary +attacks and demonstrations on the rest of the (British) front, about +eighty miles. The French, for their part, took in hand the two +principal operations--to batter through in Artois and to exert their +mightiest efforts in Champagne. + +[Illustration: Zigzag trenches in Champagne. The strip on which the +armies are clinched varies in width and winds over dunes, marshes, +woods and mountains.] + +To a proper understanding of a campaign or a battle, some knowledge of +the topographical conditions is essential. The chief scene in the +act--where the grand attack falls--is the beautiful vineyard region of +Champagne. Here the German front is the same as they established and +fortified it after the Battle of the Marne. It rests on the west side +on the Massif de Moronvillers; to the east it stretches as far as the +Argonne. It was intended to cover the railroad from Challerange to +Bazancourt, a line indispensable for the concentration movements of +the German troops. The offensive front, which extends from Auberive to +the east of Ville-sur-Tourbe, presents a varied aspect. From east to +west may be seen, firstly, a glacis or sloping bank about five miles +wide and covered with little woods. The road from Saint-Hilaire to +Saint-Souplet, with the Baraque de l'Epine de Vedegrange, marks +approximately its axis. + +[Illustration: The Champagne District.] + +(2) The hollow, in which lies the pretty village of Souain and where +the first German line follows its edge. The road from Souain to +Pomme-Py describes the radius of this semicircle. The farm of Navarin +stands on the top of the hills two miles north of Souain. + +(3) To the north of Perthes, a comparatively tranquil region of +uniform aspect, forming between the wooded hills of the Trou Bricot +and those of the Butte du Mesnil a passage two miles wide, barred by +several lines of trenches and ending at a series of heights--the Butte +de Souain, Hills 195 and 201 and the Butte de Tahure, surmounted by +the second German line. + +(4) To the north of Mesnil, a very strong position, bastioned on the +west by two twin heights (Mamelle Nord and Trapeze), on the east by +the Butte du Mesnil. The German trenches form a powerful curtain +between these two bastions, behind which a thickly wooded undulating +region extends as far as Tahure. + +(5) To the north of Beausejour, a bare terrain easily traversable, +with a gentle rise in the direction of Ripon to the farms of Maisons +de Champagne. + +(6) To the north of Massiges, hills numbered 191 and 199, describing +on the map the figure of a hand, very strongly fortified and forming +the eastern flank of the whole German line. This table-land slopes +down gently in the direction of Ville-sur-Tourbe. + +As to the German defenses, the French were intimately acquainted with +every detail. They had maps showing every defensive work, trench, +alley of communication, and clump of trees in the landscape. Each of +these features had been given a special name or number preceded by a +certain letter, according to the sector of attack wherein it was +situated. These details had been laboriously collected by aviators and +spies, and applied with minute precision. + +On the morning of September 22, 1915, the French accelerated their +long-sustained bombardment of the German positions with intense fury, +continuing day and night without a break until the 25th. The direct +object of this preparatory cannonade was to destroy the wire +entanglements, bury the defenders in their dugouts, raze the trenches, +smash the embrasures, and stop up the alleys of communication. The +range included not only the first trench line, but also the supporting +trench and the second position, though the last was so far distant as +to make accurate observation difficult. The heavy long-range guns +shelled the headquarters, the cantonments and the railroad stations. +They speedily demolished the permanent way, thereby stopping all +traffic in reenforcements, munitions and commissariat. From letters +and notes afterwards found upon German prisoners who came out alive +from that inferno, one may gather an approximate idea of what the +bombardment was like: + + + "September 23. + +"The French artillery fired without intermission from the morning of +the 21st to the evening of the 23rd, and we all took refuge in our +dugouts. On the evening of the 22d we were to have gone to get some +food, but the French continued to fire on our trenches. In the evening +we had heavy losses, and we had nothing to eat." + + + "September 24. + +"For the last two days the French have been firing like mad. To-day, +for instance, a dugout has been destroyed. There were sixteen men in +it. Not one of them managed to save his skin. They are all dead. +Besides that, a number of individual men have been killed and there +are a great mass of wounded. The artillery fires almost as rapidly as +the infantry. A mist of smoke hangs over the whole battle front, so +that it is impossible to see anything. Men are dropping like flies. +The trenches are no longer anything but a mound of ruins." + + + "September 24. + +"A rain of shells is pouring down upon us. The kitchen and everything +that is sent to us is bombarded at night. The field kitchens no longer +come to us. Oh, if only the end were near! That is the cry everyone is +repeating." + + + "September 25. + +"I have received no news, and probably shall not receive any for some +days. The whole postal service has been stopped; all places have been +bombarded to such an extent that no human being could stand against +it. The railway line is so seriously damaged that the train service +for some time has been completely stopped. We have been for three days +in the first line; during those three days the French have fired so +heavily that our trenches are no longer visible." + + + "September 25. + +"We have passed through some terrible hours. It was as though the +whole world were in a state of collapse. We have had heavy losses. One +company of 250 men had sixty killed last night. A neighboring battery +had sixteen killed yesterday. The following instance will show you the +frightful destructiveness of the French shells: A dugout five meters +deep, surrounded by two meters fifty centimeters of earth and two +thicknesses of heavy timber, was broken like a match." + + +Report made on September 24, 1915, in the morning, by the captain +commanding the Third Company of the 135th Regiment of Reserves: + +"The French are firing on us with great bombs and machine guns. We +must have reenforcements at once. Many men are no longer fit for +anything. It is not that they are wounded, but they are Landsturmers. +Moreover the wastage is greater than the losses announced. Send +rations immediately; no food has reached us to-day. Urgently want +illuminating cartridges and hand grenades. Is the hospital corps never +coming to fetch the wounded? I urgently beg for reenforcements; the +men are dying from fatigue and want of sleep. I have no news of the +battalion." + +The time fixed for all the attacks on the Champagne front was 9.15 a. +m., September 25, 1915. Just before the assault General Joffre issued +the following brief order: + +"The offensive will be carried on without truce and without respite. + +"Remember the Marne--Victory or death." + +Punctual to the moment the troops climbed out of their trenches with +the aid of steps or scaling ladders and drew up in line before making +a rush at the German trenches. The operation was rapidly effected. The +German position was at an average distance of 220 yards; at the word +of command the troops broke into a steady trot and covered that ground +without any serious loss. The honor of the first assault was granted +to the dare-devil Colonial Corps, men hardened in the building up of +France's African Empire, and to the Moroccan troops, famous for fierce +and obstinate fighting. The men tore across the ground to the assault, +led by their commander, General Marchand, of Fashoda fame, who left +the army at the age of forty-four but volunteered immediately on the +outbreak of the war, and was given command of the Colonial Brigade. +General Marchand fell in the charge with a dangerous shell wound in +the abdomen. The men dashed on to the German trench line, stirring the +rain-drenched, chalky soil to foam beneath their feet. Under the +leadership of General Baratier, Marchand's right-hand man in his +colonial conquests, the French Colonial Cavalry played an important +part in the charge. This was the first time for many months that +cavalry really came into action on the western front. They lost +heavily, but their activities probably explain the great number of +prisoners captured in so short a time. + +At nearly every point the Germans were taken completely by surprise, +for their defensive fire was not opened until after the flowing tide +of the invaders had passed by. This was due neither to lack of courage +nor of vigilance, but to the demoralizing effect on the nerves of the +defenders by the terrific cannonade, which in all such cases induces a +sort of helpless apathy. + +The French actually penetrated into the first German trench over the +whole attacking front at one rush; after that their progress met with +fiercer resistance and varying checks. While certain units continued +their advance with remarkable rapidity, others encountered machine +guns still in action and either stopped or advanced with extreme +difficulty. Some centers of the German resistance maintained their +position for several hours; some even for days. A line showing the +different stages of the French advance in Champagne would assume a +curiously winding shape, and would reveal on one hand the defensive +power of an adversary resolved to hold his ground at all costs, and +on the other the mathematically successful continuity of the French +efforts in this hand-to-hand struggle. + +The Battle of Champagne must be considered in the light of a series of +assaults, executed at the same moment, in parallel or convergent +directions and having for their object either the capture or the +hemming in of the first German position, the units being instructed to +re-form in a continuous line before the second position. In order to +follow the development clearly, the terrain must be divided into +several sectors, in each of which the operations, although closely +coordinated, assumed, as a consequence either of the nature of the +ground or of the peculiarities of the German defenses, a different +character. The unity of the action was nevertheless insured by the +simultaneity of the rush, which carried all the troops beyond the +first position, past the batteries, to the defenses established by the +Germans on the heights to the south of Py. At the two extremities of +the French attacking front, where the advance was subjected to +converging fires and to counterattacks on the flanks, the offensive +practically failed--or at least made no progress. The fighting that +took place in Auberive and round about Servon was marked by several +heroic features, but it led to no further result than to hold and +immobilize the German forces on the wings while the attack was +progressing in the center. + +[Illustration: Detail Map of Battle in Champagne, September, 1915.] + +In accordance with the proposed arrangement of divisions into sectors, +we will take as Number-- + +(1) The sector of the Epine de Vedegrange: Here the first German line +was established at the base of a wide glacis covered with clumps of +trees, and formed a series of salients running into each other. At +certain points it ran along the edge of the woods where the +supplementary defenses were completed by abatis. The position as a +whole between Auberive and Souain described a vast triangle. To the +west of the road from Saint-Hilaire to Saint-Souplet, the troops +traversed the first German line and rushed forward for a distance of +about 1,200 yards as far as a supporting trench, in front of which +they were stopped by wire entanglements. A counterattack debouching +from the west and supported by the artillery of Moronvillers caused a +slight retirement of the French left. The troops on the right, on +the contrary, held their gains and succeeded on the following days in +increasing and extending them, remaining in touch with the units which +were attacking on the east of the road. The latter had succeeded in a +brilliant manner in overcoming the difficulties that faced them. The +German position which they captured, with its triple and quadruple +lines of trenches, its small forts armed with machine guns, its woods +adapted for the defensive purpose in view, constituted one of the most +complete schemes of defense on the Champagne front and afforded cover +to a numerous artillery concealed in the woods of the glacis. On this +front, about three miles wide, the attack on September 25, 1915, +achieved a mixed success. The troops on the left, after having +penetrated into the first trench, had their progress arrested by +machine guns. On the right, however, in spite of obstacles presented +by four successive trenches, each of which was covered by a network of +wire entanglements and was concealed in the woods, where the French +artillery had difficulty in reaching them, the attacking troops gained +about one and one-half miles, took 700 prisoners and captured seven +guns. + +The advance here recommenced on September 27, 1915. The left took +possession of the woods lining the road from Saint-Hilaire to +Saint-Souplet as far as the Epine de Vedegrange. Along the whole +extent of the wooded heights as far as the western side of the hollow +at Souain the success was identical. Notwithstanding the losses they +sustained and the fatigue involved in the incessant fighting, the +troops pushed forward, leaving behind them only a sufficient force to +clear the woods of isolated groups of Germans still remaining there. +Between four and six in the afternoon they arrived immediately in +front of the second German position. On the same day they penetrated +this position at two points, and captured a trench over a thousand +yards wide, called the "Parallel of the Epine de Vedegrange," which +was duplicated almost throughout by another trench (the parallel of +the wood of Chevron). A little farther east the French also penetrated +the German trench to a depth of about 450 yards. But it was impossible +to take advantage of this breach owing to a concentration of the +heavy German artillery, a rapidly continued defense of the surrounding +woods, and the fire of machine guns which could not be approached. +These guns were planted in the trenches on the right and left of the +entry and exit of the breach. The results attained by the French in +this sector alone amounted to fifteen square miles of territory +organized for defenses throughout nearly the whole of its extent. On +September 28, 1915, they also took over 3,000 prisoners and forty-four +cannon. + +(2) Sector of Souain: The German lines round about Souain described a +wide curve. Close to the French trenches, to the west at the Mill and +to the east at the wood of Sabot, they swerved to the extent of about +a mile to the north of the village and of the source of the Ain. + +When the offensive was decided upon it was necessary, in order to +extend the French lines forward to striking distance, to undertake +sapping operations in parallel lines, and at times to make dashes by +night over the intervening ground. The men working underground got +into communication with the trenches by digging alleys of +communication. Under the eyes and the fire of the Germans this +difficult undertaking was carried out with very slight loss. These +parallel lines approached to within a distance of 150 yards of the +German trenches. The assault was made in three different directions: +on the west in the direction of Hills 167 and 174; in the center along +a line running parallel with the road from Souain to Pomme-Py, in the +direction of the farm of Navarin; on the east in the direction of the +woods intersected by the road from Souain to Tahure, and in the +direction of the Butte de Souain. The advance was extremely rapid--on +the left over 2,000 yards in less than an hour, in the center over +3,000 yards in forty-five minutes. At 10 a. m. the French had reached +the farm of Navarin. Toward the east the forward march was more +difficult. Some German machine guns stood their ground in the wood of +Sabot and enormously strengthened the German resistance. This defense +was eventually overcome by surrounding them. Arriving at the wooded +region in that part where it is intersected by the road mentioned +above, the assailants joined up on the 27th with those of their +comrades who were attacking to the north of Perthes. They left behind +them here, also, only sufficient men to clear the woods of stragglers. + +Parlementaires were sent to the Germans, who received them with a +volley of rifle shots and endeavored to escape during the night. The +majority were killed and the survivors surrendered. Several batteries +and a large quantity of war material remained to the French. On the +28th, along the entire length of the sector, they were immediately in +front of the second German line. + +(3) Sector of Perthes: Between Souain and Perthes stretches a wooded +region in which heavy fighting had already taken place in February and +March. At that time the French had contrived to take possession of the +German defenses of the wood of Sabot on the eastern extremity of this +region. They had also made some progress to the northwest of Perthes, +on the summit of Hill 200. But between these two positions the Germans +had retained a strong system of trenches forming a salient almost +triangular in shape, which the French nicknamed "la Poche" (the +Pocket). During the whole year a war of mining had been going on, and +the region, which was broken up by concave constructions and +intersected in all directions by trenches and alleys of communication, +constituted an attacking ground all the more difficult because to the +north of la Poche the rather thickly-wooded Trou Bricot, the edges of +which had been put in a state of defense, obstructed a rapid advance. +This wooded region extends over a width of more than a mile. The +arrangements made for the attack contemplated, after the capture of la +Poche, the surrounding of the woods of the Trou Bricot. The junction +was to be made at the road from Souain to Tahure, with the troops +assigned for the attack on the eastern border of the hollow at Souain. + +The ground to the east of the Trou Bricot was less difficult. Open and +comparatively flat it was defended on the north of Perthes by a triple +line of trenches distant 100 yards from each other. At a distance of +1,000 to 1,200 yards a supporting trench, called the "York trench," +was almost unique in its entire construction. The open country beyond +stretched for a distance of two and one-half miles up to the second +German position (Hill 195, Butte de Tahure). The principal effort was +directed against this passage, the left flank of attack being secured +by a subsidiary action confined to the capture of la Poche. + +At 9 a. m. the French artillery directed their fire successively +against the first-line trenches and the supporting trenches. The +attack took place in perfect order. The infantry were already swarming +into the German trenches when the German artillery opened its +defensive fire. The French counterbatteries hampered the German pieces +and the reserves in the rear suffered little from their fire. At 9.45 +a. m. the two columns which were attacking the extremities of the +salient of la Poche joined hands. The position was surrounded. Those +Germans who remained alive inside it surrendered. At the same time a +battalion was setting foot in the defenses of the southern edges of +the wood of Trou Bricot. The battalion that followed, marching to the +outside of the eastern edges, executed with perfect regularity a "left +turn" and came and formed up alongside the communication alleys as far +as the supporting trench. At the same moment, in the open country to +the north of Perthes, the French troops surmounted the three +first-line trenches and, preceded by artillery, made a quick march to +the York trench and occupied it almost without striking a blow. + +Farther to the east, along the road from Perthes to Tahure, the French +advance encountered greater difficulties. Some centers of the German +resistance could not be overcome. A sheltered machine gun continued +its fire. An infantry officer, with a petty officer of artillery, +succeeded in getting a gun into action at a distance of over 300 yards +from the machine gun and firing at it at close quarters. Of the troops +that were advancing to the north of Perthes, some made for the eastern +border of the wood of Bricot, where they penetrated into the camps, +ousting the defenders and surprising several officers in bed. Late in +the afternoon a French regiment had reached the road from Souain to +Tahure. Other units were marching straight toward the north, clearing +out the little woods on the way. They there captured batteries of +which the artillerymen were "riveted to their guns by means of +bayonets." The same work of clearance was meanwhile being performed in +the woods extending east of the road from Perthes to Souain and +Tahure, where batteries were charged and captured while in action. At +this spot a regiment covered three miles in two hours and captured ten +guns. From midday onward the rate of progress slackened, the bad +weather making it impossible for the French artillery to see what was +going on, and rendering the joining up movements extremely difficult. +From the Buttes de Souain and Tahure the Germans directed converging +fires on the French, who were advancing there along very open ground. +Nevertheless, they continued their advance as far as the slopes of +Hill 193 and the Butte de Tahure and there dug themselves in. + +The night passed without any German counterattack. In the darkness the +French artillery brought forward their heavy pieces and several field +batteries which had arrived immediately after the attack beyond the +York trench. At dawn the reconstituted regiments made another forward +rush which enabled them to establish themselves in immediate contact +with the second German position from the Butte de Souain to the Butte +de Tahure, and even to seize several advanced posts in the +neighborhood. But on the lower slopes some of the wire entanglements +remained intact; a successful assault on them would have been possible +only after a fresh artillery preparation. Up to October 6, 1915, the +troops remained where they were, digging trenches and organizing a +defensive system which had to be constructed all over again on ground +devastated by German fire. + +(4) Sector of Le Mesnil: It was to the north of Le Mesnil that the +French encountered the greatest German resistance. In the course of +the engagements of the preceding winter the French had succeeded in +securing a foothold on top of the hill numbered 196. The Germans +remained a little to the east, in the "Ravin des Cuisines" (Ravine of +the Kitchens). This the French now took by assault, but could get no +farther. The German trenches, constructed on the northern slopes of +Hill 196, were so concealed from field observation that it was +difficult for the artillery to reach them. They were furthermore +flanked on one side by the twin heights of the Mamelles, and on the +other by the Butte du Mesnil. Some French units managed to penetrate +into the trenches to the eastward on the 25th, but a counterattack and +flank fires dislodged them again. To the west they did not capture the +northern Mamelle till the night of October 1-2, 1915, thereby +surrounding the trapeze works that surmounted the southern Mamelle. + +(5) Sector of Beausejour: The French attacks launched north of +Beausejour met with more conspicuous success. Throwing themselves on +the first German lines the swarming invaders rapidly captured the +defense works in the woods of Fer de Lance and Demi-Lune, and +afterwards all the works known as the Bastion. Certain units won the +top of Maisons de Champagne in one rush and darted past several +batteries, killing the gunners as they served their pieces. The same +movement took them across the intricate region of the mine "funnels" +of Beausejour up to the wood intersected by the road to Maisons de +Champagne. There they encountered German artillerymen in the act of +unlimbering their guns. They killed the drivers and the horses; the +survivors surrendered. + +Farther westward the left wing of the attacking force advanced with +greater difficulty, being hampered by the small forts and covered +works with which the trenches were everywhere protected. At this +moment the cavalry unexpectedly came to the support of the infantry. +Two squadrons of hussars galloped against the German batteries north +of Maisons de Champagne in the teeth of a fierce artillery fire. They +nevertheless reached that part of the lines where the Germans still +held their ground. Machine guns rattled against the cavalry, dropping +many of their horses. The hussars dismounted and, with drawn sabers, +made a rush for the trenches. Favored by this diversion the infantry +simultaneously resumed their forward movement. The German resistance +broke down, and more than 600 were taken prisoners. Later in the day +of the 25th some German counterattacks were made from the direction of +Ripon, but failed to drive the French from the Maisons de Champagne +summit. During the next few days a desperate struggle ensued north of +the summit in the vicinity of a defensive work called the "Ouvrage de +la Defaite," which the French took by storm, lost it again, then +recovered it, and finally were driven out by a severe bombardment. + +(6) Sector of Massiges: The safety of the French troops which had +advanced to the wood and the Maisons de Champagne was assured by the +capture of the heights of Massiges. This sharply undulating upland +(199 on the north and 191 on the south) formed a German stronghold +that was believed to be impregnable. From the top they commanded the +French positions in several directions. The two first attacking +parties marched out in columns at 9.15 a. m., preceded by +field-artillery fire. In fifteen minutes they had reached the summit. +Then their difficulties began. In the face of a withering rifle and +machine-gun fire they could proceed but slowly along the summits by +the communication alleys, blasting their way through with hand +grenades, and supported by the artillery, which was constantly kept +informed of their movements by means of flag signals. The Germans +surrendered in large numbers as the grenadiers advanced. The French +formed an uninterrupted, ever-lengthening chain of grenade-bearers in +the communication alleys, just as buckets of water were passed from +hand to hand at fires in former times. This chain started from +Massiges and each fresh arrival of grenades at the other end was +accompanied by a further advance. + +The fight continued in this manner from September 25, 1915, to October +3, 1915, with fierce perseverance against stubborn opposition. The +Germans poured a continuous stream of reenforcements into the section +and offered a resistance that has rarely been equaled for obstinacy +and courage. According to French reports, they stood up to be shot +down--the machine-gun men at their guns, the grenadiers on their +grenade chests. Every attempt at counterattacking failed them. Having +the heights of Massiges in their possession enabled the French to +extend their gains toward Ville-sur-Tourbe, while taking in flank +those trenches they had failed to capture by a frontal attack. The +loss of these heights seemed to have particularly disturbed the German +General Staff. It was at first denied in the official reports, and +then explained that the ground had been abandoned owing to artillery +fire, whereas the French Headquarters Staff claimed that they had +captured the ground mainly by hand-grenade fighting at close quarters. + +The Battle of Champagne presents a number of curious aspects. How came +the Germans to be so overwhelmingly surprised? Beyond all doubt, they +expected a great French offensive. In the orders of the day issued by +General von Ditfurth on August 15, 1915--five weeks before the French +attack began--we read, "The possibility of a great French offensive +must be considered." General von Fleck was rather late: on September +26, 1915, when the French had already taken nearly the whole +first-line trenches, he expressed the opinion that "The French Higher +Command appears to be disposed to make another desperate effort." What +is tolerably certain is that the German General Staff did not foresee +the strength of the blow nor suspect the vigor with which it would be +delivered. Even the command on the battle field itself apparently +failed to recognize what was happening before their eyes. Inside the +shelters of the second line two German officers were placidly enjoying +the delights of morning in bed, when they were disturbed by noises +which it was beyond their wits to account for. The door of their +little house was rudely thrust open and excited voices said rude +things in French. Then bayonets made their appearance, and soldiers, +hot and breathing hard after their steeplechase across the German +trenches, pulled the officers from their beds with scant respect, +informing them briefly that they were prisoners. This was the first +intimation which the stupefied officers received that the enemy had +broken through their lines. + +They seemed to have had an excessive confidence in the strength of +their first line, and the interruption of telephonic communications +had prevented their being informed of the rapid French advance. Then +as to the disposition and employment of reserves: Here it looks as +though that perfect organization and semi-infallible precision which +characterize the German army had, for the nonce, gone awry in the +Champagne conflict. In order to make up for the insufficiency of the +local reserves the German military authorities had to put in line not +only the important units which they held at their disposal behind the +front (Tenth Corps brought back from Russia), but the local reserves +from other sectors (Soissons, Argonne, the Woevre, Alsace), which were +dispatched to Champagne one battalion after another, and even in +groups of double companies. Ill provided with food and munitions, the +reenforcements were pushed to battle on an unknown terrain without +indication as to the direction they had to take and without their +junction with neighboring units having been arranged. Through the +haste with which the reserves were thrown under the fire of the French +artillery and infantry--already in possession of the positions--the +German losses must have been increased enormously. A letter taken from +a soldier of the 118th Regiment may be cited as corroborative +evidence: "We were put in a motor car and proceeded at a headlong pace +to Tahure, by way of Vouziers. Two hours' rest in the open air with +rain falling, and then we had a six hours' march to take up our +positions. On our way we were greeted by the fire of the enemy shells, +so that, for instance, out of 280 men of the second company only 224 +arrived safe and sound inside the trenches. These trenches, freshly +dug, were barely thirty-five to fifty centimeters (12 to 17 in.) deep. +Continually surrounded by mines and bursting shells, we had to remain +in them and do the best we could with them for 118 hours without +getting anything hot to eat. Hell itself could not be more terrible. +To-day, at about 12 noon, 600 men, fresh troops, joined the regiment. +In five days we had lost as many and more." + +The disorder in which the reenforcements were engaged appears strongly +from this fact: On only that part of the front included between +Maisons de Champagne and Hill 189 there were on October 2, 1915, no +fewer than thirty-two different battalions belonging to twenty-one +different regiments. During the days following the French rush +through the first line, the Germans seemed to have but one idea, to +strengthen their second line to stem the advance. Their counterattacks +were concentrated on a comparatively unimportant part of the battle +front in certain places, the loss of which appeared to them to be +particularly dangerous. Therefore on the heights of Massiges the +German military authorities hurled in succession isolated battalions +of the 123d, 124th and 120th regiments; of the Thirtieth Regular +Regiment and of the Second Regiment Ersatz Reserve (Sixteenth Corps), +which were in turn decimated, for these counterattacks, hastily and +crudely prepared, all ended in sanguinary failures. It was not the men +who failed their leaders, for they fought like tigers when reasonable +opportunities were offered them. + +That strong offensive capacity of the Germans seemed also, on the +occasion, to have broken down. General von Ditfurth's order of the day +bears witness to this: "It seemed to me that the infantry at certain +points was confining its action to a mere defensive.... I cannot +protest too strongly against such an idea, which necessarily results +in destroying the spirit of offensive in our own troops and in +arousing and strengthening in the mind of the enemy a feeling of his +superiority. The enemy is left full liberty of action and our action +is subjected to the will of the enemy." + +It is of course impossible to estimate precisely what the German +losses were. There are certain known details, however, which may serve +to indicate their extent. One underofficer declared that he was the +only man remaining out of his company. A soldier of the third +battalion of the 123d Regiment, engaged on the 26th, stated that his +regiment was withdrawn from the front after only two days' fighting +because its losses were too great. The 118th Regiment relieved the +158th Regiment in the trenches after it had been reduced to fifteen or +twenty men per company. Certain units disappeared completely, as for +instance the Twenty-seventh Reserve Regiment and the Fifty-second +Regular Regiment, which, by the evening of the 25th, had left in +French hands the first 13 officers and 933 men, and the other 21 +officers and 927 men. Certain figures may help to arrive at the total +losses. At the beginning of September, 1915, the German strength on +the Champagne front amounted to seventy battalions. In anticipation of +a French attack they brought there, before the 25th, another +twenty-nine battalions, making a total of ninety-nine battalions. +Reckoning the corresponding artillery and pioneer formations, this +would represent 115,000 men directly engaged. The losses due to the +artillery preparation and the first attacks were such that from +September 25 to October 15, 1915, the German General Staff was +compelled to renew its effectives almost in their entirety by sending +out ninety-three fresh battalions. It is assumed that the units +engaged on September 25-26, 1915, suffered losses amounting to from +sixty to eighty per cent (even more for certain corps which had +entirely disappeared). The new units brought into line for the +counterattacks, and subjected in connection with these to an incessant +bombardment, lost fifty per cent of their effectives, if not more. +Hence it would be hardly overstating the case to set down 140,000 men +as the sum of the German losses in Champagne. It must also be taken +into account that of this number the proportion of slightly wounded +men able to recuperate quickly and return to the front was, in the +case of the Germans, very much below the average proportion of other +engagements, for they were unable to collect their wounded. Thus +nearly the whole of the troops defending the first position fell into +French hands. + +After recounting the losses of one side, let us turn to analyze the +gains of the other. The French had penetrated the German lines on a +front of over fifteen miles, and to a depth of two and a half miles in +some places, between Auberive and Ville-sur-Tourbe. The territorial +gains may be thus summarized: The troops of the Republic had scaled +the whole of the glacis of the Epine de Vedegrange; they occupied the +ridge of the hollow at Souain; debouched in the opening to the north +of Perthes to the slopes of Hill 195 and as far as the Butte de +Tahure; carried the western bastions of the curtain of le Mesnil; +advanced as far as Maisons de Champagne and took by assault the "hand" +of Massiges. The territory they had reconquered from the invaders +represented an area of about forty square kilometers. On and from +October 7, 1915, they beat back the furious efforts of the Germans to +regain the lost ground. Nevertheless, in spite of the utmost +resolution on the part of commanders, and of valor on the part of the +French troops, the Germans were not completely overthrown, and the +annihilating results expected from the action of the mass of troops +and guns employed were not attained. It was a victory, but an +indecisive one. + +On October 5, 1915, General Joffre issued the following manifesto from +Grand Headquarters: + +"The Commander in Chief addresses to the troops under his orders the +expression of his profound satisfaction at the results obtained up to +the present day by the attacks. Twenty-five thousand prisoners, three +hundred and fifty guns, a quantity of material which it has not yet +been possible to gauge, are the trophies of a victory the echo of +which throughout Europe indicates its importance. + +"The sacrifices willingly made have not been in vain. All have been +able to take part in the common task. The present is a sure guarantee +to us of the future. + +"The Commander in Chief is proud to command the finest troops France +has ever known." + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE BRITISH FRONT IN ARTOIS + + +Ever since August 16, 1915, a persistent and almost continuous +bombardment of the German lines had been carried out by the French +and, to a less extent, by the British and Belgian artillery. The +allied gunners appear to have distributed their favors quite +impartially. There was nothing in the action taken to direct attention +to one sector more than to another. The Vosges, the Meurthe and +Moselle, Lorraine and the Woevre, the Argonne, Champagne, the Aisne, +the Somme, the Arras sector, Ypres and the Yser, and the Belgian coast +where the British navy had joined in, all were subjected to a heavy, +deliberate and effective fire from guns of all calibers. As in +Champagne, the rate of fire quickened up on September 22, 1915. Great +concentrations of guns had been made at various points, and enormous +quantities of shells had been collected in readiness for the attack. +But the artillery preparation which immediately preceded that attack +in the west was of a most terrific description. Shortly after midnight +and in the early hours of Saturday morning, September 25, 1915, the +German positions were treated to a bombardment that had rarely been +equaled in violence. From the Yser Canal down to the end of the French +line the Allies' guns took up the note, and soon the whole of the +allied line was thundering and reechoing with the infernal racket. The +German lines became smothered in dust and smoke, their parapets simply +melted away, their barbed-wire entanglements disappeared. Those +sleeping thirty or forty miles away were awakened in the night by the +dull rumbling. The whole atmosphere was choked with the noise, and so +it continued throughout the day with hardly an interval. As if in +anticipation of the coming onslaught the German artillery had also +raised the key of its fire to a higher pitch several days before. + +Simultaneously with the attack in Champagne, Sir John French assumed +the offensive on the British front. The main British attack was +directed in the neighborhood of Lens, against Prince Rupprecht of +Bavaria. While the French troops were rushing the German first line in +Champagne, the British troops executed a precisely similar movement +south of La Bassee Canal to the east of Grenay and Vermelles. With the +first rush they captured the German trenches on a front of five miles, +penetrating the lines in some places to a distance of 4,000 yards. +They conquered the western outskirts of Hulluch, the village of Loos, +with the mining works around it, and Hill 70. They lost the quarries +northwest of Hulluch again, but retook them on the following day. +Other attacks were made north of the La Bassee Canal, which drew +strong German reserves toward these points of the lines, where hard +fighting occurred throughout the day with fluctuating success. The +British also made another attack on Hooge on either side of the Menin +road. The assault north of the road yielded the Bellewaarde Farm and +ridge, but the Germans subsequently recaptured this part. South of the +road the attack gained about 600 yards of German trench. The British +took 2,600 prisoners, eighteen guns and thirty machine guns in the +first day. The Fourth British Army Corps, under Sir Henry Rawlinson, +had thus taken Loos and overrun Hill 70, a mile to the east, and even +penetrated to Cite St. Auguste. The Fifth Corps, under Sir Hubert +Gough, on the left, had stormed the quarries, taken Cite St. Elie, and +occupied a portion of the village of Haisnes. But the First Army, in +its attack, had not kept adequate reserves on hand; and those at first +at the disposal of the general in chief, which had to serve the whole +front and to be kept in hand in case of unexpected events, came up too +late to enable the British to hold and consolidate all the ground they +had won. The Ypres-Arras sector had been more formidably fortified +than any other portion of the German front. It is an extremely thickly +populated neighborhood, and the terrain is full of difficulties. It +could not be expected that an advance here, at least from the outset, +could be as rapid as that in Champagne. Whereas in the latter it was a +fight for rivers, ridges and woods, in the close country north of +Arras the struggle raged in and around villages, houses, and for some +particular trench that had to be taken before the French and British +could enter the great plain that stretches down to Lille. Every house +along that part had been converted into a fortress. When the +superstructure had been blown to pieces by shell fire, pioneers +burrowed thirty or fifty feet below the cellars and thus held on to +the position. + +To the right of the British in Artois, the French infantry attack was +directed toward the forest of Hache. Only eighty or ninety yards +separated the French from the German trenches, and the French +infantry, which attained its objective in a few minutes, found the +trenches a mass of ruins and almost deserted, and the Germans +retreating into the wood. The first wave of attackers followed in +pursuit, but they reached the second line of trenches, situated in the +middle of the wood, without meeting any Germans in considerable force. +They pushed on to the eastern edge of the wood, but the Germans again +put up no defense, and their third-line trenches, on the fringe of the +wood, were likewise taken. Then came a halt in the advance. The German +commander pulled his men together and, with the reserves which had +come up in the meantime, launched a counterattack against the French, +who had quickly established themselves in their newly captured +positions. Heavy shells, high explosives and shrapnel were raining in +the trenches occupied by the French, and but for the new steel helmets +which had recently been supplied, the casualties would have been +enormous. One man's helmet was split clean across the crown by a shell +splinter, but the man escaped with merely a scratch. The Germans came +on in close formations, hurling grenades as they marched. The +atmosphere of the wood became almost insupportable with the smoke. +Finally, the French hurled a veritable torrent of grenades, which +drove the Germans back and compelled them to withdraw across the River +Souchez. Boise Hache was entirely won. + +The British attack between La Bassee and Lens and the French attack on +the Souchez side were admirably coordinated, and were directed mainly +to assist the French to gain the heights west of Vimy, which were the +unattained object of their efforts during May and June. By September +27, 1915, the French had all Souchez in their hands, and were +advancing upon Givenchy. The capture of the Vimy heights was an item +of the highest importance, for to the eastward of them all the ground +was commanded by their fire, and the chances were that the Germans +would fall back on Douai and on the line of the Lille-Douai Canal, +once they were pushed off the high ground. In the Argonne the German +Crown Prince carried out desperate attacks against the French +first-line trenches at La Fille Morte and Bolante. These the French +repulsed with heavy losses to the Germans, whose dead lay piled in +heaps in front of the positions. + +One result of the British attack was the hurried recall of the active +Corps of Prussian Guards from the eastern front--an important relief +to the hard-pressed Russians. This famous corps was at the time split +up into three groups; the active corps was with Mackensen in Galicia +and in the advance upon Brest-Litovsk. It was transferred to the Dvina +after the fall of Brest, and had since been engaged before Dvinsk. The +Reserve Guard Corps was in the central group of the German armies, and +the other, the Third Division, was still in Galicia. The British and +the Prussian Guards had made each other's acquaintance in the Battle +of Ypres. + +[Illustration: The French Gains in the Artois Region, September, +1915.] + +At the end of the month Haisnes, on the northern flank of the new +British line, was still for the greater part in German possession; on +the right flank the British were across the Lens-La Bassee road. The +British had captured not only the first position of their enemy, but +also a second or supporting line which ran west of Loos. They were now +up against the third line. Sir John French reported having taken so +far over 3,000 prisoners, twenty-one guns, and forty machine guns. The +French in Artois had taken a matter of 15,000 prisoners and a number +of guns. After obstinate day and night fighting they had reached Hill +140, the culminating point of the crests of Vimy, and the orchards to +the south. The crown prince still plugged away on this front with +heavy artillery and aerial torpedoes. Columns of flames began to issue +from his trenches on September 27, 1915--the inflammable liquid +appeared to be a composition of tar and petrol--and the smoke and +flames, carried by the wind blowing from the German trenches, soon +reached the French line and made the atmosphere intolerably hot and +suffocating for the French troops. Then suddenly out of the thick +fumes began to appear German infantry with fixed bayonets, sent +forward to the attack. They were literally mown down by the fire from +the French machine guns and rifles, but the wave of attackers seemed +unending, and by dint of overwhelming numbers it poured into the +French trenches. A terrible hand-to-hand fight then ensued in an +atmosphere so thick that it was difficult to distinguish friend from +foe. These clouds were not poisonous, for the Germans had themselves +to fight in them; they were let loose to cover the infantry charge. + +The French were compelled to retire, which they did, contesting every +foot of ground. Meanwhile, reenforcements had arrived and these were +at once thrown into the fighting line. The French, however, were soon +brought to a halt. Asphyxiating and lachrymatory bombs, which emitted +bluish smoke as they exploded, began to fall in their midst. Spurred +on by their leaders the men dashed on, passing through yet another of +these barriers of smoke until they came to grips with the attackers, +who were now coming on like a torrent, in close formation, shouting +wildly. Altogether, the scene was one that vividly brings to the +imagination the truth of Sherman's dictum that "war is hell." A mad +potpourri of dimly visible forms, struggling like demons, shooting, +stabbing, hacking and roaring in an infernal caldron of tar, poison, +sulphur, tears and blood. Truly a worthy theme for another Dante and a +Gustave Dore. For some time it looked as if the French would be +crumpled up, but reserves were steadily streaming in, and eventually +the attackers began to waver and fall back. The French 75-millimeter +Creusots came into play again, and after a battle that lasted in all +twenty-four hours, the Germans were driven back to their own trenches. + +In the morning of October 2, 1915, the Germans made a demonstration in +front of the Belgian trenches at Dixmude, consisting of a bombardment +and a violent discharge of bombs. On one small section alone 400 bombs +were dropped. The German infantry broke into the Belgian trenches, but +were dislodged again in a few minutes. + +The position which the British had captured was exceptionally strong, +consisting of a double line, including some large redoubts and a +network of trenches and bomb-proof shelters. Dugouts were constructed +at short intervals all along the line, some of them being large caves +thirty feet below the ground. The French capture of Souchez was an +event of considerable importance, for the German High Command had +issued orders for this section to hold on to the last, that it was to +be retained at all costs. The road to the Douai plain was to be barred +to the French, who had to be held back behind the advanced works of +the Artois plateau. In May, 1915, the problem was to prevent the +French setting foot on the summits of Notre Dame de Lorette and of the +Topart Mill. The Germans sacrificed many thousands of men with this +object, but the French nevertheless made themselves masters of the +heights which the Germans considered of capital importance, and +dislodged them from Carency and Ablain-St. Nazaire. There remained +only one stage to cover--the Souchez Valley--to reach the last crest +which dominated the whole country to the east, and beyond which the +ground is flat. This task had been accomplished during the last few +days of September and the beginning of October. Souchez and its +advanced bastion, the Chateau Carleul, had been made into a formidable +fortification by the changing of the course of the Carency streams. +The Germans had transformed the marshy ground to the southeast of this +front into a perfect swamp, which was regarded as impassable. The +German batteries posted at Angres were able to enfilade the valley on +the north. From behind the crest of Hill 119 to Hill 140, which were +covered with trenches connected by a network of communication +trenches, many batteries were engaged against the French in the +district of Notre Dame de Lorette, Ablain-St. Nazaire and Carency. To +the north of Souchez the German trenches were still clinging to the +Notre Dame de Lorette slope. + +The attack of September 25, 1915, was to overcome all these obstacles. +The artillery preparation, which lasted five days, was so skillfully +handled that, even before it was finished, many German deserters came +into the French lines declaring that they had had enough. The infantry +attack was delivered at noon on September 25, 1915, and with one rush +the French troops reached the objectives which had been marked out for +them--the chateau and grounds of Carleul and the islet south of +Souchez. Meanwhile, other detachments carried the cemetery and forced +their way to the first slopes of Hill 119. On the left the French +troops advanced down the slopes of Notre Dame de Lorette and made a +dash at the Hache Wood, the western outskirts of which they reached +twenty minutes after the attack began. The capture of the wood has +already been described. The French attack on the right, being held up +by machine-gun fire, could not be maintained in the cemetery, and it +was decided to approach Souchez by the main road so that they might +pour in their forces on the east, while, to the north, the French +force that had bitten its way into the Hache Wood was to continue its +advance. This maneuver decided the day. The Germans, who were in +danger of being cut off in Souchez, abandoned their positions, and +those who had retaken the cemetery, being in the same perilous +circumstances, regained by their communication trenches their second +line on the slopes of Hill 119. Thus fell Souchez to the French in two +days. The allied offensive was a short and sharp affair, skillfully +planned and bravely executed, but disappointing in result. At the +great price of 50,000 casualties the British had overthrown the +Germans on a front of five miles, and in some places to a depth of +4,000 yards, and had captured many prisoners and guns; but they had +not definitely broken the German lines. At a heavy cost the Allies on +the western front had captured about 160 German guns and disposed of +150,000 Germans, including some 27,000 prisoners, and the result of +their efforts was to shake the Germans in the west very severely and +to call back to France many troops from the eastern front. That the +blow was regarded by the kaiser as a serious one was shown by an Order +of the Day in which he declared that every important success obtained +by the Allies on the western front "will be considered as due to the +culpable negligence of the German commanders, who will lay themselves +open to being punished for incompetence." But if the Allies' successes +were due to hard fighting and brilliant dash, the fact that they did +not break right through the enemy's lines is an eloquent testimony to +the wonderful strength of the German resistance. The marvel was that +any were left alive in the first line after the preliminary +bombardment to face the bayonets and grenades of the attackers. In a +report from German General Headquarters, dated September 29, 1915, Max +Osborn, special correspondent of the "Vossische Zeitung," described +how the French artillery swept the hinterland of the German positions +in Champagne and then concentrated upon these. "The violence of the +fire then reached its zenith. Hitherto it had been a raging, searching +fire; now it became a mad drumming, beyond all power of imagination. +It is impossible to convey any idea of the savagery of this +bombardment. Never has this old planet heard such an uproar. An +officer who had witnessed during the summer the horrors of Arras, of +Souchez, and of the Lorette Heights, told me that those were not in +any way to be compared with the present, beyond all conception, +appalling artillery onslaught. Day and night for fifty hours, at some +points for seventy hours, the guns vomited destruction and murder +against the Germans, the German trenches and against the German +batteries. Strongly built trenches were covered in and ground to +powder; their edges and platforms were shorn off and converted into +dust heaps; men were buried, crushed, and inevitably suffocated--but +the survivors stood fast." A German soldier told how, in the fierce +hand-to-hand fighting which followed, a Frenchman and a German flew at +each other's throat, and how they fell, both pierced by the same +bullet, still locked in each other's grip. And so, too, they were +buried. Courage is not the monopoly of any race or nation. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE BATTLE OF LOOS + + +At 5.50 a. m. on September 25, 1915, a dense, heavy cloud arose slowly +from the earth--a whitish, yellowish, all-enveloping cloud that rolled +slowly toward the German trenches--a little too much to the north. +Thousands of German bullets whistled through that cloud, but it passed +on, unheeding. The attack began at 6.30. + +A Scottish division had been ordered to take Loos and Hill 70. It +therefore played the first role in the battle, since it was on Loos, +of which Hill 70 is the gateway, that the efforts of all converged +from the north as well as the south. Brigade "X" of the Scottish +division was to execute an enveloping movement to the north around +Loos and to carry Hill 70 by storm. Brigade "Y" meanwhile was to +attack the Loos front, Brigade "Z" remaining in reserve. By 7.05 a. m. +the whole of the first line was captured. The second line, covering +Loos, was carried with the same ease. The Germans, taken by surprise, +were fleeing toward Loos, where they put up a stern rear-guard fight, +and toward Lens, which was strongly fortified. + +After the capture of the second line in front of Loos, "X" and "Y" +Brigades separated, "Y" surrounding the village with two battalions, +while the rest captured the village and cleaned it up. It was stiff +street fighting, the Germans being hidden away in all sorts of corners +with plenty of machine guns. The Scots made a quick job of it, not +stopping for trifles. It is related that a sergeant, to whom two +Germans had surrendered, pulled a few pieces of string from his +pocket, tied their hands together, and passed them to the rear with +the request, "Please forward." Brigade "X" had meanwhile thrown its +enveloping net around Loos without meeting much resistance. The +British had reached the top of Hill 70 by nine o'clock. The climb was +a hard and rough accomplishment, with the right flank under +mitrailleuse fire from Loos, and with the left exposed to fire from +Pit 14A; but it was accomplished far too quickly. Serious disasters +frequently occur in war through tardiness; in this case a possible +great victory was missed through being too quick and arriving too +early. When the brigadier got up to Loos he saw his men vanishing in +the distance. A strong German redoubt, over the other side of the hill +crest, was not even defended. The brigade crossed the Lens-La Bassee +road, which runs along the height, carried the third German line on +the opposite slope, and at 9.20 it was outside St. Auguste. +Unfortunately for the British, the corps commander, who arrived at +this moment with his staff in hot haste, was unable to get his unit in +hand again. Overflowing with offensive ardor, he had thrown his men +forward with a most impetuous movement, and they got out of hand. The +brigade turned at right angles and got into the suburbs of Lens. It +seemed as though the gates of the northern plain were about to be +smashed in. Then the great danger appeared. There was still no great +converging movement from the south, where a British division and +French troops were engaged. Touch was also lost to the north. The +neighboring division in this direction was held up until the afternoon +by wire entanglements. The left flank of the brigade was at the mercy +of a German counterattack, but the Germans did not launch it, for they +had not the men. What they did, however, was to concentrate on the +brigade a murderous fire from Loos in the south, Lens in the east, St. +Auguste in the north, and Pit 14A and two or three neighboring houses +in the west. They were even seen hastily installing machine guns along +the railway embankment northeast of Lens. + +Shattered by fire, uncertain of its direction, shaken by the very +quickness of its previous advance, the brigade hesitated, sowed the +ground with its dead, and retired in good order on Hill 70, where it +intrenched slightly below the redoubt abandoned by the Germans during +the attack and which was now reoccupied by them. As a matter of fact, +the screening gas clouds hindered rather than helped the attack. The +Scottish division was exhausted, but if fresh troops had come up and a +fresh attack had been delivered against the Germans, who were +gathering all their men in the Douai region, the German front would +undoubtedly have been pierced like cardboard. Brigade "X" had made a +path, and if only reenforcements had arrived without delay the path +would have become a highroad--would have become the whole of Douai +plain. Not until nightfall were the reserves forthcoming. It is +evident that, in this first day, advantage was not taken of the +results achieved. + +Though long-range fighting was incessantly kept up around Loos, +nothing of importance happened till October 8, 1915, when the Germans, +after an intense bombardment with shells of all calibers, launched a +violent attack on Loos and made desperate efforts to recapture their +lost positions. The main efforts were directed against the chalk pit +north of Hill 70, and between Hulluch and the Hohenzollern redoubt. In +the chalk pit attack, the Germans assembled behind some woods which +lay from 300 to 500 yards from the British trenches. Between these +woods and the British line the attacking force was mown down by +combined rifle, machine-gun and artillery fire, not a man getting +within forty yards of the trenches. + +Farther to the south, between Hulluch and the quarries, the attack was +also repelled, the British securing a German trench west of Cite St. +Elie. The Germans did succeed in penetrating the British front in the +southern communication trench of the Hohenzollern redoubt, but were +shortly after expelled again by British bombers. + +British flying men played an important part in the Battle of Loos and +in the preparations that preceded it. Troops and guns had to be moved +at night so that the German aeroplanes might not note the +concentration. Hence it was decided that British aeros should warn off +the German flyers by day. They probably outnumbered the German +machines by eight to one. As the attack proceeded a flock of +aeroplanes was cutting circles and dipping and turning over the battle +field as if in an exhibition of airmanship. They appeared to be +disconnected from the battle, but no participants were more busy or +intent than they. All the panorama of action was beneath them; they +alone could really "see" the battle if they chose. But each aviator +stole only passing glimpses of the whole, for each one was intent on +his part, which was to keep watch of whether the shells of the battery +to which he reported were on the target or not. To distinguish whose +shell-burst was whose in the midst of that cloud of dust and smoke +over the German positions seemed as difficult as to separate the spout +of steam of one pipe from another when a hundred were making a wall of +vapor. Yet so skilled is the well-trained airman that he can tell at a +glance. It is not difficult to spot shells when only a few batteries +are firing, but when perhaps a hundred guns are dropping shells on a +half-mile front of trench, a highly trained eye is required. +Occasionally a plane was observed to sweep down like a hawk that had +located a fish in the water. At all hazards that intrepid aviator was +going to identify the shell-bursts of the batteries which he +represented. The enemy might have him in rifle range, but they were +too busy trying to hold up the British infantry to fire at him. Other +aeroplanes were dropping shells on railway trains and bridges, to +hinder the Germans, once they had learned where the force of the +attack was to be exerted, from rushing reenforcements to the spot. For +that kind of work, as for all reconnaissances, the aviators like +low-lying clouds. They slip down out of these to have a look around +and drop a bomb--thus killing two birds with one stone--and then rise +to cover before the enemy can bring his antiaircraft guns to bear. + +[Illustration: German infantry storming a hill in the Argonne. The men +bend low for safety, though pressing eagerly forward toward the +enemy's lines.] + +A German description of the Battle of Loos says that during the +preliminary gas attack the British artillery was hurling gas bombs +upon the Germans. The latter coughed and held their ground as long as +they could, but many fell, unable to resist the fumes. In the midst of +all this the Germans were preparing for the expected infantry attack. +Finally the British appeared, emerging suddenly as if from nowhere, +behind a cloud of gas, and wearing masks. They came on in thick lines +and storming columns. The first line of the attackers were quickly +shot down by the hail of rifle and machine-gun bullets that rained +upon them from the shattered German trenches. The dead and wounded +soon lay like a wall before the German position. The second and third +lines of the British suffered the same fate. It was estimated that the +number of British killed before this German division alone amounted to +8,000 to 10,000. The fourth line of attackers, however, finally +succeeded in overrunning the decimated front line of Germans, who +stood by their guns to the very last; those of them who had not fallen +were made prisoners. Not one of them returned to tell what happened in +this terrific fighting. The British are stated to have attacked in an +old-fashioned, out-of-date manner that made the German staff officers +stare in open-mouthed wonder. "Eight ranks of infantry, mounted +artillery, cavalry in the background--that was too much! A veritable +battle plan of a past age, the product of a mind in its dotage, and +half a century behind the times! Splendidly, with admirable courage, +the English troops came forward to the attack. They were young, wore +no decorations; they carried out with blind courage what their senile +commanders ordered--and this in a period of mortars, machine guns +and the telephone. Their behavior was splendid, but all the more +pitiable was the breakdown of their attack." + +[Illustration: The Battle at Loos.] + +Connected with the Battle of Loos there was one little person who +deserves a chapter in history--all to herself--and that is Mlle. +Emilienne Moreau, a young French girl who lived--and probably still +lives--with her parents in the storm-battered village of Loos. She was +seventeen years of age at the time she became famous, and was studying +to be a school-teacher. She was "mentioned in dispatches" in the +French Official Journal in these terms: + +"On September 25, 1915, when the British troops entered the village of +Loos, she organized a first-aid station in her house and worked day +and night to bring in the wounded, to whom she gave all assistance, +while refusing to accept any reward. Armed with a revolver she went +out and succeeded in overcoming two German soldiers who, hidden in a +near-by house, were firing at the first-aid station." + +This, however, was not a complete list of the exploits of la petite +Moreau. She shot two Germans when their bayonets were very close to +her, and later, snatching some hand bombs from a British grenadier's +stock, she accounted for three more who were busy at the same +occupation. Furthermore, "when the British line was wavering under the +most terrible cyclone of shells ever let loose upon earth, Emilienne +Moreau sprang forward with a bit of tricolored bunting in her hand and +the glorious words of the 'Marseillaise' on her lips, and by her +fearless example averted a retreat that might have meant disaster +along the whole front. Only the men who were in that fight can fully +understand why Sir Douglas Haig was right in christening her the Joan +of Arc of Loos." + +A more mature French Amazon is Madame Louise Arnaud, the widow of an +officer killed in the war. She commanded a corps of French and Belgian +women who were permitted by the War Minister to don uniforms. The +corps was intended for general service at the front, one-third of them +being combatants, all able to ride, shoot and swim. + +After the great allied offensive in the west had spent its force--or +rather the force of its initial momentum--quite an interesting battle +broke out, this time on paper. It consisted on the one side of an +attempt to estimate the results of success and to attach to them the +highest possible value. The energy of the other side was devoted to +belittling these results and proclaiming the alleged futility of the +venture. Thus, King George telegraphed to Sir John French on September +30, 1915: + +"I heartily congratulate you and all ranks of my army under your +command upon the success which has attended their gallant efforts +since the commencement of the combined attack." + +Lord Kitchener sent this message: + +"My warmest congratulations to you and all serving under you on the +substantial success you have achieved...." + +In his report of October 3, 1915, General French stated that "The +enemy has suffered heavy losses, particularly in the many +counterattacks by which he has vainly endeavored to wrest back the +captured positions, but which have all been gallantly repulsed by our +troops.... I feel the utmost confidence and assurance that the same +glorious spirit which has been so marked a feature throughout the +first phase of this great battle will continue until our efforts are +crowned by final and complete victory." + +The following sentence is culled from the French official report on +the fighting in Champagne: + +"... Germans surrendered in groups, even though not surrounded, so +tired were they of the fight, and so depressed by hunger and convinced +of our determination to continue our effort to the end...." + +Rather contradictory in tone and substance were the German dispatches: + +"The German General Staff recently invited a number of newspaper men +from neutral countries--the United States, South America, Holland, and +Rumania--to inspect the fighting line in the west during time of +battle.... They are thus enabled to verify the reports from the German +headquarters concerning this greatest and most fearful battle fought +on the western front since the beginning of the war. They are, +accordingly, in a position to state that exaggerated statements are +made in the reports from French headquarters, and to confirm the facts +that the Germans were outnumbered several times by the French; that +the French suffered terrific and unheard-of losses, in spite of +several days of artillery preparation; that the French attacks failed +altogether, as none of them attained the expected result, and that the +encircling movement of General Joffre is without tangible result." +"The world presently shall see the pompously advertised grand +offensive broken by the iron will of our people in arms.... They are +welcome to try it again if they like." "French and English storming +columns in unbroken succession roll up against the iron wall +constituted by our heroic troops. As all hostile attacks have hitherto +been repulsed with gigantic losses, particularly for the English, the +whole result of the enemy's attack, lasting for days, is merely a +denting in of our front in two places...." Who shall decide when +doctors disagree? + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE CAVELL CASE--ACCIDENT TO KING GEORGE + + +On October 15, 1915, the United States Ambassador in London informed +the British Foreign Office that Miss Edith Cavell, lately the head of +a large training school for nurses in Brussels, had been executed by +the German military authorities of that city after sentence of death +had been passed on her. It was understood that the charge against Miss +Cavell was that she had harbored fugitive British and French soldiers +and Belgians of military age, and had assisted them to escape from +Belgium in order to join the colors. Miss Cavell was the daughter of a +Church of England clergyman, and was trained as a nurse at the London +Hospital. On the opening of the Ecole Beige d'Infirmieres Diplomees, +Brussels, in 1907, she was appointed matron of the school. She went +there with a view to introduce into Belgium British methods of +nursing and of training nurses. Those who knew Miss Cavell were +impressed by her strength of character and unflinching devotion. She +could have returned to England in September, 1914, shortly after the +outbreak of the war, when seventy English nurses were able to leave +Belgium through the influence of the United States Minister, but she +chose to remain at her post. The "execution," which was accompanied by +several unpleasant features, raised a great outcry of public +indignation not only throughout the British Empire, but also in most +neutral countries. That indignation rose to a still higher pitch when, +on October 22, 1915, the report on the case, by Mr. Brand Whitlock, +United States Minister in Belgium, was published in the press. From +the report it appeared, what the world had hitherto been ignorant of, +that Mr. Whitlock had made the most strenuous efforts to save the +unfortunate lady from death. His humanitarian labors in that direction +were strongly seconded by the Spanish Minister in Brussels. + +Miss Cavell's mother, a widow, residing at Norwich, received the +following letter of sympathy from the king and queen: + + "Buckingham Palace, + "October 23, 1915. + +"Dear Madam: + +"By command of the King and Queen I write to assure you that the +hearts of their Majesties go out to you in your bitter sorrow, and to +express their horror at the appalling deed which has robbed you of +your child. Men and women throughout the civilized world, while +sympathizing with you, are moved with admiration and awe at her faith +and courage in death. + +"Believe me, dear Madam, + + "Yours very truly, + "STAMFORDHAM." + +The report described how Mr. Hugh S. Gibson, the Secretary of the +American Legation, sought out the German Governor, Baron von der +Lancken, late at night before the execution, and, with the Spanish +Minister pleaded with him and the other German officers for the +Englishwoman's life. There was a reference to an apparent lack of +good faith on the part of the German authorities in failing to keep +their promise to inform the American Minister fully of the trial and +sentence. Mr. Whitlock's final appeal was a note sent to Von Lancken +late on the night of October 11, 1915, which read as follows: + +"My dear Baron: I am too sick to present my request myself, but I +appeal to your generosity of heart to support it and save from death +this unhappy woman. Have pity on her. + + "Yours truly, + "BRAND WHITLOCK." + +The next day Mr. Whitlock telegraphed to our Ambassador in London: +"Miss Cavell sentenced yesterday and executed at 2 o'clock this +morning, despite our best efforts, continued until the last moment." +The sentence had been confirmed and the execution ordered to be +carried out by General von Bissing, the German Governor General of +Belgium. + +The British press drew an apposite parallel between the summary +execution of Miss Cavell in Belgium and the course taken in England in +the case of Mrs. Louise Herbert, a German, and the wife of an English +curate in Darlington. She had been sentenced to six months' +imprisonment as a spy. According to English criminal law every +condemned person is entitled to appeal against the sentence inflicted. +Mrs. Herbert availed herself of this indisputable right, and her +appeal was heard at Durham on October 20, 1915--eight days after the +execution of Miss Cavell. The female spy admitted that she had sought +information regarding munitions and intended to send this information +to Germany. She also admitted that she had corresponded with Germany +through friends in Switzerland. Here, according to military law, was a +certain case for the death sentence, which would undoubtedly have been +carried out in the Tower had the accused been a man. It must be borne +in mind that the Court of Appeals in England has the power to increase +a sentence as well as to reduce or quash it altogether. Astonished by +her frank answers, the judge remarked: "This woman has a +conscience--she wishes to answer truthfully and deserves credit for +that. At the same time, she is dangerous." He then gave judgment that +the sentence of six months' imprisonment should stand. No charge of +espionage was preferred against Miss Cavell. She was refused the +advocate Mr. Whitlock offered to provide her with, and the details of +the secret trial have not been made public. + +Whatever may be the right or the wrong of the case, it is reasonably +safe to apply to it the famous dictum of Fouche on Napoleon's +execution of the Duc d'Enghien: "It is worse than a crime; it is a +blunder." It certainly had the effect of still further embittering the +enemies of Germany. Perhaps no incident of the great world war will be +more indelibly imprinted on the British mind than this. Many thousands +of young Englishmen who had hitherto held back rushed to join the +colors. "Edith Cavell Recruiting Meetings" were held all over the +United Kingdom. A great national memorial service was held in St. +Paul's Cathedral in London, where representatives of the king and +queen, statesmen, the nobility and thousands of officers and soldiers +attended. The Dowager Queen Alexandra, who is the patron of the great +institution now in course of erection and known as the "Queen +Alexandra Nurses' Training School," expressed the desire that her name +should give place to that of Miss Cavell, and that the institution +shall be called "The Edith Cavell Nurses' Training School." + +Within a month of her death it had been decided to erect a statue to +the memory of Miss Cavell in Trafalgar Square. Sir George Frampton, +R.A., President of the Royal Society of British Sculptors, undertook +to execute the statue without charge. + +The most permanent memorial of the death of Nurse Cavell will be a +snow-clad peak in the Rocky Mountains, which the Canadian Government +has decided to name "Mount Cavell." It is situated fifteen miles south +of Jasper, on the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, near the border of +Alberta, at the junction of the Whirlpool and Athabasca Rivers, and +has a height of more than 11,000 feet. + +A curious sequel followed the execution of Miss Cavell. Nearly three +months later, on January 6, 1916, a young Belgian was found shot dead +in Schaerbeek, a suburb of Brussels. The German authorities took the +matter in hand for investigation, but in the meantime General von +Bissing fined the city of Brussels 500,000 marks and the suburb of +Schaerbeek 50,000 marks on the plea that the murder had been committed +with a revolver, the Germans having ordered that all arms should be +surrendered at the town hall. But there was more in this affair than +an ordinary crime. The "Echo Belge," published in Amsterdam since the +German occupation of Belgium, revealed that the punitive action by the +German authorities was prompted by something other than an +infringement of the regulations. The body found was that of a certain +Niels de Rode, and he it was who denounced Miss Cavell and also +betrayed several Belgians--his own countrymen--who were trying to +cross the frontier to join the army. The "Echo Belge" asserted that De +Rode was executed by Belgian patriots to avenge the betrayal of Miss +Cavell. The anger of the German authorities was explained by the loss +of their informer. + +On October 22, 1915, London was officially informed that "The king is +in France, where he has gone to visit his army. His majesty also hopes +to see some of the allied troops." This was not the king's first visit +to the battle line, and, as before, his departure from England and +arrival on the Continent had been kept a secret until he had reached +his destination. The king traveled by automobile from Havre to various +parts of the British and French lines, "somewhere in France," +inspecting troops and visiting hospitals. The royal tour was brought +to a premature close on the morning of the 28th owing to an +unfortunate accident. The king had just finished the second of two +reviews of troops representing corps of the First Army when his horse, +frightened by the cheers of the men, reared and fell, and his majesty +was severely bruised. Twice the horse (a mare) reared up when the +soldiers burst suddenly into cheers at only a few yards' distance. The +first time the mare came down again on her forefeet, but the second +time she fell over and, in falling, rolled slightly on to the king's +leg. The announcement of the king's mishap came with dramatic +suddenness to the assembled officers and troops. The troops of the +corps which he had first inspected could hear from where they stood +the cheers of their comrades about a mile away, which told them that +the second review was over, and that the king would pass down the road +fronting them in a few minutes. The orders to raise their caps and +cheer were shouted to the men by the company officers, and then the +whole corps, with bayoneted rifles at the slope, advanced in brigade +order across the huge fallow field in which they had been drawn up to +within thirty yards or so of the road. In a few minutes a covered +green automobile was seen tearing down the road at full speed, and as +it drew up opposite the center of the corps the cheering began to +spread all along the line. In the enthusiasm of the moment the +majority did not notice that the car was not flying the royal +standard, and even when an officer, with the pink and white brassard +of an Army Corps Staff, jumped out of the car and began to shout hasty +instructions few realized their mistake and his words were carried +away down the tempestuous wind that raged at the time. Then the +officer hurried here and there calling out that the king had met with +an accident and that there was to be no cheering. A few of those in +the center caught his words, but the news had not spread to more than +a fraction of the whole body before the king's car drove past. A +curious spectacle now presented itself. Along one portion of the front +the men stood silently at attention, while their comrades on either +side of them, and yet other troops farther away down the road, were +raising their caps on their bayonets and cheering with true British +lustiness. Some could catch a glimpse of the king as his car dashed +swiftly by. He was sitting half-bent in the corner of the vehicle, and +his face wore a faint smile of acknowledgment. The king's injuries +proved to be worse than was at first supposed, necessitating his +removal to London on a stretcher. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +OPERATIONS IN CHAMPAGNE AND ARTOIS--PREPARATIONS FOR WINTER CAMPAIGN + + +By the middle of October operations on the western front centralized +almost entirely in the Champagne and Artois districts, where the +Germans, fully appreciating the menace to their lines created by the +results of the allied offensive, sought by continuous violent +counterattacks to recover the territory from which they had been +dislodged and to prevent the Allies from consolidating and +strengthening their gains. Their attacks in the Artois fell chiefly +between Hulluch and Hill 70, and southeast of Givenchy, against the +heights of Petit Vimy. The Germans succeeded in retaking small +sections of first-line trenches, but lost some of their new trenches +in return. Whereas the Allies held practically all they had gained, +the Germans were considerably the losers by the transaction. The +British attempted to continue their offensive by driving between Loos +and Hulluch, the most important and at the same time the most +dangerous section on the British front. By steadily forging ahead +southeast of Loos toward Hill 70, the British were driving a wedge +into the German line and creating a perilous salient around the town +of Angres as the center. To obviate the danger from counterattacks +against the sides of the salient, the British endeavored to flatten +out the point of the wedge by capturing more ground north of Hill 70 +toward Hulluch. To some extent the plan succeeded; they advanced east +of the Lens-La Bassee road for about 500 yards, an apparently +insignificant profit, but it had the effect of strengthening the +British position. + +Uninterrupted fighting in Champagne had made little difference to +either side, save that the French had managed to straighten out their +line somewhat, though they were by no means nearer to their desired +goal--the Challerange-Bazancourt railway. If that could be taken, the +Germans facing them would be cut off from the crown prince's army +operating in the Argonne. Bulgaria had meanwhile entered the conflict +and started the finishing campaign of Serbia with the assistance of +her Teutonic allies. + +Between October 19 and October 24, 1915, the Germans made eight +distinct attacks in the Souchez sector in Artois, attempting to loosen +the French grip on Hill 140. In this venture the First Bavarian Army +Corps was practically wiped out by terrible losses. Each attack was +reported to have been repulsed. Commenting on the same event, the +German report said that "... enemy advances were repulsed. Detachments +which penetrated our positions were immediately driven back." Both +sides of the battle line now settled down to the same round of seesaw +battles of the preceding midsummer; attacks and counterattacks; +trenches captured and recaptured; here a hundred yards won, there a +hundred yards lost. After almost every one of these events the three +headquarters issued statements to the effect that "the enemy was +repelled with heavy losses," or that some place or other had been +"recaptured by our troops." On October 24, 1915, the French in +Champagne made some important progress. In front of their (the French) +position the Germans occupied a very strongly organized salient which +had resisted all previous attacks. In its southwestern part, on the +northern slopes of Hill 196, at a point one and a quarter miles to the +north of Mesnil-les-Hurlus, this salient included a valuable strategic +position called La Courtine (The Curtain), which the French took after +some severe fighting. La Courtine extended for a distance of 1,200 +yards with an average depth of 250 yards, and embracing three or four +lines of trenches connected up with underground tunnels and the +customary communication trenches, all of which had been thoroughly +prepared for defense. In spite of the excellence of these works and +the ferocious resistance of the German soldiers, the French succeeded +in taking this position by storm after preparatory artillery fire. On +the same day that this was announced, the Berlin report put it thus: +"In Champagne the French attacked near Tahure and against our salient +north of Le Mesnil, after a strong preparation with their artillery. +Near Tahure their attack was not carried out to its completion, +having been stopped by our fire. Late in the afternoon stubborn +fighting was in progress on the salient north of Le Mesnil. North and +east of this salient an attack was repulsed with severe French +losses." + +The following two interesting reports were issued on October 27, 1915: + + _Paris_ + + After having exploded in the neighborhood of the road from Arras to + Lille ... a series of powerful mines which destroyed the German + intrenchments ... our troops immediately occupied the excavations. + They installed themselves there, notwithstanding a very violent + bombardment and several counterattacks by the enemy, who suffered + serious losses. We captured about 30 prisoners. + + _Berlin_ + + After the explosion of a French mine on the Lille-Arras road an + unimportant engagement developed, which went in our favor. + +An important event happened in France on October 28, 1915, when the +Viviani Cabinet resigned, much to the general surprise of the nation. +The result of the change of government was that M. Aristide Briand, +one of the aggressive and militant members of the Socialist party, +succeeded as Premier and Foreign Secretary, M. de Freycinet became +Vice President of the Council, and General Gallieni Minister for War. +It was not a "political crisis," but a union of the parties--a +coalition, such as the British Government had already adopted. The +change implied a distribution of responsibility among the leading men +of all parties, a useful measure to stifle criticism and insure +unanimity of purpose. M. Viviani reentered the new Cabinet as Minister +of Justice. For the first time in the history of the French Republic a +coalition ministry of all the opposing factions was formed. + +Some stir and much speculation was caused when General Joffre visited +London at the end of October and held another conference with Lord +Kitchener. It was generally understood that some scheme for central +military control was being promoted, to render quicker decisions and +coordinate action possible. It was obvious that matters of vital +interest had brought the French Generalissimo to London. Shortly +before his departure it leaked out that the British Government had for +some time contemplated the creation of a new General Staff composed of +experts to supervise the prosecution of the war, and it was believed, +perhaps with justification, that General Joffre had come to give his +opinion on the matter. On November 17, 1915, the first meeting of the +Anglo-French War Council was held in Paris. The British members in +attendance were the Prime Minister, Mr. Arthur James Balfour, First +Lord of the Admiralty; Mr. David Lloyd-George, Minister of Munitions, +and Sir Edward Grey, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The +French participants were Premier Briand, General Gallieni, Admiral +Lacaze, Minister of Marine, and General Joffre. + +At the beginning of November a temporary lull had set in on parts of +the western front, and the center of interest was for the time shifted +to the Balkans. The French and British seemed unable to continue their +offensive operations and were, for the most part, confined to their +trenches and such territory as they had wrested from the Germans +during September and early October. On October 30, 1915, the Germans +had again begun a series of determined offensives in Artois and +Champagne. They met with considerable success in the initial stages, +for on the morning of the 31st they had gained about 1,200 yards of +the French trenches near Neuville-St. Vaast and on the summit of the +Butte de Tahure, capturing 1,500 French soldiers. The struggle for the +Neuville trenches continued for days, during which the positions +changed hands at short intervals. + +In Champagne the Germans, after a fresh artillery preparation, with +the employment of suffocating shells of large caliber, renewed their +attacks in the region to the north of Le Mesnil. They delivered four +successive assaults in the course of the day--the first at 6 a. m. on +the extreme east of La Courtine; the second at noon against Tahure; +the third at 2 p. m. to the south of the village, and the fourth at 4 +p. m. against the ridges to the northeast. The French artillery, +however, checked their progress and compelled them to retire to their +trenches, leaving 356 unwounded prisoners with the French. Beyond +occasional artillery duels in the Dixmude-Ypres district, nothing of +importance happened on the Belgian front. + +In the middle of November hard fighting was resumed on the Artois +front in the region of the Labyrinth, north of Arras, and continued +day and night, conducted chiefly with hand grenades. Artillery actions +raged in the Argonne forest, near Soissons, Berry-au-Bac, and on the +Belgian front. German activity in the Arras-Armentieres sector was +regarded as prognosticating a big attack. While the Germans collected +men and munitions at one spot, the French and British, adopting +worrying tactics, suddenly descended and harassed them in another. A +successful little enterprise was carried out by a small party of +British troops during the night of November 16-17, 1915, with a loss +of one man killed and one wounded, just north of the river Douave, +southwest of Messines. They forced an entrance into the German front +trench after bayoneting thirty of the occupants. The party returned +with twelve German prisoners. About November 19-20, 1915, the heavy +artillery of the Allies battered the German trenches west of Ypres, +while their warships were shelling the coast fortifications at +Westende. + +Between November 20 and 25, 1915, the British employed their time in +bombarding the German positions in several places, destroying wire +entanglements and parapets. The Germans made but little reply, +contenting themselves with holding tight to their trenches. They were +more active north of Loos, Ploegstreet, and east of Ypres. On the +evening of the 22d the Germans made a heavy bombing attack on a mine +crater held by the British south of the Bethune-La Bassee road, with +apparently inconclusive results. Constant mining operations were +resorted to by both sides, the British exploding one and occupying the +crater on the aforesaid road, and the Germans performing a similar +feat south of Cuinchy, severely damaging some British trenches. They +also exploded mines near Carnoy and Givenchy. A British aeroplane +squadron of twenty-three machines bombarded a German hut encampment at +Achiet le Grand, northeast of Albert. A single German aero ascended to +engage the attackers and deposited sundry bombs in the neighborhood of +Bray. In the Argonne forest artillery activity was more pronounced, +and a German ammunition depot in the Fille Morte region was destroyed. + +A big fall of snow somewhat restricted operations in the Vosges, +especially in the region of the Fecht and Thur Rivers. On the Belgian +line a rather violent bombardment occurred in front of St. Heewege. To +the north of Dixmude and the cast of St. Jacques Capelle a retaliatory +fire was kept up for two days. The subjugated Belgians raised a voice +of protest against the German method of raising the war levies imposed +upon the country. They complained that, whereas Belgium had faithfully +carried out her share of the arrangement, the German Government was +indebted to the Belgians a matter of $12,000,000 for supplies that had +not been paid for. Nearly $100,000,000 had been exacted in tribute by +Germany from the occupied provinces of Belgium up to November 10, +1915, since which date the German Governor General had issued orders +for a monthly war tax of 40,000,000 francs ($8,000,000) until further +notice. Calculating that the Belgians in the occupied territory +numbered 6,000,000, this fresh levy meant that every man, woman, and +child would have to pay about $1.35 into the German war treasury every +month. This new levy order issued by Baron von Bissing differed in +some important particulars from the one issued a year previously. No +limit was referred to upon the expiration of which the tax should +cease; in the former order the period of a year was mentioned. Another +new clause was to the effect that the German Administration should +have the right to demand the payment in German money at the customary +rate in Brussels of 80 marks to 100 francs. This device probably aimed +at raising the rate of the mark abroad. That nine Belgian provinces +had hitherto been able regularly to pay these large monthly +installments was due to the fact that the provincial authorities +secured large support from the Societe Generale de Belgique, which +bank expressed its readiness, on certain conditions, to lend money to +the provinces and make payments for them, these transactions, of +course, taking place under the supervision of the German authorities. +On the other hand, the Societe Generale was granted by the Germans the +exclusive right to issue bank notes, which had hitherto been the +privilege of the Belgian National Bank. + +The uninterrupted and intense activity along the front with grenades, +mines and heavy guns can be only vaguely described or even understood +from the brief chronicles of the official bulletins. This underground +warfare, to which only dry references are occasionally made, was +carried on steadily by day and by night. The mines, exploding at +irregular intervals along the lines, gave place to singular incidents +which rarely reached the public. Near Arras, in Artois, where sappers +largely displaced infantry, was related the story of two French +sappers, Mauduit and Cadoret, who were both decorated with the +Military Medal. The story of how they won this distinction is worth +repeating: + +They had dug their way under and beyond German trenches when the +explosion of a German mine between the lines cut their gallery, +leaving them imprisoned in a space eight feet long. This happened at +ten in the morning. They determined to dig toward the surface and +encouraged each other by singing Breton songs in low tones while they +worked. The air became foul and they were almost suffocated. Their +candles went out and left them to burrow in absolute darkness. After +hours of intense labor the appearance of a glowworm told them that +they were near the surface. Then a fissure of the earth opened and +admitted a welcome draft of fresh air. The miners pushed out into the +clear starlight. Within arm's length they beheld the loophole of a +German trench and could hear German voices. The thought seems not to +have occurred to them to give themselves up, as they could easily have +done. Instead, they drew back and began to dig in another direction, +enduring still longer the distress which they had already undergone so +long without food or drink. After digging another day they came out +in the crater of a mine. The night was again clear and it was +impossible for them to show themselves without being shot by one side +or the other. So they decided to hold out for another night. They lay +inside the crater exposed to shells, bombs, and grenades from both +sides, eating roots and drinking rain water. On the third night +Mauduit crept near the edge of the crater and got near an advance +sentinel, one of those pushed out at night beyond the lines to protect +against surprise. Cadoret, exhausted, lost his balance and fell back +into the crater. Under the German fire Mauduit went back and helped +his companion out. Both crawled along the ground until they fell into +the French trenches. + +Attacks by French aeroplanes upon the German lines were the main +features of the day's fighting for November 28, 1915. They damaged the +aviation hangars near Muelhausen, in Alsace, and brought down two +German machines. The Germans exploded a mine in front of the French +works near the Labyrinth, north of Arras, and succeeded in occupying +the crater. + +Near the end of November the sleet, snow and winds abated and a dry +frost accompanied by clear skies set in. Immediately a perfect +epidemic of aerial activity broke out. French, German, British, and +Belgian aeroplanes scoured the heavens in all directions, seeking +information and adventure. Even the restless artillery seemed inspired +with still greater energy. German ordnance belched its thunder around +Aveling, Loos, Neuve Chapelle, Armentieres, and Ypres, eliciting +vigorous responses from the opposite sides. Aviators fought in the air +and brought each other crashing to earth in mutilated heaps of flesh, +framework and blazing machinery. No fewer than fifteen of these +engagements were recorded in one day. And yet, despite all the bustle +and excitement, the usually conflicting reports agreed that there was +nothing particular to report. Each sector appeared to be conducting a +local campaign on its own account. + +The Switzerland correspondent of the since defunct London "Standard" +quoted, on November 30, 1915, from a remarkable article by Dr. Heinz +Pothoff, a former member of the Reichstag: + +"Can any one doubt that the German General Staff will hesitate to +employ extreme measures if Germany is ever on the verge of real +starvation? If necessary, we must expel all the inhabitants from the +territories which our armies have occupied, and drive them into the +enemy's lines; if necessary, we must kill the hundreds of thousands of +prisoners who are now consuming our supplies. That would be frightful, +but would be inevitable if there were no other way of holding out." + +On the last day of November a bill was introduced in the French +Chamber of Deputies by General Gallieni calling to the colors for +training the 400,000 youths of the class of 1917, who in the ordinary +course of events would not have been called out for another two years. +The war minister explained that it was not the intention of the +Government to send the new class, composed of boys of 18 and 19, to +the front at once, but to provide for their instruction and training +during the winter for active service in the spring, when, "in concert +with our allies, our reenforcements and our armaments will permit us +to make the decisive effort." The bill was passed. + +A British squadron bombarded the German fortifications on the Belgian +coast, from Zeebrugge to Ostend, for two hours on November 30, 1915. +The weather suddenly changed on the entire western front. Rain, mist, +and thaw imposed a check on the operations, which simmered down to +artillery bombardments at isolated points. For the next three months +the combatants settled down to the exciting monotony of a winter +campaign, making themselves as comfortable as possible, strengthening +their positions, keeping a sharp eye on the enemy opposite, and +generally preparing for the spring drive. Great offensive and +concerted movements can only be carried out after long and deliberate +preparations. The Allies had shot their bolt, with only partial +success, and considerable time would have to elapse before another +advance on a big scale could be undertaken. Hence the winter campaign +developed into a series of desultory skirmishes and battles, as either +side found an opportunity to inflict some local damage on the other. +For the Allies it was part of the "war of attrition," or General +Joffre's "nibbling process." + +The Germans had gone through a bitter experience in Champagne; with +characteristic skill and energy they set to work improving their +defenses. At intervals of approximately 500 yards behind their second +line they constructed underground strongholds known as "starfish +defenses," which cannot be detected from the surface: About thirty +feet below the ground is a dugout of generous dimensions, in which are +stored machine guns, rifles, and other weapons. Leading from this +underground chamber to the surface are five or six tunnels, jutting +out in different directions, so that their outlets form half a dozen +points in a circle with a diameter of perhaps 100 yards. In each of +the tunnels was laid a narrow-gauge railway to allow the machine guns +to be speedily brought to the surface. At the mouth of the tunnels +were two gun platforms on either side, and the mouth itself was +concealed by being covered over with earth or grass. The defenses were +also mined, and the mines could be exploded from any one of the +various outlets. On several occasions when the French endeavored to +press home their advantage they found themselves enfiladed by machine +guns raised to the surface by troops who had taken up their places in +the underground strongholds at the first menace to the second line. +When one of the outlets was captured, machine guns would appear at +another; while, if the French troops attempted to rush the stronghold, +the Germans took refuge in the other passages, and met them as they +appeared. + +On the French and British side also, underground defense works were of +a most scientific and elaborate character. Trench warfare has become +an art. Away from the seat of war the importance of the loss or the +gain of a trench is measured by yards. If you are in trenches on the +plain, where the water is a few feet below the surface, and all the +area has been used as a cockpit, you would wonder how any trench can +be held. If, on the other hand, you were snugly installed in a deep +trench on a chalk slope, you would wonder how any trench can be lost. +Any real picture of what a trench is like cannot be drawn or imagined +by a sensitive people. It is, of course, a graveyard--of Germans and +British and French. Miners and other workers in the soil drive their +tunnel or trench into inconceivable strata. They come upon populous +German dugouts, corked by some explosion perhaps a year ago. They are +stopped far below ground by a layer of barbed wire, proved by its +superior thickness to be German. Every yard they penetrate is what +gardeners call "moved soil." It is of the nature of a fresh mole heap +or ants' nest, so crumbled and worked that all its original +consistency has been undone. A good deal of it doubtless has been +tossed fifty feet in the air on the geyser of a mine or shell +explosion. It is full of little bits of burnt sacking, the debris of +sandbags. Weapons and bits of weapons and pieces of human bodies are +scattered through it like plums. The so-called trench may be no more +than a yoked line of shell holes converted with dainty toil and loss +to a more perpendicular angle. And the tangled pattern of craters is +itself pocked with the smaller dents of bombs. There are three grades +of holes--great mine craters that look like an earth convulsion +themselves, pitted with shell holes, which in turn are dimpled by +bombs. Imagine a place like the Ypres salient, a graveyard maze under +the visitation of 8,000 shells falling from three widely separate +angles, and some slight idea may be formed of nearly two years' life +in the trenches. It is an endless struggle for some geographical +feature: a hill, a mound, a river, or for a barn or a house. At Ypres, +indeed, the German and British lines have passed through different +sides of the same stable at the same time. The competition for a hill +or bluff is such that in many cases, as at Hill 60, the desired spot, +as well as the intervening houses and even woods, have been wiped out +of existence before the rival forces. + +On November 2, 1915, the British Premier announced in the House of +Commons that there were then nearly a million British soldiers in +Belgium and France; that Canada had sent 96,000 men to the front, and +that the Germans had not gained any ground in the west since April of +that year. He furthermore stated that the British Government was +resolved to "stick at nothing" in carrying out its determination to +carry the war to a successful conclusion. In addition to the troops +mentioned above, the Australian Commonwealth had contributed 92,000 +men to date; New Zealand 25,000; South Africa, after a brilliant +campaign in which the Germans in Southwest Africa were subdued, had +sent 6,500; and Newfoundland, Great Britain's oldest colony, 1,600. +Contingents were also sent from Ceylon, the Fiji Islands, and other +outlying parts of the empire. The premier said that since the +beginning of the war the admiralty had transported 2,500,000 troops, +300,000 sick and wounded, 2,500,000 tons of stores and munitions, and +800,000 horses. The loss of life in the transportation of these troops +was stated to be less than one-tenth of one per cent. + +On December 2, 1915, General Joffre was appointed commander in chief +of all the French armies, excepting those in North Africa, including +Morocco, and dependent ministry colonies. The appointment was made on +the recommendation of General Gallieni, the War Minister, who, in a +report to President Poincare, said: + +"By the decree of October 28, 1913, the Government, charged with the +vital interests of the country, alone has the right to decide on the +military policy. If the struggle extend to several frontiers, it alone +must decide which is the principal adversary against whom the majority +of the forces shall be directed. It consequently alone controls the +means of action and resources of all kinds, and puts them at the +disposal of the general commander in chief of the different theatres +of operations. + +"The experience gained, however, from the present operations, which +are distributed over several fronts, proves that unity of direction, +indispensable to the conduct of the war, can only be assured by the +presence at the head of all of our armies of a single chief, +responsible for the military operations proper." + +General Joffre's new appointment possesses a historic interest, for it +created him the first real general in chief since the days of +Napoleon, independent entirely of the national ruler as well as of the +minister for war and any war council. + +In the beginning of December, 1915, Field Marshal Sir John French was +relieved at his own instance and appointed to the command of the home +forces. He was given a viscountcy in recognition of his long and +brilliant service in the army. + +From the landing of the British Expeditionary Force in France, Sir +John French had commanded it on the Franco-Belgian frontier along a +front that grew from thirty-two miles to nearly seventy in one year, +while the troops under his command had grown in numbers from less than +sixty thousand to well over a million. The son of a naval officer, +John Denton French began his career as a midshipman in the navy, but +gave that up after a three years' trial and joined the army in 1874. +General French was essentially a cavalry commander, and as such he +distinguished himself in the South African War of 1899-1902. His +conduct in the European War has been the subject of some criticism. +The time is not yet ripe to form a just estimate of his achievements +and failures. Nothing succeeds like success, and nothing is easier +than to criticize a military commander who fails to realize the high +expectations of his countrymen. Whatever may be the verdict of history +for or against General French, it will certainly acknowledge that he +did great things with his "contemptible little army." The figure of +Viscount French of Ypres will stand out in bold relief when the inner +history of Mons, the Marne, Neuve Chapelle, Ypres, and Loos is +definitively written. The present generation may not be permitted to +read it, for even to-day, after a hundred years, military experts are +still divided over the mistakes of the great Napoleon. + +The command in chief of the British army now devolved upon General Sir +Douglas Haig, who, though a "born aristocrat," had nevertheless taken +his trade of soldiering very seriously. He had served with distinction +in India and South Africa. During the retreat from Mons General Haig +performed marvels of leadership. By skillful maneuvering he extricated +his men at Le Cateau in the most critical moment of the retreat. He +led in the attack on the Aisne, and is also credited with chief +responsibility for the clever movement of the British army from the +Aisne to Ypres. In his dispatch on the battle of Ypres Field Marshal +French highly praised the valuable assistance he had derived from +General Haig. It was said that during the fierce battle of Ypres, "at +one time or another every corps and division commander in the lot +lost hope--except Haig. He was a rock all through." + +On December 2, 1915. Mr. Asquith announced in the House of Commons +that Great Britain's total losses in killed, wounded, and missing +since the war began amounted to 510,230. + +The figures for the western front were: Killed, 4,620 officers and +69,272 men; wounded, 9,754 officers and 240,283 men; missing, 1,584 +officers and 54,446 men; grand total of casualties, 379,959. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +EVENTS IN THE WINTER CAMPAIGN + + +It is well-nigh impossible to give a connected story of the +innumerable and far-flung operations of the winter campaign. It +resolves itself into a mere list of dates and a brief description of +what happened on those dates. At this short distance of time even the +descriptive details are by no means altogether reliable, owing to the +contradictory reports that announced them. During the first week in +December, 1915, the Germans concentrated strong reenforcements and an +immense amount of artillery with the object of striking a blow at the +allied line in Flanders and Artois. In Champagne they captured about +800 feet of an advanced trench near Auberive. The French admitted the +loss, but claimed that they had reoccupied a large part of the ground +originally yielded. + +Floods in the Yser region compelled the Germans to abandon many of +their advanced trenches, and two of their ammunition depots were blown +up. Near Berry-au-Bac they destroyed a French trench with its +occupants and blew up some mines that the French had almost completed. +Artillery engagements in Artois became more pronounced, especially +around Givenchy. On the 8th sixteen British aeroplanes bombed a German +stores depot at Miraumont, in the Somme district, and the aerodrome at +Hervilly. The attack was carried out in a high westerly wind, which +made flying difficult. All machines returned safely after inflicting +much damage on both objectives. A British cargo boat having run +aground off the Belgian coast, three German hydroaeroplanes attempted +to sink her with bombs. Several of the allied aeroplanes, one of them +French, set out from the land and drove the German flyers away after +an exciting fight. Deep snow in the Vosges Mountains prevented +operations beyond artillery action. + +On December 16, 1915, in the course of his demand in the Chamber of +Deputies that the Chamber grant three months' credit on the budget +account, the French Minister of Finance, M. Ribot, said that while the +war expenditure at the beginning of the conflict was 1,500,000,000 +francs ($300,000,000) a month, it had risen to 2,100,000,000 francs +($420,000,000). "At the beginning of hostilities financial +considerations took a secondary place. We did not think the war would +last seventeen months, and now no one can foresee when it will end." + +Artillery activity of more than usual intensity at a number of points +marked the 17th, 18th and 19th of December, 1915. To the east of Ypres +French and British batteries bombarded the German trenches from which +suffocating gas was directed toward the British line. No infantry +attacks followed. By December 22, 1915, the French had gained the +summit of Hartmannsweilerkopf, a dominating peak in southern Alsace, +overlooking the roads leading to the Rhine. For eight months they had +fought for the position, and thousands of lives were sacrificed by the +attackers and the defenders. The Germans succeeded in recovering part +of the ground next day. The French took 1,300 prisoners in the +capture, and the Germans claimed 1,553 prisoners in the recapture. +Fighting continued around the spot for months. + +Christmas passed with no break in the hostilities and no material +change in the situation on the western front. The year 1915 closed, in +a military sense, less favorably for the Allies than it began. Only a +few square miles had been reconquered in the west at a heavy +sacrifice; Italy had made little progress; the Dardanelles expedition +had proved a failure; the British had not reached Bagdad nor attained +their aim in Greece; while Russia had lost nearly all Galicia, with +Poland and Courland as well, and the Serbian army had been practically +eliminated. On the other hand, the Allies had maintained supremacy on +the seas, had captured all but one of the German colonies, and still +held all German sea-borne trade in a vise of steel. Not one of the +armies of the Allies other than that of Serbia had been struck down; +each of them was hard at work raising new armies and developing the +supply of munitions. The spirit of all the warring peoples, without +exception, appeared to be that of a grim, unbending determination. +Germany, with a large proportion of her able-bodied manhood disposed +of and her trade with the outer world cut off, was perhaps in greater +straits than a superficial examination of her military successes +showed. The care with which the Germans economized their supplies of +men, and made the fullest possible use in the field of men who were +not physically fit for actual military service, was illustrated by the +creation of some new formations called Armierungsbattalionen. These +battalions, of which, it was said, no full description would be +published before the end of the war, consisted of all sorts of men +with slight physical defects, underofficers and noncommissioned +officers who were either too old for service or had been invalided. +Their duty was to relieve the soldiers of as much work as possible. +They were employed in roadmaking and in transporting munitions and +supplies in difficult country--for example, in the Vosges Mountains. +Most of these men--and there were many thousands of them--wore +uniforms, but carried no arms. + +It is rather an ironical commentary on "our present advanced state of +culture," as Carlyle put it, that the birthday of the Man of +Sorrows--the period of "peace on earth and good will toward all +men"--was celebrated even amid the raucous crash and murderous turmoil +of the battle field. Preparations had long been in the making for the +event. In the homes of France, Germany, and Great Britain millions and +millions of parcels were carefully packed full of little luxuries, +comforts, tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes, and addressed to some loved +one "at the front." Newspapers collected subscriptions and busy +societies were also formed for the same purpose, so that there was +hardly a single combatant who did not receive some token of +remembrance from home. + +On the occasion of the New Year the kaiser addressed the following +order to his army and navy: + +"Comrades:--One year of severe fighting has elapsed. Whenever a +superior number of enemies tried to rush our lines they failed before +your loyalty and bravery. Every place where I sent you into battle you +gained glorious victories. Thankfully we remember to-day above all our +brethren who joyfully gave their blood in order to gain security for +our beloved ones at home and imperishable glory for the Fatherland. +What they began we shall accomplish with God's gracious help. + +"In impotent madness our enemies from west and east, from north and +south, still strive to deprive us of all that makes life worth living. +The hope of conquering us in fair fighting they have buried long ago. +On the weight of their masses, on the starvation of our entire people, +on the influence of their campaign of calumny, which is as mischievous +as malicious, they believe they can still reckon. Their plans will not +succeed. Their hopes will be miserably disappointed in the presence of +the spirit of determination which imperturbably unites the army and +those at home. + +"With a will to do one's duty for the Fatherland to the last breath, +and a determination to secure victory, we enter the new year with God +for the protection of the Fatherland and for Germany's greatness." + +About the same time Count Zeppelin delivered a speech at Duesseldorf. +The local newspapers reported him as saying: "Speaking for myself and +expressing the view of your Imperial Master, the war will not last two +years. The next few months will see German arms march rapidly from +triumph to triumph, and the final destruction of our enemies will be +swift and sudden. Our Zeppelin fleets will play an important part in +future operations and will demonstrate more than ever their power as a +factor in modern warfare." + +The opening of the year 1916 found Great Britain in the throes of a +momentous controversy over the question of adopting conscription. In +the west the Franco-British armies hugged the belief that their lines +were impregnable to attack. An offensive on the part of the Germans +was certainly expected, but where and when it would materialize none +could foretell, though the French command had a shrewd suspicion. It +was purely a matter of deduction that the Germans, having so far +failed to break a passage through the circle of steel that encompassed +them on the east and the west, would be forced to concentrate their +hopes on an offensive on the western front. They had carefully taken +into consideration the Battle of Champagne. They admitted that the +French had opened a breach in their line, and they would probably +argue that the imperfect results of the operations were due only to +the inability of their enemies to exploit the first advantage that +they had gained. They appear to have decided to copy the French +example, but to apply to it the German touch of thoroughness. The +French, they might argue, fired so many shells on a front of so many +miles and destroyed our trenches; we will fire so many more shells on +a narrower front, so that we can be certain there will be no obstacle +to the advance of our infantry. The French had not enough men to carry +their initial success to its conclusion, consequently we will mass a +very large number of men behind the attack. With this object +undoubtedly in view, the Germans indulged in a succession of feints up +and down the whole frontier, feeling and probing the line at all +points. This procedure cost them thousands of men, but it probably did +not deceive the strategists on the other side. All that remained +indeterminable to the French Staff was the precise date and locality. + +A general survey of the front for the first days of January, 1916, +reveals activity all round. In Belgium there was artillery fighting +over the front of the Yser and along the front at Yperlee, and a +similar duel between Germans and Belgians near Mercken. In front of +the British first-line trenches the Germans sprang mines, but did not +trouble to take possession of the craters. The British sprang some +mines near La Poisselu and bombarded the German trenches north of +Fromelles and east of Ypres, the Germans responding vigorously. + +The British also attempted a night attack near Frelinghien, northeast +of Armentieres, which failed in its purpose. German troops cracked a +mine at Hulluch and captured a French trench at Hartmannsweilerkopf +with 200 prisoners. The French heavy artillery in Champagne directed a +strong fire against some huts occupied by Germans in the forest of +Malmaison. A German attack with hand grenades in the vicinity of the +Tahure road did little harm. Between the Arve and the Oise artillery +exchanges were in continual progress; between Soissons and Rheims a +series of mine explosions; and in the Vosges the French artillery +roared in the vicinity of Muehlbach. A German long-range gun fired +about ten shots at Nancy and its environments, killing two civilians +and wounding seven others. + +In the north, again, we find the German artillery making a big +demonstration on the front east of Ypres and northeast of Loos; the +British destroying the outskirts of Andechy in the region of Roye. +French and Belgian guns batter the Germans stationed to the east of +St. George and shell other groups about Boesinghe and Steenstraete. +South of the Somme the German first-line trenches near Dompierre are +receiving artillery attention, and a supply train south of Chaulnes is +shattered. In Champagne the Tahure skirmish goes on, while in the +Vosges an artillery duel of great intensity rends the air in the +Hirzstein sector. + +Along the Yser front the Belgians are shelled in the rear of their +lines, and a German barracks is being bombarded. On the southern part +of the British front bomb attacks are being carried out. With all this +sporadic and disconnected expenditure of life, energy and ammunition +little damage is done, and the losses and gains on either side are +equally unimportant. The Germans are tapping against the wall, looking +for weak spots. By the 5th, however, when General Joffre's New Year's +message appears, in which he tells his armies that the enemy is +weakening, that enemy suddenly grows more active and energetic. German +artillery fire increased in violence throughout Flanders, Artois, +Champagne, and the Vosges. They launched infantry attacks against the +French between Hill 193 and the Butte de Tahure. North of Arras the +French bombarded German troops in the suburbs of Roye; in the Vosges +they shelled German works in the region of Balschwiller, and +demolished some trenches and a munitions depot northwest of Altkirch. + +British aeroplanes dropped bombs on the aerodrome at Douai, and a +German aviator dropped a few on Boulogne. The German War Office +statement briefly announced that "fighting with artillery and mines at +several points on the Franco-Belgian front is reported." The next few +days are almost a blank; hardly anything leaks out; but things are +happening all the same. + +To the south of Hartmannsweilerkopf, after a series of fruitless +attacks, followed by a severe bombardment, the Germans succeeded in +recovering the trenches which they had lost to the French on December +31, 1915. Besides that, they also captured 20 officers, 1,083 +chasseurs, and 15 machine guns. This move compelled the French troops +occupying the summit of Hirzstein to evacuate their position. +Artillery incessantly thundered in Flanders, Champagne, Artois, the +Vosges, and on the British lines at Hulluch and Armentieres. By +January 10, 1916, it looked as though the Germans intended to retrieve +the misfortunes of Champagne. An assault by the kaiser's troops under +General von Einem was made on a five-mile front east of Tahure, with +the center about at Maisons de Champagne Farm, close to the Butte de +Mesnil. At this point the French had held well to the ground won +during the previous September. On the 9th the German artillery opened +fire with great violence, using suffocating shells, and this was +followed by four concentric infantry attacks on that front during the +day and night. The French fire checked the offensive, but at two +points the Germans managed to reach the first French lines. The battle +raged for three days, during which the Germans took a French +observation post, several hundred yards of trenches, 423 prisoners, +seven machine guns, and eight mine throwers. The French counterattack +broke down, though it was claimed that they had recovered the ground. + +At Massiges the Germans attacked on almost as large a scale as the +French had done the previous autumn. The German bombardment increased +steadily in intensity, and during the last twelve hours 400,000 shells +were stated to have fallen on the eight-mile front from La Courtine to +the western slopes of the "Hand" of Massiges. The infantry were thrown +forward on the 10th. The first attack was launched on the hill forming +the western finger of Massiges, whence the French fire broke their +ranks and drove them back. Foiled in this direction, the next attack +was delivered against the five-mile front. Some 40,000 men took part +in the charge. But the powerful French "seventy-fives" tore ghastly +lanes in their ranks, and few lived to reach the wire entanglements. +Crawling through the holes made by the bombardment, they captured 300 +yards of trenches. A portion of this the French regained. The British +lost four aeroplanes on January 12-13, 1916. Two German aviators +accounted for one each, and the other two were brought down by +gunfire. + +The Prussian Prime Minister, Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, who is also +Imperial Chancellor, opened the new session of the Prussian Diet on +January 13, 1916. In reading the speech from the throne, he said: "As +our enemies forced the war upon us, they must also bear the guilt of +the responsibility if the nations of Europe continue to inflict wounds +upon one another." + +By the 13th the German offensive in Champagne had collapsed. +Operations in the west resumed for the time a normal state of +activity, in which artillery duels were the main features. In the +middle of January the British opened fire on the French town of Lille, +near the Belgian border and inside the German lines. According to +German authority, the damage done was negligible. Little of import +happened till January 23, 1916, when two squadrons of French +aeroplanes, comprising twenty-four machines, bombarded the railway +station and barracks at Metz. They dropped 130 shells. The aeros were +escorted by two protecting squadrons, the pilots of which during the +trip engaged in ten combats with giant Fokkers and aviatiks. The +French machines were severely cannonaded along the whole of their +course, but returned undamaged, except one only, which was obliged to +make a landing southeast of Metz. On the 24th the Germans made another +strong feint, this time in Belgium, that had all the appearance of the +expected attack in force. They began by bombarding the French lines +near Nieuport, but the infantry charge that was to have followed was +smothered in the German trenches, before the men could make a start. +Another German attack north of Arras was held up by French rifle fire. +The chief result of the offensive seems to have been the destruction +of Nieuport cathedral. + +Toward the end of January, 1916, activity became more and more +intensified all along the western front in every sector except that in +which the Germans were preparing for the big coup--Verdun. It will be +simpler to review the disconnected operations by following them +separately in the different districts where they occurred. It will be +observed that in practically every case the Germans assumed the +offensive. In Alsace the French batteries exploded a German munitions +depot on the outskirts of Orbey, southeast of Bonhomme. In the region +of Sondernach, south of Muenster, the Germans captured and occupied a +French listening post, from which they were expelled by +counterattacks. On February 13, 1916, they attempted an infantry +attack, which was halted by French artillery fire. The Germans gained +300 feet of trenches on the 14th. The French took the ground back +again, but were unable to hold it. On the 18th the Germans, after the +usual artillery preparation, directed an infantry attack against the +French position to the north of Largitson, where they penetrated into +the trenches and remained there for some hours until a counterattack +expelled them. In Lorraine, constant artillery duels raged in the +sectors of Reillon and the forest of Parroy. In the Argonne, French +mine operations destroyed the German trenches over a short distance +near Hill 285, northeast of La Chalade. On February 12, 1916, the +French shattered some enemy mine works. + +Increased artillery firing at many points in Flanders and northern +France first gave the Allies the impression that the Germans were +planning a new offensive on a large scale against their left wing, in +an attempt to blast a passage through to Calais and Dunkirk. By +February 7, 1916, the Allies were thoroughly awake to the possibility +of a big blow impending somewhere in the west. The sweep through +Serbia had released several hundred thousand men for service +elsewhere. For a month the Germans had been hammering and probing at +Loos, Givenchy, Armentieres, and other points with the evident object +of finding a weak spot. Along the Neuville-Givenchy road especially +the Germans made no fewer than twenty-five determined attacks between +the 1st and 17th of February, 1916. Their later attacks developed more +to the north, near Lievin, where heavy trench fighting occurred, with +no important results either way. + +At the beginning of February, 1916, the 525-mile battle front in the +west was held on one side by about 1,250,000 Germans--an average of +2,500 to the mile--as against quite 2,000,000 French, about 1,000,000 +British, and 50,000 Belgians. But this superiority in numbers on the +allied side was neutralized by the strength of the German defense +works plus artillery. None of the Allies' undertakings had, so far, +been carried out to its logical--or intended--conclusion. Whether this +was due to weakness, infirmity of purpose or lack of coordination, +remains to be told some future day. By the middle of the month it +became apparent, from their expenditure of men and munitions, that the +German General Staff were determined to make up for their past losses +and to recapture at least some of the ground taken from them by the +Allies. It seems hardly credible that all these fierce attacks were +mere feints to withdraw attention from their objective--Verdun. They +had no reason to fear a French offensive in the immediate future. For +one thing the condition of the ground was still too unfavorable. The +French at this stage occupied practically the entire semicircle from +Hill 70 to the town of Thelus, excepting a portion between Givenchy +and Petit Vimy. Hill 140, the predominant feature in the district, was +almost all in French hands. The line between La Folie and the junction +of the Neuville-St. Vaast road covered the Labyrinth, which the +French had won in the summer of 1915, and it was here that the main +force of the German attacks was launched. The French positions on the +heights commanded every other position that the Germans could possibly +take within the semicircle, and naturally gave the former an immense +advantage for their next offensive. + +In Artois the Germans exploded several mines on January 26, 1916, in +the neighborhood of the road from La Folie, northeast of Neuville-St. +Vaast, and occupied the craters made. Violent cannonading kept up in +the whole of this sector. By the 28th the Germans had captured three +successive lines of French trenches and held them against eight +counterattacks. After exploding mines the Germans made an attack on +both sides of the road between Vimy and Neuville and stormed French +positions between 500 and 600 yards long. They captured fifty-three +men, a machine gun, and three mine throwers. On the 28th they directed +infantry attacks against various points and gained more trenches. +Following up their advantage the Germans stormed and captured the +village of Frise, on the south bank of the Somme. + +While this struggle was in progress, a terrific fight was raging north +of Arras. The real objective of the attack appears to have been an +advance south of Frise in the direction of Dompierre, but this effort +met with little success. The French at once set to work to recover the +only ground that was of any real importance. The troops in the section +opened a series of counterattacks, and in a very short time the French +grenadiers had gained the upper hand again. The capture of Frise +brought the Germans into a cul-de-sac, for their advance was still +barred by the Somme Canal, behind which there lay a deep marsh. +Maneuvers were quite impossible here, hence the village could not +serve as a base for any further operations. The German gains were +nevertheless considerable, for they took about 3,800 yards of trenches +and nearly 1,300 prisoners, including several British. Spirited mine +fighting marked the first three days of February, 1916. In the +neighborhood of the road from Lille the French artillery fire caused +explosions among the German batteries in the region of Vimy. Between +February 8-9, 1916, the German infantry stormed the first-line French +positions over a stretch of more than 800 yards, capturing 100 +prisoners and five machine guns. Small sections of these trenches were +retaken and held. + +The German report stated that the French "were unable to reconquer any +part of their lost positions." Five German attacks were made on Hill +140 on February 11, 1916, all but one being repulsed by the intense +fire of the French artillery and infantry. Stubborn fighting, +accompanied by heavy losses, raged about the 14th, by which time the +French had regained a few more trenches. The steady underground +advance of the French sappers drove the Germans back upon their last +bastion, commanding the central plain. + +The French trenches gradually crept up the slopes of the hill until +the German commander, the Bavarian Crown Prince, realized that the +next assault was likely to be irresistible and to involve the +abandonment of Lille, Lens, Douai, and the entire front at this point. +A mine explosion west of Hill 140 made a crater fifty yards across. A +steeplechase dash across the open from both sides--French and Germans +met in the crater--a fierce struggle for its possession followed, and +the French won the hole. A furious bombardment from a score of +quick-firing mortars hidden behind La Folie Hill battered the earth +out of shape, and when the Germans occupied the terrain where the +French trenches had been, the "seventy-fives" played such havoc among +them that they were forced to relinquish their hold. To the south of +Frise the Germans were preparing an attack, but were prevented from +carrying it out by French and British barrier fires. + +On the British front the artillery was hardly less active than in +Artois. On one section, according to a German report, the British +fired 1,700 shrapnel shells, 700 high explosive shells, and about the +same number of bombs within twenty-four hours. On January 27, 1916, +the Germans attempted an infantry attack on a salient northeast of +Loos, but were held back. A British night attack on the German +trenches near Messines, Flanders, was likewise repulsed. In the +morning of February 12, 1916, the Germans broke into the British +trenches near Pilkellen, but were pushed out by bombing parties. There +was much mining activity about Hulluch and north of the Ypres-Comines +Canal. At the latter place some desperate underground fighting +occurred between sappers. On the 14th the Germans were again engaged +in serious operations in the La Bassee region, where they exploded +seven mines on the British front. + +By February 15, 1916, the British first-line trenches on a 600 to 800 +yards' front fell to the Germans in assaults on the Ypres salient, +carried by a bayonet charge after artillery preparation. Most of the +defenders were killed and forty prisoners taken. The assaults extended +over a front of more than two miles. The trench now captured by the +Germans had frequently changed hands during the past twelve months, +and for that reason was facetiously called "the international trench." +The brunt of the fighting here fell upon the Canadians, who were +withdrawn from the trench owing to the furious bombardment, and +sheltered in the second-line trench. The German infantry consequently +met with no opposition at the former, but when they approached the +latter the Canadians opened a murderous fire with rifles and machine +guns, dropping their enemies in hundreds. A few, however, managed to +reach the trenches, when the Canadians sprang out and charged with +bayonets, rushed the Germans back to and across the first-line +trenches again, which were then reoccupied. It was the Canadian First +Division that had blocked the German path to Calais in the spring of +1915 almost at the same point. + +Activity on the west front on the 18th was largely confined to the +Ypres district. British troops attempted to recapture their positions +to the south of Ypres, simultaneously bombarding the German trenches +to the north of the Comines Canal. By February 20, 1916, as a result +of the continuous fighting north of Ypres, the British had lost on the +Yser Canal what the German official report described as a position 350 +meters long, and the British statement as "an unimportant advanced +post." The Germans took some prisoners and repelled several day and +night attacks by the British to recover the ground. + +In Champagne, uninterrupted artillery actions continued apparently +without much advantage to either side. The German works north of +Souain were particularly visited. On February 5, 1916, the French +bombarded the German works on the plateau of Navarin, wrecking +trenches and blowing up several munition depots. Some reservoirs of +suffocating gas were also demolished, releasing the poisonous fumes, +which the wind blew back across the German lines. On the 13th the +French were able to report a further success northeast of the Butte du +Mesnil, where they took some 300 yards of German trenches. A +counterattack by night was also repulsed, the Germans losing +sixty-five prisoners. They succeeded, though, in penetrating a small +salient of the French line between the road from Navarin and that of +the St. Souplet. They also captured, on the 12th, some sections of +advanced trenches between Tahure and Somme-Py, gaining more than 700 +yards of front. + +In the Vosges a similar series of local engagements occupied the +combatants. Artillery exchanges played the chief part in the +operations. Three big shells from a German long-range gun fell in the +fortress town of Belfort and its environs on February 8, 1916. The +French replied by bombarding the German cantonments at Stosswier, +northwest of Muenster, Hirtzbach, south of Altkirch, and the military +establishments at Dornach, near Muehlhausen. On the 11th ten more heavy +shells fell about Belfort. North of Wissembach, east of St. Die, a +German infantry charge met with a withering fire and was stopped +before it reached the first line. + +While all the fighting just described was in progress, matters were +comparatively on a peace footing in the Argonne Forest. The French and +Germans engaged in mine operations, smashing up inconsiderable pieces +of each other's trenches and mine works. But it was here that affairs +of great historic import, perhaps the mightiest event of the war, were +in the making. + +In an interview given to the editor of the "Secolo" of Milan, at the +end of January, 1916, Mr. Lloyd-George, the British Minister of +Munitions, said: "We woke up slowly to it, but I am now perfectly +satisfied with what we are doing. We have now 2,500 factories, +employing 1,500,000 men and 250,000 women. By spring we shall have +turned out an immense amount of munitions. We shall have for the first +time in the war more than the enemy. Our superiority in men and +munitions will be unquestioned, and I think that the war for us is +just beginning. We have 3,000,000 men under arms; by spring we shall +have a million more.... Our victory must be a real and final victory. +You must not think of a deadlock. One must crack the nut before one +gets at the kernel. It may take a long time, but you must hear the +crack. The pressure on the enemy is becoming greater. They are +spreading their frontier temporarily, but becoming weaker in a +military sense. Make no mistake about it; Great Britain is determined +to fight this war to a finish. We may make mistakes, but we do not +give in. It was the obstinacy of Great Britain that wore down Napoleon +after twenty years of warfare. Her allies broke away one by one, but +Great Britain kept on. Our allies on this occasion are just as solid +and determined as we are." + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE BATTLE OF VERDUN--THE GERMAN ATTACK + + +Toward the close of 1915 the German General Staff decided on a vast +onslaught on the French front that would so crush and cripple the +fighting forces of France that they would cease to count as an +important factor in the war. A great action was also necessary owing +to the external and internal situation of the German Empire. The time +was ripe for staging a spectacular victory that would astonish the +world, intimidate Greece and Rumania, and stiffen the weakening hold +that Germany had on Turkey and Bulgaria. + +The German General Staff knew that Russia was arming several hundred +thousand new troops, that Great Britain had reenforced her armies on +the Continent, that the Allies were amply supplied with guns and +shells, and that in the spring they would undertake an offensive on a +large scale that would go far toward ending the war. In order to +anticipate this threatened onslaught the German staff decided to +strike, hoping to gain a victory before the Allies were entirely +ready. + +Having arrived at this decision, the next problem was to select the +battle field, and Verdun was decided upon. At first this choice +created general astonishment, for the capture of Verdun would only +mean the gaining of a certain number of square miles of territory. But +the German staff believed that the capture of the ancient fortress of +Verdun would have a powerful effect on public opinion at home and +abroad. As a military operation they were confident that such a +victory might have a decisive effect on the future of the war. It was +hoped that the French army, already weakened, would receive a crushing +blow from which it could never recover. An intelligent German prisoner +explained the German point of view: "Verdun sticks into our side like +a dagger, though sheathed. With that weapon threatening our vitals, +how can we think of rushing on France elsewhere? If we had done so, +the Verdun dagger might have stabbed us in the back as well as in the +side." + +In order to sustain the German people's faith in the Hohenzollern +dynasty there was urgent necessity that the crown prince should gain a +success. The capture of Verdun would reestablish his somewhat +tarnished military reputation and might force an exhausted France to +sue for peace. + +The loss of Verdun and its girdle of forts would have made the +situation of the defenders very difficult, they would find it a +serious problem to hold back the German hosts while organizing a new +line of defense from St. Mihiel to Ste. Menehould. Moreover as the +German lines formed a semicircle around the French position at Verdun +an immense number of guns could be massed against a small area. + +In the matter of railway facilities the Germans had every advantage. +They possessed fourteen strategic lines, while the French had only one +ordinary double line, which was in easy range of the German guns +south of Vauquois, and a narrow gauge from Verdun to Bar-le-Duc. This +terrible handicap was in time overcome by the French, who brought to +perfection a system of motor transport by road that enabled them at a +moment's notice to bring up men, ammunition, and supplies to the +defense of Verdun. + +The French positions around the fortress had not greatly changed since +the closing months of 1914, when the French carried the village of +Brabant and Haumont Wood and occupied the southeast corner of +Consenvoye Wood. Two formidable natural barriers had been secured by +the Germans: Forges Wood on the left, a long crest east and west +confronting the French lines and bisected its full length by a ravine. +Protected from French fire from the south, it afforded an excellent +artillery position, while the trees served as a screen against aerial +observation. The position also commanded a clear view of the French +left at Brabant. To attack Forges Wood it would be necessary to +advance over an open space entirely bare of any natural protection. On +the right of the French positions the Germans occupied a strong post +on a sort of island that overlooked the Woevre plain and having on one +side a steep cliff. + +The possession of these two strong positions by the Germans exposed +the French flanks to artillery fire from every direction. It was +impossible that the French line, bent into a salient in front of +Haumont and Caures Wood, could hold out if the Germans massed a great +number of guns against it. + +When the struggle in the Verdun sector began the French left was +resting on the centers of Brabant, Consenvoye, Haumont, and Caures +Wood, their first position. The second was marked by a line passing +through Samogneux, Hill 344, and Mormont Farm. + +The French center included the Bois de la Ville, Herbebois, and Ornes, +with the woods of Beaumont, La Wavrille, Les Fosses, Le Chaume, and +Les Caurieres as the second position. + +[Illustration: The Forts At Verdun.] + +The French right included Maucourt, Mogeville, the Haytes-Charrieres +Wood, and Fromezey, with a second position covering Bezonvaux, +Grand-Chena, and Dieppe. Back of these positions the line of forts +was distinguished by the village of Bras, Douaumont, Hardaumont, the +fort of Vaux, La Lauree, and Eix. Between this line of forts and the +second position an intermediate position on the reverse side of the +slope had been begun from Douaumont to Louvemont, on the Poivre and +Talou Hills, but at the time of the opening assault the work had not +made much progress. + +The Germans prepared for the offensive with the most exhaustive +labors, and as far as it was humanly possible left nothing to chance. +Roads were made through the woods and up the slopes, firm foundations +were laid down, and the heavy guns were dragged to elevated positions. +As the result of these weeks of herculean toil there were massed +against the selected sector over a thousand guns brought from every +quarter--Serbia, Russia, and the west front. The proportion of heavy +guns was much larger than had ever been employed in preparing attacks +of this kind. + +Toward the close of December, 1915, the Germans received strong +reenforcements, the first to arrive being three divisions which had +fought in the campaign against Serbia. From other fronts also they +flowed in, and the two corps which had held the Vauquois-Etain sector +was increased to seven. Some of the finest German troops were included +in these armies, such as the Third Brandenburg Corps and the Fifteenth +Corps. It was evident that the Germans counted on the battle of Verdun +to decide the fighting in France, for just before the offensive began +General Daimling addressed his troops in these words: "In this _last_ +offensive against France I hope that the Fifteenth Corps will +distinguish itself as it has ever done by its courage and its +fortitude." + +Starting from the north of Varennes the German order of battle on the +day of attack was as follows: On the extreme right were the Seventh +Reserve Corps, comprising the Second Landwehr Division, the Eleventh +Reserve Division (later relieved by the Twenty-second Reserve +Division), and the Twelfth Reserve Division in the order given. +Northeast of Verdun, and facing the French lines, were the Fourteenth +Division and the Seventh Reserve Corps, with the Eleventh Bavarian +Reserve Division in support. To the left of these armies was a central +force, comprising the Eighteenth Corps, the Third Corps, the Fifteenth +Corps, and the Bavarian Ersatz Division in the order named. + +It was estimated by a competent French military authority that the +Germans had under arms in this sector up to the 16th of March a grand +total of 440,000 men, of which 320,000 were infantry. When the battle +opened, the Germans were at least three times as strong in numbers as +their opponent. + +Before the date fixed for the great offensive the Germans undertook +many local attacks on the French front with a view to deceiving their +antagonists as to their real objective. In Artois, Champagne, and the +Argonne Forest there was some strenuous mine fighting, and at Frise in +Santerre the Germans gained some ground only to lose it a little +later. + +A bombarding squadron of Zeppelins which the Germans sent out along +the Verdun front to cut railway communications fared badly. The French +antiaircraft guns brought down a number of Fokkers and a Zeppelin in +flames at Revigny, but the raiders succeeded in cutting the Ste. +Menehould line, leaving only a narrow-gauge road to supply Verdun. + +At 4.15 in the morning of February 21, 1916, the great battle began, +the German guns deluging the sector with shells of every caliber that +smashed and tore the French positions and surroundings until the very +face of nature was distorted. French trench shelters vanished and in +Caures Wood and La Ville Wood men were buried in the dugouts or blown +to fragments. Telephone lines having been cut, communication could +only be maintained by runners. News of the great destruction wrought +by the German guns, far from depressing the French fighting units, had +a stimulating effect. The French front lines crumbled away under the +deluge of fire, but their occupants still clung tenaciously to the +debris that remained. The German guns were everywhere, and it was +useless for French aerial observers to indicate any special batteries +for bombardment. The Germans had the greater number of guns and the +heavier, but the French artillery was better served on the whole, and +there was less reckless expenditure of ammunition. As an illustration +of the brilliant work of the French artillery, an eyewitness has +described the defense of a position southeast of Haumont Wood. Here +one battery was divided into flanking guns in three positions--one to +the southeast of Haumont Wood, a second to the south, and a third to +the north of Samogneux. The two other batteries were to the south of +Hill 312; there was also a supporting battery of six 90-mm. guns. In +response to the German attack the French replied with a curtain of +fire, but, unchecked by the fearful loss of life, they began to swarm +in from all sides. + +"They reached Caures Wood by the crests between Haumont Wood and +Caures Wood itself, and advanced like a flood on our positions. The +section which attempted to hold them back adjusted its range to their +rate of progress and mowed them down wave after wave. Swept by the +storm of shells, the Germans continued to advance and some succeeded +in making their way around to the rear of the guns. The French by this +time had come to the end of their ammunition, but they did not lose +their head, and, destroying their pieces, retreated, bringing a +wounded sergeant major along with them." + +A battery of 90's on the Haumont knoll was forced to stop firing. +Pierrard, an adjutant whose battery had ceased to exist, was +dispatched by the commander to help. + +"Pierrard collected his companions and attached himself to the +battery, which opened fire again with tremendous effect. Those guns +were in action under him for forty-eight hours, during which he kept +up constant communication with the group commander, the burden of his +song being an incessant demand for ammunition for this truly epic duel +with the Germans. + +"Unfortunately it was impossible to get supplies up. The Germans were +so near that Pierrard and his men used their rifles against them; +then, finding the position untenable, they blew up their guns and +retired." It was during this retreat that the gallant Pierrard was +killed. + +The indomitable courage of the French gunners in this great battle is +described in another instance by a French officer who was present: + +"A certain battery was being terribly shelled. A 305-mm. shell burst +and killed the captain, the adjutant, a sergeant major and five +gunners. Do you think that the others stopped? Not at all; they took +off their coats and, working in their shirt sleeves, increased their +efforts to intensify the curtain of fire and to avenge their leaders +and comrades." + +The defense of Caures Wood by Lieutenant Colonel Driant's chasseurs +was one of the most brilliant and dramatic incidents in the battle of +Verdun. The deluge of German shells had destroyed the deepest French +dugouts, and before noon their stronghold had been smashed in, burying +an officer and fourteen men beneath the debris. The bombardment +continued until the French defenders were left without a single +shelter worthy of the name. When the Germans began to attack Haumont, +their front-line skirmishers, to create confusion, wore caps that +imitated the French, and were also provided with Red Cross brassards. +The attempted deception was soon discovered, and the Germans were +forced to pay heavily for the trick. In spite of great losses the +Germans continued to advance, succeeded in gaining a foothold in the +French first-line trenches, and held on. Throughout the night there +were many counterattacks and constant grenade fighting, but the French +maintained their positions. + +On the second day of the assault the Germans resumed their terrific +bombardment. Trenches were obliterated, and portions of the forest +were swept away. About noon a large body of German troops attacked +French positions in Caures Wood, trying to turn their flanks from two +sides, Haumont and La Ville Wood. The French fought with desperate +energy, but the Germans had one gun that raked their chief position, +and the iron ring of the enemy gradually contracted. To attempt to +defend the position longer in the face of such conditions would mean +death or captivity and reluctantly the French commanding officer, +Lieutenant Colonel Driant, gave the order to retire. Driant waited to +see the last of his men through the wood. He was never heard of again. + +The retiring column, leaving the shelter of the wood, encountered +heavy machine-gun fire, and, greatly depleted in numbers, finally +gained the first line of the second position at Beaumont. + +No attempt was made by the Germans to advance on the Woevre front. In +the territory of Soumazannes, La Ville Wood, and Herbebois the French +firmly maintained the supporting line. + +The tactics pursued by the Germans during the first days of the battle +of Verdun were ably considered and not lacking in thoroughness. Their +favorite method was to break into defensive sectors with heavy +artillery, and then completely surround them by barrage fire. After +the destructive work of the guns they sent forward a scouting party of +a dozen or fifteen men to report on the extent of the damage. +Following them came bombers and pioneers, and then a strong body of +infantry. Theoretically, this system had merit, but it did not always +work out as perfectly as the German strategists had planned. Their +artillery fire often failed to win the ground and make it safe for +their infantry to advance and occupy it. The French artillery +endeavored to isolate the attacks, should they succeed in reaching the +French lines, and their fearless infantry by vigorous counterattacks +prevented the Germans from making any important advance. + +The fighting for Haumont was continued on February 22, 1916. The +strong resistance the French had offered to the furious attacks of the +German infantry may be called a failure. But they succeeded in holding +back the Germans until their reserves had time to reach the scene and +prepare a new defensive line. + +Early in the morning of the 22d the Germans had increased their +bombardment. Shells of the largest caliber fell, uprooting trees and +demolishing houses. + +When the Germans attacked Consenvoye Wood with flame projectors and +advanced toward the western edge of Haumont Wood, the French could not +move out of the village, so dense was the curtain of fire around them. + +Braving this blasting storm, troops of the Haumont garrison occupied +the half-ruined works on both sides and in front of the place, while +the southern exit was held by some reserves that had reached the +scene. + +Haumont and the ravine to the south were flooded with German shells of +the largest caliber. Early in the afternoon they were falling at the +rate of twenty a minute. The French held on undismayed. The village +crumbled into a mass of debris. The principal French defense, a +redoubt of concrete, was smashed, and some eighty men were buried in +the ruins. A number of machine guns were also lost, and the ammunition +dump was destroyed. + +About 5 o'clock in the evening a German battalion attacked Haumont, +advancing in three columns. The remnant of French troops manned the +trenches. The few remaining machine guns were brought into action and, +being well served, wrought havoc in the enemy's ranks, but the deadly +advance continued, regardless of the heavy losses incurred. + +The French then assembled every survivor in some trenches southeast of +Haumont, and with three machine guns continued the fight. But the +Germans had the advantage of numbers. They penetrated to the center of +the village, and finally surrounded the French battalion headquarters. + +After premises were fired by means of flame projectors, the French +colonel and his staff, facing capture or death, were fortunate in +escaping through the German machine-gun barrage without a single +casualty. They had been forced to evacuate Haumont, but their +sustained and splendid defense of the place was one of the bravest +deeds that marked the Homeric struggle at Verdun. + +At the close of the day the French still held the greater part of +Herbebois and Wavrille, but La Ville Wood was in the hands of the +enemy. The French line now ran by Hill 240, the Mormont Farm, and the +intermediate position of Samogneux-Brabant. Their defensive works and +trenches having been destroyed or made useless, the French had no +cover. Fighting must now be carried on in the open. Often the French +artillery fired at point-blank range regardless of their own +sacrifices so long as they could mow down the enemy. + +[Illustration: Fighting at Verdun up to March 1, 1916.] + +Brabant was evacuated by the French during the night of February 22, +1916. At Samogneux, owing to the intensity of the German fire, they +remained on the defensive. Several counterattacks to the east were +carried out which greatly improved the French positions. + +In the Wavrille sector the French had succeeded during the night in +connecting their new line with the Herbebois sector, though +incessantly bombarded. Wavrille Wood and Hill 351 must be protected, +for their capture would enable the Germans to sweep the Beaumont-Hill +344 line. + +After repeated attacks the Germans captured Wavrille Wood, where they +were kept hemmed in by the French barrage and unable to proceed. +Fighting in the Herbebois sector had raged throughout the day, and +during the night the French were forced to withdraw. + +When February 24, 1916, dawned the French line ran by Beaumont, the +northern edge of the Bois des Fosses, and covered La Chaume Wood. The +Germans continued to bombard the Woevre front, but did not attempt to +attack as the French artillery held them to their trenches. + +During the day the Germans, who had been hemmed in at Samogneux, after +repeated struggles to debouch from that place, succeeded when night +came in capturing Hill 304. + +From the southern edge of Caures Wood the Germans slowly advanced +through the heavily timbered ravines up the slopes of Anglemont Hill. +On the side of Fosses Wood they bombarded French positions all the +morning of February 24, 1916. East of Rappe Wood and to the north of +Wavrille Wood they assembled strong forces. Two French battalions +succeeded in carrying part of the wood, and were then held up by +machine-gun fire. Fosses Wood and Beaumont were deluged by German +shells of every caliber. An infantry attack gave the Germans the +southern edge of Wavrille Wood, where the French clung tenaciously. +Fosses Wood, then Beaumont, were captured, then La Chaume Wood. The +French situation had become serious. At 2.20 in the afternoon a large +force of Germans advanced between Louvemont and Hill 347, and though +the French made desperate efforts to stay the advancing waves, Les +Chambrettes, Beaumont, and Fosses and Caures Woods were occupied by +the enemy. + +[Illustration: General Joffre conferring with General Petain near +Verdun, where General Petain's forces meet the assaults of the armies +of the Crown Prince in the battle for the fortress.] + + + + +PART IV--THE WAR AT SEA + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +NAVAL SITUATION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND YEAR--SUBMARINE +EXPLOITS + + +Naval events such as the world had never known were believed to be +impending at the beginning of the war's second year. With the land +forces of the belligerents in a fierce deadlock, it seemed that a +decision must come upon the sea. Assuredly the Allies were willing, +and Germany had accomplished things in her shipyards that for sheer +determination and efficiency developed to the last degree, were +comparable to her finest deeds of arms. None doubted that she longed +with a grim hope for such a meeting. Helgoland and the newly enlarged +Kiel Canal were hives where an intensive industry kept every man and +vessel fit. And the navy grew while it waited. + +It was not the work of a day, though, nor of a generation, to match +the sea power that Great Britain had spent centuries in building. Try +as she would, strain men, ordnance plants, and shipyards to the +breaking point, Germany could not catch up with her great rival. The +first half of the new year saw no matching of the grand fleets. It did +produce a few gallant combats, and was marked by a melancholy +succession of German submarine attacks on defenseless craft. The +sacrifice of lives among neutrals and the Allies cast a pall upon the +world. + +Naval losses up to August 1, 1915, had been considerable on both sides +without crippling any one of the belligerents. No sooner was a +warship sunk than there were two to replace it. Every country engaged +took effective steps to preserve such maritime power as it had, and +Great Britain worked harder than any of the others, for her existence +depended upon it. + +The first year of the conflict cost England thirty-two fighting craft, +great and small. France lost thirteen, Russia five, Japan three, a +total of fifty-three. The combined tonnage was 297,178. To +counterbalance this Germany lost sixty-seven war vessels, Turkey five +and Austria four, the seventy-six ships having an aggregate tonnage of +206,100. The difference of 91,078 gross tons in favor of Germany and +her partners in war was offset by the number of fast German cruisers +which fell victims to the Allies, and by the numerical inferiority of +the Central Powers' combined fleets. + +On August 1, 1915, the naval situation was identical with that of +August 1, 1914. Great Britain, aided materially by France, and her +other allies, in a lesser degree, stood ready to do battle with the +Teuton sea forces whenever opportunity offered. She had won every +important engagement with the exception of the clash off the coast of +Chile, and could look calmly forward, despite the gnawing of German +submarines at her commerce. With every gun and man primed for the +fight, with the greatest collection of armed vessels ever known lying +at ports, merely awaiting the word, she felt supremely ready. + +The lives of 1,550 persons were lost during the first year of the war +through the sinking of merchant ships, nearly all of which were +torpedoed. This applied to vessels of the Allies alone, twenty-two +persons having been lost with neutral ships. The total of tonnage +destroyed between February 18, 1915, when the German edict against +commercial vessels went into effect, and August 1, 1915, was 450,000 +tons, including 152 steamships of more than 500 tons each. This was +the heaviest loss ever inflicted on the shipping of the world by any +war. But it did not seriously cripple the commerce of either France or +England, Germany's two major opponents. Their vessels continued to +sail the seven seas, bringing the products of every land to their aid, +while Germany and her allies were effectually cut off from practically +all resources except their own. Switzerland and Sweden were the main +dependence of Germany for contraband, and the activities of the former +were considerably restricted when the Entente Allies really settled +down to a blockade of Germany. Austria and impoverished Turkey had no +friends to draw upon, but must fight their battles alone except for +such assistance as Germany could lend, which did not extend beyond the +actual material of war--guns, shells and bullets. + +The submarine was Germany's best weapon. She outmatched the Allies on +land, but in such a small degree that her most brilliant effort could +not win a decisive victory. Meanwhile her opponents grew stronger in +an economic way, while the situation in Germany became more strained. +By issuing a constantly increasing volume of bank notes against an +almost stationary gold reserve she depreciated the value of her mark +at home and abroad. In the face of this tangled situation her +submarines rendered incalculable aid, destroying and menacing allied +commerce. Without them Germany would have been helpless upon the sea, +would have ceased to exist as a maritime power. Her first-line ships +lay securely in their harbors, unable to venture forth and match the +longer-ranged, heavier-gunned vessels of the British, ably +supplemented by the French fleet. + +Just how many submarines Germany possessed at the beginning of the war +cannot be stated. The number probably was in the neighborhood of +fifty. That she has lost many of these vessels and built even a larger +number is certain. As the conflict grew older Great Britain in +particular learned a method of combating them. It was estimated that +on August 1, 1915, she had 2,300 small craft specially fitted for +running down submarines. Private yachts, trawlers, power boats, +destroyers, and torpedo boats hunted night and day for the elusive +undersea boats of her enemy. The pleasure and fishing craft which had +been impressed into service were equipped with all sorts of guns, some +of them very old ones, but thoroughly capable of sinking a submarine. +These vessels patrolled the British coast with a zeal that cost +Germany dear. Some authorities believed that up to August 1, 1915, +upward of fifty German submarines had been sunk and more than a dozen +captured. The numbers probably are excessive, but if they had disposed +of even twenty-five undersea boats the effort was a distinct success. + +In addition to this means of defense Great Britain embarked upon +another undertaking that truly was gigantic in its extent and the +difficulties imposed. She stretched wire nets for many miles under the +surface of the waters washing her shores. The regular channel routes +were thus guarded. Once within such a net there was no escape for the +submarine. The wire meshes fouled their propellers or became entwined +around the vessels in a way that rendered them helpless. The commander +must either come to the surface and surrender or end the career of +himself and crew beneath the waves. A number of submarines were +brought to the surface with their crews dead by their own hands. +Others were captured, and it is said that about twenty of these +vessels have been commissioned in the British navy. + +The hazardous character of the work in which the submarine engaged and +the success of British defensive measures undoubtedly made it +difficult for Germany to man her new undersea craft. Special training +is essential for both crew and officers, and men of particularly +robust constitution are required. There have been reports that men +assigned to the German submarines regarded their selection as a +practical death warrant. Despite the fine courage of German sailors as +evidenced in this war, word filtered through the censorship that it +was becoming difficult for Germany to secure men for her submarines. + +But the venturesome spirit of many German submarine commanders knew no +bounds. Previous to the period under consideration at least one +submarine had made its way from a German base to the Dardanelles, +establishing a record for craft of this sort that had seemed +impossible up to that time. During August other submarines made the +same trip without any untoward event. The Allies knew full well that +reenforcements were being sent to the Mediterranean, but seemed unable +to prevent the plan's success. This inability was to result in serious +losses to both the allied navies and their merchant shipping. + +The first event during the month of August, 1915, that bore any naval +significance was the sinking of the British destroyer _Lynx_ on August +9, 1915, in the North Sea. She struck a mine and foundered within a +few minutes. Four officers and twenty-two men out of a complement in +the neighborhood of 100 were saved. The vicinity had been swept only a +day or two before for mines and it was believed that a German undersea +boat had strewn new mines which caused the loss. + +Another British war vessel was sunk the next day. The auxiliary +cruiser _India_ fell prey to a submarine while entering the roads at +Restfjord, Sweden, on the steamship lane between England and +Archangel, Russia's northernmost port. Eighty of the crew, estimated +at more than 300 men, were saved by Swedish craft. The attack came +without warning and furnished another illustration of the submarine's +deadly effectiveness under certain conditions. The _India_, a +Peninsular and Oriental liner before the war, was well known to many +travelers. Built in 1896, she had a registry of 7,900 tons, and was in +the eastern service for a number of years. + +After many months of idleness a clash came in the North Sea on August +12, 1915. The _Ramsay_, a small patrol vessel, met and engaged the +German auxiliary _Meteor_. Although outmatched, the British ship +closed with her foe and kept up the fight for an hour. The cannonade +attracted a flotilla of cruisers, which came up too late to save the +_Ramsay_, but which did succeed in cutting off the _Meteor_. + +Four officers and thirty-nine members of the crew were picked up by +the Germans when their antagonist went down and these, together with +the crew of the _Meteor_, took to the German's boats when her +commander saw that escape was impossible. He blew up his ship and by a +combination of pluck, good seamanship, and a favorable fortune managed +to elude the cordon of British cruisers, reaching the German shore +with his prisoners. The total crew of the _Ramsay_ was slightly more +than 100 men. + +Two successful attacks in four days on British war vessels, and the +loss of a third by a mine, stirred official circles, and demand was +made in the papers that redoubled precautions be taken. It was +believed that the adventure of the _Meteor_ into hostile waters +heralded further activity by the German fleet, but the days passed +without incident, and the British naval forces settled down to the old +routine of watching and waiting. + +While these events were transpiring in the North Sea the British had +not been idle elsewhere. From the beginning of operations in the +Dardanelles attempts had been made to penetrate the Bosphorus and sink +one of the Turk's capital ships. A number of sailing vessels and one +or two transports had been sunk by British submarines in that sea, but +efforts to locate the larger warships of the enemy failed until August +9, 1915. On that day the _Kheyr-ed Din Barbarossa_, a battleship of +9,900 tons and a complement of 600 men, was sent to the bottom. The +attack took place within the Golden Horn, at Constantinople, and the +event spread consternation in the Turkish capital. It was the first +time on record that a hostile warship had penetrated the land-locked +waters of the Ottoman city, so favored by nature that attack had +seemed impossible there. + +The _Barbarossa_, although an ancient ship as war vessels are rated, +carried four 12-inch guns and was a formidable fighting craft, having +been overhauled by German engineers about a year before the war +started. Along with the _Goeben_ and _Breslau_, which took refuge at +Constantinople on the outbreak of hostilities, and were "sold" to +Turkey, she constituted the Turk's chief naval arm. + +News of the feat was received with enthusiasm in England, coming as +the initial achievement of the sort by a British submarine. It helped +salve the wounds to British pride, made by repeated disasters through +the medium of German undersea boats. The event was one of the few +bright episodes from an Ally standpoint in the campaign to capture +Constantinople, and was taken to mean that a new tide had set in for +the attackers. It did serve to clear the Sea of Marmora of Turkish +shipping, and supplies for the beleaguered forces at the tip of +Gallipoli Peninsula were henceforth carried by a single track railway +or transport. It also inspired a healthy respect among the Turks for +enemy submarines. + +A few days later, August 16, 1915, another German submarine was to set +a new record. Early in the morning of that day the towns of +Whitehaven, Parton, and Harrington, on the western coast of England, +were aroused in succession by the boom of guns and the falling of +shells in their streets. It was believed for a few frenzied moments +that the German fleet had come. But merely one lone submarine had made +the attack. This was enough to cause considerable alarm, particularly +when it was seen that a gas plant at Whitehaven had caught fire. There +were other fires in the same town and at Harrington, none of which did +much damage. + +Once more the undersea boat of the enemy had scored. Not since 1778 +had the towns smelled hostile powder. In that year John Paul Jones +surprised the guards at Whitehaven during the night, spiked the guns +of its defenses, and prepared to burn a number of ships at anchor +there. The arrival of reenforcements frustrated this plan and the +American seamen were recalled to their vessels. Whitehaven never +forgot, and now it has a new chapter in its martial record. + +The Turks were soon to have their revenge for the loss of the +_Barbarossa_ through the medium of a German submarine which, after +more than a year of war, accomplished one of the cherished plans of +the Germans--the sinking of a British troop ship. On August 17, 1915, +the _Royal Edward_, registering 11,117 tons, was hit and sunk in the +Aegean Sea. There were thirty-two officers and 1,350 troops aboard, in +addition to 220 officers and men of the ship's company. One thousand +were lost. + +The blow was a hard one, coming after the efforts of the British navy +to protect the country's fighting men. It emphasized the new activity +by German submarines in the Mediterranean. No one believed for a +moment that Austria had ventured upon such an extensive campaign as +recent events pointed to. In addition to the one German submarine +known to have reached the Dardanelles via Gibraltar, it had been +reported that others were being brought overland to Pola and the parts +assembled there. + +A good deal of mystery surrounds an engagement off the west coast of +Jutland on this same August 17th. Berlin announced that a fight began +at 2 o'clock in the afternoon between five German torpedo boats and a +light British cruiser and eight destroyers. It was alleged that the +cruiser and one destroyer foundered, without any loss to the German +force. + +The British Admiralty was vague in its report of the encounter, saying +that the British ships were mine-sweepers, of which one failed to +return. Like many other incidents of the war at sea, the real facts +cannot now be established. But there is no doubt that a clash did take +place, and the German report was the more circumstantial. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE SINKING OF THE ARABIC--BRITISH SUBMARINE SUCCESSES + + +While the diplomats were laboring with questions arising from the loss +of the _Lusitania_, at a moment when tension between the United States +and Germany was acute, came the sinking of the _Arabic_, on August 19, +1915, with the death of two Americans and thirty-odd British citizens +out of 391 persons aboard. The attack took place near Fastnet Light, +not far distant from the spot where the _Lusitania_ was sunk. Like the +latter ship the _Arabic_ was struck without warning, two torpedoes +penetrating her side. She was a vessel of 15,801 tons and, although in +service for a number of years, was rated as one of the first-class +Atlantic liners. Previous to the attack she had been chased on several +occasions by undersea craft, but had always managed to elude them. + +The outcry that followed this event in the United States gave the +situation as regarded Germany a graver aspect than before. She had +been warned that this country would hold her to strict accountability +for the lives of its citizens. Berlin, asked if a submarine sank the +vessel, followed by immediate disclaimers of any belligerent intent. +It was alleged that a German submarine had been in the act of +attacking another British vessel when the _Arabic_ hove into view and +attempted to ram the submarine. In defense the latter's captain sank +the liner, Berlin explained. + +This theory was not in the least acceptable to the United States. +Captain Finch of the _Arabic_ and other persons aboard had seen the +attack on the second ship, and the _Arabic_ attempted to flee but was +overhauled and torpedoed. The facts were attested to by such a number +of persons that there could be little doubt of their correctness. But +despite this and Germany's oft-repeated assurances of respect for +American lives, nothing of a positive character was done by the United +States. Negotiations dragged out to a wearisome length and the +submarines continued to take their almost daily toll from neutrals and +belligerents alike. + +The British submarine _E-7_ was sunk by a Turkish land battery in the +Sea of Marmora on September 4, 1915, thirty-two men being lost. She +was the first undersea boat of the Allies to meet that fate in the +Dardanelles operations. + +The combination of care and luck that had kept British transports +inviolate for more than a year, which ended with the sinking of the +_Royal Edward_, was to be reversed during the coming months when +German submarines inflicted heavy losses on this class of ships. The +Mediterranean proved to be the grave of several thousand men lost in +this manner. The _Ramazan_, of 3,477 tons, bringing native troops from +India, was torpedoed and sunk on September 19, 1915, in the Aegean Sea. +Out of about 1,000 men on board some 300 were landed at Malta. The +levy which she had aboard consisted of Sikhs and Gurkhas. The sea was +new to these men, drawn from interior provinces, and they had embarked +upon their first voyage with all the misgivings which usually +accompany that experience. The panic among them when the _Ramazan_ was +hit may well be imagined. Hints of it crept into the British press, +but it was said that after a few wild minutes the officers got their +men in hand and all died together with true British fortitude. + +One of the few announcements made by Germany concerning lost +submarines was given out on September 27, 1915, whether for diplomatic +reasons or otherwise it would be difficult to say. The _U-27_, it was +said, had not been heard from since August 10, 1915, and was deemed to +have been sunk or captured. Berlin concluded with the observation that +the _U-27_ might have been destroyed after sinking the _Arabic_, +inasmuch as none of her commanders had reported the torpedoing of the +liner up to that date. It was Germany's plea at the time that she knew +nothing officially of the _Arabic's_ loss. The disappearance of the +_U-27_, a new and fast submarine having seventeen knots speed on the +surface, therefore, was a matter of diplomatic importance. The puzzle +never was answered. + +For some unexplained reason Great Britain never resorted to submarine +attacks upon German shipping in the Baltic Sea until the fall of 1915. +While her own vessels were being sunk she spared those of her enemy, +either because the navy had not been prepared to undertake an +expedition into the Baltic, or because it had been looked upon as a +small issue in the face of graver problems. This situation was changed +by the German threat against Riga, Russia's important Baltic port, +following the fall of Libau and the progress of German troops in +Courland within cannon range almost of Riga. + +It was determined to send a squadron of submarines into the Baltic as +a means of assisting Russia and for the purpose of stopping supplies +being sent to Germany from Sweden. Commanders of the undersea boats +were specifically directed to see that all passengers and crews were +taken off merchant ships before they were sunk. These orders were +carried out in detail, not a single noncombatant having lost his life +as a result of the operations that ensued. + +The _E-13_, with several other submarines, was bound for the Baltic +when she ran aground. This was in Danish waters off the island of +Saltholm, between Copenhagen and Malmoe. She struck early in the +morning and all efforts to gain open water failed. At five a. m. a +Danish torpedo boat appeared and informed the commander that +twenty-four hours would be given him to leave the three-mile zone. +Shortly afterward a German destroyer came up and remained close by +until two additional Danish torpedo boats reached the scene. The +German withdrew, but reappeared about nine o'clock, accompanied by a +second destroyer. The three Danish boats were close at hand, but +neither they nor the British crew had an inkling of what was to +follow. + +One of the German destroyers hoisted a signal, but this was pulled +down so quickly that the _E-13's_ commander failed to read it. The +German then fired a torpedo at the helpless craft, which struck the +bottom near by without doing any damage. This was followed with a +broadside from every gun that could be brought to bear. + +Realizing that escape was impossible the British commander gave orders +to abandon the ship and blow her up. When such of his men as were +still on their feet tumbled over the side, the Germans turned machine +guns and shrapnel upon them. A dozen men were killed or wounded before +a Danish boat of the trio on hand steamed into the line of fire and +stopped the slaughter. Both of the German destroyers retired. + +This attack inflamed England from end to end. It was pointed out how +British sailormen so frequently had risked their lives to rescue +Germans in distress, and demand was made for reprisals. No direct +steps were taken toward that end, but the German navy soon was to +suffer losses from the companion boats of the _E-13_, which had +reached the Baltic safely. + +Hard on the heels of the _E-13_ incident came formal complaint from +Germany that the British had pushed overboard survivors from a German +submarine sunk by a trawler. Men aboard the transport _Narcosian_ gave +the first news of this affair on reaching New Orleans after a trip +from England. They said that while the _U-27_ was parleying with the +_Narcosian_, preparatory to sinking her, an armed trawler came to +their aid and rammed the _U-27_, which sunk almost at once. Several of +the German sailors swam to the trawler and climbed over her sides. +They were thrown back and drowned, according to the _Narcosian_ crew's +testimony. + +Representations upon this subject were made to Washington by the +German authorities, without any expectation that the United States +would take action, but merely to serve as a record and basis for +future action. The German press cried for revenge, and it was not long +until the Government itself talked broadly of similar treatment for +British prisoners. Great Britain suggested that a board of American +naval officers hear evidence in the case and render a decision, +providing that Germany would defend charges of a similar character. +From fighting, the two principal combatants had fallen to quarreling. +Germany refused the challenge and nothing came of the matter. + +A large German torpedo boat was run down and cut in two by a German +ferryboat on October 15, 1915, not far from Trelleborg, Sweden. Both +vessels were running with all lights out when the accident took place. +Five men were saved and forty drowned. + +The first fruits of the undertaking to clear the Baltic of German +shipping and interfere with the operations against Riga was the +sinking on October 24, 1915, of the _Prinz Adalbert_, an armored +cruiser of 8,858 tons. Of 575 men aboard less than 100 were saved. She +was the first big German warship to be blown up by a torpedo. True, +the _Bluecher_ was so disposed of during the Dogger Bank fight, +mentioned in another volume, but she already had been disabled. + +The submarine that ended the _Prinz Adalbert's_ career never was +identified, but she did her work well. Berlin announced that two +torpedoes struck the cruiser, both taking effect, and that she sunk in +a few minutes. The attack was made near Libau, according to the German +statement. + +The British cruiser _Argyll_ stranded off the Scottish coast on +October 28, 1915, and broke up a few days later. The mishap occurred +during a storm, and all of her crew were rescued by other vessels. She +was of 10,850 tons burden, and carried a heavy armament. This same day +the _Hythe_, an auxiliary vessel, was sunk in a collision near +Gallipoli Peninsula, with a loss of twenty lives. + +Turkish gunners destroyed the French submarine _Turquoise_ in the +Dardanelles on November 1, 1915. Her crew of thirty odd men were +killed or drowned. The incident took place at the narrowest point of +the passage into the Sea of Marmora. + +November proved to be a bad month for the kaiser's naval forces. +During the first week the _U-8_ was lost in the North Sea. Berlin +reported that the vessel had stranded. Whether this version was +correct cannot be learned, the British policy of concealing submarine +captures, in order to befog Berlin, cutting off information from that +source. + +This month also cost the British several ships. Torpedo boat _No. 96_ +collided with another vessel near Gibraltar on November 2, 1915, and +sank before all of her crew could escape, eleven men being drowned. +The fifth of the month witnessed a successful attack by an enemy +submarine upon the armed merchantman _Tara_ of the British navy. She +was a vessel of 6,322 tons and carried from four to five hundred men, +of whom thirty-four lost their lives. The sinking of the _Tara_, +coupled with numerous attacks on merchant ships, proved that the +undersea fleet of Germany in the Mediterranean was becoming +formidable. Then began a painstaking search of the many small islands +off the Greek, Italian, and Turkish coasts for submarine bases. +Several were discovered and destroyed. A number of submarines also +were caught or sunk in the Mediterranean. + +The _Undine_, a German cruiser having 2,636 tons registry, and a crew +of 275 men, was torpedoed in the Baltic November 7, 1915. She had been +convoying a fleet of merchant ships coming from Sweden when a British +submarine cut short her days. Nearly all of the crew were lost. + +Germany now began to feel the pinch of undersea warfare. Sweden, most +friendly of neutral powers on the European continent, and a source of +endless supplies, was almost isolated from the Baltic side by the half +dozen British submarines in that sea. Unlike the British, the Germans +deemed it better to keep their vessels in port than risk destruction, +even in the face of conditions that approached starvation for the +poor. The string of vessels that had been bringing native Swedish +products to Germany, and others from the United States and elsewhere, +transshipped by the Swedes, were kept idle. + +Search for the submarines that imperiled their last water link with +the outside world went zealously on. A number of small, fast patrol +boats and cruisers were assigned to the task. Thus it was that the +_Frauenlob_, a cruiser of 2,672 tons and some 300 men, came within the +range of a British submarine off the Baltic coast of Sweden on +November 7, 1915. She blew up and plunged to the bottom after a single +torpedo had been fired. Practically every man aboard was lost. + +As may be well imagined these achievements of her own undersea boats +filled England with pride. It was almost a joy, except for the loss of +life, to see Germany suffer at a business in which she had caused such +distress to others. And the Empire was suffering acutely from the +suspension of connections with Sweden, as evidenced by the greater +haste to run down the elusive submarines that dogged her navy. More +vessels were assigned to the hunt. Every mile of shore line within the +German reach was searched for a possible base and the vessels in the +hunt kept a lookout on all sides for the telltale periscope. + +The British lost another destroyer on November 9, 1915, during a storm +in the Mediterranean, a half dozen men being saved. And the Turks +accounted for a submarine on the 13th, when the _E-20_ was sunk by +land fire in the Sea of Marmora. Although Turkish craft had been +compelled to forego trips in those waters they proved to be most +unfriendly for allied submarines. With experience on the part of the +Turks came less respect for the undersea boats, a number of which were +hit by land batteries during the operations there. + +Naval operations continued in this way without notable incident until +December 18, 1915. Then the cruiser _Bremen_ joined the other German +war vessels that had been sunk in the Baltic search. She registered +2,672 tons, and had about 300 men aboard. The attack took place near +the Swedish coast, and created such a sensation that the Swedes became +convinced the British had a submarine rendezvous on their shores, and +took a hand in the hunt. No evidence of a base could be found. + +By this time German shipping had practically disappeared from the +Baltic and it never reappeared. The British tactics fully served +their purpose in this direction. And the few submarines rendered +effective aid in the defense of Riga, helping the Russians stem what +promised to be a dangerous onslaught. It would not be too much to say +that the arrival of the little fleet of undersea boats was a turning +point in the German drive along the Baltic, which overwhelmed Libau. +The Russian line stiffened before Riga with the aid of the navy and +the submarines. Riga was saved, perhaps Petrograd, which it guarded. + +There was a considerable loss of life on December 28, 1915, when the +_Ville de la Ciotat_, a French channel steamer, became the mark of a +torpedo. Seventy-nine of her passengers and crew were drowned, the +survivors suffering severely from bad weather in open boats before +they reached land. A number of them afterward died of pneumonia. + +The final tragedy of the year at sea took place on December 30, 1915, +shortly after one o'clock in the afternoon at a point 300 miles +northwest of Alexandria, Egypt, where the Peninsular and Oriental +liner _Persia_ was torpedoed. Like so many ships that had gone before +she sank immediately. Out of 241 passengers aboard only fifty-nine +were saved, while ninety-four men in a crew of 159 reached shore. This +aroused some criticism, but there was no evidence to show that the +crew had taken advantage of those intrusted to their protection. + +No one saw the submarine that sank the _Persia_. She undoubtedly was +torpedoed, as it was scarcely reasonable that a stray mine had floated +to such an unfrequented spot. One American citizen, Robert Ney +McNeely, appointed consul to Aden, Egypt, lost his life. He was en +route to his post at the time and the United States Government found +itself facing another serious situation. Here was an American +official, bound on official business, killed by a friendly nation. +There the problem became more complex. It could not be proved to whom +the submarine belonged that attacked the ship; it could not even be +shown that she had been torpedoed. Germany flatly denied any hand in +the affair and Austria, after delay for reports from her submarines +commanders, likewise disclaimed responsibility. Official Washington +turned inquiring eyes upon Turkey. There were hints in the German +press that a Turkish boat torpedoed the vessel. Both Germany and +Austria had pledged themselves to respect the lives of noncombatants, +but Turkey, having never sank a passenger ship, was bound by no such +pledge. It even was hinted that Bulgaria might be the nation to blame. +She had entered hostilities on the side of the Teutonic Powers, and +was said to have at least one or two submarines. + +Amid this welter of excuses, explanations and possibilities the United +States Government floundered for several weeks. Then it gave up the +problem and ruled that Mr. McNeely should have asked for a warship if +he wanted to reach Aden and there was no other way to go. The _Persia_ +had several 4.7-inch guns aboard, which compromised her in the view of +Washington. + +According to the British Admiralty thirty-nine unarmed steamships and +one trawler flying the Union Jack were sunk without warning by +submarines up to the end of 1915. Thirteen neutral steamships and one +sailing vessel were listed under the same heading. Of these, the +_Gulflight_ and _Nebraskan_ were American. The Norwegians lost four +steamships and the sailing craft, the Swedes four, the Danes one, the +Greeks one, and the Portuguese one. It was stated that several vessels +believed to have been sunk by submarines, where proof was lacking, had +not been taken into account. + +Although this compilation included the _Lusitania_, the _Arabic_, and +other big vessels on which many lives were lost, the list seems of +small consequence in view of later raids upon allied and neutral +shipping by the German undersea boats. It was destined to reach an +ominous length in the succeeding months. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +CRUISE OF THE MOEWE--LOSS OF BRITISH BATTLESHIPS + + +The cruise of the _Moewe_ stands out as one of the heroic, almost +Homeric achievements of the war. She left Bremerhaven on December 20, +1915, according to one of her officers who afterward reached the +United States, and calmly threaded her way through the meshes of the +British navy's North Sea net. After leaving the shelter of home +waters, with the Swedish colors painted on her hull, the _Moewe_ +boldly turned her nose down the Channel. She answered the signals of +several British cruisers and on one occasion at least was saluted in +turn. Having a powerful wireless apparatus aboard, her commander, +Count zu Dohna-Schlobitten, a captain-lieutenant in the Imperial navy, +was able to keep up with the movements of British patrol vessels. +Several intercepted messages told of a strange white liner that +refused to answer questions. This was the _Moewe_, and before passing +into the Atlantic she had changed her coat to black. She was sighted +by probably a dozen British warships before reaching the North +Atlantic. By refusing to heed the signals of distant vessels, which +she had a good chance of outdistancing in a race, and showing every +courtesy to those close at hand, the raider made her escape. + +The _Moewe_ had about three hundred men aboard. They were a picked +crew, and her commander a man of daring. Within a period of less than +three months he sunk fifteen merchant ships, captured the _Appam_ and +sent her to Norfolk, Va., then returned home with 199 prisoners and +$250,000 in gold bars. And he may have been responsible for the loss +of the British battleship _King Edward VII_, of 16,500 tons, which +struck a mine in the North Sea on January 9, 1916. It is certain that +the _Moewe_ left a chain of mines behind her on the outward voyage, +some of which undoubtedly caused loss to allied shipping. + +Once past the British Channel fleet, the _Moewe_ struck for the +steamship lane off the Moroccan, Spanish, and Portuguese coasts. There +she was comparatively safe from pursuit, and so skillfully were her +operations carried on that it was many weeks before the fact became +known that a raider actually was abroad. But one by one overdue +steamships failed to reach their ports and suspicion grew. Either the +_Karlsruhe_ had returned to life as a plague upon allied shipping, an +able successor appeared, or a flotilla of giant submarines was at +large that could cruise almost any distance. Several vessels brought +tales to England of being chased by a phantom ship near the African +coast. But such stories had been repeated so many times without any +foundation that the British admiralty was in a quandary. To overlook +no clue, a flotilla of cruisers swept the seas under suspicion. They +came back empty handed. + +At dawn, February 1, 1916, a big steamship passed into Hampton Roads, +disregarding pilots and the signals of other craft. She hove to at an +isolated spot and waited for daylight. When the skies cleared the +German naval flag was seen floating at her prow. Newport News could +scarce believe the report. Then the city remembered the +_Kronprinzessin Cecile_ and the _Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse_, both of +which had stolen in under cover of night from a raiding career. + +But this was no raider. It was the _Appam_, a raider's victim. She had +sailed across the Atlantic from a point on the South African route, +held prisoner thirty-three days by a prize crew of twenty-two men and +one officer, Lieutenant Hans Berg, of the Imperial German Naval +Reserve. Aboard the _Appam_ were 156 officers and men, 116 of her own +passengers, 138 survivors of destroyed vessels, and twenty Germans who +had been en route to a prison camp in England when rescued. This large +company was cowed by the lieutenant's threat to shoot the first man +who made a hostile move, or to blow up the vessel with bombs if he saw +defeat was certain. And, like a good stage director, he pointed +significantly to rifles, bayonets, and bombs. + +There were several notables among the prisoners, including Sir Edward +Merewether, Governor of Sierra Leone, and his wife. They were +homeward bound from his African post for a vacation when the _Moewe_ +took the _Appam_. All of the persons aboard, save the Germans, were +released and the ship interned. Then followed a long wrangle as to the +status of the vessel, Germany claiming the right of asylum for a prize +by the terms of an old Prussian treaty with the United States. Great +Britain protested this claim and demanded that the ship be released. +Without actually affirming one or denying the other, the United States +allowed the _Appam_ to remain in German hands, enjoying the same +privileges as other interned ships. + +The _Appam_ was a rich prize indeed. Having a registry of 7,781 tons, +she was a modern vessel throughout, having been employed for several +years in the trade between South Africa and England. She was worth +$1,000,000 stripped, while her cargo sold for $700,000. The $250,000 +in gold bars which subsequently went into the Berlin strong box also +came from the _Appam_--a round $2,000,000. Altogether it was a very +good day's work for the _Moewe_. + +Not till the _Appam_ arrived in the Virginia harbor was it positively +known that a raider had eluded the allied navies. The search that +followed was conducted on a broader scale and with more minute care +than any similar hunt of the war, but to no avail. On February 20, +1916, the _Westburn_, a British vessel of 3,300 tons, put into Santa +Cruz de Teneriffe, a Spanish port. She, too, had a German captor +aboard. One officer and six men brought in 206 prisoners from one +Belgian and six British ships. Having landed all of those on board the +German lieutenant in command asked for permission to anchor at a +different point, and, this being granted, steamed beyond the +three-mile limit, where the _Westburn_ was blown up. Long use of sea +water in her boilers caused the explosion, her commander said. He was +arrested along with his half dozen men, then paroled. It was the +fortune of war. Once more the Germans had won, the British lost. + +Again word was passed that the _Moewe_ must be found. The British +public took her feats much to heart. They rivaled the finest +accomplishments of British sailormen in the days when privateers went +forth to destroy French commerce. But the _Moewe_ never was caught. On +the morning of March 5, 1916, she put into Wilhelmshaven with 4 +officers, 29 marines and sailors, and 165 men of enemy crews as her +prisoners. And the gold bars were secure in the captain's safe. + +Immediately a fervor of enthusiasm ran through Germany. The _Moewe_ +was back after a trip of many thousand miles, with prisoners and +bullion aboard. She had sunk fifteen allied vessels--thirteen British, +one Belgian, and one French--with an aggregate tonnage of nearly +60,000. This had been accomplished in the face of her enemies' +combined sea power. The _Moewe_ first sailed through the blockade and +then came home again by the long way round. She skirted the whole of +Iceland to reach Wilhelmshaven safely, making a perilous voyage into +Arctic waters at the worst season of the year. All this and more the +German papers recounted with pardonable pride. It was said that +Germany had flung the gauntlet in the British face and escaped +unscathed. + +Count zu Dohna-Schlobitten had the honor paid him of a visit from the +kaiser aboard his ship, where he received the Iron Cross. Wilhelm was +much pleased, as may be imagined, and the example of the count was +held up to the German navy as an illustration of what daring could +achieve. + +The _Moewe's_ exploits evidently were part of a concerted plan. +Whether the raider actually sunk all of the vessels accredited to her +is a question that probably never will be answered. The evidence tends +to show that it was Germany's aim to create a fleet of auxiliaries in +the mid-Atlantic. It seems likely that the naval board in Berlin +conceived the idea of having a number of their interned vessels break +for the sea on a stated day and meet at a common rendezvous, or +undertake raiding upon their own account. + +Whatever the plan, it was carried out in part. Two German liners +escaped from South American ports on February 12, 1916, and never were +heard from again, so far as the records go. They were the _Bahrenfeld_ +and the _Turpin_. As the identity of the _Moewe_ already had been +established and allied warships were scouring the seven seas for her, +it appears plausible that the _Bahrenfeld_ and _Turpin_ both assumed +the same title, and that one or other of the vessels was taken to be +the original _Moewe_ by persons on ships which they sunk. Or one or +both may have been run down and the fact kept secret. + +The _Bahrenfeld_ and _Turpin_ commanders were wily men. They told the +authorities at Buenos Aires, where the first named had sought asylum, +and Puenta Arenas, Chile, where the second was interned, that the +machinery of their ships was suffering from disuse, and requested +permission for a day's run in the neighboring waters that the engines +might have exercise. This was granted, and they quietly put to sea. +That was the last seen of them by the South American folk. But the +port officials at Rio de Janeiro were suspicious when the _Asuncion_ +tried the same ruse. As she began to edge beyond bounds a shot across +her bow cut short the plan. + +Both the _Bahrenfeld_ and the _Turpin_ were built in England, the +former having a registry of 2,357 tons, and the latter 3,301 tons. + +The first day of the new year was marked by the explosion of the +British armored cruiser _Natal_ in an east-coast port. Three hundred +men of a crew numbering 700 were killed, the others escaping because +they had shore leave. Not a man on board lived to tell how the +explosion came. It was one of a mysterious chain that had shaken even +British nerves in the early days of the war when a half dozen warcraft +were blown up in home ports. The explosions were, in every instance, +extremely violent, literally blowing the vessels to bits. Several of +them were affirmed to have been accidental by the British admiralty, +which rendered that verdict upon the _Natal_, but these official +explanations never were convincing. + +The _Natal_, a vessel of 3,600 tons, had but recently returned from +sea service and was in good condition throughout. The explosion that +rent her apart came in the quiet of the evening when the men either +were sleeping or preparing for supper. Suddenly there was a crash, and +the _Natal_ was no more. Such of her hull and superstructure as had +not been scattered in every direction sank beneath the surface of the +water. + +Just nine days later the _King Edward VII_, a pre-dreadnought of +16,500 tons, collided with a mine in the North Sea and soon foundered. +She was a second-line ship of heavy battery and carried a crew of 777 +men, all of whom were taken off before the big craft sunk. This was +one of the few instances in which there was no loss of life from mine +or torpedo explosions. The accident occurred at a time when the _King +Edward VII_ was accompanied by a number of other vessels, or most of +the men aboard probably would have been drowned. On a warship, even +more than a passenger vessel, it is impossible to carry enough boats +for all. The price of defeat in a naval action inevitably is death. +For this reason there was general thanksgiving in England that the +crew of the battleship had been saved, even though the ship was lost. + +During the month of January, 1916, three British sailing vessels and +ten steamships were sunk by enemy warships, with a respective tonnage +of 153 and 31,481. Four hundred and ten lives were lost. Three +steamships struck mines and foundered in the same month, having a +tonnage of 3,357. Two persons died in the trio of accidents. + +The _Amiral Charner_, an old but serviceable French armored cruiser of +4,680 tons, was torpedoed in the Mediterranean near Syria on February +8, 1916. She went down within a few minutes, although about a hundred +men managed to reach the lifeboats and rafts. The weather was bitterly +cold, and only one survivor lived to bring the news. He was picked up +on a raft with fourteen dead companions and told an incoherent story +that bore little relation to the truth. But it was only too easy to +guess what had happened. + +During the early period of the war the French navy escaped the heavy +blows that fell upon the British, partly because Germany concentrated +on her larger antagonist's navy, and partly due to the fact that the +British ships were nearly all engaged in the Atlantic, while the +French confined themselves more especially to the Mediterranean. With +the opening of operations at the Dardanelles and the coming of German +submarines the losses of the French sea forces began to grow rapidly. +But they held the Mediterranean against all attacks. + +The _Arethusa_, which torpedoed the _Bluecher_ after she had been put +out of action by the _Lion_ in that famous fight, collided with a mine +near the east coast of England on February 14, 1916. She went down +with a loss of ten men, neighboring vessels doing notable rescue work. +The _Arethusa_ was a cruiser of 3,600 tons and had taken an active +part in all of the work that fell to the British fleet. She was one of +the pet ships of the navy, having a reputation for speed and luck that +made her name familiar to readers the world over. A half dozen brushes +with the enemy had found her well up in the fighting line, and she was +said by sailormen to have a charmed existence, never having been hit. +But she sunk quickly after striking the mine. The passing of so +gallant a ship was one of the chief developments of the month in its +naval history. + +The Peninsular and Oriental liner _Maloja_ was blown up in the Channel +on February 28, 1916, supposedly by a mine. The loss of life was +large, 147 persons being drowned. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CONTINUATION OF WAR ON MERCHANT SHIPPING--ITALIAN AND RUSSIAN NAVAL +MOVEMENTS--SINKING OF LA PROVENCE + + +Throughout the months of January and February, 1916 while negotiations +between Germany and the United States were in a critical stage, the +submarine war on merchant shipping continued with little abatement. +Seeing that her armies could thwart the Allies' offensive efforts, but +were unable to crush any one of the larger powers, Germany turned +longing eyes to the sea. There was much talk of risking a major +engagement. The kaiser's naval advisers worked feverishly with figures +and plans. An echo of this scarce suppressed excitement crept into the +German press, and was duly noted in London and Paris. + +One of the principal German journals came out with a frank discussion +of the elements involved and the chances of success. It was said that +three possibilities lay open. The first contemplated an attack upon +the Allies' flank in Flanders, made from the sea, to coordinate with a +drive on land. Another section of the fleet would try to hold off the +British until the action was over or, failing that, combine forces +with the first squadron and stake the Empire's fortune on the result +of a general battle. + +The second plan provided for a dash to sea with the purpose of running +the blockade and effecting a junction with the Austrians in the +Mediterranean, to be followed by an attack upon the Suez Canal. A land +attack was to take place at the same time. The third scheme called for +minor raids on exposed points by the two fleets and relentless +submarine activities. + +This estimate was not far short of the actual plans before the German +naval authorities. Their realization of the pressing need for action, +the tightening blockade, and the desperate possibilities of defeat, +made them a trifle unwary. News was flashed abroad many times that +revealed this state of mind. For instance, on February 20, 1916, it +was announced that cooperative action at sea had been settled upon in +accord with the proposals of Archduke Charles Stephen and Prince Henry +of Prussia, the kaiser's brother. Such information, whether genuine or +not, could only make the Allies redouble their watch. + +Early in February, 1916, it was established that 70,000 naval +reservists had been gathered at Kiel and Helgoland ready for duty on +auxiliary vessels and cruisers of newly-formed squadrons. Many facts +that pointed to Germany's resolution in the face of odds never reached +America. The Ally censors kept Germany's secret well. But the whole +world expected that a big engagement would be fought any day. The +intervening hours, almost the minutes, might be counted. + +[Illustration: Kiel Canal.] + +Then Germany changed her mind. She gave notice that after March 1, +1916, a new submarine campaign would be launched. Certain concessions +were granted to the demands of the United States, but it was proposed +to consider many vessels as warcraft that other nations regarded as +merchant ships. It was agreed that warning should be given passenger +vessels unless they made an offensive move. This broad ruling gave +Germany a free hand, at least from her own standpoint. + +The new campaign was widely advertised, a succession of brusque +threats and veiled insinuations leading up to a fine climax of +publicity. The tactics were those of diplomacy and the drama, with the +world for an audience. + +But the campaign failed to accomplish what had been claimed for it. +The number of vessels lost did not materially increase, nor did allied +shipping halt. No matter what efforts Germany has made the ports of +her enemies never have closed--have in reality been far busier than +before the war. And the British navy's nets and traps, and her +thousands of patrol boats made the submarine commanders' task ever +more difficult. Within a few weeks after the latest German policy was +in effect the Allies could again breathe easy. Casualties at sea +continued, but there was no general destruction as had been promised. + +The principal achievement of Italy's navy in the war has been the +protection of her coast line. Indisputably she has dominated the +Adriatic, bottling up the Austrian fleet at Pola. Not a single +engagement, worthy the name, has been fought in that narrow strip of +water, only forty-five miles wide at its southern extremity, ninety at +the northern end and 110 at the widest point. Across this limited +space Italy has transported about 200,000 troops, with the loss of but +two transports, the _Mari Chiaro_ and the _Umberto_, both of which +were small. A good part of the Serbian and Montenegrin armies were +carried to places where they might recuperate, and a considerable +force of her own troops landed on the coast of Albania. This was +accomplished in defiance of Austria's numerous submarines, which never +have achieved anything like the success of the German undersea craft. + +After Italy's entrance into the war Austrian squadrons of light +cruisers and destroyers shelled several coast cities. But these +attacks soon ceased and all of the 500 miles of Italy's Adriatic +shore, dented as it is with small harbors and flanked by many islands, +has been strangely immune from enemy depredations. This is a tribute +to the Italian navy that cannot be easily explained. The Italian +censorship, stricter than that of any other belligerent power, has let +through almost nothing about her naval activities. The Austrians +simply have refused to fight, preferring to keep their warcraft safe +in the harbor at Pola rather than risk the fortune of battle. + +During the period under review in this volume the Italians lay and +waited for their foe as they had done for weary months. Nothing +happened. A few merchant ships, sailing vessels for the most part, +were torpedoed, but there was no attempt by the Austrians to sink +enemy warships. Italy kept up her vigil and the Austrians dozed in +their strong harbor at Pola. + +When Bulgaria cast her lot with Germany the Russian Black Sea fleet +shelled Dedeagatch and other Bulgarian coast cities, damaging +fortifications, destroying shipping in the harbors and causing a few +casualties among troops and citizens. These demonstrations were taken +to herald a landing of soldiers on the Bulgar coast, but this expected +event never developed. Russia, having abundant troubles in other +quarters, has been in no position to undertake an invasion of her +newest foe's territory. + +While allied vessels were pounding the forts at the Dardanelles it was +reported several times that the Russians would cooperate in a grand +assault, endeavoring to reduce the Black Sea defenses of the Ottoman +capital. The fortifications there were shelled a few times and various +cities on the Asiatic shore of the Turks have been bombarded. But all +of this work was desultory, having no special purpose and +accomplishing little. Turkish shipping was driven from the Black Sea +in the early days of the war, although a few transports and supply +vessels have made the hazardous trip to Trebizond and other Turkish +ports. The Russian fleet has taken heavy toll among such craft and to +all purposes pinned the Turk to his side of the sea, while enjoying +all of its privileges. + +The successful operations of the Russian Caucasian army in the first +months of 1916 and the movement down the Black Sea coast was aided by +the fleet, which brought supplies across the sea to newly won points +and prepared the way for an attack upon Trebizond. That city is of +considerable importance, being a military base and having a number of +industries. It was a busy port before the war began and would be a +valuable rallying point for future operations against Constantinople. +All signs indicated a Russian offensive with Trebizond as its +immediate objective. The harbor's fortifications already had been +damaged by the Russian fire, and the fleet undoubtedly could cooperate +in any attack upon the city. + +The Turkish navy, like the Austrian, kept to home waters. Scarcely a +month passed that engagements were not reported between the _Goeben_ +and _Breslau_ with vessels of the enemy. Many of these were +circumstantial, one of which recounted a long range fight between the +_Goeben_ and Russian warships, in which the _Goeben_ was said to have +been severely damaged. According to subsequent reports a great hole in +her hull was patched with cement, armor plate being unavailable in +Constantinople. + +Losses inflicted upon British shipping up to the end of February, +1916, were slightly under 4 per cent of the vessels flying the British +flag, and a shade more than 6 per cent in point of tonnage. The loss +of the other Allies, on a basis of tonnage, was as follows: France, 7 +per cent; Russia, 5 per cent; and Italy, 4-1/2 per cent. + +How heavy the hand of war has fallen upon neutrals may be judged from +a comparison of sea casualties. Italy lost twenty-one steamers with a +gross tonnage of 70,000 in the period before the reader, while Norway, +a neutral, lost fifty steamers having an aggregate tonnage of 96,000, +more than 25 per cent larger. Total allied shipping losses numbered +481 steamships having a tonnage of 1,621,000, and fifty-seven sailing +vessels, with a tonnage of 47,000. One hundred and forty-six neutral +craft were sunk, whose tonnage reached 293,375, while sailing vessels +to the number of forty-two, with a tonnage of 24,001, were lost. +Germany's methods cost innocent bystanders among the nations almost +one-fifth of the damage done to her foes' commercial fleets. + +Inclusive of trawlers, 980 merchant craft had been sunk by the end of +February, of which 726 were vessels of good size. It was destruction +upon a scale never seen before, an economic pressure that made former +wars seem mere tournaments. And Germany's most desperate attempts +failed to accomplish her end--the halting of allied commerce. Although +it was mathematically certain that a percentage of the ships sailing +every day would be torpedoed, the world's trade went on in the usual +channels. + +There was a brighter side to the situation. "After more than a year of +war," says a British admiralty statement, "the steam shipping of Great +Britain increased eighty-eight vessels and 344,000 tons. France at the +end of 1915 was only short nine steamers and 12,500 tons of the +previous year's total. Italy and Russia both show an increase in +tonnage. + +"It is therefore clear that the shortage of tonnage is due not to the +action of submarines, but to the great requirements of the military +and naval forces. The latest published statement of these show that +they are demanding 3,100 vessels." + +Another turn was given to the controversy over sea laws during the +first quarter of 1916 by the arming of many British and a considerable +proportion of Italian passenger vessels. Earlier in the war a few +British ships came into New York harbor with guns aboard, but they +were forced to abandon the plan because of American protests. The +second attempt was different and so were the circumstances. Germany +had shown a disregard for the helplessness of passenger craft that did +not permit of forcible objection to the adoption of defensive methods +by such vessels. The Italians, in particular, displayed a resolute +spirit. Diplomatic hints had no weight at Rome and one after another +the Italian liners came into New York with trim three-inch pieces fore +and aft. They had a most suggestive look and were manned by crews +trained in the navy. Not since the days of open piracy had armed +merchant ships been seen in American waters. Their presence recalled +the time when every ship that sailed was prepared to fight or run as +necessity might dictate. + +Germany flatly refused to consider merchantmen with guns aboard as +anything but warships, and gave notice that she would sink them +without warning. Once more the relations of Germany and the United +States reached a point that bordered on an open break. Although this +never quite happened, the United States temporizing and the kaiser's +agents granting just enough to prevent a rupture, the situation was +exceedingly delicate. American contentions ultimately were met by the +promise that armed craft would not be attacked unless they made an +offensive move. This left things as they had been before. There was no +world court to decide what an offensive move meant, nor to enforce a +decision. + +The White Star line announced in the closing week of February, 1916, +that passenger service between the United States and England would be +discontinued until further notice. This meant that all of the +company's ships had been requisitioned for the carrying of munitions. +It betokened a more intensive preparation for the prosecution of the +war by England and her Allies. It also pointed to the swelling tide of +supplies flowing from America. + +France was to sustain the supreme affliction of the war at sea on +February 26, 1916. _La Provence_ was sunk that day. She had sailed +from Marseilles with 3,500 soldiers and a crew of 500 men, bound for +Saloniki. A torpedo sent her to the bottom, along with 3,300 of those +on board, representing the greatest tragedy of the sea in history. The +attack took place in the Mediterranean and the big liner plunged +beneath the waves in less than fifteen minutes after she had been +struck. + +Few vessels enjoyed such fame as the _La Provence_. Built in 1905, she +broke the transatlantic record on her first trip across, defeating the +new _Deutschland_ of the Hamburg-American line in a spectacular dash +that brought her from Havre to New York hours ahead of the best +previous record. With a registry of 19,000 tons and engines generating +30,000 horsepower she was a ship of exceptional grace. Not until the +_Lusitania_ came into service did the _La Provence_ surrender her +distinction of being the fastest vessel afloat, and strangely enough +both she and the _Lusitania_ were to fall victims of German +submarines. + +When the torpedo that cost so many lives exploded within the hull of +the _La Provence_, killing a good part of the engineroom crew, it was +seen that only a few of her large company could escape. Lifeboats, +rafts, and the makeshift straws to safety that could be seized upon in +emergency accommodated a bare 700 and odd men. The troops gathered on +the upper decks and sang the "Marseillaise" as the great hull settled +in the water. Officers embraced their men, some indulged in a last +whiff of tobacco, others prayed for the folks at home. Commandant +Vesco stood on the bridge and directed the launching of the few boats +that got away. Then, as the vessel came even with the waves, he tossed +his cap overboard and cried: "Adieu, my boys." As one man they +answered: + +"Vive la France." + + + + +PART V--THE WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +SUMMARY OF FIRST YEAR'S OPERATIONS + + +After the last days of that fateful July, 1914, had passed, bringing +mobilization in Austria-Hungary, Serbia, and Russia, and the outbreak +of war between the former two countries, the dance of death was on. On +August 1, 1914, Germany ordered the general mobilization of its +armies, and on the same day declared war against Russia. Within a few +days the first Russian advance into East Prussia began under the +leadership of Grand Duke Nicholas, who, by a special order of the +czar, had been made commander in chief of all Russian forces on August +3, 1914. Germany, fully occupied with its advance into Belgium and +France, offered hardly any resistance, and its forces, consisting +almost exclusively of the few army corps permanently stationed along +its eastern border and reenforced only by local reserves, advanced +only in a few places, and there only for short distances, into Russian +territory. + +On August 5, 1914, Austria-Hungary, too, declared war against Russia, +and the next day brought immediately engagements along the frontier of +the two countries, which, however, did not develop seriously for some +time. The Russian advance into East Prussia had reached Marggrabova by +the 15th, and from then on proceeded fairly rapidly during the +following week. Memel, Tilsit, Insterburg, Koenigsberg, and +Allenstein--to name only a few of the more important cities of East +Prussia--were either threatened with occupation by the Russian forces +or had actually been occupied by them. The entire Mazurian Lake +district in the southeast of the Prusso-Russian border region was +overrun with Russian troops. But about August 22, 1914, Germany awoke +to the danger of the Russian invasion. General von Hindenburg was put +in command in the east, and in the battle of Tannenberg, which lasted +from August 22 to 27, 1914, inflicted a disastrous defeat on the +Russian armies, capturing tens of thousands of its soldiers and +driving as many more to their deaths in the swamp lands of the +Mazurian Lakes. Not only did this end for the time the Russian +invasion of Germany, but the latter country's armies followed the +retreating enemy a considerable distance into his own territory. + +But although such important points as Lodz and Radomsk were occupied +during the last days of August and the first days of September, the +German advance into South Poland quickly collapsed. In the meantime +the Russians had successfully invaded Galicia, and by September 3, +1914, the Austro-Hungarians evacuated Lemberg. In the north, too, the +Russian forces had resumed the offensive and once more were invading +East Prussia. But they were again beaten back by Von Hindenburg on +September 10-11, 1914, and, four days later, on September 15, 1914, +suffered another serious defeat in the Mazurian Lakes. The Galician +invasion, however, was meeting with great success. By September 16, +1914, the important Austrian fortress of Przemysl--sixty miles west of +Lemberg--had been reached and its siege begun. By September 26, 1914, +the Russians had reached the Carpathian Mountains and were flooding +the fertile plains of the Bukowina, threatening an imminent invasion +of Hungary itself. + +The first week of October, 1914, brought a third invasion of East +Prussia which, however, did not extend as far as the two preceding it, +and which was partly repulsed before October was ended. In the +meantime Austria had called upon Germany for immediate help in +Galicia, and by October 2, 1914, strong German-Austrian forces had +entered Poland in order to reduce the Russian pressure on Galicia, +reaching the Upper Vistula on October 11, 1914, and advancing against +Poland's capital, Warsaw. On the same day the siege of Przemysl was +lifted, after a Russian attempt to take it by storm had been +successfully beaten off a few days earlier. Throughout the balance of +October, 1914, the heaviest kind of fighting took place in Galicia and +the Bukowina. In the latter district the Austro-Hungarian troops were +successful, and on October 22, 1914, reoccupied Czernovitz in the +northeastern part of the province. + +By November 7, 1914, the Russians were back again in East Prussia, but +encountered determined resistance and suffered a series of defeats. +However, although they were repulsed in many places, they succeeded in +retaining a foothold in many others. At the same time very strong +Russian forces had advanced from Novo Georgievsk across the Vistula +toward the Prussian provinces of Posen and Silesia. In the face of +these the Austro-Hungarian-German forces immediately gave up their +attempted advance against Warsaw and retreated beyond their own +borders into Upper Silesia and West Galicia. By the middle of November +an extensive Russian offensive was under way along the entire front. +Nowhere, however, did it meet with anything but passing success. In +East Prussia and in North Poland the Germans won battle after battle +and steadily advanced against Lodz. About November 22, 1914, it looked +as if the tide was going to turn in favor of the Russian arms. One +German army group seemed completely surrounded to the northeast of +Lodz. But, although losing a large part of its effectiveness, it +managed to break through the Russian ring and to connect again with +the other German forces by November 26, 1914. At the same time heavy +fighting occurred around Cracow and in the Bukowina where the Russians +again occupied Czernovitz on November 27, 1914. + +Lodz fell on December 6, 1914. On the 7th the Russians were again +repulsed in the Mazurian Lakes region. Throughout that month and +January, 1915, very severe fighting took place in the Carpathian +Mountains, and by the end of January, 1915, the Austro-Hungarian +forces were in possession of all the passes, but had not been able to +drive the Russians from the north side of the mountains. In the +meanwhile the Russians were pressing their attacks against East +Prussia with renewed vigor and greatly augmented forces, and by +February 7, 1915, had again advanced to the Mazurian Lakes. In a +battle lasting nine days, Von Hindenburg once more defeated the +Russian army and drove it back into North Poland, inflicting very +heavy losses. At the end of another week, February 24, 1915, the +Russians had been driven out of the Bukowina. + +Von Hindenburg had followed up his new success at the Mazurian Lakes +with a drive into North Poland, undoubtedly with the object of +invading Courland. Hardly had it gotten under way when the Galician +fortress of Przemysl was forced to surrender on March 22, 1915. This +not only gained for the Russians a large booty in prisoners, +munitions, and equipment, but also released the great army that had +been besieging the fortress. It was thrown immediately against the +Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia, who were driven back again rapidly +into the Carpathian Mountains. Again Austria appealed to Germany for +help. General von Mackensen was sent to the rescue with an army made +up largely from troops taken from Von Hindenburg's forces. Thereby the +latter again was forced to stop further operations in the north. Von +Mackensen's combined Austro-Hungarian-German armies had an immense +supply of guns and munitions, both of which were beginning to run +short in the Russian army. With these they blasted away Russian line +after line, driving the Russians finally almost completely out of +Galicia, after retaking Przemysl on June 3, 1915, and Lemberg on June +24, 1915. + +In the north, in the meantime, the Germans had received reenforcements +filling the gap that Von Mackensen's Galician operations had caused. +With these they invaded Courland while other forces landed on the Gulf +of Riga. With these two groups they pushed south and soon connected +with Von Hindenburg's army before Novo Georgievsk and Warsaw. The +latter had been there practically ever since early in January, 1915, +when after the fall of Lodz it had gradually advanced against Poland's +capital, but was held within seven miles of it along the Bzura and +Rawka Rivers, where many bloody engagements were fought. + +At the same time that these two groups formed a junction Von Mackensen +came up with his forces from the south, taking Zamost and Lublin and +investing Ivangorod. Immediately the drive for Warsaw began from all +sides. Pultusk, on the Nareff, fell on July 25, 1915, and on July 30, +1915, the Russians began the evacuation of Warsaw and retreated toward +a very strongly fortified line that had been prepared and ran from +Kovno south through Grodno and Brest-Litovsk. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE FALL OF THE NIEMEN AND NAREFF FORTRESSES + + +The 5th of August, 1915, was a fateful day for the Russian armies. The +fall of Warsaw, on that date, was confirmed by the occupation of +Poland's ancient capital by German forces under the command of Prince +Leopold of Bavaria, brother of King Ludwig III of Bavaria and +son-in-law of Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary. This in +itself would have been a severe setback to the Russian arms. But the +consequences which this event was bound to have were of even greater +importance. + +In an earlier part of this work we heard at some length of the +arrangement of Russia's girdle of fortresses which--to repeat only the +most important--stretched from Kovno in the north through Oliha, +Grodno, Ossovetz, Lomza, Osholenka, and Novo Georgievsk to powerful +Warsaw and from there to the south and east to Ivangorod and +Brest-Litovsk. These permanent fortifications were supported by strong +natural barriers or obstacles in the form of rivers. The Niemen, Bobr, +Nareff, Vistula and Bug, with their interminable windings, made more +difficult to cross in some places by extensive swamp lands, had, +together with the fortified places, offered ideal means for strong +defense. Again and again, throughout the first thirteen months of the +war, German and Austrian troops had driven the Russian forces back to +these defensive lines--but no farther. Behind this shelter the +Russians were able to recuperate from the severest reverses and, +thanks to a very extensive and comparatively scientific network of +railways, reserves and reenforcements could be brought up from +interior points until armies which apparently had been beaten to a +standstill emerged again, stronger than ever in number and equipment, +to undertake a new offensive against the German masses. + +Just previous to the fall of Warsaw the eastern front, roughly +speaking, was formed by the two sides of an equilateral triangle, with +the northern side starting from a point on the Gulf of Riga, about +forty miles northwest of Riga, and with the southern side starting +from Chotin on the River Dniester in Russian Bessarabia, very close to +the point where that Russian province touches Rumania and Galicia. The +apex was at Warsaw. When this apex caved in with the withdrawal of the +Russians, it followed logically that something had to happen to the +two lines that met there. That the Russians retreated from Warsaw on +account of some insurmountable difficulties which made the further +holding of this most important center impossible, is quite clear. It +has been established by now, almost beyond all doubt, that this step +became necessary because of insufficient munitions. But whether this +is so or not, it still remained true that whatever caused their +retreat from Warsaw would exert a similar influence on their capacity +to hold their second line of permanent fortifications. And events +immediately following the fall of Warsaw proved this contention. +Backward and backward fell the Russian lines during the following +weeks until by the end of October, 1915, the two sides of the +erstwhile triangle had disappeared entirely, and the Russian front was +found now along the base of the triangle stretching from Riga through +Friedrichstadt, through a point somewhat west of Dvinsk, thence almost +due south, skirting Pinsk slightly to the east, and again running +south in front of Rovno, entering Galicia at a point about halfway +between Zlochoff and Tarnopol, and following, slightly to the west, +the River Sereth to a point on the Dniester only a few miles west from +where it had ended in August, 1915. + +How immense a loss this involved for the Russians can be easily seen +by a glance at a map. The territory that fell into German hands +exceeded 50,000 square miles, with millions of inhabitants, containing +some of the most valuable railway lines from a strategic point of +view, and including besides Warsaw such important places as Mitau, +Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Ivangorod, Cholm, +Kovel, Pinsk. Though the Russians destroyed many of the railways, +drove off men and cattle alike, and moved vast quantities of supplies, +equipment, and valuables of all kinds, the time and the facilities at +their disposal were so insufficient that the victorious German armies +were bound to find still untold quantities of all these. The outbreak +of winter, it is true, finally halted the German advance, the force of +which gradually would have spent itself anyhow on account of the +ever-lengthening lines of communication with its bases. In spite of +this, however, it is next to miraculous that the Russians were at all +able to form a new line and to withdraw beyond this line, after all, +the largest part of their forces. This accomplishment was only a +renewed proof of the remarkable ability of the Russian leaders at +least along one line--the orderly withdrawal of immense masses. It +also showed once more the wonderful resiliency of the Russian armies +and the immense advantages which are to be derived from a practically +inexhaustible supply of men. + +Almost as remarkable as the compactness and efficiency of the Russian +retreat was the swiftness and insistency of the German advance. +Throughout the German offensive leading up to and following the fall +of Warsaw the German armies in the north and center of the eastern +front cooperated closely with the Austrian forces in the south. This +must be borne in mind as well as the fact that for this entire +campaign the General Staffs of the Central Powers had conceived one +plan, according to which all their armies proceeded. This frequently +necessitated the halting of the advance on one or more points in order +to enable some other army at some other point to overcome obstacles +which had proved more difficult. Considering the immense extent of the +eastern front--which from considerably over 700 miles at the +beginning of August, 1915, gradually shortened to about 600 miles by +the end of October, 1915--it is little short of marvelous that the +German-Austrian offensive should at no time have lost its cohesion. In +order to get a clearer perspective of the somewhat complicated +operations of a large number of separate army units, we will divide +the entire eastern front into three sections and follow separately the +operations of each. + +In the north--from the Gulf of Riga to Novo Georgievsk--Marshal von +Hindenburg was in command. Under him there were four armies, each +under a German general: that under Von Buelow in the extreme north; +that under Von Eichhorn to the south of the former and facing the +Niemen River and the fortress of Kovno; the two other armies under Von +Scholtz and Von Gallwitz--the latter the farthest south--were to +attack the Nareff-Bobr line between Novo Georgievsk and Lomza. + +The central group was under the command of Field Marshal Prince +Leopold of Bavaria and was reenforced by another army under General +von Woyrsch, which previous to the fall of Warsaw had been fighting +more independently somewhat to the south and, a day before the fall of +Warsaw, had forced the strong fortress of Ivangorod on August 4, 1915. + +The southern group was originally exclusively Austro-Hungarian. But +during the early summer of 1915 a German army under General von +Mackensen had been sent into Galicia to cooperate with the Austrian +forces in freeing Przemysl and Lemberg after they had assisted in +throwing back the left wing of the Russian forces then fighting in +Galicia and in forcing them to relinquish their hold on the mountain +passes of the Carpathians. This problem having been solved, these +mixed Austro-Hungarian-German forces were rearranged and reenforced, +and, under the command of Von Mackensen, were to attack the retreating +Russians around Brest-Litovsk. The left wing of this group was under +the command of Archduke Joseph Ferdinand. To the southeast of this +entire group was another army under the Austrian General +Pflanzer-Baltin, which in the early summer (1915) had driven the +Russians out of the Bukowina. + +On August 8, 1915, the attack on Kovno was begun. At the same time the +German forces advanced against Lomza and still farther south advanced +nearer and nearer to the Warsaw-Bialystok-Vilna-Petrograd railroad, +their main objective for the present. All these advances found serious +opposition at the hands of the Russians, who successfully attempted to +hold up the enemy everywhere in order to insure the safety of their +retreating armies. On August 10, 1915, the Russians attempted an +unsuccessful sortie from Kovno. Farther south, as far as Lomza, the +Russian forces continued their retreat, fighting continuous rear-guard +actions for the purpose of delaying the hard-pressing enemy, who, +however, gradually came closer and closer to the Nareff-Bobr line. Of +course the losses on both sides throughout this continuous fighting +were severe. The Russians lost thousands of men by capture, for +although they succeeded in withdrawing, practically intact, the +principal parts of their armies before the Germans could come up in +strong enough numbers to risk attacks, smaller detachments here and +there lost contact with the main body and fell in the hands of the +Germans and Austrians, so that there passed hardly a day when the +official reports did not contain some claims about a few thousand men +having been captured. + +South of the Niemen the Russians attacked Von Eichhorn's army along +the Dvina River, but were thrown back with severe losses. On August +11, 1915, Von Scholtz's group occupied the bridgehead at Vilna, which +had been stubbornly defended until the Russian retreat had progressed +far enough to make its further possession unessential. The same forces +succeeded in crossing the Gac River, south of the Nareff, capturing +during three days' fighting almost 5,000 men. Von Gallwitz with his +army stormed on the same day Zambroff and then pressed on through +Andrzejow toward the east. South of the Nareff, toward the Bug and +Brest-Litovsk, the fighting continued throughout the following days. +Wherever possible the Russians resisted, and every little stream was +used by them to its utmost possibilities in delaying the advance of +the enemy. On August 13, 1915, a strongly fortified position in the +Forest of Dominikanka fell into German hands. On the same day an +outlying fortified position north of Novo Georgievsk had to surrender +and other forces fighting between the Nareff and Bug reached the Slina +and Nurzets Rivers. The latter was crossed late on August 15, 1915, +after the most severe kind of fighting. + +Kovno's garrison attempted on that day another unsuccessful sortie, +resulting in the capture of 100 men and in slight gains on the part of +the besieging forces. The latter success was also repeated before Novo +Georgievsk. By this time the general retreat, and the ever-increasing +pressure on the part of the advancing enemy made itself felt even in +the most northern part of the Russian line. There, as well as in the +farthest south of the line, the least changes took place. But on +August 15, 1915, German troops attacked the Russians near Kupishky, at +the point where the original Russian front turned toward the +southwest, and threw them back successfully in a northeasterly +direction, capturing at the same time some 2,000 officers and men. + +August 17, 1915, marks the beginning of the end for Kovno and Novo +Georgievsk. On that day both of these fortresses lost some of their +outlying forts, and before Kovno alone 4,500 Russians and over 200 +guns fell into the hands of the Germans. During the night of August +18, 1915, Kovno fell, after having been defended most valiantly +against the ever-repeated attacks on the part of the Germans under +General von Eichhorn. It was one of the strongest Russian fortresses, +with eleven outlying forts on both sides of the Niemen, commanding +this river at the point where it turns from its northerly course +toward the west and defending the approach to Vilna from the west. +Over 400 guns and vast quantities of supplies and equipment as well as +about 4,000 officers and men made up the booty. On the same day +additional forts of Novo Georgievsk fell, although the fortress itself +still held out. The fall of Kovno, expected and discounted as it +undoubtedly was by the Russians, was a serious blow. It now became +absolutely necessary to withdraw all their forces in that sector +beyond the Niemen, in order to avoid their being cut off by German +columns advancing from Kovno to the south along the east bank of the +Niemen. This need found expression in the immediate withdrawal of the +Russians from the line Kalvarya-Suvalki. For the Germans an additional +advantage arose in their ability to establish contact between Von +Hindenburg's forces in Poland and Von Buelow's army in Courland and +thereby remove all possibility of having the latter's right wing +enveloped. + +As if the fall of Kovno had given a new impetus to the Germans, their +attacks on Novo Georgievsk were now renewed with redoubled vigor. On +August 20, 1915, this last of the important strongholds of the +Niemen-Nareff-Vistula line fell, although the less important +fortresses of Olita, Grodno, and Ossovetz were still in Russian hands. +There, too, large numbers of men and guns and immense amounts of +equipment and supplies were the rewards of the victor. It is said that +the total number of men taken before and in Novo Georgievsk aggregated +85,000, while the number of guns exceeded 700. While the town was +still burning from the final bombardment--in which some of the famous +Austrian mortars of heavy caliber participated--the German Emperor, +accompanied by Field Marshal von Hindenburg, General von Falkenhayn, +Chief of the German General Staff, General von Beseler and many other +high officers, entered this latest conquest of his victorious armies, +over which he later held a review. + +The continued retreat of the Russian army and the menacing and +ever-increasing pressure of the advancing Germans, of course, could +have only one result on the fate of the few positions which were still +held by the Russians by now west of the Vilna-Grodno-Bialystok line. +Unless they were willing to risk the loss of large numbers of troops +by having their lines of retreat cut off, it became necessary to +withdraw as many as their means of transportation and their efforts to +delay the Germans permitted. As a result the fortified town of +Ossovetz on the Bobr was evacuated and occupied by the Germans on +August 23, 1915. A few miles south, beyond the Nareff, Tykotsyn +suffered the same fate. In the latter instance the Russians lost over +1,200 men and 70 machine guns. Still farther south, near Bielsk, +Russian resistance was not any more successful. East of Kovno the +German advance was not as successful; at least the Russians were able +in that region to delay the enemy to a greater extent, although the +delay had to be bought dearly. But considering the short distance at +which Vilna was located and the great importance of that city as a +railroad center for the safe withdrawal of the Russian main forces, +any effort that promised success was well worth even heavy losses. +Throughout the following days the forces of the northern group pressed +on relentlessly to the east and south, delayed here and there, but +succeeding in forcing back the Russian troops step by step. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE CONQUEST OF GRODNO AND VILNA + + +With the fall of Olita, Bialystok, and Brest-Litovsk, which took place +on August 25-26, 1915, and is described in more detail in another +chapter, the northern group under Von Hindenburg immediately increased +its activities. In Courland, south of Mitau, near Bausk, heavy +fighting took place, and the Russian lines, which had held their own +throughout the entire retreat of the Russian armies in Poland, began +to give way. At one other point the Russians had fought back +inevitable retreat with special stubbornness, and that was due west of +Grodno, in the neighborhood of Augustovo, which had seen such +desperate fighting during and following the Russian invasion of East +Prussia. But there, too, now the Germans began to make headway and +were advancing against the Niemen and the last Russian stronghold on +it, Grodno. + +At about the same time that considerable activity developed at the +utmost southern end of the line in eastern Galicia, operations of +equal extent and of great importance took place at the extreme +northern end, in the vicinity of Riga. On August 30, 1915, parts of +Von Hindenburg's northern group, under General von Beseler, reached +positions south of Friedrichstadt on the Dvina. Other troops under +General von Eichhorn advanced to the northeast of Olita in the +direction of Vilna, while still other forces farther south stormed the +city of Lipsk, less than twenty miles west of Grodno, after having +forced a crossing over the Vidra River, a tributary of the Sukelka. +The fighting around Friedrichstadt continued throughout the last days +of August, 1915. To the south of the Niemen the advance against the +Grodno-Vilna railway continued without cessation. Whatever troops were +not engaged in pursuing the retreating Russian forces were now being +concentrated on the approaching attack against the last Russian +fortress in Poland--Grodno. To the south of it, by August 31, 1915, +they had reached Kuznitsa, on the Bialystok-Grodno railway. The +investment of Grodno may be said to have begun with that day. It was +then that the first reports came that heavy artillery had been brought +up by the Germans and was throwing its devastating shells into the +fortress from the western front. Little hope was left to the Russians +for a successful resistance. For whenever these heavy guns had been +brought into play before, they had blasted their way to the desired +goal, no matter how strong or modern had been the defenses of steel +and cement. + +For the withdrawal of the Russians from Grodno there were available +two railroads, one running north to Vilna and another running at first +southeast to Mosty, and there dividing into two branches by both of +which finally in a roundabout way either Minsk or Kieff could be +reached. The Germans, of course, were eager to cut off these lines of +retreat. The latter road was threatened by the forces approaching +Grodno from the south. Before they reached it, however, troops from +Von Hindenburg's group on September 1, 1915, cut the Grodno-Vilna +railroad at Czarnoko. On the same day some of the western outer forts +of Grodno fell, Fort No. 4 being stormed by North German Landwehr +regiments and Fort No. 4a by other troops from Baden. In both cases +the Russians resisted valiantly, with numerically so inferior +garrisons that the Germans could report the capture of only 650 +Russians. After the fall of these two fortified works the balance of +the advanced western forts of Grodno were evacuated by the Russians. +This, indeed, was the beginning of the end for the last great Russian +fortress. On September 2, 1915, Grodno was taken by Von Hindenburg's +army after a crossing over the Niemen had been forced. The Russians, +however, again had managed to escape with their armies. The entire +lack in the official German announcement of any reference to the +Russian garrison of Grodno suggests that there was no garrison left by +the time the Germans took the fortress. In spite of this fact, +however, the Germans of course continued to capture Russians in fairly +large quantities for, naturally, numerous detachments lost contact +with the main body during the retreat. + +With the fall of Grodno the next objective of the German troops became +Vilna. Indeed, on the very day of Grodno's occupation, German cavalry +reached the northwest and western region immediately adjoining Vilna, +in spite of the most determined Russian resistance. These, of course, +were troops that had not participated in the drive against Grodno, but +during that time had been fighting the Russians farther to the north, +and now that Grodno was no longer to be feared, started a drive of +their own against Vilna. Vilna is second in importance among Polish +cities only to Warsaw itself. By September 8, 1915, detachments of +General von Eichhorn's army had reached Troki, hardly more than ten +miles west of Vilna. + +The Russian front had now been pushed back everywhere over a wide +extent, which varied from about twenty miles in the extreme southeast +and about fifty miles in the regions east of Grodno and Kovno, and to +the north of this territory to almost 200 miles in the center east of +Warsaw and Brest-Litovsk. Of the great Russian fortresses of the first +and second line, built as a protection against German and +Austro-Hungarian advances, none remained in the hands of the Russians. +It was true that the main body of the Russian armies had succeeded in +extricating itself from this disaster and withdrawing to the east to +form there a new line. But it was also true that this retreat of the +Russian army had cost dearly in men, material, and, last but not +least, temporarily, the morale of the troops themselves. For a +considerable period of time during the retreat rumors were heard of +changes in the leadership of the Russian armies. These rumors gained +strength when it was announced that General Soukhomlinoff had resigned +as minister of war and that some of the commanding generals of the +different individual army groups had been replaced by others. In view +of these changes it did not come as a surprise when on September 7, +1915, it was announced that the czar himself had taken over the +supreme command of all his armies, which up to that time had been from +the beginning of the war in the hands of his uncle, Grand Duke +Nicholas. + +The announcement reached the outside world first in the form of the +following telegram from the czar to President Poincare of France: + +"In placing myself to-day at the head of my valiant armies I have in +my heart, M. President, the most sincere wishes for the greatness of +France and the victory of her glorious army. + + "NICHOLAS." + +This was followed on September 8, 1915, by the publication of the +official communication by which the czar relieved the grand duke from +his command and appointed him viceroy of the Caucasus and commander in +chief of the Russian army in the Caucasus. It read as follows: + +"At the beginning of the war I was unavoidably prevented from +following the inclination of my soul to put myself at the head of the +army. That was why I intrusted you with the commandership in chief of +all the land and sea forces. + +"Under the eyes of all Russia Your Imperial Highness has given proof +during the war of a steadfast bravery which has caused a feeling of +profound confidence and called forth the sincere good wishes of all +who followed your operations through the inevitable vicissitudes of +war. + +"My duty to my country, which has been intrusted to me by God, compels +me to-day, when the enemy has penetrated into the interior of the +empire, to take supreme command of the active forces, and to share +with the army the fatigue of war, and to safeguard with it Russian +soil from attempts of the enemy. The ways of Providence are +inscrutable, but my duty and my desire determine me in my resolution +for the good of the state. + +"The invasion of the enemy on the western front, which necessitates +the greatest possible concentration of civil and military authorities +as well as the unification of command in the field, has turned our +attention from the southern front. At this moment I recognize the +necessity of your assistance and counsels on the southern front, and I +appoint you viceroy of the Caucasus and commander in chief of the +valiant Caucasian army. + +"I express to Your Imperial Highness my profound gratitude, and that +of the country for your labors during the war. + + "NICHOLAS." + +The grand duke addressed his former armies before departing to his new +sphere of activity as follows: + +"Valiant Army and Fleet: To-day your august supreme chief, His Majesty +the Emperor, places himself at your head; I bow before your heroism of +more than a year, and express to you my cordial, warm, and sincere +appreciation. + +"I believe steadfastly that because the emperor himself, to whom you +have taken your oath, conducts you, you will display achievements +hitherto unknown. I believe that God from this day will accord to His +elect His all-powerful aid, and will bring to him victory. + + "NICHOLAS, + "General Aide de Camp." + +Another of the small southern tributaries of the Niemen which offered +excellent opportunities for resistance of which the Russians promptly +availed themselves, was the Zelvianka River, which joins the Niemen +just west of Mosty. The fighting which went on there for a few days +was almost exclusively in the form of rear-guard actions, and was +typical of a great deal of the fighting during the Russian retreat. +Whenever the Germans advanced far enough and in large enough numbers +to endanger the retreating armies, the latter would speed up as much +as possible until they reached one of the many small rivers with which +that entire region abounds. There sufficiently large forces to delay +the advance, at least for a day or two, would be left behind to use +the natural possibilities of defense offered by the waterway to the +best possible advantage, while the main body of the army would move +on, to repeat this operation at the next opportunity. In most +instances these practices held up the German and Austrian advance just +exactly in the manner in which it had been designed that it should. +Furthermore, the Russians would not give way until they had inflicted +the greatest possible losses on their enemies, and in that respect +they were frequently quite successful. For first of all many of these +rivers have either densely wooded or very swampy banks which lend +themselves admirably for defense to as brave a fighting body as the +Russian army, and which proved exceedingly treacherous to the +attacker; and in the second place the Russians, of course, had the +advantage that they were fighting on their own soil, while the Germans +were in a strange and often hostile country. In spite of this, +however, the German advance, taken all in all, could not be denied, +and in practically every one of the cases just described, the final +outcome was in a very short time defeat for the Russians and a +successful crossing of the watery obstacle by the Germans. This was +true also at the banks of the Zelvianka, where the Germans on +September 9, 1915, stormed successfully the heights near Pieski, +capturing 1,400 Russians. This success was followed up by further +gains on the next day, September 10, 1915, that again yielded a few +thousand prisoners. A few days later the crossing was forced and the +Germans began to attack the Russians behind the next Niemen tributary, +the Shara. + +Farther to the north especially heavy fighting occurred for a few days +around Skidel, a little town just north of the Niemen on the +Grodno-Mosty railroad, and it was not until September 11, 1915, that +the Germans succeeded in storming it. On the same day German +aeroplanes attacked the important railroad junction at Lida on the +Kovno-Vilna railway, and also Vileika on the railway running parallel +to and east of the Warsaw-Vilna-Dvinsk-Petrograd railroad. In a way +this signified the opening of the German offensive against Vilna. +Concurrent with it the fighting on the Dvina between Friedrichstadt +and Jacobstadt waxed more furious. Farther south the Germans advanced +toward Rakishki on the Kupishki-Dvinsk railroad and between that road +and the River Vilia they even reached at some points the Vilna-Dvinsk +railroad. Without any lull the battle raged now all along the line +from the Dvina to Vilna, and from Vilna to the Niemen. South of this +river the attack of the Germans was directed against the Russian front +behind the Shara River. By September 14, 1915, Von Hindenburg stood +before Dvinsk with one part of his army group. The other parts were +rapidly pushing in an easterly direction from Olita and Grodno with +the object of attacking Vilna from the south, but they encountered +determined resistance, especially in the region to the east of Grodno. +With undiminished vigor, however, the Germans continued their advance +against Dvinsk and Vilna. To the south of the former city they pushed +beyond the Vilna-Petrograd railway, taking Vidsky, just north of the +Disna River, in the early morning hours of September 16, 1915. + +At that time the fall of both Vilna and Dvinsk seemed to be +inevitable. On September 18, 1915, the Germans reported continuous +progress in their attacks on Dvinsk. On the same day they broke +through the Russian front between Vilna and the Niemen in numerous +places, capturing over 5,000 men and 16 machine guns. Of railroad +lines available to facilitate an eventual Russian retreat from Vilna, +the northern route to Petrograd by way of Dvinsk had been in German +hands for some days. The southern route by way of Lida to Kovno was +imminently threatened at many points. The only other railroad on the +eventual line of retreat to the southeast by way of Minsk was likewise +threatened both from the south and north. Vilna taken, the Germans +immediately bent all their energies to the task of pursuing the +retreating Russians. + +On September 18, 1915, Vilna fell into the hands of General von +Eichhorn's army. With it the Russians lost one of the most important +cities of their western provinces. Vilna is one of the oldest Russian +towns, its history dating back as far as 1128. It is the capital of a +government of the same name. In the Middle Ages it was the capital of +the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but became a Russian possession as a +result of the partition of Poland in 1795. Of its population of more +than a quarter million almost one-half are Jews. Possessing an ancient +Roman Catholic cathedral, it is the seat of a bishop of that church, +as well as of a Greek archbishop. + +On the same day on which Vilna's fall was reported, part of Von +Hindenburg's army, its left wing, was reported at Vornjany, Smorgon, +and Molodechno, all places east of Vilna, the last about eighty miles +on the Vilna-Minsk railway. In vain did the Russians try to pierce +this line, which, by the very nature of the advance, must have been +exceedingly thin. It not only held, but managed to force the Russians +to continue their retreat, and during this process captured large +numbers of them. General von Eichhorn's army, the actual conquerors of +Vilna, and Von Hindenburg's center reached Osmiana, thirty miles +southeast of Vilna, on September 20, 1915. The right wing, on the same +day, had pushed on to the east of Lida and to a point just west of +Novogrudok. By September 21, 1915, the crossing of the Gavia River, a +northern tributary of the Niemen, was forced north and south of +Subolniki, and on September 22, 1915, the Russian front extending from +Osmiana to Subolniki and Novogrudok was forced to retreat a one day's +march, ten miles, taking new positions on a line: Soli (on the +Vilna-Minsk railroad)-Olshany-Traby-Ivie to a point slightly northeast +of Novogrudok. A German attempt to outflank the retreating Russians +from the north, made on September 23, 1915, at Vileika on the Vilia, +about ten miles north of the railway junction at Molodechno, failed. +During the next day the Germans again forced back the Russian front +eastward for about ten miles, or a one day's march. Along this new +front--Smorgon-Krevo-Vishneff-Sabresina-Mikolaieff, just southeast of +which latter place the historical Beresina joins the Niemen--the +Russians made a firm stand during the rest of September, 1915. + +The German advance was stopped, which fact undoubtedly was partly due +to the renewed activity of the Franco-English forces on the west +front, as well as to the absolute necessity of giving a chance to +recuperate to the armies on the east front, which had been fighting +now incessantly for months. September 28, 1915, may be considered +approximately as the date at which the Battle of Vilna ended. After +that date fighting along the eastern front assumed the form of trench +warfare, except in the extreme northern section, and in Volhynia, +eastern Galicia. In the sector, bounded in the north by the Vilia, and +in the south by the Niemen, the Russian front was along a line running +through the towns of Smorgon, Krevo, Vishneff, Sabresina, Mikolaieff. + +As a result of the Battle of Vilna and the Russian retreat following +it the Germans captured 70 officers, about 22,000 men, a large number +of cannon and machine guns, and a great quantity of equipment. Along +the entire eastern front the German forces captured men and equipment +during the month of September, 1915, as follows: 421 officers, 95,464 +men, 37 cannon, 298 machine guns, and 1 aeroplane. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE CAPTURE OF BREST-LITOVSK + + +The central group under Prince Leopold had hardly entered Warsaw +proper when it continued its advance in an easterly direction toward +Brest-Litovsk after having occupied Warsaw's eastern suburb, Praga. At +the same time other forces completed the investment of Novo +Georgievsk, covering the sector between the Nareff and the Vistula. By +August 10, 1915, the left wing of the central group had reached +Kaluszin and General von Woyrsch's army had become its right wing, +taking the Russian positions just west of Lukoff. On the same day +German aviators threw bombs both at Novo Georgievsk and +Brest-Litovsk. Under heavy fighting a crossing was forced over the +Muchavka and Lukoff was occupied on August 11, 1915. + +One of the most awful consequences of the Russian retreat was the sad +plight in which the civil population of the stricken country found +itself. In the beginning of the retreat the Russians forced these poor +people to join in the retreat. This itself, of course, meant untold +hardships and frequently death. But as the advance of the Germans +became more furious and the retreat of the Russians more rapid, it +often happened that these unfortunate persons--irrespective of age, +sex or condition--were forced by their Russian masters to turn around +again and thus place themselves squarely between the two contending +forces. + +With the fall of Lukoff an important railroad leading into +Brest-Litovsk had fallen into the hands of the invading enemy. Along +this line, which is part of the direct line Warsaw-Brest-Litovsk, +Austro-Hungarian forces now progressed rapidly in an easterly +direction and by August 14, 1915, had reached Miendzyrzets. + +In spite of the heaviest kind of bombardment and of almost +uninterrupted infantry attacks on Kovno and Novo Georgievsk, both of +these fortresses still held out. By August 1, 1915, however, the +German lines had advanced far beyond these places and it became clear +that their next chief objective was Brest-Litovsk. Each one of the +three main army groups directed strong parts of their forces toward +this Russian stronghold. From the northwest detachments of Von +Hindenburg's group, coming from Lomza and Ostroff, had crossed in a +wide front the Warsaw-Bialystok section of the Warsaw-Vilna-Petrograd +railway. After taking Briansk they had forced the crossing of the +Nurzets, a tributary of the Bug, and the only natural barrier in front +of Brest-Litovsk from that direction. They were rapidly approaching +the Brest-Litovsk-Bialystok railway. The central group's +front--Lukoff-Siedlets-Sokoloff--had been pushed forward to Drohichin +on the Bug, only about forty-five miles to the northeast of the +fortress. Parts of Von Mackensen's southern group under the Archduke +Joseph Ferdinand had even reached Biala, less than twenty miles west +of Brest-Litovsk, and still other detachments from this group were +advancing along the eastern bank of the Bug. Three railroads leading +out of the fortress were still in the hands of the Russians--to +Bialystok to the north, to Pinsk and Minsk to the east, and to Kovel +and Kovno to the south. This continuous offensive against all the +Russian lines, of course, cost both sides dearly. The attackers, +however, seemed to have had the better end of it. The Russians, +according to official figures, lost almost 100,000 men by capture +alone during the first two weeks of August, 1915. + +The German successes before Kovno and Novo Georgievsk had the result +of increasing the vigor of the drive against Brest-Litovsk. Those +detachments of Von Hindenburg's army group which had forced a crossing +of the Nareff between Bialystok and Lomza pushed on rapidly to the +south and threatened as early as August 18, 1915, the northern section +of the Bialystok-Brest-Litovsk railway. On the same day Prince +Leopold's forces reached the south bank of the Bug, north of Sarnaki. +Parts of Von Mackensen's army kept up its attack against the Russians +around Biala, forced them across the Bug and into the very forts of +Brest-Litovsk and at the same time began the bombardment of the +outlying forts with the heavy artillery that had been brought up. +Other parts, on that day, August 19, 1915, crossed the northern part +of the Cholm-Brest-Litovsk railway east of Vlodava. At the same time +Austrian forces under Field Marshal-Lieutenant von Arz and Archduke +Joseph Ferdinand cleared the left bank of the Bug, east of Janoff, and +thereby completed the investment of the fortress from the west. + +Closer and closer the girdle was drawn. Every day the German advance +progressed. In the evening of August 19, 1915, Prince Leopold's forces +crossed the Bug at Melnik and began to threaten the fortress from the +northwest. Still closer to Brest-Litovsk Austrian troops belonging to +Von Mackensen's group crossed to the north bank of the Bug near +Janoff, while other parts of this group advanced from the south beyond +Vlodava and forced the Russians to withdraw from the east bank of the +Bug north of this town. On the Germans and Austrians pushed from all +directions except, of course, the east. By August 20, 1915, the lower +part of the Brest-Litovsk-Bialystok railway was crossed and the only +railway leading out of the fortress toward the east, which at Shabinka +separates into two branches, one to Minsk and another to Pinsk, seemed +threatened. The German-Austrian advance from the south that day +reached Pishicha, apparently directly toward the southern railroad +from the fortress to Kovel and from there to Kovno and Kieff. + +From all sides now the circle around Brest-Litovsk was drawn closer. +The important railroad center at Kovel was taken on August 24, 1915, +and immediately the combined German and Austrian forces swung around +toward the north along both sides of the road leading to Kobryn, east +of the fortress and on the railroad to Pinsk. In the meantime heavy +artillery had been brought up and began the bombardment of the +fortress. During the night of August 25, 1915, the storming of the +forts began. Austrian troops under General von Arz took the three +forts on the western front, while a Brandenburg Reserve Corps attacked +from the northwest and penetrated into the central forts. The Russians +then evacuated the fortress. Its fall immediately imperiled the entire +Russian positions and resulted in a general retreat of all Russian +forces. The question for them now was no longer how long they were +able to delay the enemy, but how much they could save out of the +wreck. On the same day that saw the fall of Brest-Litovsk the Russians +lost Bialystok, and on the next day, August 16, 1915, they evacuated +the fortress of Olita on the Niemen, about halfway between Kovno and +Grodno; the latter, the last of Russia's proud string of western +fortresses of the first line, of course was now not only seriously +threatened but had become practically untenable. + +In a way the victory at Brest-Litovsk was an empty one, for the Russians +apparently had decided that the fortress would become untenable before +long and had withdrawn from it in good time not only practically the +entire garrison but also whatever supplies or equipment they could +possibly transport, destroying most of what they were forced to leave +behind and blowing up many of the fortifications. The strategical value +of the victory was, of course, not influenced by this action. After the +fall of the fortress the combined forces of the Germans and Austrians +did not rest on their laurels. Without wasting any time they immediately +took up in all directions the pursuit of the retreating Russians. For a +short time the retreating Russian troops made a determined stand in the +neighborhood of Kamienietz-Litovsk, northeast of Brest-Litovsk, but +could not withstand the German pressure for long. A great deal of very +heavy and bloody fighting took place in this period, August 25 to August +31, 1915, in the dense forest south of Bialystok and east of Bielsk, +sometimes known as the Forest of Bialystok and sometimes as the Forest +of Bielovies, a little town at the end of a short branch railroad, +running east from Bielsk. The Upper Nareff flows through this forest and +much of the fighting was along its banks. Austrian troops, a few days +earlier, had reached Pushany, just north of the Brest-Litovsk-Minsk +railroad and from there pressed on in an easterly direction. By August +21, 1915, the Upper Nareff had been crossed after the hardest kind of +fighting on both sides, and the advance continued now toward Grozana. It +was not, however, until September 1, 1915, that these troops were able +to fight their way out of the forest. At the same time Von Mackensen's +troops were following the retreating Russians into the Pripet Marshes. +Other parts of this group which had advanced east from Brest-Litovsk +along the Minsk railroad reached the Jasiolda River, a tributary of the +Pripet, at a point near Bereza, while Austro-Hungarian troops forming +part of Von Mackensen's army advanced to east and south of Boloto and +Dubowoje. Further north, Prince Leopold's army was still fighting the +retreating Russians just north of Pushany, but on September 4, 1915, +finally fought its way out of the marshes which--outrunners of the vast +Pripet Marshes--are abundant in that region. + +Back the Germans and Austrians forced their retreating enemy during +the following days, although the pursuit lost a little in force and +swiftness. For the troops which were engaged in these operations had +been steadily on the move practically ever since the attack on Warsaw +began. On September 6-7, 1915, the Russians again made a stand on a +wide front east and south of Grodno. This line stretched south from +the Niemen near Mosty to Volkovysk, then southeast to Rushana, thence +east of the Pushany Marshes across the Jasiolda River near Chenisk to +Drohichyn, on the Brest-Litovsk-Pinsk railroad. On the German and +Austrian side these engagements were fought by the armies of Prince +Leopold of Bavaria and Field Marshal von Mackensen. At the same time +troops belonging to Von Hindenburg's group attacked a newly formed +Russian line farther north which extended from Volkovysk in a +northwesterly direction to the village of Jeziory and the small lake +on which the latter is situated, just north of Grodno. Volkovysk +itself and the heights northeast of it were stormed by the Germans on +September 7, 1915, on which occasion again almost 3,000 Russians were +captured by the Germans. + +During the next few days the left wing of this army group fought in +close cooperation with the right wing of Von Hindenburg's army along +the upper Zelvianka, a southern tributary of the Niemen. The rest of +Prince Leopold's army were making the Kobryn-Minsk railroad their +objective and were fighting on September 9, 10, and 11, 1915, for +possession of the station at Kossovo. + +While Von Hindenburg's army group was occupied with the drive on Vilna +and Von Mackensen's forces advanced against Pinsk, Prince Leopold's +regiments, as we have learned, fought continuously in the sector +between the Niemen and the Jasiolda Rivers. The problem assigned to +them apparently was that of gaining the Vilna-Kovno railroad in order +to cut off the Russian retreat, and by the time Vilna fell, September +18, 1915, they had just succeeded in forcing a crossing over the Shara +River, which runs practically parallel to the Lida-Baranovitchy +section of the Vilna-Kovno railroad. In a way this gave them command +of that section; but they first had to cross the country between the +Shara and the railroad, over a width of about twenty miles. Although +they were reported on September 19, 1915, as participating in the +pursuit of the retreating Russians, they seem to have arrived just a +little too late to capture large numbers of them. In fact, not until +September 20, 1915, were they reported actually at Dvorzets, on the +Vilna-Kovno railway, while on that day the right wing of this army was +fighting west of Oshoff, which, indeed, is to the east of the +Brest-Litovsk-Minsk railway, but still a considerable distance (about +twenty-two miles) west of Moltshad, a little to the southeast of +Dvorzets; stormed Ostroff, and crossed the Oginski Canal at Telechany, +after first throwing the Russians across it. These operations netted +some 1,000 prisoners. September 22, 1915, brought their left wing +about ten miles farther east at Valeika, while farther south the +fighting continued in the same locality as on the previous day during +the following days. By September 23, 1915, the left wing again had +advanced about ten miles along the Servetsh River at Korelitchy, as +well as the Upper Shara, east of Baranovitchy and Ostroff. The Russian +resistance along this river was maintained during September 24, 1915, +although the Germans gained its eastern bank south of Lipsk. + +Just as in the Vilna-Niemen sector to the north, the German advance in +the region bounded in the north by the Niemen and in the south by the +Jasiolda was halted during the last week of September, 1915. And the +line of positions which had been reached by the German forces was +maintained throughout the rest of the fall and the entire winter, +excepting a few minor changes. In a rough way, that front extended as +follows: Starting south of the junction of the Beresina with the +Niemen, it followed the course of the latter river through the town of +Labicha for about thirty miles in a southeasterly direction, then bent +slightly to the southwest at Korelitchy, passing to the west of +Tzirin, crossed the Brest-Litovsk-Minsk railway about halfway between +Baranovitchy and Snoff and about ten miles farther south the +Vilna-Kovno railway between Luchouitchy and Nieazvied, at which town +it again bent to the southwest, along the Shara River, passing east of +Lipsk, and then along the entire length of the Oginski Canal to its +junction with the Jasiolda, northwest of Pinsk. Along this line both +the Russians and Germans dug themselves in, and throughout the winter +a bitter trench warfare netted occasionally a few lines of trenches +to the Russians and at other times had the same results for the other +side, without, however, materially changing the position of either. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +THE STRUGGLE IN EAST GALICIA AND VOLHYNIA AND THE CAPTURE OF PINSK + + +The fall of Ivangorod and Warsaw was the signal for advance for which +the southern group under Von Mackensen had been waiting. General von +Woyrsch's forces pressed on between Garvolin and Ryki, northeast of +Ivangorod. Other forces threw the Russians back beyond the Vieprz and +gradually approached the line of the Bug River. Still farther south, +on the Dniester, Austrian troops, too, forced back the Russians step +by step. On August 11, 1915, Von Mackensen's troops attacked the +Russians, who were making a stand behind the Bystrzyka and the +Tysmienika. This hastened the Russian retreat to the east of the Bug. + +Throughout the following days the story of the Russian retreat and the +German-Austrian advance changed little in its essential features. As +fast as roads permitted and as quickly as obstacles in their way could +be overcome, the forces of the Central Powers advanced. With equal +determination the Russian troops availed themselves of every possible, +and quite a few seemingly impossible, opportunities to delay this +advance. Every creek was made an excuse for making a stand, every +forest became a means of stalling the enemy, every railroad or country +road embankment had to yield its chance of putting a new obstacle into +the thorny path of the advancing invader. Whenever the latter seemed +to ease up for a moment, either to gain contact with his main forces +or to rest up after especially severe forced marches, the Russians +were on hand with an attack. But just as soon as the attack had been +made the Germans or Austrians or Hungarians, or all three together, +were ready to forget all about the temporary let-up and were prepared +to meet the attack. Then once more the pursuit would begin. + +During the drive on Brest-Litovsk, covering practically all of August, +1915, after the fall of Warsaw, the operations of Von Mackensen's +southern group were so closely connected and intertwined with those of +the central group that they have found detailed consideration together +with the latter. During all this time the extreme right wing in +Eastern Galicia did comparatively little beyond preventing an advance +of the Russian forces at that point. With the fall of Brest-Litovsk, +however, and the beginning of the Russian retreat along the entire +front, activities in the southeastern end of the Russo-German-Austrian +theatre of war were renewed. + +On August 28, 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian forces under Count +Bothmer broke through the Russian line along the Zlota-Lipa River, +both north and south of the Galician town of Brzezany, about fifty +miles southeast of Lemberg, and in spite of determined resistance and +repeated counterattacks drove the Russians some distance toward the +Russo-Galician border. At the same time other parts of Von Mackensen's +army successfully attacked the Russian line at Vladimir Volynsky, a +few miles east of the Upper Bug and somewhat north of the +Polish-Galician border. The combined attack resulted in a gradual +withdrawal of the entire Russian line as far as it was located in +Galicia, aggregating in length almost 160 miles. These operations +alone netted to the Austro-Germans about 10,000 Russian prisoners. +This attack came more or less unexpectedly, but in spite of that was +carried on most fiercely. By August 30, 1915, the right wing had +forced the Russians back to the river Strypa and was only a few miles +west of Tarnopol. + +Farther north another army under the Austrian General +Boehm-Ermolli encountered determined resistance along the line +Zlochoff-Bialykamien-Radziviloff, where the Russians were supported by +very strongly fortified positions. Still farther north the attack +progressed in the direction of the strongly fortified town of Lutsk, +on the Styr River, less than fifty miles west of the fortress of +Rovno, in the Russian province of Volhynia. This fortress, together +with Dubno, farther south on the Ikwa, a tributary of the Styr, and +with Rovno itself formed a very powerful triangle of permanent +fortifications erected by Russia in very recent times. The purpose for +which they had been intended undoubtedly was twofold; first, to offer +an obstacle to any invasion of that section of the Russian Empire on +the part of Austro-Hungarian troops with Lemberg as a base, and +secondly, to act as a base for a possible Russian attack on Galicia. + +In view of these facts, it was surprising that on August 31, 1915, +only three days after the resumption of actual fighting in Eastern +Galicia, the fall of Lutsk was announced. The very form of the +official Austrian announcement rather indicates that the Russians must +have evacuated Lutsk of their own accord, possibly after dismounting +and either withdrawing or destroying its guns. For the report states +that only one--the Fifty-fourth Infantry--regiment drove the Russians +by means of bayonet attacks out of their first-line trenches and then +followed them right into Lutsk. This, of course, could not have been +accomplished so quickly unless the Russians had already withdrawn at +that point as well as everywhere else. At the same time their line was +also pierced at Baldi and Kamuniec, which forced their withdrawal from +the entire western bank of the Styr. German troops, fighting under +General von Bothmer in cooperation with the Austro-Hungarian army of +General Boehm-Ermolli, on the same day (August 31, 1915) stormed a +series of heights on the banks of the Strypa, north of Zboroff, +although they encountered there the most determined resistance on the +part of the Russian forces. + +The immense losses in men, guns, and materials which the Russians +suffered throughout the month of August, 1915, in spite of their +genius for withdrawing huge bodies of men at the right moment, will be +seen from the following official statement published on September 1, +1915, by General Headquarters of the German armies. These figures do +not include the losses suffered by the Russian armies which in +Eastern Galicia were fighting against Austro-Hungarian troops. + +"During the month of August the number of prisoners taken by German +troops in the eastern and southeastern theatres of war, and the +quantities of war materials captured during the same period, totaled +more than 2,000 officers and 269,800 men taken prisoners, and 2,000 +cannon and 560 machine guns. + +"Of these, 20,000 prisoners and 827 cannon were taken at Kovno. About +90,000 prisoners, including 15 generals and more than 1,000 other +officers, and 1,200 cannon and 150 machine guns were taken at Novo +Georgievsk. The counting up of the cannon and machine guns taken at +Novo Georgievsk has not yet been finished, however, while the count of +machine guns taken at Kovno has not yet begun. The figures quoted as +totals, therefore, will be considerably increased. The stocks of +ammunition, provisions, and oats in the two fortresses cannot be +estimated." + +The fall of Lutsk had serious consequences for the Russians. With this +fortress gone the entire line south of it was endangered unless +promptly withdrawn. It was, therefore, not surprising that when on +September 1, 1915, the left wing of the Austro-German forces crossed +the Styr on a wide front north of Lutsk the entire Russian line down +from that point should give way. That, of course, meant the evacuation +of Galicia by the Russians. Brody, about halfway-between Lemberg and +Rovno on the railroad connecting these two cities, was taken by +Boehm-Ermolli's army on September 1, 1915, and these troops +immediately pushed on across the border. General von Bothmer's forces, +slightly to the south, kept up their advance from Zaloshe and Zboroff +in the direction of Tarnopol and the Sereth River. Still farther south +the third group under General Pflanzer-Baltin drove the Russians from +the heights on the east bank of the Lower Strypa. The general result +of all these operations was the withdrawal of the Russian front along +the Dniester between Zaleshchyki in the south and Buczacz in the +north, to a new line along the Sereth, starting at the latter's +junction with the Dniester. But there the Russians made a stand. The +hardest possible fighting took place on September 4, 1915, all along +the line in Galicia, Volhynia, and on the Bessarabian border. Much of +it was of the "hand-to-hand" kind, for both sides had thrown up +fortifications and dug trenches, which they took turns in storming and +defending. + +One of the heaviest battles of this period took place on September 6, +1915, lasting into the early morning hours of the 7th, along a front +about twenty-five miles wide, with its center about at Radziviloff, a +little town just across the border of the Lemberg-Rovno railroad, a +few miles northeast of Brody. There the Russians had strongly +intrenched themselves. The fighting was most bitter, especially around +the castle of Podkamen, which Boehm-Ermolli's troops wrested from the +Russians only through repeated and most fierce infantry attacks and by +means of terribly bloody hand-to-hand fighting. However, finally the +Russians had to give way, leaving over 3,000 men in the hands of their +adversaries. Farther south the armies of Generals von Bothmer and +Pflanzer-Baltin, too, had to withstand continuous attacks of the +Russians and more or less fighting went on all along the southeastern +front as far down as Nova-Sielnitsa, a few miles southeast of +Czernovitz at the point where the borders of Rumania, Galicia, and +Bessarabia meet. + +The result of the Austrian victory of September 7, 1915, near +Radziviloff was the further withdrawal on September 8, 1915, of the +Russian line, extending over fifty-five miles to the east bank of the +Ikwa River, a tributary of the Styr, on the west about thirty miles +northeast of Radziviloff on the Lemberg-Rovno railroad. This +withdrawal, of course, seriously threatened this fortress, which, +being on the west side of the Ikwa, was open to direct attack from the +west and south as soon as the Russians had been thrown back beyond the +Ikwa. And, indeed, the next day, September 9, 1915, brought the fall +of the city and fortress of Dubno. Austrian troops under General +Boehm-Ermolli took it by storm, while other detachments advanced to +the Upper Ikwa and beyond the town of Novo Alexinez. This was as +serious a loss to the Russians as it was a great gain for their +enemies. For Dubno commanded not only the valley of the Ikwa, but it +also blocked the very important railway and road that run from Lemberg +to Rovno. + +Farther south along the Sereth the Russian lines had been greatly +strengthened by new troops brought up from the rear by means of the +railroad Kieff-Shmerinka-Proskuroff-Tarnopol. This enabled the +Russians to make determined attacks all along the river, which were +especially severe in the neighborhood of Trembovla. General von +Bothmer's German army at first successfully withstood these attacks in +spite of Russian superiority in numbers, but was finally forced to +withdraw from the west bank of the Sereth to the heights between that +river and the Strypa River, which are between 750 and 1,000 feet above +the sea level. But on September 9, 1915, the German forces advanced +again and threw the Russians along almost the entire line again beyond +the Sereth. Farther south on that river, near its junction with the +Dniester, Austrian regiments under General Benigni and Prince +Schoenburg stormed on the same day the Russian positions northwest of +Szuparka, capturing over 4,000 Russians. + +While Von Mackensen's army was pushing its advance toward Pinsk, the +principal city in the Pripet Marsh region, along both sides of the +only railroad leading to it--the Brest-Litovsk-Kobryn-Pinsk-Gowel +railroad line--heavy fighting continued in Volhynia and East Galicia. +West of Kovno the Russians were thrown back of the Stubiel River on +September 9, 1915, by the Austrians. General von Bothmer's German +army, which formed the center of the forces in Volhynia and Galicia, +advanced from Zaloshe on the Sereth toward Zbaraz, a few miles +northeast of Tarnopol. Before the latter town, which the Russians +seemed to be determined to hold at any cost, new reenforcements had +appeared and opposed the advance of the Austro-German forces with the +utmost fierceness. In that sector they passed from the defensive to +the offensive, and with superior forces threw back the enemy again +from the Sereth to the heights on the east bank of the Strypa on +September 10, 1915. But with these heights at their back the German +line held and all Russian attacks broke down. + +In spite of this they were renewed on September 11, 1915, with such +strength that small detachments succeeded in gaining a temporary +foothold in the enemy's trenches, where the bloodiest kind of +hand-to-hand fighting occurred. At that moment General von Bothmer +ordered an attack on both flanks of the Russians, who thereby were +forced to give up the advantage which they had so dearly bought. +However, this did not make the Russians lose heart. Again and again +they came on, and so fierce were their onslaughts that the +Austro-German line was finally withdrawn to the west bank of the +Strypa on September 13, 1915. To the north, along the Ikwa from Dubno +to the border, reenforcements were also brought up by the Russians and +succeeded in holding up any further advance on the part of the +Austrian troops. Especially hard fighting took place in the +neighborhood of Novo Alexinez, a little village just across the border +in Volhynia. + +On September 15, 1915, Von Mackensen took Pinsk after having driven +the Russians out of practically all the territory between the Jasiolda +and Pripet Rivers. Considering that this city is, in a direct line, +more than 220 miles east of Warsaw, this accomplishment was little +short of marvelous, especially in view of the fact that the territory +surrounding Pinsk--the Pripet Marshes--offered immense difficulties. +However, the same difficulties were encountered by the retreating +Russians in even greater measure, because, while there is some solid +ground west of Pinsk, there is practically nothing but swamps to the +north, south, and east of the city, the direction in which the Russian +retreat necessarily had to proceed. It was thus possible for Von +Mackensen to report on September 17, 1915, the capture of 2,500 +Russians south of Pinsk. + +In the Volhynian and Galician theatre of war the struggle continued +without any abatement. Neither side, however, succeeded in gaining any +lasting and definite advantages. One day the Russians would throw +their enemies back across the Strypa, only to suffer themselves a like +fate on the next day in respect to the Sereth. More or less the same +conditions existed east of Lutsk and along the Ikwa, in both of which +regions the Russians continued their attempts to drive back the +Austro-Germans by repeated attacks. + +After the conquest of Pinsk, Von Mackensen's army for a few days +continued its advance from that town in a northeasterly, easterly, and +southeasterly direction. But here, too, the advance stopped about +September 23, 1915, after some detachments which had crossed to the +north and northeast of Pinsk, over the Oginski Canal at Lahishyn, and +over the Jasiolda between its junction with the canal and the +Pinsk-Gomel railroad, had to be withdrawn on that date. In this +sector--from the Jasiolda to the Styr at Tchartorysk just south of the +Kovel-Kieff railway--the fighting assumed the form of trench warfare, +just as it did along the rest of the front south of the Vilia River. +The front there was along the Jasiolda from its junction with the +Oginski Canal, swung around Pinsk and east of it in a semicircle, +through the Pripet Marshes, crossed the Pripet River at Nobiet and +then continued in a southerly direction to Borana on the Styr, along +that river for a distance of about twenty miles, across the +Kovel-Kieff railroad at Rafalovka to Tchartorysk on the Styr. + +Farther south the Russians gained some slight successes, and even +forced the Germans to retreat to the west bank of the Styr at Lutsk. +The fighting in that vicinity and along the Ikwa was very severe. +Especially was this true in the neighborhood of Novo Alexinez, where, +in very hilly country, the Russians launched attack after attack +against the Austro-German forces, without, however, being able to +dislodge them from their very strong positions. The battle raged +furiously on September 25, 1915, when some Russian detachments +succeeded in advancing a few miles to the southwest of Novo Alexinez +into the vicinity of Zaloshe. However, the Austrian resistance was so +strong that the Russians lost about 5,000 men. When on September 27, +1915, a German army under General von Linsingen had again forced its +way across the Styr at Lutsk and threatened to outflank the right wing +of the Russian forces, the latter finally gave way and retreated in +the direction of Kovno. A Russian attempt to break through the +Austro-German line, held by General von Bothmer's army, on the Strypa +west of Tarnopol, was made on October 2, 1915, but failed. The same +was true of attacks on the Ikwa west of Kremenet and north of Dubno +near Olyka, made on October 6, 1915. These were followed up on the +next day, October 7, 1915, with further attacks along the entire +Volhynian, East Galician, and Bessarabian front. + +At that time this front extended as follows: Starting at Tchartorysk on +the Styr, a few miles south of the Kovel-Gomel railroad, it ran almost +straight south through Tsuman, crossed the Brest-Litovsk railroad a mile +or two north of Olyka, passed about fifteen miles west of Rovno to the +Rovno-Lemberg railroad, which it crossed a few miles east of Dubno, then +followed more or less the course of the Ikwa and passed through Novo +Alexinez. There it turned slightly to the west, crossed the Sereth about +ten miles farther south, passed through Jezierna on the Lemberg-Tarnopol +railroad and crossed the Strypa at the point where this river is cut by +the Brzezany-Tarnopol railroad, about fifteen miles west of the latter +city. Again bending somewhat, this time to the east, it continued +slightly to the west of the Strypa to a point on this river about +fifteen miles north of Buczacz, then followed the course of the Strypa +on both sides to this town, bent still more to the east, passing through +Pluste, about ten miles southeast of which it crossed the Sereth a few +miles north from its junction with the Dniester, coming finally to its +end at one of the innumerable bends in the Dniester, practically at the +Galician-Bessarabian border and about twenty miles northwest of the +fortress of Chotin. Although the amount of territory gained by the +Austro-Germans in the period beginning with the fall of Warsaw was +smaller in that section than in any other on the eastern front, it was +still of sufficient size to leave now in the hands of the Russians only +a very small part of Galicia, little more than forty miles wide at its +greatest width and barely eighty miles long at its greatest length. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +IN THE PRIPET MARSHES + + +A Great deal of the fighting after the fall of Brest-Litovsk, August +27, 1915, occurred in and near the extensive swamp lands surrounding +the city of Pinsk and located on both sides of the River Pripet. To +the Russians this part of the country is known as the Poliessie; its +official name is the Rokitno Marshes, after the little town of that +name situated slightly to the west, but it is usually spoken of as the +Pripet Marshes. Parts of this unhealthy and very difficult region are +located in five Russian governments: Mohileff, Kieff, Volhynia, Minsk, +and Grodno, and these swamps therefore are the border land of Poland, +Great Russia, and Little Russia. A comparatively small section of them +has been thoroughly explored and their exact limits have never been +determined. In the west and east the Rivers Bug and Dniester +respectively form a definite border, which is lacking in the south and +north, while to the northwest the famous Forest of Bielovies may be +considered its boundary. According to a very rough estimate the Pripet +Marshes are approximately one-half as large as the kingdom of Rumania; +only one river of importance runs through them, the Pripet, from +which, indeed, the marshes take their popular name. On both of its +sides the Pripet has a large number of tributaries, among which on the +right are: the Styr, the Gorin, the Usha, and on the left the Pina, +the Sluch, and the Ptych. A large number of small lakes are +distributed throughout the entire district. Quite a large number of +canals have been built, one of which connects the Pina with the Bug, +another the Beresina, of Napoleonic fame and a tributary of the +Dnieper, with the Ula and through the latter with the Dvina. In this +manner it is possible to reach the Baltic Sea by means of continuous +waterways from the Black Sea. + +It is very difficult to conceive a clear picture of this region +without having actually seen it. In a way one may call it a gigantic +lake which away from its shores has been filled in with sand to a +small extent and to a larger extent has turned into swamps. It is +densely covered with rushes, and out of its waters, which are far from +clear, a multitude of stony islets rise up covered with dense +underbrush. Its center is surrounded by an even more dense seam of +pine forests. Its rivers and brooks are so slow that they can hardly +be distinguished from stagnant waters. The only town of any importance +within its limits is Pinsk on the Pina. + +In a general way five railroad lines have been built through various +parts of the Pripet Marshes; the most important being a section of +the Rovno-Vilna railroad; two others of special importance to the +Russian retreat were the Brest-Litovsk-Pinsk-Gomel and the +Ivangorod-Lublin-Cholm-Kovel-Kieff road. The Brest-Litovsk-Minsk +railroad also passes in its greatest part through the outlying +sections of the Pripet Marshes. The effect of these swamp lands on +the Russian retreat and the German advance, of course, was twofold: +it increased the difficulty of the Russian retreat, throwing at the +same time very serious obstacles in the way of the advancing +Germans. + +To the southward, and in a region very similar in all its +characteristics, is the Volhynian triangle of fortresses: Lutsk, +Dubno, and Rovno. Here too, during the fighting around these three +places, the Russian and German armies had to contend with tremendous +difficulties, which were caused chiefly by the fact that this part of +the country, with the exception of a few sections, was almost +impassable. This fact, undoubtedly, was primarily responsible for the +decision of the Russian Government to locate these three powerful +fortresses at that particular point, because the very difficulties +which nature had provided became valuable aids to a strong defense +against an invasion of Russian territory by Austro-Hungarian troops +from the south. + +The fortresses of Lutsk and Dubno date with their beginning as far +back as 1878, at which time they were built according to the plans of +the Russian General Todleben. A little later the fortifications of +Rovno were added to this group, and one of the strongest triangles of +Russia's fortifications was formed thereby. The sides of this triangle +measure thirty, twenty-five, and forty miles respectively. The +longest of these is the line between Lutsk and Rovno, with its back +toward the Pripet Marshes. Of the three fortresses Rovno is the most +important from a strategical point of view, for it defends the +junction of three of the most valuable railroads, the railway leading +from Lemberg into Volhynia, that running south from Vilna into +Galicia, and the railroad which by way of Berticheff indirectly +connects Kieff with both Warsaw and Brest-Litovsk. The three +fortresses, therefore, acted as a wedge between the most southeastern +and the Polish zones of operations. They secured the connection of any +Russian forces in Poland with the interior of Russia, and made +possible the transfer of forces through the protection which they gave +to the various railroad lines necessary for such a transfer. On +account of the conditions of the surrounding territory it was +impossible for any attacking army to dispose of the fortresses by +investing them with part of their available forces while the balance +of them continued on their advance; for the only way to reach the +country in back of the three fortresses was by way of the fortresses +themselves, which meant, of course, that they would have to be taken +first before the advance could be continued. Furthermore, the +fortresses also acted as a barrier, protecting the approaches to +Kieff, enabling the undisturbed concentration of an army in that +protected zone while the enemy would be busily occupied in battering +his way through the fortress triangle. The latter were still more +strengthened by the Rivers Ikwa and Styr, which flow to the southwest +and north of them. + +The fortifications of all these three points were not of particularly +recent origin, although they had been remodeled at various times since +their original creation. Lutsk, a city of some twenty thousand +inhabitants, is located on a small island of the Styr, and controls +the Kovel-Rovno section of the Brest-Litovsk-Berticheff railroad. Some +ten forts of various degrees of strength surrounded the central +fortifications, forming a girdle of forts with a circumference of +approximately ten miles. Dubno, southeast of Lutsk, a town of about +fifteen thousand inhabitants, is located in the valley of Ikwa on its +left bank, and protects the Brody-Zdolbitsa section of the +Lemberg-Rovno-Vilna railroad, with its branches to Kovel, +Brest-Litovsk, and to Kieff. The forts are not as numerous as at +Lutsk, but are more advantageously located and, therefore, proved more +difficult for the attacking Austro-Hungarian-German troops. Besides +the Styr and Ikwa Rivers this comparatively small sector offers other +natural advantages in the form of a number of smaller streams, the +defense of which is greatly assisted by the marshy condition of their +banks and the heavy growth of underbrush to be found there. + +Rovno, the largest of the three cities, with about twenty thousand +inhabitants, was first fortified in 1887, and as a railroad junction +is even more important than either Lutsk or Dubno. Its fortifications +are built to serve as a fortified bridgehead. They amount to seven +forts of which five are located on the left bank of the Ustje and two +on the right. These forts were built in the form of a semicircle, at a +distance of four to six miles from the city itself and with a +circumference of approximately twenty-five miles. Originally this +group of fortresses undoubtedly was intended to act as a basis for a +Russian invasion of Galicia and Hungary rather than as a means of +defense against an invasion from these countries. And, indeed, in the +earlier part of the war, when the Russians forced their way into +Galicia and to the Carpathian Mountains, they fulfilled their purpose +with greater success than they were destined to achieve now as a means +of defense. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +FIGHTING ON THE DVINA AND IN THE DVINA-VILNA SECTOR + + +At the time Warsaw fell, in the beginning of August, 1915, the eastern +front north of the Niemen extended as follows: Starting on the western +shore of the Gulf of Riga, at a point about twenty miles west of Riga +and about thirty miles northwest of Mitau it ran in a slightly curved +line in a southeasterly direction to the town of Posvol on the Musha +River, passing just west of Mitau and the River Aa, about ten miles +west of Bausk. From Posvol a salient with a diameter of about twenty +miles extended around Ponevesh on the Libau-Dvinsk railroad, with its +most eastern point a few miles west of Kupishki on the same railroad +line. From there the southern side of the salient passed through +Suboch and Rogoff to Keydany on the Nievraza, and along the banks of +that stream to its junction with the Niemen, about five miles west of +Kovno. + +In a preceding chapter we have learned how this line was pushed back +by the Germans during and following the drive on Kovno and Vilna. +After Vilna's fall on September 18, 1915, the Germans had advanced +along the western shore of the Gulf of Riga to Dubbeln, about ten +miles west of Riga, at the Aa's delta. But, although the Germans +succeeded in crossing the Aa at Mitau and establishing their positions +to the east of that city, they were unable then, and in fact during +the following months, to approach closer to Riga at that point, so +that a salient was formed west of Riga, which at its widest point was +over twenty miles distant from this point. Just south of Mitau, the +south side of this salient bent almost straight to the east for a +distance of thirty miles until it reached Uexkuell on the Dvina, about +twenty miles southeast of Riga. From there the line followed almost +exactly the east bank of the Dvina, passing through the important +towns of Friedrichstadt and Jacobstadt, from where it bent due south, +gradually drawing away to the west of the Dvina River and passing west +and southwest of Dvinsk at a distance of about ten miles. All along +this line considerable fighting took place throughout September, 1915, +as has already been narrated. + +During September 21-22, 1915, this fighting was especially severe west +and southwest of Dvinsk, where the Germans were making unsuccessfully +desperate efforts to break the Russian lines and get within striking +distance of Dvinsk. However, although they managed to maintain their +own lines against all Russian attacks and to gather in some 5,000 +prisoners, they could not break the Russian defensive. + +The Russian forces at this point were led by General Russky, among +whose commanders was Radko Dmitrieff, of Balkan War fame. Both of +these generals are to be counted among the greatest Russian leaders +and they were especially expert in everything that pertained to +fortresses and their defense. As wonderful as the German military +machine had proven itself, as severe as their often repeated +offensives were, as superior as their supply of artillery and +munitions was both in quality and quantity, Russky and Dmitrieff +proved a good match for them all. The possession of Dvinsk at that +particular moment would have meant an almost inestimable advantage to +the Germans, just as its loss would have been apt to mean the complete +rout of the Russians. For once the line broken to a sufficiently great +width at that point, all the Russian forces having their basis on +Petrograd, Smolensk, and Moscow might have been turned completely. + +This supreme importance of Dvinsk was understood equally well by both +sides. On the part of the Germans this understanding resulted in +unceasing attacks by all available means and forces, while the +Russians on their part were prepared to defend their positions with a +stubbornness and determination unequaled by the case of any other +fortress with the possible exception of Riga and Rovno. The harder the +Germans drove their armies against Dvinsk the harder the Russians +fought to repulse them. The latter were greatly assisted in this by +the fact that strong reenforcements had been sent to this crucial +point from Petrograd and from other interior points. Still more +important was the beginning of considerable improvement in the Russian +supply of guns and shells. Even though, in that respect, Russky was +undoubtedly still far behind his German opponent, Von Hindenburg, yet +he was at that moment in a much better position than any other Russian +general. Dvinsk had to be held at all costs--the Russian General Staff +apparently had decided--and to Dvinsk, therefore, were sent all +available guns and munitions. + +Originally the fortress of Dvinsk was far from being up to date or +particularly effective and imposing. It consisted of an old citadel +which, it is true, had been improved considerably; but even then its +outworks extended hardly farther than a mile beyond its own range. As +soon as General Russky assumed command he began feverishly to improve +these conditions. In this undertaking he was greatly assisted by the +nature of the countryside surrounding Dvinsk. Immediately to the +northwest, west, south, and southeast the River Dvina formed a strong +line of natural defense. Beyond that was a region thickly covered with +small and big lakes, which swung around Dvinsk as a center, in the +form of an immense three-quarters circle, starting to the south of the +Libau-Ponevesh-Dvinsk railroad and stopping just west of the +Dvinsk-Pskoff-Petrograd railroad. The diameter of this circle varies +from thirty miles to sixty. The ground between these lakes is swampy +in many places, difficult of approach, and comparatively easy to +defend even against superior forces, especially because most of it is +not entirely flat, but interspersed with hills and woodlands. + +Throughout this entire district the Russians built a dense network of +trenches, and it was especially by means of these that the Germans +were repulsed not only successfully but with great losses to their +attacking forces. The more important of these earth fortifications +were built in a novel fashion. The main part of each had the form of a +crescent with its horns turned toward the enemy. Every attack from the +latter, in order to find a point big enough for an effective attack, +had to be frontal in nature; that means, it had to be directed against +the main part of the crescent-shaped trench. But, whenever such a +frontal attack would be executed and just as soon as the attackers +would be inside of the sides of the crescent, machine guns and rifle +fire from its two horns would hit them on both flanks and frequently +destroy them utterly. In order to make the Germans advance far enough +into the crescent, advanced trenches had been built in front of its +horns, which were connected with the main part of the crescent by +communicating trenches. + +These advanced trenches were manned by comparatively small forces, +whose duty it was to offer a sufficiently strong resistance to draw a +fairly good-sized number of Germans. This purpose having been +accomplished the troops in the advanced trenches would give way and +retire by means of the communicating trenches into their main +positions. Again and again the Germans followed them into the +death-dealing hollow, to be decimated unmercifully in the manner +described above. At the same time Russian guns would open fire and +direct a sheet of shells toward the back of the attacker, thus cutting +off most effectively any reenforcements which might have made it +possible for the Germans to either storm the main trench or withdraw +at least that part of their attacking party which had not yet fallen +prey to Russian ingenuity. It is said that General Russky contrived to +throw out fortifications of this nature around Dvinsk in an immense +circle which had a diameter of twenty miles and with its circumference +formed a front of almost two hundred miles. Of course, this front was +not in the form of an unbroken line. There were any number of places +along it that could be occupied by the Germans practically at will. +But once there the next advance would invariably bring them face to +face with a new obstacle, kill hundreds of them, and frequently result +in the withdrawal of the remnant to its main line, from where another +advance would be attempted promptly on the next day. + +One other feature of these fortifications contributed a great deal to +their becoming practically impregnable. The Russian engineering troops +saw to it that all these works were built as narrow as possible and +were dug as deep as the ground permitted. It was this fact which made +the German artillery fire so surprisingly ineffective at this point. +In spite of its unceasing fierceness the results it accomplished were +as nothing compared with the effort and expense it involved. For, of +course, no matter how brilliant the gunnery, how wonderful the cannon, +how devastating the shells, if the target at which they are aimed is +sufficiently far away and sufficiently small, the result will be +disappointing; and the Russians at Dvinsk saw to it that the Germans +experienced a long series of costly and heartbreaking disappointments +of that nature. + +A Hungarian staff correspondent, who was with Von Hindenburg's army, +had this to say about the siege of Dvinsk, or rather about the attacks +on its outlying fortifications: "The German army could not make use +of its heavy artillery, for it proved quite useless, owing to the +extreme narrowness of the Russian trenches. In the lake district south +of Dvinsk the Russians made the utmost of their natural defenses, and +even the advanced trenches there were only occupied after very heavy +losses, and then retained under the most trying circumstances. In +taking Novo Alexandrovsk--a village about fifteen miles southwest of +Dvinsk on the Dvinsk-Kovno post road--the losses incurred on our part +were unprecedented in severity." + +Another correspondent in writing to his paper, the "Vossische +Zeitung," describes the fortifications of Dvinsk as follows: "Every +rod of land is covered with permanent trenches, roofed securely +against shrapnel and shell fragments and connected with so-called 'fox +holes'--small shelters in which the garrisons are safe against the +heaviest shells. Sand trenches, skillfully laid out, so that they are +mutually outflanking, smother exploding projectiles. The flanking fire +of the machine guns often annihilates the assailants when they are +apparently successfully attacking. One company alone thus lost +fifty-one dead in one day. Between September 15 and October 26, 1915, +Dvinsk, in a way, was captured fifteen times, but it is still in +Russian hands. The bombardment has reduced the fortress in size +one-half without affecting in the least the strength of the +remainder." + +South of Dvinsk, however, the Germans had been able to advance their +line slightly farther to the east. On September 27-28, 1915, and the +following days they were fighting on the shores of Lake Drysvidly, +about ten miles east of the Dvinsk-Vilna railroad, and at Postavy, ten +miles south of the Disna River, a southern tributary of the Dvina. +Again on October 1, 1915, the Russians attacked north of Postavy, as +well as south on the shores of Lakes Narotch and Vishneff, but without +success. Throughout the next day the fighting continued, although not +particularly severe. But on October 6, 1915, stronger Russian forces +were again thrown against the German lines. In the beginning they +gained ground at Koziany, on the Disna, and south on Lakes Drysvidly +and Vishneff, but the day's net results left the Germans in possession +of their old positions. Russian attacks in that region during October +7-8, 1915, suffered the same fate. + +On the latter day the Germans made an attack in force south of Ilukst, +ten miles to the northwest of Dvinsk, and took the village of +Garbunovka, capturing over 1,000 Russians and some machine guns. On +the next day, October 9, 1915, the Russians attempted unsuccessfully +to regain these positions and were also defeated to the west of +Ilukst, north of the Ponevesh-Dvinsk railroad. On the 10th, attacks +west of Dvinsk and Vidzy, north of the Disna, had no better results. + +Throughout the following week, October 10 to 17, 1915, the Russian +army continuously attacked along the entire line west and south of +Dvinsk. In some instances they succeeded in breaking temporarily and +for short distances through the German line. But in no case did this +lead to a lasting success and, in some instances even, the Germans +closed the line again so quickly that the Russian detachments who had +broken through were cut off from their main body and fell into the +hands of the Germans. + +Both on October 22 and 23, 1915, the Russians launched strong attacks +near Sadeve, south of Kosiany, which were repulsed in both instances. +On the latter day the Germans again attacked northwest of Dvinsk, near +Ilukst, and captured some Russian positions as well as over 3,500 men +and twelve machine guns, maintaining their hold on the former in the +face of strong Russian counterattacks on October 24, 1915. Small +German detachments which had advanced toward the north of Ilukst on +that day, however, had to give way promptly to superior Russian +forces. In spite of this the Germans repeated the experiment on the +following day with stronger forces and at that time gained their +point. On October 26, 1915, the Germans broke through the Russian line +south of the Ponevesh-Dvinsk railroad, between the latter city and the +station of Abele, but had to give up part of the newly-gained +positions during the night only to regain it again the next morning. A +Russian attack against this position undertaken later on that day, +October 27, 1915, broke down under German artillery fire, before it +had fully developed. + +In a similar way the most furious kind of fighting took place +throughout this period on the Riga salient. There, too, the Russians, +successfully held the Germans at a safe distance. In the second half +of October, 1915, when Von Hindenburg apparently had become convinced +that he would not succeed in taking Dvinsk before the coming of +winter, if at all, the German general began to shift the center of his +operations toward the north and massed large forces against Riga. +According to some reports as many as six army corps were concentrated +at that point. The country there, though different from that in the +vicinity of Dvinsk, was hardly less difficult for the Germans and +offered almost as many opportunities for natural defenses to the +Russians. + +We have already described at the beginning of this chapter the exact +location of the salient that ran around Riga from Dubbeln on the Gulf +of Riga by way of Mitau to Uexkuell on the Dvina. The first sector of +it--Dubbeln-Mitau--was approximately twenty-five miles long, and the +second--Mitau-Uexkuell--about thirty miles. On its western and +northwestern side it was bounded to a great extent by the River Aa and +by the eastern half of Lake Babit. The latter is about ten miles long, +but only a little more than one mile in width and runs almost parallel +to part of the south shore of the Gulf of Riga, at a distance of about +three miles. + +On its southern and southeastern sides the salient followed, for some +ten miles, first the post road and then the railroad from Mitau to +Kreutzburg on the Dvina--about fifty miles northwest of Dvinsk--and +then turned to the northeast for another twenty miles or so. On this +latter stretch it crossed two tributaries of the River Aa, the Eckau +and the Misse. Through the entire depth of the salient, in a +southwesterly direction from Riga, runs a section about twenty-five +miles long of the Riga-Mitau-Libau railroad, cutting it practically +into two equal parts. Another railroad connects Riga with Dubbeln and +still another with Uexkuell, so that the Russians had good railroad +communications to every point of the salient. The inside of the +latter, besides the rivers mentioned, contained some half dozen other +smaller waterways, tributaries of the Aa and Dvina, and was covered +almost entirely with dense forests. In the center of these there are +located extensive swamps known as the Tirul Marshes, and smaller +stretches of swamp lands are also found in various other sections of +these woods. + +With the exception of the Mitau-Riga railroad there are only two means +of approaching Riga, a fairly good road that leads along Lake Babit +from the Aa to Riga, and another that runs from Gross Eckau on the +Eckau River through the woods by way of Kekkau to Riga and in its +northern part parallels the Dvina. The latter stream widens +considerably about ten or fifteen miles above Riga and forms many +small islands, the largest of which is Dalen Island, just to the north +of Kekkau. Separating it from the mainland is only a comparatively +narrow arm of the Dvina. The northern tip of the island is solid, +somewhat elevated ground, and commands the eastern main arm of the +Dvina as well as its eastern bank. If the Germans could gain this +island their chances of reaching Riga from the south would be many +times increased. An attack in that direction had nothing to fear from +a flanking movement on the part of the Russians, because the latter +would be prevented from getting at their advancing enemy either from +the west or northwest by the impassable Tirul Marshes. + +On October 16, 1915, the Germans decided to attempt this maneuver and +made a rather unexpected attack east of Mitau and north of Eckau and +forced the Russians back of the Misse River, an eastern tributary of +the River Aa, near Basui, on which occasion they claimed to have +captured over 10,000 men. Some more ground was gained in that +neighborhood during the next three days. + +Immediately the Russians retaliated by an equally unexpected naval +operation far to the north, at the western entrance to the Gulf of +Riga. A Russian fleet appeared there and bombarded the ports of +Domesnaes and Gipken. Detachments were landed. Although they destroyed +some of the fortifications that had been erected there by the Germans +and scattered the small forces which the Germans had there, they +withdrew within a few days. This operation had practically no +influence on the further developments along the balance of the front, +except that, threatening as it was for the time being to the German +rear, it resulted in a temporary reduction of the pressure that the +Germans were trying to exert from the south. + +One other attempt to reach Riga before the coming of winter was made +toward the end of October. Apparently the German plan was to make a +triple attack on the Baltic fortress. From the south another drive was +made against Dalen Island. From the southwest the new offensive +started from Mitau in the direction of Olai along the Mitau-Riga +railroad, and from the west reenforcements that had been concentrated +at Tukum advanced on both sides of Lake Babit. However, this +offensive, too, was unsuccessful. Especially that started along the +north shore of Lake Babit proved costly to the Germans. There the +stretch of land between the gulf and the lake is nowhere more than +three miles wide, and in many places not that wide. Through its entire +length flows the Aa. It is only sparsely wooded. Comparatively small +Russian forces successfully opposed the advancing Germans, whose +narrow front was easily dominated and driven back by machine guns and +field artillery; from the gulf, too, Russian war vessels trained their +guns on the Germans, and the attack was quickly broken up with +considerable losses to the attackers and only small losses to the +defenders. Against these conditions the Germans seemed to be helpless. +They fell back along the north shore of Lake Babit and along the Aa +toward their base at Schlock. This, of course, necessitated a +simultaneous withdrawal of the German forces on the south shore of the +lake. The Russians immediately followed up their advantage, and by +November 6, 1915, the Germans had withdrawn all their forces from +along the north side of the Tirul Marshes. About that time the Germans +withdrew beyond the Aa to its west bank, and on November 8, 1915, the +Russians stormed the village of Kemmern, about five miles west of +Schlock. During the next two weeks, November 8 to 22, 1915, continuous +fighting took place to the north of the Schlock-Tukum railroad. This +resulted in the storming by the Russians of the villages of Anting and +Ragasem on the shores of Lake Kanger and the withdrawal of the +Germans beyond the west shore of this lake. + +As early as the beginning of November weather conditions had made +fighting on a large scale impossible for a few weeks. Attacks and +counterattacks, such as we have just described, were still kept up in +front of Dvinsk and Riga, it is true, but they gradually lost in +extent and severity and brought practically no changes of any +importance. Along the rest of the front, down to the Vilia, the +fighting assumed, like everywhere else on the eastern front, the form +of trench warfare, interrupted occasionally by artillery duels of +considerable severity, doing, however, more damage to the landscape +than to the military forces. Aero attacks on a small scale, too, were +the order on both sides whenever opportunity and climatic conditions +permitted. This state of affairs continued throughout the months of +November and December, 1915, and January and February, 1916. + +Throughout this period the Russo-German lines in the Dvina-Vilia +sector remained practically unchanged, although, of course, minor +readjustments took place here and there. In the north, along the Aa +and Dvina, and before Dvinsk, it was still in the same position that +has been described in the beginning of this chapter, except that it +had been pushed back from Dubbeln to Lake Kanger, Kemmern, and the +River Aa. At the point where it crossed the Vilna-Dvinsk railroad, +about ten miles southwest of Dvinsk, it bent still more to the +southeast, passed east of Lake Drysvidly, then about ten miles east of +Vidzy, crossed the Disna near Koziany, and reached its most easterly +point a few miles west of the village of Dunilovichy. From there it +bent back again in a westerly direction, but ran still toward the +south, about ten miles east of Lake Narotch, and at the same distance +to the west of the town of Vileika to the Vilia, just north of +Smorgon. + +In spite of all the severe fighting before Dvinsk and Riga, neither of +these cities had yet been brought within the range of the majority of +the German guns, even though continuous local successes had been +gained on the part of the German troops. The losses which the latter +suffered cannot be stated definitely, because no official figures, +either Russian or German, are available. They must have been severe, +however. The net result of all the fighting in the region before +Dvinsk, which had then been in progress practically for fifty days, +therefore, was next to nothing for the Germans and hardly more for the +Russians. Neither had been able to gain any definite success over the +other. Throughout all this time the Germans not only made innumerable +infantry attacks, but also kept up an incessant artillery fire, +throwing as many as 100,000 shells a day against the Russian +positions. That they did not gain their point speaks well, not only +for the valor of the Russian army, but also for the ability of its +leader, General Russky. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +WINTER BATTLES ON THE STYR AND STRYPA RIVERS + + +As the autumn of 1915 drew to an end and winter approached, the +fighting along the eastern front changed from attacks over more or +less extensive spaces to trench warfare within very restricted +territory and to artillery duels. This change took place, as we have +already seen, as far as the front from the Vilia River down to the +southern limits of the Pripet Marshes was concerned, as early as the +end of September, 1915. Farther south, however, along the Styr and its +tributary, the Ikwa, and in the region through which the Strypa, +Sereth, and Dniester flow, in the Russian provinces of Volhynia and in +Austro-Hungarian East Galicia, the severest kind of fighting was kept +up much longer. + +The preceding chapter carried us, as far as this territory was +concerned, up to October 7, 1915. On that day the Russians attacked +with all available forces of men and munitions along the entire +Volhynian, Galician, and Bessarabian front. One of the principal +points of contention was the little town of Tchartorysk on the Styr, +about five miles south of the Warsaw-Kovel-Kieff railroad. To the +northwest of it the Germans under General Linsingen began a +counterattack on October 7, 1915, and threw the Russians across the +Styr. A Russian counterattack, undertaken on the 8th with the object +of regaining their lost position, was frustrated by artillery fire. To +the north, just across the railroad at Rafalovka, attacks and +counterattacks followed each other as regularly as day and night. For +about two weeks a series of local engagements on this small front of +ten or fifteen miles took place with such short periods of rest that +one may well speak of them as the Battle of Tchartorysk. Neither side, +however, seemed to be able to gain any marked advantage. + +About the 18th of October, 1915, the Russians succeeded, after +bringing up reenforcements, in driving a wedge into the Austro-German +line which they were able to maintain until October 21, 1915. On that +day the Austro-Germans, too, brought up reenforcements and started a +strong offensive movement. From three sides the small salient was +attacked near Okonsk, and after furious resistance it caved in. +Russian counterattacks to the north and south, undertaken in order to +relieve the pressure on the center, had no effect. The Russians were +forced to retreat, and left 15 officers, 3,600 men, 1 cannon, and 8 +machine guns in the hands of their enemies. However, the Russians came +on again and again, and the battle continued for a number of days. +Step by step the Russian troops were forced back again toward the +Styr. Village after village was stormed by the combined Austro-German +forces. In many cases small villages changed hands three or four times +in as many days. Not a day passed without repeated attempts on the +part of both sides to break through the line. But though some of these +were successful, sometimes for the Russians and sometimes for their +adversaries, the gains were only temporary and local, and were usually +wiped out again before long. On November 16, 1915, however, the +Austro-German forces gained a decided victory over the Russians, who +were thrown back to the east bank of the Styr under very heavy losses. +By that time the winter weather had become too severe for extensive +operations, and comparative inactivity ruled along that part of the +front. + +While the Battle of Tchartorysk was raging, engagements of varying +importance and extent, but all of great severity and costly to victor +and vanquished alike, took place at other parts of the Volhynian, +Galician, and Bessarabian front. Just south of Tchartorysk, near Kolki +on the Styr, Austrian troops gained additional territory on October 7, +1915. Still farther south at Olyka, west of Rovno, the Russians were +thrown back by a bayonet attack, carried out by two Austro-Hungarian +infantry regiments. On the Ikwa, northwest of Kremenets, a very bitter +struggle ensued for the village of Sopanov, which during one day, +October 7, 1915, changed hands not less than four times, but finally +remained in the possession of Austro-Hungarian forces west of +Tarnopol. Russian attacks gained temporary successes, which were lost +again when German and Austro-Hungarian reenforcements were brought to +their assistance. On October 8, 1915, these attacks were not only +repeated, but new attacks developed on the Strypa at Buczacz, Tluste, +and Burkanov, which, however, were all repulsed. During these two days +the Russians lost over 6,000 men on the Styr and Strypa Rivers. Again, +on October 9-10, 1915, the Russians attacked along these two waterways +and on the Ikwa. On the latter day four separate attacks were launched +at Burkanov alone. On the 14th another attempt was made to break +through the line west of Tarnopol. Then a period of comparative rest +set in for about a week. + +But on October 20, 1915, a new Russian attack near Novo Alexinez, a +small border village, resulted in a slight gain, which, however, could +not be enlarged in spite of heroic efforts. An attack east of Zaloshe +on the Sereth was likewise without success. Both of these were +repeated on October 21-22, 1915, without better results. During the +next week the fighting was reduced considerably in volume and +severity, until on October 30, 1915, a new attack with replenished +forces against the Strypa line started the ball rolling once more. On +the same day a Russian aeroplane was brought down southeast of Lutsk. + +According to official figures published by the General Staffs of the +German and Austro-Hungarian armies respectively, the Russian losses +during the month of October, 1915, amounted to 244 officers, 41,000 +men, 23 cannon, and 80 machine guns, all captured by German forces, +and 142 officers, 26,000 men, 1 cannon, 44 machine guns, and 3 +aeroplanes captured by the Austro-Hungarian troops. Corresponding +figures for the armies of the Central Powers are not available. + +On the last day of October, 1915, renewed fighting broke out again on +the Strypa, near Sikniava, where the Russians had concentrated strong +forces. The Austrians met a strong attack with a prompt counterattack +and carried the day. As before, the fighting, once started at one +point on the Strypa, quickly spread. On November 2, 1915, the +engagement at Sikniava was continued, and a new attack developed near +Buczacz with the usual more or less negative result for both +sides--maintenance of all attacked positions without gain of new +territory. Another series of very bitter clashes occurred between +November 4-7, 1915, near the village of Sienkovce on the Strypa. +During the same period fighting went on also at many other points of +that small river, which by this time had seen the flow of almost as +much blood as water. + +Southeast of the village of Visnyvtszyk on the Strypa seven separate +Russian attacks were launched within these four days. On the 7th a +strong attack was made also in the neighborhood of Dubno from the +direction of Rovno without gaining ground. Isolated attacks of varying +extent took place for a few more days. But by that time severe winter +weather restricted operations in this sector just as it had done along +the balance of the eastern front. Of course occasional attacks were +started whenever a lull in the snowstorms or a favorable change in +temperature made it possible. But, generally speaking, the Styr and +Strypa section now settled down to trench fighting, artillery duels, +and minor engagements between advanced outposts. The Russian losses +during the month of November, 1915, as far as they were inflicted by +Austro-Hungarian troops, totaled 78 officers, 12,000 men, and 32 +machine guns. + +Late in December, 1915, on the 24th, the Russians, disregarding +climatic conditions, once more began an extensive offensive movement +in East Galicia and on the Bessarabian border, with Czernovitz, the +capital of the Austro-Hungarian province of Bukowina, as its +apparent objective. It lasted until January 15, 1916, or +twenty-three days, interrupted only occasionally by a day or two of +slightly decreased activity. Its net result for the Russian army, in +spite of very heavy losses in killed, wounded, and captured, was +only the certainty of having inflicted fairly heavy losses on the +German and Austro-Hungarian troops opposing them. Territory they +could not gain, at least not to a large enough extent to be of any +influence on the further development of events. The severest +fighting during these operations took place near Toporoutz and +Rarawotse on the Bessarabian border. Much of it was at very close +range, and on many days the Russians made three and four, sometimes +even more, successive attacks against one and the same problem. +Especially bitter fighting occurred on January 11, 1916, when one +position was attacked five times during the day and a sixth time as +late as ten o'clock that night. + +Coinciding with the Russian attempt to break once more through the +Austro-Hungarian line into the Bukowina, attacks were launched from +time to time at various places on the Dniester, Sereth, and Strypa, +especially in the vicinity of Buczacz. None of these, however, had any +effect, nor were other very occasional attacks west of Rovno and on +the Styr of more avail. During the three weeks of fighting the +Russians, according to official Austro-Hungarian figures, lost over +5,000 men by capture. + +[Illustration: The Battle Front In Russia, January 1, 1916.] + +After a few days' lull the Russian armies began another battle with +strong forces near Toporoutz and Bojan, east of Czernovitz, on January +18, 1916. The severity of the fighting increased on the next day, +January 19, 1916, and at the same time heavy artillery fire was +directed against many other points along the East Galician front. +Again the Russians suffered severe losses during their repeated +storming attacks against the strongly fortified positions of the +Austro-Hungarian troops. After two days' preparation, by means of +artillery fire, another attack was thrust against the Toporoutz +section on January 22, 1916, but when this, too, did not bring the +desired result the Russians apparently lost heart. For, from then on +for the balance of January, 1916, as well as through the entire month +of February, 1916, they made further attacks only at very rare +intervals, but otherwise restricted themselves to artillery duels and +trench fighting. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +ON THE TRACKS OF THE RUSSIAN RETREAT + + +In the preceding chapters we have followed, day by day, the military +events of the Russian retreat and of the German advance after the fall +of Warsaw and Ivangorod. With admiration we have heard of the deeds of +valor accomplished by the various armies of the three belligerents. +The endurance that they displayed, the hardships that they had to +bear, the losses that they suffered--both victor and conquered--have +given us a clearer idea what war means to the men that actually wage +it. Occasionally we have had glimpses of the devastation that it +brings to the country over the hills and valleys and over the plains +and forests of which it rages. Again and again we have been told of +the horrible suffering and utter ruin which was the share of the civic +population, rich and poor, young and old, man, woman, or child. But +these latter features are apt to be overshadowed by the more +sensational events of battle and siege, and in the excitement of these +we easily lose sight of the tremendous drama in which not trained +soldiers act the parts, but ordinary everyday beings, farmers and +merchants, working men and women, students and scholars, people of +every age, race, and condition, people just like we ourselves and like +those with whom we come in daily contact throughout our entire life. +And yet their numbers run into the tens of millions as compared with +the hundreds of thousands or perhaps four or five millions of +soldiers, and it is _their_ suffering--bared as it is of the glory and +excitement that usually lightens the life of the fighting man--that is +the quintessence of war's tragedy. + +No one who has not been himself a participant or an actual observer of +these horrors can really and truly gauge their full extent or describe +them adequately. But a clear record of them is as much an essential +requirement of a war's history as a chronological narration of its +various events. In the following paragraphs will be found gathered +reliable reports based on the keen observation of men who in their +capacity as special correspondents of various newspapers had +opportunities to collect and observe facts at close range and the very +vicinity where they transpired. They come from various sources, but +chiefly from the narrative of a war correspondent published in the +Munich "Neueste Nachrichten," who was himself an eyewitness of what he +describes. Although they refer more especially to that part of Russia +that is situated between the Galician border and the fortress of +Brest-Litovsk--the region of the Bug River--they might have been +written equally well of any part or all of the eastern theatre of war, +for they are typical of what happened throughout that vast territory +that stretches from the eastern front as it stood at the time of +Warsaw's fall in the beginning of August, 1915, to that other line +that formed a new front, much farther to the east, when the German +advance into Russia came to an end in the latter part of October, +1915: + +"The first anniversary of the war had just passed. Again summer was +upon us, like in those days of mobilization. The atmosphere was full +with memories of the beginning of the campaign. Out of Galicia an +endless column rolled to the north into Poland. The old picture: the +creaking road, overloaded with marching troops, with artillery lustily +rolling forward, with caravans of supply trains. Repeating itself a +thousandfold, the sum total of the mass deepened the impression and +made the idea of the 'supreme command of an army' appear like a fairy +tale. Supply wagon after supply wagon, mile after mile, in a long, +never-breaking chain! + +"The greater the distance of the observer, the deeper becomes the +impression of the general impulse of advance, of the sameness of its +direction and motion. Can we see a difference as compared with earlier +times? Can we notice if the new class of soldiers are equal to the +older; if the horses are in the same good condition as before? All in +all, it is the same play, even if with new actors in its parts, which +was acted before us during the very first days of the war, never to be +forgotten: a variety of types, unified by the purpose that was common +to all.... Of course, the close observer will always be able to make +distinctions. To him all soldiers are not just soldiers. Through their +uniforms he will recognize the farmer, the artisan, the factory hand, +the slim young volunteer, the genial 'Landwehr' or 'Landsturm' man, +the teacher, schoolboy, student, clerk, and professional soldier. + +"Before them stretches a new country. Broader plains, lower ranges of +hills than in Galicia. To the right and left, as far as the eye +reaches, fields, meadows, and swamps. Here and there, windmills. +Immense forests, different from those they knew at home: pines, oaks, +and birches, all mixed together, with some ash-trees and poplars, only +slightly cut down and low of growth. The retreating Russians have +tried everywhere to burn down forest and field, but have destroyed in +most places only narrow strips and small spots that look now like +islands: there the trees have been bared of their foliage in the +middle of the summer as if it were the early spring, and the pines are +red and brown like beech trees in the winter time. Every few miles +trenches and shelters had been cut into the landscape and ran across +field and forest, hills and valleys, masterpieces of their kind, +cunningly hidden, partly untouched. Alongside the road there were +many, many soldiers' graves, singly or sometimes combined into small +cemeteries. The Russians bury their dead with devotion. Double-armed +Greek crosses betray their burial places.... But not always did they +find time during their retreat. Occasionally a penetrating odor of +decay announces the fact that some of their dead had to be deprived +of burial. Then, very rarely only, indeed, one comes across black, +swollen corpses, so terribly gnawed and disfigured by millions of +small crawling animals, that all individuality, all humanity, has been +destroyed. + +"The advance moves on for miles on curious roads. Are these still +roads? There is no foundation. Just cuts have been made into the +ground, which is sandy here and muddy there and again swampy. During +dry weather they take turns in being dusty like the desert, or hard as +stone or gently yielding; during rain they are without exception +unreliable, spiteful, dangerous. The burden of the uninterrupted +transport traffic escapes to the left and to the right farther and +farther into the edges of the fields, cutting off continuously new +widths of wheel tracks so that roadways are formed 150 to 300 feet +wide, which narrow down only at bridges or fords by sheer necessity. +All bridges, even those that have been spared by the Russians, have to +be solidly renewed and supported, for they had never been intended for +such demands. Across furrows and deeply cut wheel tracks, across loose +footbridges, through puddles that are more like ponds, and through +deep holes, motorcars--fast automobiles and gigantic motor +trucks--rush and rumble madly, from time to time helplessly sinking +down into the mud and mire till relays of horses and the force of the +next detachment pushing forward on its way rescues them and they are +off again." + +"The road is lined with a sad seam of dead horses. Still other +cadavers poison the air and entice swarms of greedy crows. The +Russians have killed all cattle which they were unable to carry along +quickly enough or to eat upon the spot, and then left the carcasses on +or alongside the road: cattle, pigs, sheep have been shot down in this +fashion, so that the pursuer should find no other booty than ashes and +carrion. + +"At some distance from the line of march there may be left some +untouched villages, sound, normal, human settlements. But one does not +see them. Wherever the fighting has been going on, we pass by debris +and ruins. Big villages have been burned from one end to the other +into empty rows of chimneys and blackened heaps of tumbled-down +houses. + +"The churches alone sometimes have been shown some respect. As far as +they have not been riddled by shells or have not lost their roofs, +they are still standing, clean and almost supernatural with their +white or pink wooden walls, their shrilly blue or deep red domes, and +their shining gilt decorations. Everything else has gone up in flames +or has been shot to pieces. + +"Out of the general wreckage a few utensils and pieces of furniture +stick out here and there: bent beds, crumpled-up sewing machines, +half-melted pans and pots. Sometimes it is even possible to form an +idea of the former appearance of a house from the design of its +blackened wall paper or from a few remnants of some other decorations. +Here and there small corners and nooks have been preserved as if by a +miracle, and, in some unaccountable way, have survived the ruin that +surrounds them on all sides: strips of a flower garden, or perhaps a +summer-house with a table in it and a cover and breakfast dishes on +the table. + +"Up on a chimney, half of which has tumbled down, stands a stork, as +if he were meditating over the ruin wrought by human hands; suddenly +he pulls himself together, spreads out his wings with quick decision, +floats down into his familiar pond and forgets the raving of maddened +mankind in the enjoyment of a juicy frog. Through the labyrinth of a +fallen-down barn limps a big black cat, tousled and scratched, already +half-maddened from hunger, vicious like a wounded panther. Along what +had been once streets run packs of dogs gone wild, restlessly smelling +at dirt and corpses, growing bolder day by day until finally they have +to be shot down. + +"Only few people can stand it on this God-forsaken stage of misery. +Occasionally a few thin Jews in their long coats walk across the ruins +of the market place, which look like a stage setting. On their +shoulders they carry in a bundle their few belongings, like pictures +of the Wandering Jew. Their families live for a short time from +whatever they can scratch together from the ruins or out of the +trampled-down fields. They cook and bake on one of the stoves standing +everywhere right out in the open road and offer their poor wares for +exhibition and sale on a few boards, a last effort to support life by +trade. In the case of the women, no matter what the nationality, it +always seems as if they had saved out of the horrible destruction only +their best and brightest clothes. At a distance their colors shine and +smile as if nothing at all had happened. But upon coming up closer, +one can easily see how little these unfortunate beings carry on their +poor backs. + +"More than once we stand perplexed before the touching picture of a +short rest on the 'flight to Egypt.' A little family--is it the only +one that has remained behind when everybody else wandered away, or +have they already come back home because there was nothing better to +be found out in the world? In the garden of a plundered farmhouse they +have put up a poor imitation of a stable out of charred boards, and in +it they live more poorly than the poorest gypsies. Their lean cow has +been tied to a bush; among the trampled-down vegetables their equally +lean mule grazes. The mother squats on the ground, nursing a child, +while father and son are stirring up a heap of glowing ashes and +roasting a handful of potatoes that they have dug up somewhere. + +"The return pilgrimage of the natives has already begun at an +extensive rate. The advancing Germans are met everywhere by long lines +of them, on foot and in wagons, carrying with them carefully and +lovingly the few remnants of their herds. What has been their +experience? + +"One nice day the Cossacks had appeared at their farms and had told +them: 'Not a soul is allowed to remain here. The Germans are +approaching and the Germans will torture you all to death if they +catch you. Take with you whatever you can carry. Everything else must +be burned and destroyed, so that the Germans won't find anything that +they can use.' That was enough to make these poor, ignorant farmers +take leave of their homesteads. By the thousands they wandered off +quickly and without much hesitation. Some were driven away like so +much cattle, day by day farther into an uncertain future. Others were +carried in long columns of wagons to the nearest railroad and still +others were led orderly by their own mayors and village elders. In +the inland of the Empire they were to found for themselves new homes. +The czar was going to look after them. Russia is powerful and rich. It +will lure the Germans into its swamps so that they will drown there +miserably. It will draw them all the way to Moscow and there they will +experience the deadly fate of 1812. Just like Napoleon will the +Germans suffer this time. This patriotic hope, however, did not +compensate the farmers for their lost homes. It is true they get +enough to eat every day. At their resting places they are fed from +field kitchens supplied and equipped by the Russian army and +administered by civil committees. Hunger they did not need to suffer. +But for all that, their home-sickness will not down, and the dislike +of the continuous wandering, the aversion to strange places, the +loathing of the unorderly, irregular life of nomads strengthens their +determination to turn off their road at the first opportunity and to +seek the long way back to their village, in spite of the terrible +Germans. + +"But in the meantime the world has been turned upside down, their +homes are unrecognizable; nothing, absolutely nothing, is as it used +to be. Wherever there is the smallest nook that has remained +inhabitable, some stranger has built a nest. The new authorities speak +German, rule German, and run things in a German way. The need to +protect themselves against epidemics, and political prudence, demand +that these homeless wanderers should not be permitted to wander around +any longer at will. Into cities they are not allowed to enter, or even +to pass through them. Out in the country, the field police watch them +carefully, for more and more frequently adventurous groups are +formed--states in a very small way and without any regard for anybody +else. Strong fellows with plenty of nerve use this rare opportunity, +make themselves leaders and dictators of these groups, organize new +communities, which they rule with a strong hand, make laws, inflict +punishments, and impose their will just as they please. That makes it +necessary for the German authorities to interfere promptly and to +bring order and authority to bear on these insecure conditions. The +population is registered and no one is allowed to immigrate or to +emigrate without the proper papers. + +"Of course, there are also good, carefully tended main roads besides +the bad country paths, and some of them are even paved for miles. One +of these runs right straight from the south toward the Polish city of +Cholm. For miles one can see this road, which looks like a ribbon that +grows narrower and narrower all the time; in the background is a +forest, through and beyond which the road runs. At the farther end of +the forest, on the shoulders of a hill, are the white buildings of the +monastery of the Russian bishopric of Cholm. Only when one comes +within a few hundred steps of these buildings does one see the low, +long, stretched-out little town in line with the ridge of the hills +that drop away to the north.... + +"A little farther on, to the northwest of this little country town, is +the larger, rich city of Lublin. There all the advantages of +civilization are in evidence: street cars, electric lights, department +stores, coffee houses. But here, too, war, want, and misery have left +their impression on everything: old men, women, children in rags, +asking for shelter and stretching out their thin arms for bread. On +all the squares troops pass and cross each other, delaying the +traffic. There are Germans and Austro-Hungarians in long columns and +then again a long line of Russian prisoners of war, marching to work. +Among the well-dressed ladies and gentlemen only rarely some figures +remind one of the fact that this is Eastern Europe: tall, thin Jews in +their long caftans and Jewish women with their unnatural wigs; male +and female beggars there are in great numbers, and they are so hungry +looking and ragged, so deep-eyed and sickly, that one can hardly +manage to swallow one's food in their vicinity, if one happened to +have chosen a seat on the terrace of one of the hotels. + +"A few days later Brest-Litovsk was taken. Behind the troops that +stormed the fortifications during the night and thus forced the fall +of the city, pressed from early morning great masses of the +Austro-Hungarian and German armies. They came on over all the roads: +infantry, artillery, cavalry, engineering troops, supply detachments, +and in between, impatiently puffing, the automobiles of the higher +staff officers, everybody eager to enter the big fortress and to get +hold of the big booty. + +"But what a disappointment! From far off clouds of dust and smoke +announced the fate of this famous fortress. The bridges across the Bug +had all been destroyed, those of steel blown up and the wooden ones +burned. Only slowly separate small units managed to cross on temporary +narrow bridges to the citadel. Everything else crowded together on +both sides of the road and spread out into the fields, filling the +flat surrounding country as far as the eye could reach with one +single, immense, many colored war camp: groups of horses, field +kitchens, resting infantrymen, innumerable white backs of wagon after +wagon. + +"Whoever managed to enter Brest-Litovsk saw for the first time a big +city devastated and ruined as pitilessly as formerly only villages had +been made to suffer. Hundreds and hundreds of houses, once human +habitations, now smashed down to their very foundations, or mangled so +as to have lost all meaning, ruins containing nothing but broken +stones and ashes and at the best here and there a stair banister, +suspended in midair. And all destruction had not been wrought as a +result of a long siege and its continuous assaults of gunfire and +shells. In one night, at the command of the Russian authorities, this +Russian city had been laid waste. Only about one-quarter of it had +remained entirely or partly habitable. Only in the citadel were there +left supplies of any great amount. There quite some quantities of +flour and canned food, weapons and munitions, war and railroad +equipment, had escaped the well-prepared explosion, and had been saved +only because there had not been enough time to complete the work of +destruction and to explode all the mines that had been laid. A happy +exception among this horrible riot of wholesale destruction was found +occasionally in the case of some few estates of the Polish nobility. +In some way they escaped here and there and were passed by without +suffering demolition and despoliation in spite of the fact that the +villages near which they were usually located were almost always +masses of smoking ruins. The manor houses of some of these estates +often became the temporary lodging of some division or even some army +corps staff. For they filled one of the chief requirements for such +headquarters: a sufficiency of many large, light rooms which permitted +to combine the necessary offices with the officers' quarters under the +same roof. Every high command needs a number of offices for its +various branches of service, in war as well as in peace. At that, war +demands a hundredfold measure of ready cooperation and punctual +working together. What happens from early in the morning, far into the +night and often throughout the night in these offices during the +course of a lively action on the battle field is nothing more or less +than administrative activity as it is known to us and practiced in +peace, but of a degree of activity, responsibility, and decision, of +an importance and variety as times of peace do not demand from an army +officer. + +"Day and night numerous telegraphs and telephones, established often +by means of very skillful and exposed connections, receive reports, +communications, inquiries, and requests from the front and transmit +orders, instructions, decisions, and information to the front, and at +the same time maintain a similar service with superior headquarters. +The number of subjects which have to be watched continuously is +legion: movements of their own and the enemy's forces; changes in +their own and the opponent's positions; news and scouting service; +losses, reserves; lodging, provisioning, arming of the troops; +sanitation, prevention of epidemics, ambulances, hospitals; counting +and handling of booty and prisoners; military law, religious matters, +gifts; health and continuity of the supply of mounts; climate, +weather, condition of the water; condition of streets, bridges, +fortifications; means of intercourse and traffic of all kinds; +railways, mails, wagons, motors, pack animals; aeroplanes; telegraph +and wireless stations. + +[Illustration: Austrian infantry resting during the Teutonic drive +into Russia. Some of the men carry the picks and shovels of sappers, +while others are provided with the steel-pointed staffs of +mountaineers.] + +"And all these matters, within a certain group of the army, change +hourly, perhaps, and are continuously subject to unexpected +modifications; at the same time they depend in their outward relations +on events that happen in other adjoining army groups, on the +general military and political conditions, on the decisions and +interference of general headquarters. And if the staff quarters of two +or three army groups have to consult with each other about every +action and re-action before they make their various moves, unceasing +activity must be displayed by everyone in order to accomplish all that +each day demands. This activity which at one and the same time +actuates and reports, acts, observes, and accounts, requires the +possession of many manly virtues: the energy of strong nerves, +clearness, wisdom, knowledge, self-consciousness, and decision. Every +commander shares in it. But the greatest demands are made by it on the +few supreme commanders on whom depends the fate of millions. + +"Thus the summer months quickly passed by. As they passed, the advance +continued. In spite of this, however, the crops were brought in from +the fields so recently conquered. And what was accomplished in this +direction will some day form a separate chapter in the economical +history of this war. + +"Much of the crops, of course, had been destroyed. In many other cases +all the agricultural machines and implements had been carried off or +destroyed. And then there was a great lack of labor. What was there to +be done? Under the leadership of officers with agricultural experience +separate commissions were formed. They gathered up all the implements +and machines that could be found or could be repaired again and then +ordered by the hundred and thousand from the country in the rear what +they still lacked and soon battalions of war prisoners were busy +peacefully gathering in the wheat in the fields. Before long the +harvest had been completed. Threshers and threshing machines were put +to work. Wherever flour mills were in condition to allow of repairs, +mechanics were set to this task. And soon a steady stream of flour +poured forth that enabled the invaders to feed their armies, their +prisoners, and whatever part of the civil population had returned, to +a great extent from supplies raised and gathered in the occupied +region itself, a remarkable success gained from a combination of +German organization, Russian labor, and Polish versatility." + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +SIDELIGHTS ON THE RUSSIAN RETREAT AND GERMAN ADVANCE + + +The difficulties which the Austro-German troops encountered in +pursuing the withdrawing Russians were in many instances greatly +increased by the very strong field fortifications which the Russians +had thrown up everywhere to stem the advance of the enemy. How +effective these fortifications were may be readily understood from the +following description which is taken from the report of a special +correspondent of a south German newspaper who had an opportunity to +inspect these positions soon after they had been wrested from the +Russians: + +"In fortifying this position the Russians had indeed created a +masterwork of modern field fortification. Deep, broad trenches had +been fitted so closely to the landscape that in most instances they +could be recognized as such only at very close distances. Almost all +these trenches had been covered with a fivefold layer of tree trunks, +on top of which there was to be found another layer of earth and over +that again a solid layer of sod. The wooden pillars which supported +this covering had in many places been fastened by means of wooden +plugs into strong tree trunks, which in turn had been deeply imbedded +in the bottom of the trench. Everywhere there were to be found +openings for one and sometimes even two or three sharpshooters or for +machine guns. Powerful shelters had been erected as a protection +against shrapnel. Everywhere the trenches had been located in such a +manner that one would outflank the other. In all the trenches there +were to be found shelters, many of which were spacious enough to allow +a whole company to retreat to them, and to these the Russians withdrew +whenever the German artillery fire was directed against the trenches. +These shelters were deep down below the ground; their entrances were +comparatively small and protected with manifold layers of railroad +rails. In front of these positions had been erected strong successive +lines of entanglements which consisted partly of barbed wire and +partly of strong abatis, formed of trees and their branches. In front +of one section of these trenches the Russians had cut down a piece of +woodland between 150 and 300 feet wide. They had then left the trees +on the ground wherever they happened to have fallen and covered the +entire space with a confusion of barbed-wire entanglements." + +Another difficult problem which confronted both the Russians in their +retreat and the Germans in their advance was that of transportation, +especially in the region between the Vistula and the Bug Rivers. Not +only is the number of railroads in that territory very small, but +neither side had available a large enough number of railroad cars to +transport the large number of men and vast quantities of equipment +involved. This necessitated the creation of new means of +transportation. According to a correspondent of the Hungarian +newspaper "Az Est" the problem was solved by the Austro-German armies +in a remarkable way. In the first place the number of horses before +each wagon was increased. Where formerly two horses had been used, +four were employed now, and where four used to be considered +sufficient the number was increased to six. This resulted in an +unending line of giant transports drawn by teams of four and six +horses like they had never been seen before. + +The work of these horses was greatly lightened by field railways. So +quickly were these built that they seemed to grow right out of the +ground. In some places industrial railways of this nature, already in +existence, were utilized. Both steam and horsepower were used on these +railways. Valleys were bridged over; gradients were reduced by every +available means. At regular distances pleasant little block houses +were to be found, which served as stations and guardhouses. The +condition of the roads did not permit the use of motor trucks to any +great extent, but wherever there was even a thread of possibility for +motor trucks to get through they were promptly called upon to assume a +leading part as a means of transportation. The immensity of the +problem may well be understood by the fact that approximately two +thousand automobiles of all kinds were employed by the German army of +the Bug River. + +All of this could be moved quickly. Everything that was necessary to +make repairs was carried along. Supplies were heaped on motor trucks, +and the officers in charge of supplies and equipment lived in +automobiles which had been fitted up like rooms. The supply and +equipment departments had their own electric-lighting system and their +separate wireless. This vast establishment could be mobilized in +twenty-four hours, and its completeness, swiftness, efficiency, and +punctuality were not only a triumph of modern industry, but were among +the chief contributing causes for the Austro-German success in +overpowering obstacles and difficulties, and for the fact that +throughout the entire campaign in Russian Poland the troops never +suffered lack of provisions and munitions. + +The Russian retreat brought untold misery to the civil population of +those parts of Russia which were affected by it. Especially true was +this of those sections in which the Russian authorities decreed that +the civil population had to become participants in the retreat and +leave their homes and goods to the mercy of the invaders. The terrible +suffering and misery resulting from these conditions will, perhaps, +become more vivid from the following details taken from some Russian +newspapers which will give an idea of the conditions: "In Moscow all +railroad stations are overcrowded with refugees. Most of these are +unable to leave the freight cars in which they had arrived because the +tortures of hunger and thirst which they had to suffer during their +trip had been too much for them. Thousands upon thousands of these +unfortunate beings had been struck down by sickness, and as far as the +capacity of the Moscow hospitals allowed had been cared for, while +still other thousands had to be satisfied with accommodations in the +open squares and streets of the city, while others were removed +farther east in order to reduce the overcrowded conditions of the +city. Every day some ten thousand refugees were sent east by way of +Smolensk, Orel, and Tula. Among these were many thousands of German +colonists who had formerly been residents of Cholm and Volhynia, but +had been removed from there by order of the Russian Government +previous to the Russian retreat. The fate of all these hundreds of +thousands of refugees by the time winter will have arrived will be +horrible. What, for instance, will happen to about thirty thousand +farmers from Galicia who were removed by force and now are located in +a concentration camp on the River Slucz with nothing over their heads +except the sky?" + +From all parts of the Russian Empire involved in the German advance, +streams of these unfortunate victims of war were continuously flowing +toward the east. One of the chief reasons for the extensive misery +which they had to suffer was the fact that the Russian organization, +which even in times of peace does not work any too well, broke down +completely under this unexpected and unparalleled demand on its +resources. In spite of the fact that the larger number of these +refugees were driven east by the special and express command of the +Russian authorities, the latter had made no preparations to take care +of them nor did they seem to show much worry concerning their fate. +Even some of the high Government officials pointed out, to the +responsible Government departments that, as long as the Government had +driven these unfortunate human beings away from their own homesteads +without, in most cases, giving them time to gather in even their most +necessary belongings, it had become the Government's duty to provide +for them elsewhere in some fashion. If one considers that most of +these people were without any resources whatsoever, and that the +housing and feeding of such vast masses demanded the expenditure of +large sums of money, which apparently were not available, it will +easily be understood that all these men, women, and children of all +ages and conditions suffered not only untold inconveniences, but +actually the pangs of hunger and thirst, which in a great many +instances resulted in the outbreak of epidemics and in the decimation +of whole camps. + +How a civilian observer was struck by some of the conditions in Poland +may be gleaned from a description in one of the German monthly +magazines rendered by an artist who accompanied one of the German +armies on its invasion of Poland: "Of course the first thing one +learns to know is the horrible condition of roads in Russia.... One of +the other main difficulties is the lack of cleanliness which results +in so many epidemics among the population. These two conditions +presented serious problems to the invading army; for, of course, it +became necessary to remove the difficulties arising from them as much +as possible.... + +"The water supply also is of the worst on the eastern front, and when +I wandered in the great summer heat through the trenches or drove by +the hour with wagon and horse through the sandy wastes of Poland, I +could not help but think of the many occasions when the fighting +armies, in spite of all fatigue and hardships, had to go without +drinking water of any kind whatsoever...." + +One of the greatest successes which the Germans gained in the summer +of 1915 was the taking of the fortress of Kovno. Indeed it was the +fall of this Russian bulwark as much as anything else that +precipitated most of the Russian losses after the fall of Warsaw. +Considering the importance of Kovno the following report of a special +correspondent of the "Berliner Tageblatt," who was present during its +bombardment, will be of interest. He says: + +"The bombardment had reached a strength which made one believe that he +was present at a concert in the lower regions. Guns of every variety +and caliber, up to the largest, had been concentrated here and +attempted to outroar each other. In unceasing activity the batteries +spit their devastating sheaths of fire against the Russian forts and +against the fortified positions which had been thrown up by the +Russians between the forts and which had been supplied by them with +very strong artillery. The latter did its best to keep up with the +efforts of the besieging army. Day by day the Russian guns began +firing against the German lines almost as soon as the German lines had +opened their fire and the combination swelled the noise to a terrible +height. + +"Exactly at seven o'clock in the evening the German guns paused for a +while in order to permit their infantry to advance. This was an +almost daily occurrence and day by day the German lines drew nearer to +the Russian forts. + +"Hardly had the fire of the German guns stopped when a furious +crackling of rifle fire would begin. The German lines had left their +trenches and were advancing against the Russian position from which +they received heavy fire. Machine guns, too, joined the uproar. It was +impossible to follow the infantry attack in detail, but its success +could be gleaned from the fact that the German gun fire, which +gradually was taken up again, had to be advanced in the direction of +the fortress." + +This fortress of Kovno, for which the Germans were making such a +tremendous drive and which the Russians tried to hold with all the +resources at their command, occupies in respect to the Niemen line the +same position which the fortress of Lomza occupies in respect to the +Nareff line, only in a much greater measure. And, indeed, the city is +specially adapted by its entire location to act as protector of this +important river. Between steep banks, which rise as high as 200 feet, +the stream rushes along here, surrounding the city picturesquely with +its heights and protecting it at the same time from attack. There +Kovno is situated where the Vilia joins the Niemen, and only a short +distance down the latter the Nieviaza adds its waters, so that Kovno +forms a natural center of a number of extensive valleys which join +here. It is upon these natural conditions of its situation that the +unusual importance rests which Kovno has occupied for centuries in a +historical, economical, and military respect in the history of +Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. + +Founded in the eleventh century, it belonged from 1384 to 1398 to the +Order of the German Knights, who made a military point of the first +order out of it. In 1400 the Grand Duke of Lithuania attacked and +captured the town. The height of its career was reached in 1581, when +it was raised to the center of the export trade and received a custom +house. The commerce of the city at that time reached annually the sum +of three million ducats, an immense amount for that period. The +Russian czars, therefore, attempted at various times to capture the +rich city, but it was not until the third partition of Poland in 1795 +that Kovno became definitely a possession of the Russian Empire. + +After that Kovno suffered many reverses. In 1806 a disastrous fire +broke out and destroyed three-fourths of the city, but in spite of +this disaster and others which followed, the city recovered and gained +a certain importance in a political way, when in 1842 it was made the +capital of the newly created government of Kovno. From then on the +trade of the city grew in bounds and leaps, and it became a center of +the trading to and from Prussia. Its industries, too, were developed +extensively. Seven fortifications are situated to the south of the +city, three more protect the road to Vilna, and one the bridge across +the Vilia. + +During the series of engagements near Dvinsk, in the fall of 1915, +especially severe fighting occurred on the shores of Lake Sventen. The +colonel of a Russian regiment which participated in these engagements +gave the following vivid description to a staff correspondent of the +London "Times": + +"We had to secure a lodgment on the promontory nicknamed by our men +the 'Dog's Tail.' My scouts crossed the lake at night, dug themselves +in and annoyed the enemy holding the brickyard, situated upon a slight +eminence at the northern part of the promontory. A Lettish officer +commanded the scouts and organized the whole landing. Being a native +of the place, he was able to take advantage of every latent resource +afforded by the country. Thus he managed to discover a small fleet of +boats, and added to them by constructing a number of rafts. During the +night our men gradually reenforced the scouts. On the following day we +rushed the brickyard. This gave us a larger foothold to deploy one of +our regiments, and storm what we called 'Bald Hill,' while another +regiment gave its attention to 'Red Hill,' to the southwest. + +"Our advance was very slow. The Germans had a large number of Maxims, +three times as many as we had, also automatic rifles, and freely used +explosive bullets. But on our side we had our artillery massed in +several lines east of Sventen and Medum, including field and heavy +guns under good control, so that we could pour in direct or flanking +fire at will. Three days passed chiefly in artillery preparation for +our final attack. The infantry advanced slightly. Our artillery +observers were in the trenches correcting the fire of our guns. On +November 3, 1915, the enemy began to pour in a fierce flanking fire +from their guns west of Ilsen. + +"When the scouts and supports moved from the 'Dog's Tail' promontory, +our neighboring corps began to advance also, and we finally extended +our right flank and gained direct contact. But all this time we were +suffering heavily from the enemy's Maxims on the heights. + +"'Bald Hill' and 'Red Hill' were won on the third day. The enemy +counterattacked and retook the first named heights. Our position was +now a critical one. The waters of the lake in our rear cut off all +hope of immediate reenforcements or of eventual retreat. We had to +retake 'Bald Hill' at all costs, and we did it. My men were +tremendously encouraged by the hurricane fire kept up by our +artillery. Many of them had witnessed the terrible effects of the +German hurricane fire. For the first time they saw that our own +artillery was not only equal but even superior to anything the Germans +could do. Our gunners telephoned asking me when they should stop, so +that our men should not suffer from their fire. It seemed to me that +our shells were bursting perilously near, and I asked them to cease +fire. A half company then attacking 'Bald Hill' was immediately mown +down by the German machine guns. I at once signaled to the gunners +'keep on firing' and only when our skirmishers were within 250 paces +of the German trenches the hurricane was suspended and we went for the +Germans with the bayonet, but they did not wait." + +Many of the successes gained--both by the Russians in their retreat +and by the Germans in their advance--were due to the effective work of +the aviation corps. Scouting and bomb dropping were daily occurrences. +A picturesque description of such a trip made by an aeroplane +"somewhere in Poland" is taken from "Motor" and gives a very clear +idea of the dangers to which pilot and observer are subjected at all +times as well as of the practical results of their work: + +"The departure had been set for nine o'clock in the morning and, while +the pilot has already taken his place in the aeroplane and is trying +out his motor, his companion comes out of his tent. The latter wears a +wide brown leather coat, a storm cap is drawn deep down over his +forehead, a long shawl covers his throat and in order to protect +himself against the oil which the motor puffs out during the flight he +has covered his eyes with big spectacles. A sergeant with some +soldiers carry bombs to the aeroplane and pack them carefully next to +the seat of the observer. The latter takes his seat, the motor starts, +the propeller turns around quicker and quicker, and at last the pilot +waves his arm--the wedges are withdrawn from under the wheels. The +plane begins to roll along, lifts itself up from the ground and mounts +in elegant spirals higher and higher; smaller and smaller appear men +and houses; at last the aerostat shows 3,000 feet; the observer gives +a sign and the plane turns in the direction of the enemy. It is +comparatively easy to find the way: the railroad tracks which run +toward the lines of the enemy serve as a guide; the aeroplane follows +them above villages chopped into ruins by gunfire, whose houses look +like small toy boxes. Suddenly, dark lines appear which run toward the +west: trenches of the enemy which unroll themselves to the observer as +if they were on a map. And right away small white clouds arise, the +first greetings which the enemy fires toward the aeroplane, but under +which the latter rushes by descending quickly. + +"At last the trench zone has been crossed; the country in back of it +appears to be strewn with pits and funnels caused by the explosion of +big caliber shells. Here and there destroyed villages are to be seen +from which dark pillars of smoke arise. Then the first roadway about +which information is to be gathered appears. Peacefully it lies in the +sunlight. Farther toward the west, however, the street becomes more +lively; but the black specks which move down there are only a few +automobiles which most likely carry some members of the general staff +of the enemy and offer nothing worth while observing. But a little +farther back a dark line and many small specks appear--detachments on +the march. The observer leans over his map, compares, looks down once +more, then marks the observation on his map and the time at which it +was made, and on goes the journey. In the streets of a larger place, +which is reached soon afterward, a crowd of people are observed; in +front of a church are standing at regular distances a number of +wagons, a short wagon in front and back of it shapes that look like a +frame--cannon. The observer continues to make marks on his map and at +the same time a sharp sound is heard at his side and in the upper +plane a slash appears. He waves his hand and the pilot sharply turns +to the left. The observer reaches for a bomb and holds it over the +edge of the aeroplane, drops it, and immediately afterward a flash +appears among the cannon and the crowd on the market place disperses +in wild flight. Another wave of the hand, another turn to the left, +another bomb. The result is satisfactory; at least one cannon has been +destroyed. But now it begins to become unpleasant; to the right and to +the left, in front and in back, small white clouds arise; down there +the bombardment has begun and it must make quite a loud noise which, +however, is drowned in the noise of the motor. The pilot stops the +motor and silently and gently the aeroplane descends into less +dangerous heights; then the motor again begins to work and the +aeroplane quickly turns its course toward the southwest following the +white band of the country road. + +"Suddenly white wisps of smoke arise over the tree tops of a near-by +forest; again the observer makes some entries and, while the aeroplane +rushes furiously forward, marks down with his pencil one body of +troops after another. Above a freight station another stop is made; on +the platforms of its storehouses men rush along busily. Their work +will have to be disturbed: a motion of the hand, a pull on the motor +which starts the descent, a grasp for the third bomb--and a railway +guardhouse collapses into itself. The last bomb hits its mark even +better; it explodes right in the middle between two cars without, +however, hurting anybody; for the workmen have run away as quickly as +their feet will carry them; pillars of fire roar up high; gasoline or +coal oil supplies apparently have been hit. To determine this +definitely is impossible, for the aeroplane must rush on. After a +short time, its commission executed, it turns back toward the east; +the batteries which had been observed a short while ago and the lines +of trenches are again passed and at last the tents of the hangar come +into view; the cross, showing the place for landing, becomes visible; +the descent begins; the wheels touch the ground with a sharp jolt; the +observer jumps out of his seat and runs up to his commander to make +his report." + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +WINTER ON THE EASTERN FRONT + + +By the end of November, 1915, winter had set in along the eastern +front. Especially along the northern part of the eastern line this +necessitated almost a complete stoppage of operations. For there the +weather becomes very severe. The ground freezes sometimes to a depth +of three and more feet, which, of course, makes it impossible to dig +trenches quickly. But just as soon as trench digging at short notice +became impossible operations had to cease. For whenever armies advance +over closely contested ground--as was the case all along the eastern +line--the advance by necessity is slow, possibly over only a few miles +every day. And every time the line is pushed forward, and trenches +previously occupied are left behind, it becomes necessary with each +step of the advance to dig new trenches unless the advanced line was +fortunate enough to be able to stop the day's work in the trenches of +the enemy, a possibility which, of course, did not offer itself any +too frequently. And even then a lot of digging was necessary, because +what was previously, during the enemy's occupation, the back of a +trench line now had to be turned into its front. All of this digging, +or at least most of it, had to be done quickly, in order to avoid the +loss of the newly gained positions by the success of hostile +counterattacks. But both sides alike found it impossible to dig +quickly, or, for that matter, in most cases to dig at all when the +ground was frozen solid. So both sides found themselves condemned to a +more or less continuous state of inactivity as far as all war +operations were concerned, excepting only artillery duels, mining, +aeroplane attacks, sniping from each other's trenches, and all those +other more or less insignificant operations that are usually called by +the generic term "trench warfare." + +Although the Russians were acknowledged masters of trench digging and +of throwing up well-planned and efficiently defended field +fortifications of every kind, and also the great mass of their +soldiers were much more accustomed to severe winters than the German +forces, because a very much larger part of the Russian than of the +German Empire is subject to very low winter temperatures, still the +Germans, all in all, had the advantage over their adversaries under +these conditions. In the first place the percentage of mechanically +and scientifically trained men in the German army is far greater than +that in the Russian army, because the latter is recruited primarily +from an agricultural population, whereas the former draws its largest +numbers from an intensively industrial body. Furthermore, organization +within and without the army had been developed to a far higher degree +by the Germans than by their eastern neighbors. It is, therefore, not +at all surprising to hear of the marvelous preparations that the +Germans had made for the approaching winter, and inasmuch as most of +this information is gathered from Russian sources, there can be little +doubt of its correctness. + +Down below in their trenches, covering the walls of their dugouts, the +Germans had erected light metal buildings. These had been manufactured +back in Germany in immense quantities in simple, standardized parts. +Easily shipped in a "knockdown" condition, they were just as easily +put up and put together, and all of them were fitted with heating +apparatus of some kind. Warm clothing of every kind and description +had either been manufactured at the Government's expense or had been +collected from private sources throughout the empire by appealing to +the nation at large by means of the newspapers. Although the +statement, frequently heard, that each man had a sleeping sack +undoubtedly was vastly exaggerated, vast quantities of these useful +articles had been distributed. Then, too, officers, from captains +down, gave their men detailed instructions and orders how to protect +themselves efficiently against severe cold, and how to treat promptly +and effectively any of the many ailments that are apt to afflict +people unused to very low temperatures in a rather moist region, from +frostbite down to colds. + +From every possible line of human enterprise the Germans, according to +Russian reports, apparently tried to learn lessons which might become +applicable in these near-arctic conditions on the east front. Having +been taught by the previous winter's experience the impossibility of +trench digging, they promptly organized extensive mining detachments +among their engineering troops, augmenting the latter in great +quantities by soldiers from other branches of their general service +who, from their experiences in times of peace, had become particularly +adaptable to such work. These mining troops, later on in the winter, +were to creep forward under the protection of night's shadows and +blast with dynamite those trenches that were absolutely essential for +cover of advancing troops and that could not be dug in the frozen +ground with more simple tools. Long before this, however, while winter +had not yet shown its full severity, these troops were busily occupied +with the preparation of land mines, which were to act as substitutes +for barbed-wire entanglements when freezing snow, piling up many feet +high, rendered the latter useless. Previous experience, too, had +taught that, when such weather conditions arose, the immense +quantities of snow that fall in these regions not only completely +covered barbed-wire entanglements, but as repeated snowstorms +thickened the mass day by day, and sleet and thaw, caused by an +occasional hour's sunshine, hardened it, made it even possible for the +enemy's forces to advance securely on it in spite of, and on the very +top of, all barbed-wire obstacles. + +Throughout the first winter of the war the Germans had also used ski +detachments. Most of these were employed in the mountainous regions of +the western front. But small troops had been sent to East Prussia and +had proven themselves very valuable there. Again and again Russian +troops, attempting operations on ground covered with two or three +days' snowfall, had sunk to their waists and chests into the snow and +had become easy prey to attacks made by German soldiers on skis. So +the Germans early in the fall, when certain parts of south Germany and +Austria, covered with high mountains, lend themselves admirably for +ski practice, had sent time after time detachments of carefully +selected infantry troops to these regions and had made ski experts out +of them. Sledges too--large and small--had been provided in +quantities, because they had proven their value as means of +transporting men and supplies where all other means had failed +absolutely. + +With the approach of real winter all these comparatively new features +of warfare were put to use. Of course the Germans were by no means the +only ones to profit from past experience and from the modern advance +of the sciences and mechanical industries. But from all reports it is +clear that they outdid the Russians in inventiveness as well as in the +thoroughness and extent of their preparations. + +"Jack Frost" also definitely stopped regular fighting. With its +arrival war at the eastern front deteriorated into more or less of a +guerrilla war. Instead of attempts to break through the line by miles, +both sides settled down to a bitter contest for choice pieces of +ground here and there. An exchange of a bit of high ground for a +nasty, damp trench in a bog was considered quite a victory. The +capture of a small supply train by a small detachment that had managed +to sneak through the line at some point unobserved or unoccupied, +because it apparently was impossible for occupation on account of the +nature of the ground, was as much talked about as only a victory in a +real engagement would have been two or three months ago. In a way, +both the Russian and German and Austro-Hungarian armies had a much +more severe time of it on the east front than the German and +Franco-English forces had at the west front. First of all, the latter +was located in much more civilized regions, cleaner, therefore, and +healthier. Then, too, the nature of the ground in the west was less +hard on the fighters, higher in most places, and, therefore, drier. +Furthermore, the western line was practically an unbroken line from +the English Channel down to the Swiss border. In the east, however, +marshes, lakes, and rivers made an unbroken line impossible. All along +the front there were innumerable gaps. Of course many of these were +gaps because no human being could find a foothold on them, and, +therefore, needed no watching. Others, however, while impossible for +occupation, were not equally impossible for passage, provided those +that attempted to pass were willing to take great risks. And there was +no lack of such on either side. So Russians, Germans, and +Austro-Hungarians had to be continuously on the jump to prevent such +raids of their lines which, though they might have been very small in +the beginning, might have had very serious consequences. These +conditions, therefore, made war on the east front for everybody +concerned truly a war of attrition, equally racking for nerves and +bodies. + +Only one other event of importance occurred on the east front during +the winter of 1915-16. General Russky, commanding the Russian forces +fighting before Riga and Dvinsk and in the Dvina-Vilia sector, was +forced by illness to retire from his command. He was succeeded by +General Everth, who up to then had commanded the next adjoining army +group, from the Vilia down to the Pripet Marshes, and who now assumed +command over all the Russian forces from the Gulf of Riga to the +Pripet Marshes. Farther down the line General Ivanoff continued the +leadership that he had assumed after the German advance had come to a +standstill at the end of October. + +Thus the winter passed. As we have learned in some of the preceding +chapters, operations were resumed in a small way at certain points +along the line from time to time. With the approach of the spring of +1916 these activities slightly increased in extent and severity. But +both sides, as long as frost continued, were satisfied with this state +of conditions and with never-ceasing preparations for new offensive +operations to begin as soon as nature would permit. + + + + +PART VI--THE BALKANS + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +BATTLE CLOUDS GATHER AGAIN + + +Though Serbia had been the first to be attacked by the Central Powers +when the world war began, the end of the first year's fighting was to +find her still unconquered, though she had passed through ordeals +quite as severe as those suffered by Belgium. + +Let us review, briefly, the events of the first year: + +Hardly had hostilities been declared by Austria-Hungary, on July 28, +1914, when the armies of the Dual Empire began gathering along the +Serbian frontiers; then, within a few days, they hurled themselves +into Serbia, hoping to overwhelm her by the sheer weight of their +numbers. Not only did the soldiers of the little Balkan nation +withstand the onslaught of the imperial troops, but within the week +they had swept them back, driving them across the frontiers. + +So astounded was the Austrian General Staff, so dumfounded was it by +this unexpected disaster, that it required some weeks to realize what +had happened, and to prepare for a second and mightier attempt to +overcome the resistance of the Serbians. + +On came the Austrians again, only to suffer a second defeat. Then they +made their third and mightiest effort, and this time every available +resource of the empire was strained to the utmost; every soldier not +absolutely needed elsewhere was utilized. And this time, indeed, the +Austrian forces did penetrate some distance within Serbian territory, +and for over a fortnight the Serbian capital was theirs. But their +initial success only made their final defeat the more complete. For +the third time the Serbian soldiers beat them back, and from that +date, December 14, 1914, Serbia remained undisturbed by foreign +invasion for almost a year. + +Shortly after the beginning of the New Year, came an enemy for whom +the Serbians were not so well prepared: a typhus epidemic, which took +almost as many victims as had the fighting. Realizing their +helplessness, the Serbians uttered an appeal for help, and almost +every nation, not an enemy, including the United States, responded +generously with money, and by sending Red Cross corps to nurse the +plague victims. By the summer of 1915, the epidemic had spent itself, +after decimating the army and the civil population. + +Meanwhile a danger threatened the Serbians which overshadowed even +that from the Austrians; namely the danger that other Balkan nations, +and especially Bulgaria, might join the Teutonic Powers. Serbia had +already shown that she could take care of the Austrians alone, but +with Bulgaria attacking her flank, even the most optimistic realized +that the fight against such odds probably would be hopeless. + +Turkey, even while Serbia was hurling back the Austrians for the +second time, in November, 1914, was the first to declare herself in +favor of the Teutons by attacking the Russians. Then began the game of +diplomacy to win over the Christian states to the Allies. All had +declared themselves neutral, even Greece, though she was bound by a +treaty to assist Serbia against foreign attack. But it was generally +realized that each was only watching for the first signs of weakness +on either side before deciding which to support. To give weight to her +diplomacy Great Britain began her military operations on Gallipoli, on +the understanding with Greece, of which Venizelos was then premier, +that Greek troops should assist. But Venizelos was forced to resign by +the Greek King and the governing clique, and Greece continued to +maintain her neutrality. + +Rumania, in spite of her leanings toward the Allies, remained firm in +her neutrality. Bulgaria was more explicit; she made it understood +that she would join that side which could most effectually guarantee +her possession of the territory in Macedonia which she considered she +had won in the First Balkan War and which was given over to Serbia and +Greece after the Second Balkan War by the Treaty of Bucharest. +Throughout the year the negotiations continued whereby the Allies +attempted to persuade Greece and Serbia to agree to Bulgaria's terms, +but Greece continued obdurate in her determination to hold all she +had, and Serbia yielded only in part, and very reluctantly. In August, +1915, beginning the second year of the war, these negotiations were +still in progress. As it was still unknown publicly that Bulgaria had +already signed a secret alliance with Germany, the situation was +considered favorable to the Allies, especially as on August 22, 1915, +it was announced that Venizelos was again to become prime minister of +Greece. + +The first indication that King Ferdinand and his cabinet had come to a +decision was in the agitation that appeared in Bulgaria itself among +the leaders of the opposition parties, protesting against the +Germanophile policy of the Government. On September 18, 1915, a +deputation of these leaders had an interview with the king, in which +they made their protest; the report was that a stormy scene occurred, +in which several members of the deputation used language to the effect +that should the king go against the popular feeling, which was in +favor of the Entente, it would cost him his throne. They also demanded +that the National Assembly be convened. + +The king's reply was to order a general order of mobilization of the +Bulgarian army. At the same time a note was issued to all foreign +representatives in which the Government stated explicitly that +Bulgaria had no intention of entering the war; that she had called her +men to the colors only to maintain an "armed neutrality," as Holland +and Switzerland were doing. In spite of these assurances, Greece also +began mobilizing. On September 20, 1915, there appeared a significant +statement in the German official report of military operations, to the +effect that German artillery, stationed on the Danube opposite +Semendria, had opened fire on a Serbian position. Never before had +there been mention of German guns so far south. Altogether, the +situation in the Balkans was now becoming acute. + +On September 28, 1915, Sir Edward Grey made a statement in the British +Parliament which made the world realize that a crisis in the Balkans +was imminent. He announced that efforts were still being made to +arrange an agreement between Bulgaria and Serbia and Greece regarding +Macedonia, "but," he added significantly, "if Bulgaria assumes an +aggressive attitude on the side of our enemies, we will support our +friends in the Balkans with all our power, in concert with our Allies +and without reserve or qualification." + +This was followed up by another statement on October 1, 1915, to the +effect that German and Austrian officers were arriving in the +Bulgarian capital, creating a situation of "the utmost gravity." +Within forty-eight hours, Russia issued an ultimatum to Bulgaria +demanding that the German and Austrian officers in Sofia be removed +within twenty-four hours, otherwise Russia would sever all diplomatic +relations with King Ferdinand's Government. To this Bulgaria made no +immediate reply, with the result that the Russian Minister left Sofia +the next day. Premier Radoslavov, however, on the same day, published +an official statement that there were no German or Austrian officers +in Sofia and that Bulgaria had no intention of breaking her +neutrality. Meanwhile came reports through Greece stating that +Bulgarian troops were being massed up against the Serbian frontier. As +subsequent events soon proved, Bulgaria was determined to hide her +real purpose to the last moment; not until she actually made her first +attack did she cease denying her hostile intentions. + +That Bulgaria was acting in cooperation with the Teutonic allies was +obvious, for already the Serbians had observed that great forces were +being mobilized across the rivers, along her northern and northwestern +frontiers, along the banks of the Danube, the Save, and the Drina. + +What did not develop so soon was the fact that this new invasion was +to be under the leadership of the German General von Mackensen, and +that the invaders were to consist in large part of German regiments. +During the summer Mackensen had been engaged in directing a strong +Austro-German offensive against the Russians, with conspicuous +success. For weeks after he had left this front and was busy +organizing a similar offensive against the Serbians, the German +official dispatches continued to associate his name with actions on +the Russian front that the preparations in the south might continue +secret as long as possible. + +Not long after the first Austro-German guns began hurling their shells +across the Danube, against the Serbian position at Semendria, the +Serbians learned of the disposition and the resources of the enemy. +The troops under Mackensen were divided into two armies, each in close +contact with the other. One of these wings was under the command of a +German, General von Gallwitz, who had distinguished himself against +the Russians a short time previously. The men under him were entirely +Germans. The other army was under the command of an Austrian, General +von Koevess von Koevesshaza. His men were both German and Austrian, the +latter predominating. + +The army under Gallwitz extended from Orsova, near the Rumanian +frontier, along the Danube westward to a point opposite Semendria. +Here his right flank joined Koevess's line, which extended up past +Belgrade, along the Save and part way up the Drina. The rest of the +frontier up the Drina was covered by a smaller Austrian army. + +Altogether, the Austro-German armies comprised at least 300,000 men. +The Austrians were picked troops, for it was only natural that the +general staff wished to retrieve, in some measure, the humiliation of +the previous year. The Germans, numbering fully half of the total +force, were also hardened veterans, who had seen plenty of fighting on +the Russian front or in France or Flanders. + +Mackensen's overwhelming success in driving the Russians out of +Galicia had been mainly due to his artillery, that arm of the military +service in which the Germans excelled all their enemies. And here, +too, the artillery was to play an important part, for fully 2,000 +cannon, nearly all of mid-caliber and heavy caliber, had been brought +down against the Serbians. During the first three invasions the +Austrians had thrown their infantry up against the Serbian lines. Now +German tactics were to be tried: the Serbian trenches and other +defensive positions were to be pulverized with powerful explosives, +then rushed with infantry. + +Though they had been undisturbed for so long, the Serbians were by no +means in doubt as to what was yet to come. They had realized that +eventually the enemy would return more determined and more powerful +than ever. Therefore, they had spent the nine months since the last +defeat of the Austrians in extensive preparations. Line after line of +trenches had been built back into the interior of the country, and all +the possible crossings on the rivers had been heavily fortified. +Moreover, they had drained the civilian population of every male +person strong enough to carry a gun. + +At this time, when the fourth invasion began threatening, their army +mustered fully 310,000 men, slightly more than the Austro-German. In +regard to small arms and ammunition they were also at least equal to +the enemy, for vast consignments of military stores had been sent into +the country by the Allies. Only in heavy artillery were they inferior, +but then this was also true of all the armies facing the Germans +throughout Europe. + +Therefore, had the Serbians been called upon to defend themselves only +against General von Mackensen's armies, it is highly probable that +they would have been able to give the same answer as they had the year +previous. So probable, in fact, that Mackensen would hardly dared to +have attacked them with only 300,000 men. To be sure, their enemy was +no longer made up of raw recruits and there was now the heavy +artillery as well as a commander of great ability to face, but the +preparations they had made in defensive works, as well as the +mountainous nature of their country, more than made up for these +advantages possessed by their opponents. It was the Bulgarians who +would turn the scale. + +Because of the greed for territory of their governing clique, the +Serbians now faced dangers which even their rugged qualities could not +contend against long. For now, while they were steeling themselves to +meet the impact of the blow from the Austro-Germans from the north, +the Bulgarian army, fully as strong as themselves, was gathering on +their right flank. In spite of the diplomatic protests of Ferdinand +and Radoslavov, the Serbians were not deceived. + +The danger from the Bulgarian army meant more to the Serbians than the +mere doubling in number of their enemy's forces. It was the position +of the Bulgarians which made the situation especially precarious, +impossible. + +A glance at the map will show that the main line of railroad, running +down from Belgrade to Saloniki by way of Nish, passes within a few +miles of the Bulgarian frontier, just opposite Sofia. Indeed, from +Klisura on the frontier the distant whistle of the locomotives and the +rattle of the trains across stretches of trestle work can be heard +plainly on still days. From Klisura on the frontier to the railroad is +all down hill. Farther south, at Kustendil, the danger was even +greater, though the distance from frontier to railroad somewhat more, +for at Kustendil was the terminus of a short railroad from the +Bulgarian capital. From this point on the frontier toward the railroad +at Kumanova the terrain was all in favor of the Bulgarians, for +Kustendil is at the top of a chain of mountains and the railroad runs +along the bottom of a valley, the famous Morava Valley. + +This railroad, from Upper Serbia down to Saloniki, was the only line +of communication and transportation between the main Serbian armies +and the Allies. Cut this, and they would wither like a flower +separated from its stem. + +So keenly did the Serbians realize their danger that they asked +permission of the Allies to attack Bulgaria before the Bulgarian army +was completely mobilized. They hoped thereby to disable Bulgaria with +one sharp blow while she was not yet prepared, then turn their whole +attention toward the enemy in the north. But to this plan the Allies +would not consent, still hoping that Ferdinand would reconsider his +resolution. + +[Illustration: General Map of Balkan (Serbian) Operations.] + +Just before the fourth invasion actually began, the Serbians held +their frontier along the Danube and the Save with three armies, +consisting of nearly eight divisions, or half of all their available +men. On the west the First Serbian Army, of three divisions, commanded +by General Mishitch, occupied the angle formed by the Save and the +Drina, with its headquarters at Shabatz, the scene of such bloody +fighting a year before. To the eastward came a force of a division and +a half under command of General Zivkovitch, known as the Army for the +Defense of Belgrade, which indicates its position. Between Belgrade +and the Rumanian frontier lay the Third Serbian Army, of three +divisions, with General Jourishitch at its head, protecting the mouth +of the Morava Valley. + +Facing the Austrians over in the west, in the vicinity of Vichegrad, +was the army of Ushitze, of less than two divisions, under General +Goykovitch. + +These were the forces, about two-thirds of the total Serbian army, +which faced the Austro-Germans. But another 100,000 had also to be +deployed along the Bulgarian frontier to protect the railroad as best +they could. Thus it was that wherever she faced her enemies, Serbia, +was hopelessly outnumbered. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +THE INVASION BEGINS + + +As already stated, the first of Mackensen's huge shells began bursting +over the Serbian defenses across the river on September 20, 1915. +While the wheels of diplomacy continued turning during the following +weeks, the roar of the big guns grew louder and more persistent and +swept up and down the long line. Then came several attempts on the +part of the Austro-Germans to cross the rivers; all these the Serbians +successfully repulsed, though they may have been mere feints, as a +boxer jabs at his opponent's jaw while he really aims for his wind. +There were seven of these attempts. In one, near Semendria, the +Serbians reported that a whole battalion of an enemy was destroyed. +Meanwhile German aeroplanes whirred back and forth over the Serbian +lines, reconnoitering their positions and sometimes dropping bombs. +One of them flew south as far as Nish, then turned eastward and +disappeared over the mountain ridges toward Bulgaria. And all this +while the frontier guards reported that the Bulgarians were massing +their troops day by day. + +As already noted, the Serbian frontier in Macedonia was left +practically unguarded. Possibly the Serbians still hoped the Greeks +would hold to their treaty and join them from that direction. And, +indeed, the Greek army was being mobilized, frankly to meet the +Bulgarians. More encouraging still, the news came that France and +England, at the request of Venizelos, had agreed to send to Saloniki +150,000 men to make up for an equal number which, by the terms of the +Serbo-Greek treaty for mutual defense against Bulgaria, Serbia would +have provided had she been able to do so. + +This force began landing in Saloniki on October 5, 1915, but on the +same day Venizelos was again compelled to resign by King Constantine, +who was determined to keep the Greek nation out of the war. This was a +sad blow to the hopes of the Serbians. Still, the British and French +troops continued landing, in spite of the "protest" from the Greek +Government. + +Beginning on October 3, 1915, the fire of the Austro-German artillery +became doubly insistent, thundering up and down the whole front with +increasing vigor. Again the Teutons began poking their pontoons out +into the river, and again they were smashed by the Serbian guns. The +fighting waxed hottest at Ram, Dubrovitza, and Semendria, on the +Danube, and in and about Ciganlia Island (Island of the Gypsies), at +Obrenovatz, Shabatz, and Jarak on the Save, where it is joined by the +Drina. Ram and Semendria, both fortified places, guarded the mouth of +the Morava Valley, and these Gallwitz subjected to an especially heavy +fire. By October 5, 1915, the shelling became heaviest in this sector: +the enemy's guns and howitzers belched forth a steady hail of big +shells. + +Belgrade, also, became the object of an increasingly tremendous effort +on the part of the Austro-German artillery. Here they had brought up +long-range guns, and with these inflicted heavy damage. + +Nevertheless, the Serbians in Belgrade gave a good account of +themselves. There were stationed there the big naval guns, 4.7-inch +and 6-inch, sent into the country by Great Britain, France, and +Russia, and served by their expert gunners. For several days the +foreign gunners, under command of Rear Admiral Troubridge, swept the +broad surface of the Danube and the Save, sinking two of the enemy's +gunboats that happened to come within range. + +On October 5, 1915, the German fire on Belgrade intensified and became +terrific. They no longer satisfied themselves with pouring their +deadly fire on the fortress of Belgrade and the neighboring positions +at Zamar, but they began a systematic bombardment of the city itself, +hurling vast quantities of inflammatory bombs, as though they meant to +burn down every building before attempting to take it. Into the +suburbs beyond, through which ran the highways leading into the +interior, they rained a curtain of fire which made flight for the +inhabitants almost impossible. + +On October 6, 1915, the Austro-German forces finally managed to effect +a crossing which the Serbians were not able to repulse; at several +points they landed on the opposite bank, including Belgrade itself. +The first attempts had been made at Jarak, Podgorska Island, and +Zabrez, and had been driven back again and again, but this time the +enemy put such energy behind his efforts that eventually the Serbians +were no longer able to drive him back. Gypsy Island, too, a short +distance from Belgrade, was captured, whence a landing was made under +the Lower Fortress and on the Danube Quay in the city itself. In the +first attempt all the Austrians or Germans who landed under the Lower +Fortress were either killed or captured. Finally the invaders +established themselves permanently on the quay. During that day the +fighting was of a bloodier character than had as yet taken place. + +Next day, October 7, 1915, the Austro-Germans pushed on to further +success; their big guns raked the river shore up and down and tore +down all defensive works, making them untenable for the defenders. And +on the day following, October 8, 1915, the Austro-Hungarian troops of +Koevess penetrated into the northern sections of the city, taking the +citadel by storm. At the same time a German contingent, attached to +Koevess's command, landed west of the city and took the heights in that +section, fighting its way to the Konak and finally to the Royal +Palace, in the center of the city, over which they hoisted the German +and Austrian flags. Though there was still much to do, Belgrade was +now practically in their hands. + +Little by little the foreign naval guns in Belgrade had been silenced +by the big shells of the German howitzers. In the afternoon General +Zikovitch, seeing that the city was now lost and hoping to save it +from complete destruction, ordered his forces to retire on the +fortified positions lying behind and south of the capital. Several +detachments of the defenders, however, had already been cut off and +were obliged to remain. Some fought grimly to the bitter end, +inflicting heavy losses on the invaders; others were obliged to +surrender. In some of the streets the fighting took on a bloody, +hand-to-hand character, in which some of the civilians took part. All +through the night Mannlicher rifles sputtered back and forth, +interspersed here and there with the deeper detonation of the hand +bombs which the Serbians hurled in the skirmishes from street to +street and from terrace to terrace. When morning dawned the last of +the firing died down and the greater part of Belgrade was a vast field +of charred timbers and tumbled-down stones. + +Belgrade was taken, as the official German and Austrian reports +announced joyously next day, but its taking had been at an enormous +cost and, aside from the political value of its possession, with very +little gain. The official list specified the war material captured as +only 9 naval guns, and 26 unmounted field pieces, the prisoners +amounting to 10 officers and 600 men, many of whom were wounded. The +Serbian Government had been established in Nish since the beginning of +the war. + +What had happened at Belgrade was typical of the fighting at a number +of other points along the banks of the three rivers. On the same day +that Belgrade was taken the Austro-Germans crossed the Danube between +Gradishte and Semendria, near the village of Zatagna and the small +fort called Kosolatz. Ram, too, after having been heavily bombarded, +was taken. Then, from these points they tried to blast their way +through farther south, away from the river into the interior, but the +Serbians held them back from the neighboring heights. + +In the west, on the Save, toward the mouth of the Drina, the invaders +were not so successful. In this area were some of the best of the +Serbian soldiers, among them the Shumadia Division, which especially +distinguished itself during all the later fighting. Here Marshal +Mishitch, who had led his men so ably during the third invasion ten +months previously, was in command. He also had charge of the defenses +along the lower Drina, and opposite Badovintse he drove back the +Austrians with bloody slaughter. + +Between Obrenovatz and Kratinska, on the Save, the Austro-Germans had +delivered heavy attacks for three nights successively, but were +effectively checked. The operations were directed specially against +Zabrez. On October 10, 1915, this Serbian position was still holding +out. In the afternoon of that date the Austrians bombarded heavily, +using great quantities of asphyxiating bombs. Then they charged in +solid masses, believing that the gases had thrown the Serbians into +disorder. The latter, however, were provided with masks, and when the +enemy charged they sprang from their trenches and met them on the open +ground in hand-to-hand bayonet fighting, driving them back in panic. + +Again the Austrians showered gas shells on the Serbians; then, toward +dusk, came on again, but the Serbians once more broke through the +Austrian ranks and captured many prisoners. + +[Illustration: The Beginning of the German-Austro-Bulgar Campaign +against Serbia.] + +But in spite of these local successes by the Serbians, the fighting +was beginning to go against them; the invaders had crossed the +frontier and could no longer be dislodged. On October 11, 1915, the +official German dispatches were able to announce that Mackensen's +forces were in possession of the Serbian banks of the Danube and the +Save between Gradishte and Shabatz, a stretch of over a hundred miles. +On the Drina too, the Austrians had been able to cross over in +several places. To all these points they hurried large bodies of +reserves to push their advantages and so continue a vigorous offensive +east, south, and west of Belgrade, in a wide, sweeping movement along +the entire front. + +The main effort was made in the east, to secure possession of the +Morava Valley and its railroad. Near Semendria, Gallwitz's right wing +was in touch with Koevess's left. The plan was that they should advance +up the Morava together, each covering one side of the valley. But it +was first necessary to reduce the Serbian forts at Semendria and +Pojarevatz. + +It was now two weeks since the heavy artillery had begun playing on +Semendria. By October 11, 1915, the invaders had succeeded in taking +Semendria, the garrison retiring to Pojarevatz. Here a very severe +battle was fought, but finally the Serbians were forced back, though +not without inflicting the heaviest losses that the enemy had as yet +suffered. After two days the fort was taken and the Serbians retired +to the hills beyond. Thus the invaders were now ready to begin their +advance down the Morava Valley. + +But just then there came a pause in the fighting. The Serbians +observed that Gallwitz waited. What he waited for was not immediately +obvious to them. Within a few days they were to know. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +BULGARIA ENTERS THE WAR + + +The Bulgarian Government suddenly threw aside all dissimulation and +declared war on Serbia, on the pretext that the Serbians had crossed +the frontier and attacked Bulgarian troops. On October 11, 1915, the +Bulgarian army began operations by attacking the Serbians at +Kadibogas, northwest of Nish, the attack gradually extending up and +down the frontier. This was the fatal blow. To oppose the 300,000 men +that the Bulgarians could easily put into this field, the Serbians had +not over a third as many. + +Bulgaria had two large armies against the Serbian frontier. The First +Army, under General Boyadjieff, was fully 200,000 strong and was +concentrated in the north from Vidin to Zaribrod, threatening the +Timok Valley and that part of the Belgrade-Sofia railroad running from +Pirot to Nish. + +The Second Army, under the command of General Todoroff, was only half +as large, and directed itself toward Macedonia and especially toward +Uskub, both on account of the strategic importance of that place as a +railroad center and as the best point from which a wedge might be +driven into the side of Serbia, separating the north from the south. +The headquarters of this second force was in Kustendil, its left wing +extending down to Strumitza in Macedonia. + +On this eastern front, to oppose the Bulgarians, the Serbian forces +were in three groups. In the north, its left flank touching the forces +operating against the Austro-Germans, lay the Timok group, commanded +by General Zivkovitch, whose headquarters were in Zaichar. South of +this force came the second group--territorial troops--numbering three +divisions of infantry and one of cavalry, altogether about 80,000 men, +and commanded by Marshal Stepanovitch. It was based on Pirot and was +especially charged with the defense of the railroad. Lower down, with +headquarters in Vranya, was the detachment of the Southern Morava. +Farther down in Macedonia, concentrated around Uskub, Veles, and +stretched down along the Vardar toward the Greek frontier at Doiran, +were another 25,000 men under the command of General Bojovitch. + +[Illustration: Under fire from the Serbian forces, General Mackensen's +engineers constructed this great bridge across the Danube, and his +army crossed for the invasion of Serbia.] + +As a slight offset to the disheartening news that the Bulgarians had +at last definitely joined hands with the Teutonic forces, came the +tidings that France and England had declared war on Bulgaria and that +their forces, which had been landing in Saloniki, were already +advancing up the Vardar with the intention of making a junction with +the southern Serbian forces. Already, on that same day, October 15, +1915, the allied vanguard had advanced as far as Valandova and was +there attacked by the Bulgarians, the latter being beaten back and +heavily defeated. These were the French troops, under command of +General Sarrail; having thrown back the Bulgarians he worked his way +northward along the railroad until he reached Krivolak and Gradsko, a +few miles below Veles. But transporting troops from France and England +was a slow business, and General Sarrail had not then, nor had he +later, enough forces to advance north any farther. Meanwhile the +Bulgarians in the north, under Boyadjieff, began operations against +the Serbians. + +The country in this section is extremely rough, being all rocky ridges +and deep ravines, with roads little better than mountain trails. +Boyadjieff succeeded at once in crossing the Lower Timok, then divided +his force into two main divisions. One of these he advanced against +Pirot, the other against Zaichar and Kniashevatz. But now the Serbians +began a strong resistance. + +On October 15, 1915, the Bulgarians began three strong assaults, east +and southeast of Zaichar, all of which the Serbians repulsed +successfully. East of Kniashevatz another series of bitterly contested +encounters took place, neither side making any decided gains. On the +following day the fighting extended to Svinski Vis. By this time the +Serbians east of Kniashevatz began giving way slowly and the +Bulgarians pushed forward and on October 19, 1915, they arrived before +Negotin. Toward Pirot they also succeeded in making some advance. + +For several days the two fighting lines of men swayed back and forth. +Here artillery played not so important a part. Both Bulgars and Serbs, +primitive, rugged fighters, threw military science to the winds and +plunged into the battle face to face and breast to breast, thrusting +each other with cold steel. In some of the struggles the men lost +their guns; they picked up the bowlders that lay about them thickly +and hurled them at their enemies or they gripped each other with their +hands and fought as animals fight. Quarter was neither asked nor +given. + +Witnesses state that in neither of the two Balkan wars was there such +ferocious fighting, such awful slaughter, as during the encounters +between the Serbians and Bulgarians along this section of the +frontier. Both sides lost heavily; whole companies and even battalions +were hemmed in against the rock walls, then exterminated to the last +man. + +But finally numbers began to show the advantage, and the Serbians were +obliged to retire from ridge to ridge. Village after village was taken +and burned. + +In Macedonia, Todoroff, though his force was much smaller, was having +comparatively easy work. A large part of the vital railroad line +passed through this section and it was Todoroff's first aim to throw +himself astride of it, thus effectually breaking off communication +between the vanguard of the French army and the Serbians. It was this +portion of the country that the Greeks would have defended, had they +joined the Allies. + +The first thing that Todoroff did was to detach a strong force from +his main body, with which he struck at the railroad between Vranya and +Zibeftcha and succeeded in cutting it. The detachment of the Southern +Morava was driven back at the first encounter and on October 17, 1915, +the Bulgarians entered Vranya. On the same day the main body of the +Bulgarians advanced down the slopes from Kustendil and took Egri +Palanka, on the road toward Kumanova and Uskub. Farther south they +penetrated the Valley of the Bregalnitza, the scene of the Bulgarian +defeat in the Second Balkan War, where they captured the important +strategic point, Sultan Tepe, and the town of Katshana, taking twelve +field pieces. Passing rapidly on through Ishtip, they occupied that +part of Veles lying east of the Vardar River, where, on October 20, +1915, they again cut the railroad line and so made any further advance +on the part of the French almost impossible. The next day the +Bulgarians captured Kumanova and then, on the day following, drove the +Serbians on through Uskub. The Serbians retired fighting to Katshanik +Pass, north of Uskub, where they made a stand that became one of the +notable achievements, on their part, of the whole campaign. For by the +defense of this pass they made the Bulgarian effort to cut Serbia in +two for some time fruitless. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +THE TEUTONIC INVASION ROLLS ON + + +Meanwhile, Bulgaria having plunged into the fighting, the Teutonic +allies in the north resumed their efforts to advance southward. But +for some time they had all they could do to maintain themselves on the +banks of the rivers. Before them rose the rock-ribbed hills skirting +the mountains of the interior, and along these hills the Serbians had, +during the previous ten months, built up line after line of strong +intrenchments, one behind the other. To carry one line was only to +gain a few hundred yards of territory. + +Just as soon as Koevess felt his hold on Belgrade secure, he began an +attack on the heights to the south. After three days of intense +bombardment he succeeded in taking Mount Avala, an eminence some 1,600 +feet in height and ten miles from the city. On the same day, October +18, 1915, Obrenovatz fell into his hands, and Shabatz three days +later. However, these two places were still only on the banks of the +river. + +The chief efforts of the invaders, however, were directed toward +making an advance down the Morava Valley. Their first assault was made +against the Serbian positions in the mountainous country of the +Podunavlie. Gallwitz here had an exceedingly difficult task, for the +ground rose in rocky, steplike formation, offering all the advantages +to the defenders. But the bombardment from the heavy artillery had its +effect and slowly the Germans advanced. By October 23, 1915, they had +reached the southern bank of the Jesenitza, not far from Palanka and +had passed Rakinatz on the road to Petrovatz on the Mlava. + +During this same period the German left wing, having smashed Tekia +with gunfire, crossed the Danube near Orsova and succeeded in taking +the heights overlooking the river. On the extreme western front the +Austrians crossed the Drina at Vishegrad. Thus all the rivers forming +the frontiers had passed completely into the hands of the invaders. +But it had been a costly gain. By this time the Austro-German forces +had lost very heavily. The Serbians also had had heavy losses, but not +half so many as the enemy. + +It was the policy of General Putnik, the Serbian Chief of Staff, to +prolong the fighting as much as possible, for during this time the +transports of the Allies were disembarking troops in Saloniki, at the +rate of 5,000 men a day, and there was hope that eventually they would +be able to advance northward, and at least save the Serbians from the +Bulgarians. This same hope had stiffened the resistance of the +soldiers in every skirmish. Then came word that the Russians would +relieve the pressure by attacking the Bulgarians, either through +Rumania, or by landing troops in either Bourgas or Varna. And once +indeed the Russian ships did bombard Varna, but without any attempt at +disembarking troops. + +As the days passed and no help from outside came, the belief began +gradually to dawn on the Serbian people that they were doomed as a +nation. This feeling first manifested itself in the flight of the +civil population. At first the noncombatants had merely retired with +the fighting line. The first three invasions had shown that the +Austrians did not always refrain from committing atrocities, +especially when their armies had suffered unusually. Nor was there any +reason to suppose that the Germans were any kindlier to civilians. +Thus it was that hardly any of the civil population remained behind in +conquered territory. + +Then, gradually, came the conviction that Serbian soldiers alone must +face the enemy, and even the most patriotic realized what a hopeless +fight it was. The whole population began moving southward; along every +available road trailed long lines of slowly moving ox carts, loaded +with the few movable belongings of their peasant owners. South +continued the exodus and then--the Bulgarians blocked the way. The +roads to Greece were closed. There remained nothing for them to do but +to turn toward the awful mountain wilderness intervening between them +and the Adriatic sea coast, infested by fierce bands of Albanian +brigands and tribesmen. + +The weather was bad; rain fell heavily and incessantly, the roads were +deep in mud and the plight of these people, most of them old men and +women and children, became intensely miserable. + +The Austro-German lines in the north continued their slow but +persistent southward advance; the invasion rolled on, the Serbians +retiring before them step by step. During the last week of the month +Gallwitz came to the heights east of Banitzina, south of Jesenitza, +and began storming them. Then followed another spurt of severe +fighting and Livaditza and Zabari, on the Morava River, fell into +their hands, after which they occupied the region south of Petrovatz. +By the 28th they had gained Svilajnatz, beating down the Serbian +resistance by sheer weight of men and guns, and by the last day of the +month they were within a day's march of Kragujevatz, in which was +located Serbia's chief arsenal. Situated on the Lepenitza, a branch of +the Morava, it lay about half way between Belgrade and Nish, on a +branch line of the main railroad. It was a point well worth defending, +and the Serbians did defend it stubbornly, but on November 1, 1915, +they were compelled to evacuate it, after first destroying the arsenal +and all the materials it contained. + +It was here that the Shumadia Division especially distinguished +itself. The regiments of that unit had been recruited in this section; +it was literally defending its native soil. During the first part of +the fighting it had been intrenched in the hills to the north of the +town. The day was wet and dense mists rolled through the mountain +passes down over the hills. The Germans had effectually shelled the +positions of the Shumadians and were under the impression that they +had retired, wherefore they advanced upward to occupy the deserted +trenches. + +And then, suddenly, wild yells and shouts burst out from the rolling +mist and the Shumadians fell upon the invaders with set bayonets. The +latter, who had been growing accustomed to the purely defensive +tactics of their enemy, were completely taken by surprise and thrown +into disorder. + +The first line of the Teutons wavered, then broke and scattered. +Coming up against reenforcements behind, they re-formed and advanced +again. And again the Shumadians burst down on them and engaged them +hand to hand. Fighting like savages, they drove the invaders before +them for a considerable distance, taking over 3,000 prisoners and +several guns. When finally they retired just as the main body of the +advancing foe was coming up, they left behind them hundreds of enemy +dead, the fallen literally covering the ground in heaps. + +The mixed forces of Koevess, keeping in touch with Gallwitz's right +wing, had been advancing more or less in line with the Germans, +marching along the railroad from Belgrade and Obrenovatz toward the +Western Morava. South of Belgrade the Serbians had put up a stout +resistance at Kosmai, but were finally dislodged by the heavy +artillery fire. On October 25, 1915, Koevess arrived at Ratcha, south +of Palanka, on the right side of the Morava. After a hard fought +battle at Gorni Milanovatz, he reached Cacak on November 1, 1915, a +few miles west of Kragujevatz. Here it was that he struck the Western +Morava and the railroad passing along it eastward from Ushitze to its +junction with the main line. Farther to the westward his cavalry, on +October 26, 1915, had occupied Valievo on the Upper Kolubara and one +of his divisions had crossed the Maljen Mountains, where the Austrians +had been so humiliatingly defeated the year before. Farther west, but +more to the south, the Austrians, who had pushed on from Vishegrad, +arrived in Ushitze on November 2, 1915, and presently effected a +junction with the main body. + +Meanwhile, a day or two before the end of the month, an incident up in +the northeast foreshadowed the attainment of the main objective of the +Austro-German forces. The Serbians had, naturally, withdrawn from this +section and now a German cavalry patrol, scouting in advance of its +own lines, met with a body of Bulgarian scouts. The Bulgarian and the +Teutonic forces had come in contact with each other. But the chief +significance of this fact was that now the road was open for +communication between Germany and Turkey. Even if the railroad running +from Belgrade to Constantinople, by way of Sofia, should be +temporarily cut, or should not be captured throughout its entire +length for some time, shipments of war material could already be made +to Turkey by way of the Danube down to Rustchuk in northern Bulgaria +and thence by railroad. Thus the Turks at Gallipoli, who had been +running short of ammunition, could now be relieved. + +This opening of communication with Turkey was made much of in the +German official reports and some of the newspapers began referring to +Mackensen's army as "the army of Egypt." + +On the first day of November, 1915, Mackensen could really say that he +had conquered all of northern Serbia. But the fact remained that the +Serbian army was still in the field; not even a part of it had as yet +been captured or annihilated. And it is a military axiom that no +matter how far an army may retreat and no matter how much territory +may have been conquered, no battle is decisive until the enemy has +been destroyed, either entirely or in large part. The Germans were to +be reminded of this fact more than once on the Russian front. + +Up till this time Boyadjieff, at the head of his Bulgarian army, was +attacking the Serbians from two directions: along the Timok against +Kniashevatz, Zaichar, and Negotin, and along the Nishava against +Pirot. Both movements were directed ultimately toward Nish, but the +more northerly had also the purpose of effecting a junction with the +left wing of the Germans under Gallwitz, which was advancing from +Tekia, in the northeast corner of Serbia. Negotin and Prahovo, the +latter a port on the Danube, had been taken on October 25, 1915. Lower +down, the Bulgarians, who were in overwhelming strength, occupied both +Zaichar and Kniashevatz on the 28th. Meanwhile, the Serbians were also +compelled to abandon the commanding heights of Drenova Glava, fifteen +miles northwest of Pirot, and on the 28th Pirot fell, though not +without heavy fighting. With Pirot on the south and Kniashevatz on the +north in the hands of the Bulgarians, the situation of Nish became +very precarious. The Serbian Government was now shifted to Kralievo. + +Down in Macedonia the Second Bulgarian Army, under Todoroff, seemed to +have come to an end of its initial success. After its occupation of +Uskub it had advanced to Katshanik Pass, which was occupied by the +Serbians under General Bojovitch. Todoroff at once began a violent +attack and by October 28, 1915, part of the defile seemed to have been +cleared of the Serbians. But presently the Serbians were reenforced +by two regiments of the Morava Division and two of the Drina Division, +whereupon Bojovitch suddenly turned and once more possessed himself of +the pass. + +Again and again the Bulgarians attacked, determined to take the pass, +but as often as they hurled themselves up the defile, just so often +the Serbians drove them back with fire and bayonet. + +During this same period another Serbian force under Colonel Vassitch +was fighting farther south. On October 22, 1915, he succeeded in +recapturing Veles, which, it will be remembered, Todoroff had taken in +his rapid advance during the first few days of his fighting. Here it +was that the Serbians expected to make a juncture with the French +forces under Sarrail, and for several days they could even hear the +thunder of the French guns repelling a Bulgarian attack, so close +together were they. + +For a whole week Vassitch held Veles against the overwhelming attacks +of the Bulgarians; then, finally, on the 29th, he was compelled to +retire to the Babuna Pass, the narrow defile also known as the Iron +Gate, through which passed the highway from Veles to Monastir, by way +of Prilep. By the first of November, 1915, the Serbians were still +holding this pass, which was all that prevented the Bulgarians from +driving in the wedge that was to separate Upper Serbia from Macedonia. + +While it was true that no important part of the Serbian army had as +yet been eliminated from the field; that it was, as a whole, still +intact, yet it was now evident that the little nation had come very +near to the end of her resistance. By this time it was quite obvious +that no real help could be expected from the Allies. Great Britain had +offered the island of Cyprus to the Greeks, if they would stand by +their agreement by joining the Serbians, against the Bulgarians, at +least. But even that tempting offer would not induce them to risk +themselves in a fight whose outcome seemed so doubtful. On October 20, +1915, Italy had given her moral support by declaring war against +Bulgaria, but for the time being she offered nothing more material. On +October 21, 1915, British and French ships bombarded the Bulgarian +port of Dedeagatch, on the Gulf of Enos, and also a junction of the +railroad connecting Saloniki with Constantinople, but this had no +material result in deterring the Bulgarians from pressing their +campaign against the Serbians in Macedonia. On October 28, 1915, +Russian ships bombarded Varna, on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria. +This was done, not so much for any material damage that could be done +to Bulgaria, but for the moral effect it might have on the population, +which was supposed to have very deep feelings of regard for Russia, +because she had freed them from the Turks in 1878. But the Bulgarian +troops previously stationed at this point had been replaced by Turkish +forces, so that it is probable that the Bulgarian population was not +much affected. + +On land, the French troops under Sarrail had advanced farthest north; +on October 23, 1915, they defeated the Bulgarians severely at Rabrova +and pushed on to Krivolak, where they again engaged the Bulgarians on +the 30th and repulsed their attack. By November 2, 1915, the French +were at Gradsko, where the Tcherna joins the Vardar River, hoping to +get in touch with the Serbians who were defending the Babuna Pass and +whose guns they could hear pounding over the ten miles of intervening +mountain ridges. The British bore little of this fighting, having made +their advance over toward Lake Doiran. + +But though the French had arrived within hearing of the Serbian guns, +they lacked the numbers that would give them the strength to push +farther. The French, indeed, had done well in their efforts to support +the Serbians in their distress. It was Great Britain that had not +lived up to her promise of affording "our Allies all the material +assistance in our power." So obviously had the British military +authorities failed that much public sentiment in Great Britain was +worked up against them, which became all the more acute when a +telegram from M. Pachitch, the Serbian premier, was published, in +which he said: "Serbia is making superhuman efforts to defend her +existence, in response to the advice and desire of her great ally. For +this she is condemned to death.... In spite of the heroism of our +soldiers, our resistance cannot be maintained indefinitely. We beg +you to do all you can to insure your troops reaching us that they may +help our army...." + +On the same day this was published in the London papers, there was +also printed a speech made by Lord Lansdowne in the House of Lords, in +which he stated that the British had landed in Saloniki a force of +only 13,000 men. + +In France the sentiment in favor of assisting the Serbians was so +strong that the Cabinet, which did not approve of a Balkan campaign, +was forced to resign. The French president thereupon found a new prime +minister in M. Briand, the ex-Socialist, who once before had been +premier, and, associating with himself M. Viviani and other +ex-ministers, he formed a Cabinet which was prepared to push the +campaign in aid of Serbia to the fullest extent. On the following day, +October 29, 1915, General Joffre went to London to consult with the +British Government and to persuade them to take more energetic +measures with regard to transporting troops to Saloniki. Apparently +his mission was successful, for after that large forces were sent to +the Near East, but so far as any effectual help to Serbia was +concerned, it was now too late. + +At about this time Greece was showing a decided change of attitude. +Evidently this change was not a little due to the success of the +Austro-Germans and the Bulgarians in the north, and the nearer they +came to her own frontier, the less cordial became Greece to the +Allies. Every obstacle, short of armed interference, was put in the +way of transportation of troops and supplies to the front up in +Macedonia. This attitude was to continue until the Serbians were +finally swept out of their native land and the question came up of +retiring the allied troops back to Saloniki, across Greek territory, +when the British and French took very severe measures against the +Greek authorities. + +Meanwhile, the invasion of Serbia was rolling onward. Having taken +Kragujevatz, where they began restoring the arsenal to working order +with feverish haste, the Austro-Germans crossed the Cacak-Kragujevatz +road and continued onward. Koevess advanced over the Posetza and the +Germans entered Jagodina on November 3, 1915. + +By this time the Serbian headquarters at Kralievo was seriously +threatened; in fact, the Serbian Government was able to withdraw just +in time to prevent capture and establish itself in Rashka. On came the +enemy, along both banks of the Western Morava. In the streets of +Kralievo there was fierce fighting, at times hand-to-hand, between the +defenders and the Brandenburg troops of the invaders, but finally, on +November 5, 1915, the town was taken. + +Here the invaders made their first large capture of war material, +which included 130 guns, though most of them were said to be of an +obsolete pattern, the others being without breech-blocks. Within +forty-eight hours the Germans had reached Krushevatz, where 3,000 +Serbian soldiers were captured, not counting 1,500 wounded lying in +the hospital. + +The whole Western Morava was now in the hands of the invaders. To the +eastward Gallwitz pressed on until he came to the hills south of +Lugotzni, where he was held up for a short space by the Serbian rear +guards. Finally, the heights were taken by storm. On November 4, 1915, +Parachin on the railroad was taken; from this point a branch line runs +back to Zaichar, already in possession of the Bulgarians, so that now +the two armies, German and Bulgarian, were almost in touch with each +other. And next day, in fact, their lines joined up at Krivivir, which +was taken that night by an assault under cover of darkness. Their +lines were now only thirty miles from Nish. + +During this time other large bodies of Bulgarians under Boyadjieff +were also advancing on Nish; one from Pirot, in a southerly direction, +and another along the road from Kniashevatz, marching north. They were +now closing in on that city in overwhelming strength. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +THE FALL OF NISH--DEFENSE OF BABUNA PASS + + +At a small village called Svrlig, six miles outside the city, the +Serbians began a fight which presently assumed the character of some +of the bloody battles they had fought earlier in the campaign. Again +and again the Bulgarian attacks were hurled back; thus the battle +lasted for three days, from November 2 to 5, 1915. The Serbians +retired only when the Bulgarians began bringing up their big guns, and +the shells were already dropping into Nish. On November 5, 1915, the +Bulgarians entered the city and took possession, where even yet the +British and French flags were flying, raised by the Serbians when they +still thought that only a few days intervened until they would be +welcoming the allied troops. A hundred guns were taken with Nish, +though the Serbians claimed that they were old and obsolete. + +The fall of Nish, from a political point of view, at least, was the +worst blow that the Serbians had suffered since the capture of +Belgrade. The German and Austrian papers made the most of it, and +indeed all Europe now realized that the last days of the Serbian +resistance were at hand. + +In Macedonia the Bulgarians under Todoroff were not having an easy +success. They were being held up still at Katshanik Pass, where the +Serbians under Colonel Bojovitch were daily beating back the Bulgarian +assaults and thus keeping open the retreat of the main Serbian army. +Down in the Babuna Pass the Serbians were making a similar stubborn +defense, hoping against hope that the French would come to their +relief. And possibly, had it not been for the defeats that the +Bulgarians were receiving from the French at Strumitza, they would +have been able to take the pass long before. For in that direction +Todoroff had been suffering great loss; so severely was he pressed +that he was, for the time being, unable to press his advance into the +heart of Macedonia. To this extent, at least, the Allies, and +especially the French, did help the Serbians. + +The Bulgarians were in exactly the same position, and trying to +accomplish exactly the same thing, as in the Second Balkan War. At +that time they were endeavoring to drive a wedge in between the +Serbians and the Greeks. Now the situation was the same, except that +the French were in the place of the Greeks. + +From Katshanik to Krivolak the railroad was in Bulgarian hands. From +Krivolak south to Doiran it was in the hands of the Allies, though +parts of it were at times under the fire of the Bulgarian artillery. +South of Katshanik the Bulgarians had crossed the road and had pushed +westward until they were held up at the Babuna Pass. Should the pass +be forced the Serbian line was in immediate danger of being flanked +and the French, too, would be in a similar danger, for by striking +south the Bulgarians could make a move around toward the French rear. +Hence the almost superhuman efforts both Serbians and French were +making to close this gap. + +The stand that the Serbians made in Babuna Pass was one of those feats +which will remain inscribed on the pages of history through the ages +and will excite the admiration of all people, regardless of how their +sympathies may lie toward the main issues of the war. During the first +week of November Colonel Vassitch had only 5,000 men with which to +dispute the right of way against 20,000 Bulgarians. And not only had +the Bulgarians a great advantage in the matter of numbers, but they +were well supplied with big guns. Day after day and night after night, +the little force of Serbians crouched among the deep shadows of the +defile, sometimes without food, always under a heavy fire, now and +again making the rock cliffs about them echo with bursts of their +plaintive, national folk songs. After November 4, 1915, the Bulgarian +attacks became more persistent, and their infantry would hurl itself +up into the pass; then the Serbians would spring up from behind rocks +and ledges and throw themselves at their hated kinsmen with naked +bayonets, shouting such words in their common language as send the +flush of rage burning through the cheeks of men and make things red +before their eyes. Again and again were these sanguinary hand-to-hand +struggles enacted under the towering rock walls of those forbidding +mountains, and again and again the Bulgarians were thrown back. +Meanwhile, the French, only ten miles away, were within sound of the +firing. + +As a matter of fact, General Sarrail had already done wonders, +considering the shortness of the time he had had and the small forces +and few facilities at his disposal. It seemed, to those at a distance, +such a small gap to fill. And indeed, so nearly did Sarrail effect the +junction that nothing but the absence of reenforcements at a critical +moment caused him to fail. + +As soon as he had landed at Saloniki he had sent every soldier under +his command along the railroad up the valley of Vardar, toward Veles. +Unfortunately, transportation facilities were poor; the road was only +single track; curving and twisting in and out among the rising +foothills and mountain spurs. + +His first fighting had been at Strumitza station, where he defeated +the Bulgarians and so assured himself of possession of Demir Kapu +defile, a cleft in the mountains ten miles in length and from which, +had they held it, the Bulgarians could easily, with a comparatively +small force, have prevented any further advance. Having secured this +pass, Sarrail pushed through it to Krivolak, which was reached on +October 19, 1915. But here he was compelled to make a halt, to fortify +this advanced position and to await further reenforcements. + +When news of the proximity of the French advance reached Vassitch, he +redoubled his efforts, and on October 22, 1915, he thrust his little +army forward and succeeded in recapturing Veles. This town lay along +the railroad, about thirty-five miles northwest of Krivolak. + +Three miles north of Krivolak, on the road to Ishtip, rises a steep +and forbidding height, called Kara Hodjali (the Black Priest), which +the French were fortunate enough to take before the Bulgarians came up +in force. It was this height which enabled them, when the Bulgarians +did swarm down on them, some days later, to hold their position. From +October 30, 1915, until November 5, 1915, the fighting here was +furious, but finally the Bulgarians were driven back. Meanwhile, +however, the advance had been delayed and Vassitch, after holding +Veles a week, was forced to retire to Babuna Pass again. + +From Krivolak to the pass was twenty-five miles, due east. For fifteen +miles the road lay across a rolling plain, to the River Tserna, as the +Macedonians and Serbians called it, or Tcherna, meaning "Black," in +Bulgarian. Beyond that rose steep and difficult mountain ridges, which +the Bulgarians had occupied and fortified. Yet Sarrail determined to +make an effort to force his way across. + +By this time reenforcements had arrived from Saloniki, so he began +moving across the plain through Negotin and Kavadar to the Tcherna. +This stream, though narrow, was deep and unfordable. It could be +crossed only in one place, by a small plank bridge, at Vozartzi. + +On November 5, 1915, the French troops began crossing this bridge and +scaling the heights before them, some of whose peaks towered fully a +thousand feet above the river. And here it was that they first heard +the booming of the Serbian guns, on the other side of the ridge. + +Sarrail now advanced his men northward, along the west bank of the +Tcherna, and next day he delivered an assault on the Mount of the +Archangel, ten miles below Vozartzi. Here was the center of the +Bulgarian positions, and here their lines must be pierced, if Babuna +Pass was to be reached. + +But not only was this position well fortified, but the Bulgarians were +in superior force to the French. Moreover, as soon as Todoroff heard +of what was going on, he hurried reenforcements to the Bulgarians on +Mount Archangel. And this Sarrail knew; yet, without hesitation, he +began the assault. + +At the first attack the Bulgarian advance lines were driven out of the +villages at the base of the mountain. The French continued their +advance, and on November 10, 1915, they began a circling movement +which resulted in the Bulgarians being squeezed out of Sirkovo, a +village some distance up the mountain. + +But by this time the Bulgarian reenforcements were beginning to +arrive, and by the end of the second week of the month they began to +take the offensive. They now had 60,000 men; against this force it was +obviously impossible for the French to make any further headway. + +The Bulgarian commander now showed that it was his intention to circle +about the French, cut off their retreat by destroying the wooden +bridge over the Tcherna in their rear, then pin them up against the +mountain and pound them until they surrendered, all of which might +have been accomplished by a more skillful general. + +For three days a violent battle raged, in which the fate of the French +army more than once hung in the balance, but superior military skill +counted in the end. Possibly, too, the hearts of the Bulgarian +soldiers were not in this fight, for the Bulgarian people have an +almost reverential respect for the French. At any rate, they did not +show here the same qualities that so distinguished them in the war +against the Turks. At the end of the third day their lines began +wavering, then broke. So completely were they routed that the French +were compelled to bury nearly 4,000 of the dead they left behind. So +close had the fighting been that at times the Bulgarian infantry +charged the French positions to within a dozen yards, but in the last +moment lacked the dash to carry them through the machine-gun fire and +into the French ranks. At such moments the French would countercharge, +whereupon the Bulgarians would turn and flee. Had the French been only +a few thousand men stronger, they could have followed up their +advantage, completely routed the Bulgarians, pushed their way across +the mountains to Babuna Pass and so relieved the Serbians, as well as +closing the gap through which the Bulgarians were yet to penetrate +into Macedonia. + +The French completed their victory on November 14, 1915; until the +next day the Serbians held out, hearing the French guns, now loud and +clear, then receding, hoping every hour to see them come streaming +over the mountains to their aid. But the French could not do the +impossible. The Bulgarians had been thrown back, but not crushed. +Sarrail dared not leave that slender crossing over the Tcherna too far +behind. + +On November 16, 1915, the Serbians finally fell back from the pass on +Prilep. The French, however, not knowing of the Serbian retirement at +the time, continued to hold their advanced position at Mount Archangel +until November 20, 1915, when the Bulgarians returned to give them +fresh battle. And again the French were able to repulse their attacks, +but further advance was now out of the question. + +The situation of the Serbian armies up in the north was now truly +desperate. The combined Austro-German and Bulgarian lines, beginning +at Vishegrad, north of Montenegro, swept in a straight line across the +heart of Serbia to Nish, where it curved downward to Vranya, then +swept into Veles and down to where the French army prevented it from +reaching the Greek frontier. It was, in fact, like a great dragnet, +which had only to be contracted to sweep the Serbians inward, over +against the awful defiles of the Montenegrin and Albanian Mountains, a +country through which no organized army could pass in a body, and +through which only the strongest of the noncombatants could hope to +escape alive. And for a time it seemed as though the French would +prick a hole through this net, through which, by rending it into a +wide gap, the Serbians could have been saved. But with the retirement +of Colonel Vassitch from Babuna Pass that last chance was gone; Serbia +was left to her fate. + +Meanwhile the pressure from the north continued irresistibly; steadily +the Serbian armies were being pushed back against the mountain ranges, +in comparison to which their own mountains were mere hills. And while +the Serbians were waxing weaker every day, their enemies were growing +stronger, not only because their long line was contracting, but +because now they were being constantly reenforced. Also, with the +cutting of the railroad, all means of supply were gone; the Serbians +must now continue the fight with their own resources. They were now +becoming woefully short, not only of ammunition, but of food as well. +Yet they continued the struggle, retreating before the enemy facing +them, step by step backward, taking advantage of every little natural +position to cause the invaders as much loss as possible. + +During the two weeks following the fall of Nish the three commanders +of the invading armies began, and continued, a great converging +movement on the Kossovo Plain, their object being to completely +encircle the main Serbian armies. Koevess was advancing his forces +toward Mitrovitza on the north side of the plain from Kralievo up the +valley of the Ibar, branching out of the Western Morava. In the hills +north of Ivanitza the Serbian rear guards made a stubborn attempt to +hold him back, but finally they were dislodged and the Austrians +occupied Ivanitza on November 9, 1915. Four days later, after driving +the Serbians from their intrenchments in the Stolovi ranges, he +reached Rashka, which had been the seat of the Serbian Government +after its flight from Kralievo and which was situated on the Ibar, +some distance along the road to Mitrovitza and only a few miles from +Novi Bazar. This place he took on November 20, 1915, and with it a +small arsenal, in which were fifty large mortars and eight guns, which +even the German reports described as of "somewhat ancient pattern." + +To the eastward the Austrians had taken possession of Sienitza and +Novi Varosh, up toward the Montenegrin frontier. Being expelled from +Zhochanitza, the Serbians retired to Mitrovitza. By November 22, 1915, +the Austrian lines had followed to within five miles of that point. + +Gallwitz and his Germans, in the meanwhile, operating on the left +flank of the Austrians, was pushing southward, his object being to +take Pristina, on the east side of the Kossovo Plain and about twenty +miles southeast of Mitrovitza. But this was a task that could not be +accomplished without much difficulty, for before him towered the +backbone of Serbia's main mountain ridges, each ravine and each ledge +sheltering strong Serbian forces. + +As usual, however, the big guns cleared the way before Gallwitz, +though at Jastrebatz the Serbians made him pay a heavy price in the +losses he suffered. On this front the Bulgars were now coming close +enough to the Germans to support them; against the two the Serbians +had not the slightest chance. + +By November 8, 1915, Gallwitz was starting out from Krushevatz, after +which he followed the banks of a small branch of the Western Morava in +a southwesterly direction, toward Brus, with one part of his force, +another being sent due south across a range of high hills toward +Kurshumlia. He soon reached Ribari and Ribarska Bania, where the +retreating Serbians gave him what he himself described in his official +report as "very stiff fighting." Next he stormed the pass through the +mountains and thus gained an entrance to the valley of the Toplitza, +through which flows a river westward into the Morava, the main stream +by that name, though in this district it is known as the Southern +Morava. + +A week's hard fighting and marching followed before Kurshumlia could +be taken, which the Serbians evacuated without resistance, though not +before they had stripped it of everything that might be of value to +the enemy. Here was located a Serbian hospital, full of wounded +soldiers, all of whom fell into the hands of the Germans. + +Moving on from this town, which lay about halfway between Krushevatz +and Pristina, the Germans next pushed on to Prepolatz defile in the +eastern part of the Kopaonik Mountains, which they reached on November +20, 1915, then scaled the intervening ridges on their way southward. +The Serbians struggled on, but the same day on which Koevess came +within striking distance of Mitrovitza, Gallwitz was threatening +Pristina from the north end of the Lab Valley. + +Thus the Serbians were finally driven out of the last corner of their +native land, on November 20, 1915. Only a week previously Mackensen +had communicated with the Serbian leaders, offering them terms that +certainly should have seemed alluring to them in their dire extremity. +This offer had been to the effect that if they would make peace they +should lose nothing but Macedonia and a strip of territory along the +Bulgarian frontier, including Pirot and Vranya. + +The answer of the Serbian Premier, M. Pachitch, to this offer of +separate terms was: + +"Our way is marked out. We will be true to the Entente and die +honorably." + +After the evacuation of Nish the Serbians, under Marshal Stepanovitch, +retreated to the west bank of the Morava, blowing up the bridges as +soon as they were across. Here they held up the Bulgarians for some +time, the river acting as a screen. It will have been noted that the +Serbian forces always offered the most stubborn resistance to the +Bulgarians, often coming to close quarters with them, whereas the +Austro-Germans drove them on miles ahead of them. The reason was that +the Bulgarians were not so well provided with heavy artillery, such as +they had being more or less matched by the Serbian field pieces. The +Germans, however, could stand off several miles and shell a Serbian +position without the Serbians being able to reply with one effective +shot. + +In this battle along the Morava, King Peter appeared, hobbling up and +down the lines under fire, talking to the men here and there and +uttering words of encouragement. This had the effect of reviving some +of the old enthusiasm which was somewhat dampened after such a +continuous series of reverses and retreats. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +BULGARIAN ADVANCE--SERBIAN RESISTANCE + + +On November 7, 1915, the Bulgarians captured Alexinatz in the north. +The Serbian army of the Timok, retiring from Zaitchar, barely +succeeded in crossing the bridge over the river in time to avoid +complete disaster. In the south, and on that same day, the Serbians +were compelled to abandon Leskovatz. With the capture of these two +towns, and several other minor points along the line, the enemy +secured complete possession of the main line of railroad from Belgrade +through Nish to Sofia and Constantinople, and of the Nish-Saloniki +railroad as far south as the French intrenchments at Krivolak. This +was to them a very material triumph, for hitherto they had been +transporting munitions to the Turks by the water route, along the +Danube to Rustchuk in northern Bulgaria. This route was not only more +direct, but much quicker. Their main object had now been accomplished +in full. Thus Germany was now in direct railroad communication with +Asia, and again the German and Austrian papers made frequent +references to a possible Egyptian campaign in the future. Another +great advantage resulting to both Bulgaria and the two Teutonic +empires from the capture of the railroad was the fact that Bulgaria, +whose cereal crops had been accumulating in big stores because they +could not be exported, could now send them into Germany and Austria, +where they were badly needed, thus defeating in some measure the +object of the British blockade. + +From Alexinatz the hard-pressed army of the Timok had only a single +line of retreat, which was by the road to Prokuplie and Kurshumlia, +and, in danger of being cut off by the Germans in the west, it began a +hurried march, though fighting rear-guard actions all the while, and +was thus able to make a junction with the Serbians retiring from +Krushevatz. Prokuplie did not fall into the hands of the Bulgarians +until November 16, 1915. Northwest of Leskovatz, where the pressure +was not quite so extreme, the Serbians under Stepanovitch made a +determined stand on November 11-12, 1915. Charging the Bulgarian +center suddenly, they broke through their lines and threw them back in +great confusion and took some guns and a number of prisoners. But as +usual, the Serbians were not strong enough to follow up their +advantage, and presently strong reserves came up to reenforce the +Bulgarian forces. Two days later the fight was renewed and the +Serbians were compelled to retire down the road toward Tulare and +Pristina. + +Meanwhile the Bulgarians in Uskub were sending forces north toward +Pristina, and this sector of the campaign was to witness the battle of +Katshanik Pass, in which the Serbians were yet to put up a fight as +heroic as any of the whole campaign. + +It has now become quite obvious to the Serbians that they were not to +receive from the Allies the assistance that was necessary to save +their main armies. At this time there were reports of a Russian +invasion of Bulgaria to be led by General Kuropatkin, and it was even +said that the czar had himself sent a telegram to the Serbian Premier, +M. Pachitch, promising him such aid if only he could hold out until +the end of November, 1915. How much of these rumors reached the +Serbians is not known, but at any rate they did not materially affect +their plan of action. There was only one plan now possible, and that +was to effect an orderly retreat to some territory where their enemies +could not follow, and thus keep the army intact. The way behind them, +into the mountains of Montenegro or Albania, lay open. But without +railroads, without even one good wagon road, it was impossible for an +army to pass this way in a body. It would have to break into small +bands, each taking a separate trail by itself. Aside from that there +was no food supply; the soldiers would starve to death. It was true +that the ships of the Allies controlled the Adriatic, but without +roads no adequate food supply could be forwarded to the retreating +armies. Nor did those barren regions offer any local supply; the +poverty-stricken natives could barely maintain themselves. The only +alternative to a retreat through this wilderness was to escape south +over the Greek frontier, where they could join the French and British +forces outside Saloniki. + +But this was just the alternative which the Austro-Germans and the +Bulgarians were determined to deny them. The Serbian forces still +numbered somewhere around 200,000; this body, combined with the allied +troops, who would presently be numbering another 100,000, would form a +military force, its rear protected by the British and French ships, +which the Teutons and Bulgarians would never dare to attack, even +though the Greeks still continued neutral. Moreover, there was no +doubt that the Greeks would interfere should the Bulgars cross their +frontier. + +This force, then, would continue a constant threat to the lines of +communication and transportation which had just been opened up between +the Central Powers and Turkey, and along which they would soon be +sending large quantities of war munitions to the Turkish forces at +Gallipoli. At any moment the enemy at Saloniki might strike, and to +guard against such a possibility, the Austro-Germans would have to +maintain larger forces along the railroad than they could spare. At +all costs the Serbians must be prevented from joining the Allies. And +this was the object of the powerful effort made by the Bulgarians to +hurl their forces through the gap between Sarrail and the Serbians in +the Babuna Pass. + +However, the Serbians decided on a determined effort to break through +the net that was being drawn around them. This meant, first of all, +that the Katshanik Pass, which in the second week of November, 1915, +was still in the hands of the Serbians but was being attacked from the +south by the Bulgarians, had to be first cleared of the enemy, who +must then be driven out of Uskub, whence the Serbians would then be +able to force their way west to Tetovo, and then south by the main +highway through Gostivar and Kitchevo, to Monastir. Once at Monastir +the road would be comparatively easy to Saloniki, by way of the short +branch of railroad whose terminus was at Monastir. + +In the effort to carry out this plan one of the most desperate battles +of the whole Serbian campaign was fought, quite as bloody and as +heroic as any of the large engagements that were fought in the +beginning of the invasion. It failed, but it was a failure of which no +army need to have been ashamed. + +On about November 10, 1915, Bojovitch's army with which he had been +holding the pass against overwhelming numbers of Bulgarians, had +dwindled to 5,000. At about that time he was reenforced by three +regiments, including one from the famous Shumadia Division and one +from the Morava Division, which were sent to him along the railroad, +the only bit of railroad remaining to the Serbians, leading from +Pristina to Ferizovitch, the latter point being some ten miles distant +from the Katshanik Pass. The weather had begun getting cold and raw by +this time, and the roads were in a miserable condition. The Serbians, +though exhausted by their many hardships, and weak from the want of +proper food, set out from the terminus of the railroad and pressed on +toward the pass. As soon as they arrived Bojovitch prepared to deliver +his final attack on the Bulgarians. + +The Serbian general had now about one hundred field pieces, mostly of +the French 75 and 155 type; 3 inches and 6 inches. With these he began +a vigorous bombardment of the Bulgarian trenches, raining a continuous +shower of shrapnel and high explosive shells on them. Under this +terrible fire the Bulgarians were compelled to retire from their +defensive works and retreat south for four miles, out of range of the +Serbian artillery. + +Then the Serbian infantry charged, pouring volley after volley into +the ranks of the retreating Bulgarians. The latter began fleeing in +disorder, but presently they came up against their reserves, whereupon +they rallied. On came the Serbians with cries of "Na nosh! Na nosh!" +and "Cus schtick! Cus schtick!" ("With the knife!" and "With the +bayonet!") + +Those were cries that the Bulgarians knew well, and they too set up +the same shouts. The rifle firing died down. The two lines charged +each other silently, like warriors of old, with points of glittering +steel before them. Then came the merging clash, and the rows of +running men broke into turbulent melees, knots of struggling, writhing +bodies. Shouts and hideous curses sounded up and down the lines like +the snarls of savage animals. Wounded men reeled, panting and sobbing, +sometimes in their savage agony springing on their friends and rending +them with their hands and teeth before they finally collapsed into +inert heaps, dead. Others, throwing down their unloaded rifles, picked +up jagged rocks and hurled them into knots of struggling men, +regardless of whether they smashed in the skulls of friends or foes. +There had been greater battles in that campaign, but never had the +fighting been so savage, so bitter; even the battle of Timok, the +first encounter between Bulgar and Serb, was far outdone. + +For a while it seemed as if the Serbians would actually batter their +way through. One Serbian regiment charged seven times and each time +captured three guns, only to have them wrested out of its hands again. +Once the Bulgarians' center was pierced by a tremendous effort on the +part of the Shumadians and the Morava troops. The Bulgarians sagged +back, and some broke and fled. + +But again reserves came on the scene, whereas the Serbians were, every +last man of them, on the front line of the fighting. Fresh forces of +Bulgarians, being shipped up from Uskub by rail, were constantly +arriving on the field, and in the end they were enough to turn the +balance. + +For three days the battle had raged, one continuous series of sharp, +hand-to-hand encounters, by night as well as by day. But finally, on +November 15, 1915, the Serbians had reached the limit of their +strength; the battle was going against them. And then they retired +from the pass by way of the Jatzovitza Hills toward Prisrend. + +Thus the plans of the Serbians to cut their path south to their Allies +on the Greek frontier were defeated, and they were forced back into +the north again. The effect of the collapse of this effort was +immediately seen in the withdrawal from Mitrovitza of the Serbian +staff, such members of the Serbian Government as had remained there +and the diplomatic representatives of the Entente nations. + +The Bulgarians had been perfectly well aware of the plans that lay +behind the tremendous effort made by the Serbians at Katshanik Pass +and they had sought to forestall part of it by attacking Kalkandelen, +a point which had been taken and retaken more than once. On November +15, 1915, they took it again, and finally, driving the small Serbian +force that had occupied it before them, they took Gostivar on the +following day, the Serbians retiring to Kichivo, on the road to +Monastir. On about the same day, or a little later, Boyadjieff, after +a stiff fight, stormed the heights near Gilan, northwest of Kutshanik +Pass, and, after occupying Gilan itself, advanced toward Pristina, +reaching its vicinity by November 22, 1915. + +The invaders had succeeded in their main object, which was to round up +and if possible corner the main Serbian forces; they were now rolled +back on to the great Kossovo Plain, where they were united, but +considerably confused and hampered by the vast crowds of fugitives +fleeing from all parts of the north, center and east of the country. +Near Mitrovitza, on the north of the plain, near Pristina on the east +of it, and at Katshanik at its southern extremity, the Austro-Germans +and the Bulgarians had, by the beginning of the fourth week of +November, 1915, absolutely rounded up and hemmed in all the larger +forces of the Serbians. Here they must either surrender, engage in one +last desperate battle that meant certain destruction, or retire +backward into the mountains of Montenegro and Albania, which by this +time were covered with deep snow. + +It was finally decided to give the enemy one more battle and if that +failed, as seemed inevitable, to retreat into the wilderness, thus +defeating the main hope of Mackensen, which was to eliminate the +Serbians entirely as a factor in the war, either by capturing the +whole army or destroying it. King Peter himself was present, hoping by +his presence to revive the spirits of his soldiers to such a pitch +that they would make a hard fight, for by this time they had +undoubtedly lost a good deal of their morale. + +Von Gallwitz had passed through Nish and was now driving back the +Serbian advance posts in the Toplitza Valley, while the Austrians, on +his right, were pressing on toward Novi Bazar. As will be seen by a +glance at the map, the Serbians were therefore bearing the +concentrated attack of four armies; that which operated from +Vishegrad, the mixed forces under Koevess, Gallwitz's army and the main +Bulgarian forces. The pressure was incessant. Reenforcements had been +hurried through from Germany to make good the heavy losses which had +been sustained during the campaign. Communication between the main +Serbian armies and the Serbians in the south had now been cut +completely and only Prisrend and Monastir remained to be taken before +the whole of Serbia and Serbian Macedonia would be cleared of the +Serbian fighting forces. + +The fight in the region of Pristina was to be the last grand battle of +the retreat. Here what remained of the Serbian main forces took battle +formation, finally to dispute the enemy's advance. To this end the +remaining stock of gun ammunition and rifle cartridges had been +carefully saved and a store of war material gathered at Mitrovitza in +readiness for such a stand. The weary bullocks were turned loose from +the gun carriages they hauled, for there could be no taking them along +up among the crags of the mountain country. The guns themselves were +brought into position on the surrounding hills, trenches were dug +wherever possible. Machine guns were located to cover the mountain +paths and valley roads, and strong redoubts, which had been thrown up +with civilian labor before the army had arrived, were manned. And then +there remained a brief period during which the weary soldiers could +take some much needed rest. + +There was something tragically significant that this last stand should +be made on the plains of Kossovo, or the "Field of the Ravens," as it +is sometimes called by the natives, on account of the great flocks of +those birds that frequent it. For on this same field it was that +Lazar, the last of the ancient Serbian czars, whose empire included +the whole of Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, northern Greece, and +Bulgaria, had fought just such a last desperate battle against the +Turks in 1389, and had gone down before the Moslem hordes, and with +him the Serbian nation. Each year the Serbians had commemorated the +anniversary of this event by mourning. + +Kossovo Plain is a high plateau, forty miles long and ten wide; from +its rolling fields the forbidding crags of Montenegro and Albania are +plainly visible, black in summer and white with snow in winter. + +The gray dawn of a November day brought the first mutterings of the +storm that was presently to break in fury up and down the whole front. +The ragged, mud-stained cavalry of Serbia came trotting wearily +through the infantry lines, bearing signs of the many skirmishes they +had taken part in. The outlying posts were exchanging rifle fire with +the advance guards of the enemy and now, through his powerful field +glasses, the Serbian commander could see great masses of the invading +troops deploying against his front. + +"You have come to see the death of a nation," he remarked to an +American correspondent who was present. + +"It is sad that a stranger's eyes should see us die," said another +officer in high command. + +Soon the crackling and sputtering fire of the Mannlicher rifles was +rippling up and down the lines; the whole front from Pristina to +south of Marcovitza blazed flame, and the last big battle of Serbia's +resistance was on. Two lines of men, the one thick and heavily +equipped, the other attenuated and half-starved, were locked together +in a desperate hand-to-hand struggle. + +As though to afford a proper setting for the scene, nature herself +broke into a wild fury; overhead the sky darkened, then the black +clouds burst into a howling storm, full of cold sleet and rain. Amidst +the black, stark hills, in a ceaseless downpour, men trampled and +slipped through the clay mud, dripping wet from head to foot, +stabbing, shooting, hurling hand bombs, until this peaceful valley +echoed to the shouts and roar of combating armies. + +And as the first day's fighting increased in intensity, the fury of +the elements overhead intensified, and presently it was impossible to +distinguish the roar of the big cannon from the deep crash of thunder; +intermingling with the shouts and cries of men roared the blast of the +gale as it whipped over rocky eminences. + +Here again was raised that dreaded battle cry: "Na nosh! Na nosh!" +With such a shout a whole regiment of the fierce Shumadians leaped out +of its trenches and tore across the intervening ground between its +trenches and the rocks of a near-by eminence which a force of Magyars +had made into a position. Haggard from pain and starvation, their hair +long and matted, some still in ragged uniforms, but most of them in +the sheepskin coats of peasants, their eyes bloodshot with rage, they +formed not a pleasant picture to the intrenched Huns. The rifle fire +from the eminence leaped to a climax; the Hungarians knew they were +fighting for their lives. In the horde rushing up the steep slope lay +an appalling danger. Up they surged, without firing a shot, the +bayonets gleaming in the lightning flashes. Among the rocks appeared +white faces behind black rifle barrels. And then, with one fierce +yell, the men in the shaggy sheepskin coats were hurling themselves in +among the men in blue-gray uniforms. For a few brief moments there was +a wild melee; then the men in blue-gray broke and ran. + +Such scenes were common throughout the three or four days of the +battle. + +What made the resistance of the Serbian soldiers so fierce was the +knowledge possessed by each that there was no alternative to victory +but a retreat into those white, bleak wilds behind him. And there was +not a Serbian boy in those ranks who did not realize what a winter's +march through that country would mean. + +From the fall of Nish, in fact, the Serbians had been fighting with +their backs to a wall, and grim and bloody were the struggles between +Serb and German in the wild tangle of hills that surrounded the Plain +of Kossovo. Quarter was neither given nor asked, and unlucky was the +too venturesome Austrian regiment that penetrated the Serbian lines +the first few days without sufficient support. + +"The 184th Regiment," said one of the soldiers' letters, which were +published in the Austrian papers, "went into a valley and was never +seen again." One Serbian regiment, stationed to hold the mouth to a +small valley, to cover the retirement of another Serbian regiment, +remained at its post for four days, fighting off the greater part of +an Austro-German division, until, of the 1,200 men of the original +detachment, only sixty-three remained on their feet, and most of those +wounded. + +To his credit be it said that the aged King of Serbia remained with +his battling men to the end. While the guns were thundering against +Pristina and the thin line of the last resistance was frenziedly +holding back the German and Bulgarian lines, there came to an ancient +church, which was under fire, a mud-stained old man in a field service +uniform. The few foreign correspondents who saw him pass into the +church did not recognize in this old man, bent, haggard and unshaven, +the king who had sat on the throne of Kara-Georgevitch--the grandson +of that famous swineherd. + +Before the high altar the old man knelt in prayer while a group of +staff officers stood at a distance, watching him in silence. The crash +of bursting shrapnel came to them from outside and once a window was +shattered and the little church was filled with splinters of flying +glass and still the King of Serbia knelt at his devotions, praying +that at the last moment his kingdom might be saved from destruction. + +But in spite of his appeals the end came. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +END OF GERMAN OPERATIONS--FLIGHT OF SERB PEOPLE--GREECE + + +With the fall of Pristina and Mitrovitza on November 23, 1915, ended +the operations against Serbia, so far as Mackensen and his Germans +were concerned. On November 28, 1915, German Headquarters issued an +extraordinary report in which it announced that with the flight of the +scanty remains of the Serbian army into the Albanian Mountains "our +great operations in the Balkans are brought to a close. Our object, to +effect communications with Bulgaria and the Turkish Empire, has been +accomplished." After briefly describing these operations and admitting +the "tough resistance" of the Serbians, who had "fought bravely," this +communique asserted that more than 100,000 of them, almost half their +original force, had been taken prisoners, while their losses from +killed and desertions could not be estimated. The impression left by +this document was that there were very few of the Serbian soldiers +left. On the other hand, the Allies claimed that on the date mentioned +Serbia still had 200,000 fighting men left. + +At any rate, it was true that Germany had now opened railroad +communications with the Orient. Her engineers and military railroad +staff had repaired the damage the retreating Serbians had done to the +main trunk line, and early in December through trains were running +from Berlin to Constantinople. Having accomplished this, Germany +withdrew most of her troops from the Balkans, leaving the Bulgarians +to finish Macedonia, and Austria to deal with Montenegro. + +It was a nation, rather than an army, that was in flight; not for many +hundreds of years has there been such an instance in history. When +Nish had fallen into the hands of the enemy, the population in general +had realized that the whole land was going to be overrun by the +invaders. Then almost the whole people had set out in flight for +Monastir, near the Greek frontier, where the Bulgarians had not yet +closed in. On its retreat from Kossovo Plain the Serbian army caught +up with the rear of this fleeing throng. Winter had set in unusually +early that year. Even at Saloniki on the shores of the tepid Aegean +and sheltered behind a ring of hills, where snow had not fallen in +November in ten years, a fierce northerly gale, known as the "Vardar +wind," had sprung up on November 26, 1915, and kept the air swirling +with snow-flakes, while up in the near-by hills the snow was already +two feet deep. Up in the Albanian Mountains the paths and trails were +already choked, while chilling blasts of sleet-laden winds howled +through the defiles. + +The way from Upper Serbia to Monastir led across great, bleak slopes, +which were now being lashed by these terrible winter storms. Old women +and children fell by the wayside; young mothers, hugging their babies +to their breasts, sought shelter behind rocks and died there of +weakness and starvation. All along the road of retreat was marked by +the abandoned dead and dying. One of the very few descriptions of this +phase of the Serbian flight that has appeared was written by Mr. +William G. Shepherd, special correspondent of the American United +Press: + +"The entire world must prepare to shudder," he writes from Monastir, +"when all that is happening on the Albanian refugee trails finally +comes to light. The horrors of the flight of the hapless Serbian +people are growing with the arrival here of each new contingent from +the devastated district. + +"They say that nearly the whole route from Prisrend to Monastir, +ninety miles, is lined with human corpses and the carcasses of horses +and mules dead of starvation, while thousands of old men, women, and +children are lying on the rocks and in the thickets beside the trail, +hungry and exhausted, awaiting the end. + +"At night the women and children, ill-clad and numbed with cold, +struggle pitifully around meager fires of mountain shrub, to resume in +the morning the weary march toward their supposed goal of +safety--Monastir. But by the time this dispatch is printed Monastir, +too, may be in the hands of the enemy. This will leave them to the +mercy of the inhospitable mountain fastnesses, where for the past two +days a terrific blizzard has been raging, or to the Bulgarians." + +The chief of the Serbian General Staff, Field Marshal Putnik, old and +now very ill, was driven along the road in a carriage until his horses +fell dead of exhaustion. His escort of soldiers carried him for two +days in an ordinary chair to which poles had been tied for handles and +so brought him to safety. One account reported that the carriages of +the retreating Serbians literally passed over the dead who had fallen +in the road, for it was impossible either to spare the time to drag +them out of the way or to make a detour to avoid them. + +King Peter himself had escaped from Prisrend by motor car, accompanied +by three officers and four men, arriving in Liuma over the Albanian +frontier. Thence the monarch and his remaining handful of followers +set out through the mountains, the king traveling part of the way on +horseback and partly in a litter slung between two mules, through mud +and a constant downpour of rain. During the evening of the second day +they lost the trail, which was only rediscovered after much wandering. + +After two weeks' rest at Scutari, King Peter continued his journey to +San Giovanni di Medua, Durazzo, and Avlona, whence the party crossed +over the Adriatic to Brindisi in Italy, where the king remained +incognito for six days. After a two days' sea voyage from Brindisi the +old monarch finally arrived in Saloniki, where he was received with +all honors by the Greek authorities and the Allies. + +It is estimated that the number of civilians in flight over these +terrible roads numbered fully 700,000. And of these fully 200,000 +died. + +"It seems so useless," writes a German officer, in a letter which was +published in a German paper, "for there is nowhere else for us to +reach except the sea and there is nothing but the smell of dead bodies +of horses, men, cattle--a discord of destruction that seems contrary +to all our civilization. Our own men are apathetic and weary, and have +no heart in the business. The Bulgarian soldiers are not very popular +with us. In the first place they are more like Russians than Germans, +and there is something about the Slav that makes one's hair bristle. +Their cruelty is terrible." + +Meanwhile, Prisrend, on the extreme right of the Serbian main force, +did not fall till November 30, 1915. From Mitrovitza a part of the +Serbian army had retired and fought the Austrians again at Vutchitra, +but was beaten and driven across the Sitnitza, on the western bank of +which stream it continued fighting until finally it fled into the +mountains. + +The main line of retreat was along the highway from Pristina to +Prisrend. The Bulgarians, pressing on after, took the heights west of +Ferizovitch and also advanced northward toward Ipek, against which +point Koevess had sent a detachment. The retreat to Prisrend was +covered by the Shumadians. On November 27, 1915, 80,000 Serbians stood +at bay in front of this town, but next day, after a few hours' +fighting, and having used up all their ammunition, they unbreeched +their guns and fled across the frontier into Albania, making along the +White Drin for Kula Liuma, while several thousands of them fell +prisoners into the hands of the enemy. Thus was the last shot of the +Serbian resistance in the northern section of the country fired. + +[Illustration: Retreat of Serbians.] + +The retreat of the Serbian armies through the mountains of Albania was +almost as heartrending as the flight of the civilian population. Day +by day, thousands of men, ill-clad and ill-shod, or with bare and +bleeding feet, so famished that they fed on the flesh of dead horses +by the wayside, stumbled painfully and wretchedly along, over trails +deep in snow, some going west toward Scutari, others attempting to +reach Greece through Elbassan and Dibra. All semblance of military +formation or order was lost; they were now nothing more than a fleeing +mob of disorganized peasants, some unarmed, others with guns but no +ammunition. Officers and men trudged on side by side, on equal +terms. Once an Austrian light mountain battery, following on the +heels of the retreat, had arrived at the mouth of a long defile +through which the last of the retreating Serbians were winding their +way into the mountains, in single file. The Austrian battery +immediately opened fire and swept the defile from end to end of all +human life. + +While the main Serbian armies were being driven out of their native +land, the Bulgarians, after taking Babuna Pass and Kitchevo and +Kruchevo, on November 20, 1915, halted on their way to Monastir, now +only a few miles distant. Monastir itself is practically an +unfortified city; it lies on the edge of a broad level plain, offering +not the least advantage to a defending force. A few guns might easily +sweep the city into a heap of ruins. But above Monastir towers a lofty +mountain, so steep that even under peaceful conditions a strong man +finds it hard to climb. A few guns placed in position among the rocks +on top of this mountain could command the city and all of the +surrounding plain within range of their fire. Therefore, the problem +of an invading force is to take the mountain outside the city, rather +than the city itself. + +Beyond this lofty eminence, to the westward, rise thickly wooded +ridges, rugged mountain fastnesses, through which, along the bottom of +a winding defile, runs the road to Resen and Ochrida and three large +lakes: Ochrida, Prespa, and Little Prespa. Below these lakes, which +almost join, is the Greek frontier; above them, and some distance +beyond, lies the Albanian frontier. + +For some days Vassitch and his remaining force of a few thousand +footsore soldiers remained at Prilep, awaiting the Bulgarians. When +finally they took Brod, with the object of cutting off his retreat, he +quitted Prilep and fell back on Monastir, then retired over the +mountains to Resen. Here he was joined by two barefooted regiments +that had come down from the north with the refugees, but they were too +exhausted to be of much value for fighting. Altogether they numbered +about 7,000, while the pursuing Bulgarians were at least 30,000 +strong. At Resen, where the roughness of the country enabled them to +make some resistance, they fought the last battle, or skirmish rather, +that was to take place between the Serbians and the invaders, then +retired down along the eastern shore of Lake Prespa and so over into +Greece. And now not one Serbian soldier remained either in Serbia +proper or Serbian Macedonia. Many of them were yet to do some more +fighting, against the Austrians at least, for Austria had yet to +invade and conquer that other little Serbian state, Montenegro. As yet +the Austrian right wing of Koevess's army had not entered Montenegro, +but maintained itself at Vishegrad, from which, using it as a pivot, +the center and left wing had swept over Serbia. From Vishegrad across +the northern boundary of Montenegro stretched another force of +Austrians, meant only to hold the Montenegrins back. Hitherto, the +Montenegrin army had been facing this line, without being able to +afford the Serbians much assistance. It was not until after the last +of the Serbians had been dealt with that the Austrians turned their +attention toward the Montenegrins and the conquest of their rugged +country. Nor did they seriously undertake this task until toward the +end of the year; the whole of this campaign is an episode by itself +and will be dealt with presently. + +With the disappearance of the last of the Serbian armies into the +defiles of the Albanian Mountains, the French and British forces, +which had been vainly endeavoring to save Serbia, had no longer any +special object in holding their advanced positions in Macedonia, +especially as they were not strong enough to undertake an offensive +movement, even after the last Serbian defeat, though during November, +1915, large reenforcements had been arriving and disembarking in +Saloniki. As already stated, the rumors of military action on the part +of Russia against Bulgaria had proved unfounded and a second +bombardment of Varna had had no effect on the course of the campaign. +Italy had done nothing in the Balkans as yet, except to fire a few +shells into Dedeagatch on November 11, 1915. A month later she landed +an army on the Albanian coast, at Avlona and elsewhere, but, while +this facilitated the escape of many of the Serbian refugees, it was +too late to have any effect on the military situation. + +Throughout the latter part of November, 1915, after the battle between +General Sarrail's army at Mt. Archangel, the British had sent up +considerable forces which were deployed on the French right and were +holding the mountain chain to the north of Lake Doiran, forming a +natural boundary between Greek and Bulgarian territory. + +Though Sarrail had repulsed all the Bulgarian attacks, his position +was rendered embarrassing by the fact that the Greek Government had +decided to concentrate a large part of its army in that particular +corner of its frontiers. Obviously, the Greeks had a right to make +whatever movements they wished on their own territory, but the +consequences were singularly unfortunate, both for the French and the +British, for the Greek commander in chief found it necessary to move +troops and stores along the same line of railroad which the British +and the French were using. This meant a curtailment of supplies and +the checking of effective and continuous supports for the fighting +line. + +Added to this was the sudden coming of an early winter. While snow was +falling even in Saloniki, up in the hills where the advanced lines +were deployed a furious blizzard was blowing, against which the +soldiers were only prepared with small tents of waterproof sheets for +shelters. Down in the base camps the gale swept down the tents so that +the men were practically unprotected from the fury of the freezing +blasts. At the front the enemy's positions were no longer visible, the +intervening valleys being full of swirling clouds of snow. On November +27, 1915, the French War Office issued an official communique, which +gave the first indication of what was about to happen: + +"In view of the present situation of the Serbian armies our troops, +which have been occupying the left bank of the Tcherna, have been +removed to the right bank of the river, the movement being effected +without difficulty." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +ALLIES WITHDRAW INTO GREECE--ATTITUDE OF GREEK GOVERNMENT + + +A general withdrawal into Greece, with Saloniki as base, had been +decided on by General Sarrail, in accordance with instructions from +Paris and London. + +This now brought up a very peculiar and delicate situation between the +Allies and Greece. As a neutral, Greece was strongly disposed to take +up the same attitude toward the belligerents as Holland, who during +the early part of the war had been interning great numbers of the +English and Belgian soldiers who had sought refuge inside her +boundaries when the Germans had taken Belgium. The Allies, on the +other hand, were not inclined to accept this point of view, as Greece +was bound to Serbia by a defensive treaty and therefore could not +assume full neutrality without repudiating this treaty. To this Greece +opposed the contention, based on a technicality, that the treaty with +Serbia had in view only a defensive alliance against Bulgaria, whereas +now the Austrians and Germans were attacking, as well as the +Bulgarians. The successes of the Austro-German forces had stiffened +the determination of the Greek King and his Government to stand by +this policy. + +However, there was ample room for a diversity of opinion among the +Greeks themselves; on which side Greece's political interests lay was +largely a matter of individual opinion. The chief, and probably the +only, reason why there was any popular feeling in favor of the Allies +was because they were opposed to the Bulgarians, whom the Greeks hate +in season and out. + +But on the other hand, Greek ambitions and Italian ambitions clash in +Albania, in the islands of the Archipelago and in Asia Minor. Both +nations hope to acquire territory in those countries. And Italy was +one of the Allies. Had Italy not entered the war it is very probable +that Greece would have aligned herself with the Serbians, French, and +British in the early stages of their operations. But when Italy +declared war on the side of the Allies, there was no doubt in the +minds of the Greek politicians that she had been promised much, if not +all, of the territories on which they had their own eyes. Added to +this, the King of Greece was related to the German Emperor through +marriage, his queen being a sister of Emperor William. + +All through November, 1915, and during the early part of December, +1915, the ambiguous, doubtful attitude of Greece was causing the +French and the British much anxiety. It was a curious and, for the +Allies, a very dangerous situation. Faced as they were by an enemy +much their superior in numbers, there was danger of finding that +disadvantage considerably intensified by the inclusion of Greece among +their enemies. + +The unrestricted command of the base at Saloniki was now indispensable +for the safety of the allied forces. They had landed under the terms +of a "benevolent neutrality," even at the request of the Greek +Government, while Venizelos was at its head. With the change in +premiers had come a complete change in attitude. The Greeks had begun +hampering the Allies at every turn. Prices were raised; they were +called upon to pay in advance, and in gold, for the use of the +railroads in transporting the troops. Further, the Greek troops were +actually occupying the defensive positions around Saloniki; positions +which the Allies should occupy and strengthen, if they were to make +their base secure. The Greeks stretched barbed-wire entanglements +between themselves and the allied troops. Submarine mines, stored as +if ready to be launched, were discovered at the mouth of the Vardar +River, and the fort at the entrance to the upper Gulf of Saloniki had +been secretly strengthened and heavy guns mounted. The port swarmed +with German and Austrian and Bulgarian spies; its atmosphere was heavy +with hostility to the Allies. Prince Andrew of Greece, in an interview +with a neutral journalist, said that as long as 80,000 French soldiers +were hostages to the Greek army for the Allies' good behavior, the +Allies would never dare to bombard Athens or any other Greek port. So +critical did the situation become that one Sunday the British ships +cleared for action. + +And now, after the failure of the French troops to join up with the +Serbians in Babuna Pass, arose the probability of withdrawing their +forces in Serbian and Bulgarian territory across the frontier to +Saloniki. Thus arose the question: How would Greece comport herself on +their retirement? Would she give them complete freedom of +communication south of the frontier to Saloniki? Or would she seek to +disarm and intern them and such Serbians as crossed the border? + +A brief review of the political events that had been happening in +Athens since the situation of the Serbians had become acute will show +how divided Greece herself was on these questions. + +When France and Great Britain decided to assist Serbia by sending +forces to her support, Venizelos was premier of Greece and it was with +his consent that the first contingents began disembarking in Saloniki +on October 5, 1915. His policy of thus aiding the operations was +thoroughly discussed in the Greek Chamber of Deputies and approved by +a majority of 45 in a house of 257. + +The following day King Constantine summoned the premier and told him +that he could not support his policy and demanded his resignation, +which was given. In his place the king installed M. Zaimis. In a +meeting of the Chamber a day or two later, on October 11, 1915, the +new premier defined the policy of his Government as one of armed +neutrality, adding that "our attitude in the future will be adapted to +events, the course of which will be followed with the closest of +attention." Whereupon Venizelos arose, protesting, and made a speech +that clearly defined the attitude that he thought Greece should +follow, and which he felt was supported by a majority of the people. + +"Even if there did not exist the treaty with Serbia," he said, "our +interests oblige us to depart from neutrality, as another state wishes +to aggrandize itself at our expense. The question is not whether we +ought to make war or not, but when we ought to make war. In any case +we ought not to allow Bulgaria to crush Serbia. The national soul will +say that it is to the interest of Greece that Bulgaria should be +crushed. If Bulgaria should conquer, Hellenism will be completely +vanquished." + +That Venizelos spoke for the majority of the deputies was soon to +manifest itself. On November 4, 1915, in the course of a debate in the +Chamber, a Venizeloist deputy, M. Vlachos, made some criticism of the +minister of war, which caused the latter to leave the Chamber in +violent anger. The scene provoked a tumult, in which cheers and +protests mingled. The deputy finally apologized and order was +reestablished, the minister of war returning to his seat. It was then +that Venizelos arose and expressed the opinion that an apology was +also due from the war minister because of his disrespectful behavior +in leaving the House. The premier, M. Zaimis, thereupon declared that, +in the opinion of the Government, the war minister's conduct had been +perfectly correct and he demanded a vote of confidence from the +assembled deputies. + +M. Venizelos replied by delivering a strong attack on the Government's +war policy, which, he said, was not supported by a majority, deploring +that Bulgaria was being allowed to crush Serbia, that she might fall +on Greece later. + +As a result of the vote that followed this discussion, the Chamber +refused to express confidence in the present Government by a vote of +147 against 114, in consequence of which the premier, Zaimis, was +compelled to resign. The king, however, still persisted in his +opposition to the policy of the Venizelos party and immediately called +upon M. Skouloudis, one of his own partisans, to form a new cabinet. +To avoid any more expressions of disagreement with the king's policy +on the part of the Chamber, the new premier, only a week later, +ordered the dissolution of that body, his pretext being that the +country at large should have an opportunity of expressing itself +through a general election. This was a move which Venizelos had always +opposed; for, he pointed out, so long as the Greek army was mobilized +and Greek soldiers were excluded from casting their votes, the true +opinion of the people could never be determined. And even if the +soldiers were allowed to vote, they would be under the influence of +their officers, who always supported the king's policy. + +This high-handed procedure on the part of the Government created a bad +impression in France and Great Britain. What added to that was the +dispatch which announced, only a few days before, the arrival in +Saloniki in a special train from Sofia of four German officers: Baron +Falkenhausen, Colonel von Erbstner, General von der Goltz's A. D. C., +Prince von Buelow's son, and another. After a short stay in Saloniki +they departed for Athens in a Greek torpedo boat, accompanied by Greek +officers of high rank. It was just after the arrival of such a mission +in Sofia that Bulgaria had made her agreement with Germany, promising +her support in driving out the Serbians. And meanwhile Premier +Skouloudis, doing as Radislavov, the Premier of Bulgaria, had done, +was protesting daily that Greece had no intention of going against the +Allies. + +But incidentally he also expressed the opinion publicly that Greece's +"benevolent neutrality" did not extend to protecting the allied +troops, whether French, British, or Serbian, from the operation of +international law, and that, therefore, these troops would be disarmed +and interned on their passing over into Greek territory. + +His words created some alarm in the allied countries, which was +deepened when it became known that Greece was concentrating 200,000 +men in and around Saloniki. The question now arose, Should the Allies +submit quietly while Greece carried out this publicly declared +intention, or should they persuade her to a change of opinion by the +application of armed force? + +Ordinary arguments had proved unavailing and much time was lost in +talk. Opinion and feeling began growing heated in France and Great +Britain over the delay, as well as over the question itself. France in +particular called for immediate and energetic action, urging that it +was necessary to show the iron hand under the velvet glove. The iron +hand was not a mere figure of speech, for the British and French +fleets could not only bombard the coast cities of Greece, but +institute a blockade which would cut off all her supplies. + +On November 19, 1915, the British Legation in Athens, communicated a +statement to the press, beginning with the following passage: + +"In view of the attitude adopted by the Hellenic Government toward +certain questions closely affecting the security of the allied troops +and their freedom of action (two privileges to which they are entitled +in the circumstances in which they landed on Greek territory), the +allied powers have deemed it necessary to take certain measures, the +effect of which is to suspend the economic and commercial facilities +which Greece has hitherto enjoyed at their hands." + +At the same time came a dispatch from Athens announcing that the +French and British ships had begun to institute a severe search on +board all steamers flying the Greek flag in the Aegean and in the +Mediterranean. + +Thus a partial embargo was placed on Greek shipping, only severe +enough to make the Greek Government realize what might happen should a +thorough blockade be established. At the same time two visits that +were paid to King Constantine while this crisis was acute had a +favorable influence on it. One was from M. Denys Cochin, a member of +the French Cabinet and a man held in the highest esteem in Greece; the +other was from Lord Kitchener, who was on his way back from an +inspection of the British forces in Gallipoli, whither he had been +dispatched by his colleagues in the British Cabinet to report on the +advisability or the reverse of abandoning that peninsula. + +Still the negotiations were spun out and it was not till November 23, +1915, that matters were brought to a head by the presentation of a +combined note to Greece. + +This note demanded formal assurances that the allied troops should +under no circumstances be disarmed and interned, but should be granted +full freedom of movement, together with such facilities as had already +been promised. Greece was only required to live up to her previous +promises; she need not abandon her attitude of neutrality. On the +other hand, the note categorically stated that the Allies would make +restitution for all territory occupied and pay suitable indemnities. +Two days later the Greek Government replied in friendly but somewhat +vague terms, which were not considered satisfactory, and on the 26th +the Entente sent a second note asking for a precise assurance +regarding the liberty of movement of the allied troops. The Greek +answer was liked so little that it was decided to tighten somewhat the +grip of the iron hand. + +Thus what is known to international law as a "measure of constraint +short of war" was instituted. The pressure was at once felt. At +Saloniki particularly the people were obliged to live from hand to +mouth, the supply boats being able to bring in only enough flour to +last two days. So great was the need of grain in Greece itself that a +cargo of flour which had been condemned at Piraeus was baked into +bread. The Bulgarians attempted to relieve the situation by sending +in 15,000 tons of wheat by rail from Sofia, but as the line over which +it passed through Drama was presently occupied by the British, this +source of supply could not be maintained, nor would it have been +sufficient to have relieved the situation. + +The Greek public and their Government were strongly impressed. One +dispatch stated that Greek troops were patrolling the streets of +Athens and that a heavy guard had been placed around the royal palace +in fear of revolutionary attempts. Meanwhile the Cabinet Council was +sitting in permanent conference with the chiefs of the General Staff +trying to come to a decision. + +"You are wicked," said M. Rallis, Greek Minister of Justice, to a +British newspaper correspondent; "the only thing we want is peace and +you force us to make war. You are starving us; two wheat vessels were +stopped to-day. You want us to save you when no English soldiers shed +their blood for Serbia, when scarcely an English rifle has been fired. +We do not wish to be another Serbia." + +The newspapers which supported Venizelos, on the other hand, accused +the Government of having precipitated the country to the verge of a +conflict with the Entente Powers by want of foresight and a policy of +deception. + +Finally, however, the Greek Government came to terms, accepting +practically all that the Allies demanded and withdrawing most of the +Greek soldiers from Saloniki, while the Gevgheli-Saloniki and the +Doiran-Saloniki railroads were handed over to the Allies with their +adjacent roads and land. King Constantine complained that he was +between the devil and the deep sea, or words to that effect, and +protested that Greek neutrality was violated, though he did not deny +that he had at first acceded to the invitation Venizelos had extended +to the Allies to send troops to Saloniki. The king, anxious to be rid +of his unwelcome guests, let it be understood that if the Allies would +only retire from Greece altogether, he and his army would protect +their retreat and see that they were not molested on embarking. But +this was a proposition which the Entente Powers were not inclined to +consider at all by this time. + +Meanwhile, before Greece was finally compelled to come to a complete +understanding with the Allies regarding her attitude in the event of a +general retirement on Saloniki, General Sarrail's position was +becoming decidedly dangerous. The Bulgarian armies were, for the time +being, busy pursuing the last remnants of the Serbians out of the +country beyond Monastir, but presently they would be able to give +their full attention and strength to an attack on the Allies. Thanks +to the difficulties occasioned by the concentration of Greek troops in +that section of the country, the British forces had not been afforded +ample means of transportation and they were arriving but very slowly, +though gradually they had established a line along the rugged hills to +the north of Doiran. They had not, at the end of November, 1915, +fought a general action as yet. + +General Sarrail's position was a remarkably insecure one. The taking +of Prilep, and subsequently the occupation of Monastir by the +Bulgarians, practically turned his line and exposed him to a perilous +flanking movement against his extreme left on the Tcherna. His troops +were bunched up in a very acute salient, the head of which was just +south of Gradsko, and his front very largely conformed to the +convolutions of this and the Vardar River. On his right, from before +Strumitza Station, the British continued the line to the north of Lake +Doiran. + +It will seem somewhat strange that, though the British were the first +to disembark in Saloniki in the first week in October, 1915, two +months should elapse before they took any prominent part in the +fighting. The British commander, General Mahon, reached Greece on +October 12, 1915, to be followed a month later by General Munro, but +the British made no move of any importance. There were some trifling +encounters with outposts, and these had been magnified into battles by +the dispatches from Greece, but the truth was that the French had +borne the brunt of the struggle on the Tcherna, perhaps because they +were then more numerous than the British, who were not actively +engaged in force until the first week of December. Their trenches, +north and West of Lake Doiran, among bleak hills covered with snow, +spread out fanwise in the direction of Strumitza, which they had taken +over from the French when the latter had gone up the Vardar to +Krivolak. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +BULGARIAN ATTACKS--ALLIES CONCENTRATE AT SALONIKI + + +On December 5, 1915, the Bulgarians gave the first indications of +their preparations to break through the thin lines of the Allies. On +that date the British were to have their first taste of heavy +fighting. The Bulgarians delivered a massed attack at two points; one +at Demir Kapu, another against the British positions on the +Rabrovo-Doiran road. + +The first assault of the enemy succeeded in gaining a foothold in the +British trenches, but the British were presently able to regain their +positions and drive the Bulgarians back. Here again it was obvious +that the hearts of the Bulgarian soldiers were not in this fighting. +Most of the British soldiers had never seen any fighting before, yet +they were able to accomplish what the fierce Serbians had not been +able to do; drive a superior force of Bulgarians back at the point of +the bayonet. Numbers of the Bulgarians were taken prisoners, willingly +enough, it seemed, and they told their captors that up to the actual +fighting, until they actually saw the troops they were engaging, they +had been under the impression they were to fight Greeks. + +This first attack made the British commander realize, however, that +the enemy opposing him was vastly his superior in numbers. A second +assault, delivered in the face of a hot fire from the British, but +with overwhelming numbers, drove the British soldiers from their first +line of trenches; but they held on to their second line and every +effort to expel them was a costly failure. + +Meanwhile, Sarrail, on the Vardar, under cover of a feigned attack on +Ishtip from Kara Hodjali, drew in his men from the Tcherna, and before +the enemy had realized what he was doing, he had retired from the +Kavaar Camp with all his stores, of which there was by this time a +tremendous accumulation, and entrained at Krivolak, blowing up the +bridges and tearing up the railroad behind him. On December 5, 1915, +he had reached the north end of the Demir Kapu Gorge (Defile) +practically without opposition, but in the gorge he had to fight hard +to get out of it. + +He had had the forethought, however, to throw up strong defensive +works at the entrance and this enabled him to repel the attacks of the +Bulgarians in spite of the determination with which they were being +pushed. The retreat through the defile was an extremely precarious and +difficult task, as there was no way out except along the railroad, +running along a narrow shelf cut out of the steep, rocky banks of the +Vardar. Yet the retreat was successfully accomplished, with all the +stores, and, after destroying a tunnel and a bridge across the Vardar, +it was continued to Gradetz, where heavy intrenchments had been thrown +up. + +Here, on December 8-9, 1915, the Bulgarians delivered a very violent +attack, but were driven off with heavy losses. On the 10th the French +announced that they were now occupying a new front, along the Bojimia, +a branch of the Vardar, and that they were in touch with the left +flank of the British. + +Meanwhile, on the east side of the Vardar, General Todoroff was +continuing his attack on the British. He had massed together about +100,000 men. On the morning of the 6th, after the first assault and +under cover of dense mists that were rolling up from the swamps down +near Saloniki, he was able to get in close to the British without +being seen. As the dawn began breaking he poured a rain of +high-explosive shells on the British, which here consisted mostly of +Irish regiments. + +As on the day before, the enemy came on in successive waves, so thick +that the later ones carried the first before them, even when they +turned to flee from the heavy fire of the British. Finally the British +were again compelled to give way before the heavy impact of numbers. +By evening they had retired two miles, not a great deal, considering +the masses that were driving them. More than once it looked as though +the British would be literally overwhelmed and annihilated. Eight guns +were lost and about 1,300 men were killed or wounded. + +The retirement had been in the direction of the Vardar and by the end +of the second week of December, 1915, the British were able to make +another stand over on the banks of the Vardar, below the right wing of +the French. + +The whole Bulgarian field army was evidently divided between the +Rabrovo road and north of Strumitza Junction. It was clearly the +enemy's intention to drive a wedge into the center, thus to isolate +all the northern divisions and to bring about a general disaster. + +Sarrail recognized his danger and began to retire his northern units, +covering the movement with a fiercely contested action in the region +of Strumitza. + +[Illustration: A British hydroplane returning to the mother ship after +patrol duty over Saloniki. In the background are the City of Saloniki +and warships of the Allies.] + +By December 11, 1915, the French and British lines were close back on +the Greek frontier, and although the Bulgarians delivered a heavy +attack on that day, it was their final effort; the following day the +Allies were across the frontier and the Bulgarians made no attempt to +follow them. Possibly they were restrained by their German allies, or +possibly they had no desire to involve Greece, for had the Bulgarians +set foot on Greek soil, it is more than likely that Greek troops would +have resisted them, and once such an encounter had taken place, Greece +would probably have thrown herself into the war on the side of the +Allies. As they retired, the allied troops destroyed the railroad +behind them and set fire to Gevgheli and other towns on the other +side of the border. And, by a fortunate coincidence, it was on the day +before they crossed the frontier that Greece had finally accepted the +proposals of the Allies that their forces were to be allowed freedom +of movement. + +Considering the tremendous difficulties he had had to contend with, in +the face of the immense strength of his enemy, General Sarrail's +retreat by no means diminished his reputation as a military leader. +Although his men had at their disposal only one single-track line of +railroad and no roads, their retirement was conducted in such order +that they were able to save and withdraw all their stores, while the +total of their casualties did not exceed 3,500, a very moderate loss +under the circumstances. In less skillful hands the retreat might +easily have developed into an irretrievable disaster. In its main +object, saving Serbia from being crushed, the campaign had certainly +been a failure, but this was rather the fault of the allied +governments, and not because of the inefficiency of the leaders in the +field. + +The Bulgarians, naturally, felt that they had attained a great +victory, and in a measure they had. On December 14, 1915, they +published their version of the operations as follows: + +"December 12, 1915, will remain for the Bulgarian Army and nation a +day of great historical importance. The army on that day occupied the +last three Macedonian towns that still remained in the hands of the +enemy: Doiran, Gevgheli, and Struga. The last fights against the +British, French, and Serbians took place near Doiran and Ochrida +Lakes. The enemy was everywhere beaten. Macedonia is free! Not a +single hostile soldier remains on Macedonian soil.... In the course of +ten days the expeditionary army of General Sarrail was beaten and +thrown back on neutral territory. On December 12, the whole of +Macedonia was freed. The pursuit of the enemy was immediately stopped +when the neutral frontier of Greece was reached." + +This communique further pointed out that Serbia had been beaten in +forty, and the British and French in ten, days. An official paper in +Sofia declared that the "victories won over the Franco-British hordes" +was even more glorious than those won over Serbia and declared that +Bulgaria had given a lesson to the so-called Great Powers, Great +Britain and France, showing them at the same time the manner in which +small nations could fight for their independence. + +That the Bulgarians did not pursue the allied troops across the Greek +frontier was one of the surprises of the campaign. What the Greeks +would have done had their hereditary enemies invaded their soil, even +though not for the purpose of attacking them, was a question which +perhaps the Greek Government itself had not fully answered. Certainly +the critical character of the situation placed the Greeks in a very +uncomfortable position. It had been at their suggestion that the +Allies had come to Greece, and though a protest had been made against +their landing, that protest was the last word in formality. + +Consequently the Allies had some shadow of a moral right to the use of +Saloniki, but now that Sarrail was falling back, with every prospect +of his bringing the battle front down with him into Greek territory, +the diplomatic situation became extremely delicate. To add to the +confusion of the situation, it must be remembered that two or three +divisions of the Greek Army had been concentrated in the very district +through which the Bulgarians must pass, should they decide to follow +the retiring column of the Allies' troops. Here, then, was the Greek +dilemma; they had allowed, under formal protest, a pacific penetration +of their country in accordance with the agreement they had made with +Serbia, that the latter should be allowed to import armies, munitions, +and other military material over the Saloniki-Uskub railroad. This +agreement, Venizelos insisted, was binding on Greece, notwithstanding +the equivocations of the king. But when the French and British troops +retired, another situation was created altogether, because it was +scarcely likely that the Bulgarians would stop short at the frontier +of Greece, and more than likely that they would follow up their +advance and incidentally shell and destroy Greek property. Thus +Bulgaria would be doing what the Allies had very carefully avoided +doing: commit an act of war against Greece. + +But fortunately for Greece, the Bulgarians did not continue the +pursuit, though the Greek Government waited anxiously to see what turn +events would immediately take. Sofia published the most reassuring +things about the friendliness of Bulgaria for Greece, though of course +Athens, being herself the seat of a Balkan nation, knew what value +such protestations of affection had. Greece had only to recall the +expressions of friendliness Bulgaria had uttered to Serbia less than a +week before attacking her. + +Meanwhile the French and British had fallen back on an intrenched line +two or three miles to the south of the Greek frontier. This front +stretched from Karasuli, on the Vardar River, to Kilindir, on the +Doiran-Saloniki railroad, and was about fifteen miles in length. The +French were still on the left and the British on the right. The +British flank, in the east, was about thirty miles from Saloniki. +These lines were strongly intrenched and otherwise strengthened, for +it was not yet certain that the enemy did not mean to invade Greece. + +In the early days of October, when the Allies had first begun landing +their troops, it had not yet been definitely decided that Saloniki was +to be held permanently, or at least as long as the war lasted, but by +this time the value of the port had been realized. So long as it was +held in strong force it constituted a constant threat against any +attempt on the part of the Austro-Germans to push their invasion down +into Egypt. Further, it was suggested by naval experts that if ever it +passed into the hands of the Germans, it might easily become the base +for an effective submarine warfare in the eastern Mediterranean, which +would be extremely dangerous to the allied fleets in those waters, +already the scene of considerable submarine activity, as was +demonstrated by the sinking of not a few transports, war vessels, and +other, ships by the enemy. These waters could not be dragged with +steel nets, as had been done in the British Channel. As the terminus +of the railroad running through Macedonia from Belgrade, Saloniki was +potentially an important city. Austria had long been aware of the high +significance of this port and it was, in fact, the final objective of +her "Drang nach Osten" policy. When it fell to Greece after the +Second Balkan War she had been bitterly disappointed, which was one +reason why she had done her best to spur Bulgaria on to precipitate +that unfortunate campaign. And this was another little matter which +probably helped to swing the balance of Greek sympathy toward the +Allies. What prosperity Saloniki had enjoyed during Turkish rule had +been entirely due to its big Jewish population, which had been the +mainstay of its commercial activities. + +When Greece acquired possession little change followed, and when the +troops of the Allies began to disembark in the beginning of October +they were at once confronted by a serious difficulty in the absence of +docking and local transportation facilities. There was, further, the +serious difficulty of obtaining space ashore for camp ground for the +troops, as well as suitable level stretches for aeroplanes, Greek +troops being in occupation of all such spots. Moreover, the railroad +facilities, even when given over entirely to their use, were +inadequate. + +So long as the outcome of the effort to join up with the Serbians +remained in doubt the Allies had not given much energy to fortifying +Saloniki in great strength, but immediately the retirement was decided +upon this task was undertaken with some dispatch. On and after +December 12, 1915, the Allies, having at last succeeded in compelling +Greece to agree to their plans for a permanent occupation, began +preparations to meet all possible events in the future. As the Greek +troops withdrew, French and British forces took their places, some +being fresh arrivals, for reenforcements were landing daily at the +rate of between 4,000 and 5,000. As there were many rumors of the +enemy's intention to advance and attack before the city should be made +more defensible, the work of making it as formidable as possible was +pushed with fever heat. + +Steps were at once taken to establish strong lines of intrenchments. +In the course of a week or ten days this task was sufficiently under +way to settle the alarms of an immediate attack from the enemy; the +lines of the defensive works followed a half circle of hills and +lakes, some fifty miles in extent, reaching on the west from the +Vardar River to the Gulf of Orfano on the east and inclosing a very +considerable area, giving the Allies sufficient freedom of movement. + +Yet it was fortunate for the Allies that political considerations +deterred the enemy from making the attack. Had the Bulgarians advanced +in full force, the Allies would have been heavily outnumbered, not +only in men, but in heavy artillery and ordinary field guns as well. +It is doubtful whether they could successfully have resisted a +determined effort to turn their flanks. + +The conformation of the coast line around Saloniki is a handicap to a +continuous defensive line. It would demand more men than other +conformations would. Saloniki stands on a gulf, or bay, and this would +necessitate spreading the defending lines around it in almost a +complete circle, so that the adjacent shores would be protected as +well. + +There does exist a natural horseshoe of positions from which Saloniki +could be held and which would cover the port from sea to sea, but +their development extends from 120 to 130 miles of country, an area +which could not well be held with less than a force of half a million +men. At the eastern horn of the Gulf of Saloniki runs the Kaloron +Ridge, culminating in a peak some 3,000 feet above sea level. All the +southern slopes of this ridge are exposed to the fire of any fleet of +warships that might lie offshore. This ridge continues toward the +north by two more peaks, each connected with its neighbor by a +saddle-shaped ridge. The positions along this ridge would pass first +over a point about a thousand feet high, covering the village of +Galatista, and next by a chain to the Hortak Dagh Mountains, one of +the nearest points in the line to Saloniki. + +To the north again the ground falls abruptly to the level of Lake +Langaza, thence turns eastward to the height of Dautbaba, after which +the lines could be stretched to the borders of the swampy region at +the mouth of the Vardar, ground which is as impassable as the Pripet +Marshes on the Russian front and which were formerly occupied by the +Bulgarian comatjis, in spite of all the efforts of the Turks to eject +or capture them. + +[Illustration: The Allies at Saloniki.] + +On December 20, 1915, there arrived in Saloniki, General de Castelnau, +Chief of the General Staff of the French Army. He came with the same +purpose that had brought Lord Kitchener, to make a tour of inspection +of the Near Eastern situation. No doubt a certain anxiety was felt in +France and England regarding the security of the Saloniki position, +and General de Castelnau had been dispatched to investigate. With +General Sarrail he made a thorough survey of the French lines, and +with General Mahon he undertook an equally searching tour of the +British section. Apparently he was satisfied with the situation, for +soon after he stated in an interview to the press that the position of +the Allies in Saloniki was excellent. After having passed a week with +Generals Sarrail and Mahon, he paid a short visit to King Constantine +on the 26th. On the same day the French Government issued an official +communique, which announced that General de Castelnau, together with +Generals Sarrail and Mahon, had settled upon the plan of action to be +followed by the Allies and that he had assured the French Government +that the arrangements which had already been made rendered the safety +of the whole expedition absolutely certain. + +This statement came as rather a strong contrast to an official +declaration made by the German Government to the effect that Germany +would be established in Saloniki by January 15, 1916. Possibly the +Teutonic allies may have planned at that time to initiate a campaign +against Saloniki, but apparently pressure on their lines on the other +fronts became so strong as to divert them from this object. + +However, the year was not to close without some disturbance of the +monotony of the situation that now set in at Saloniki. In the middle +of the forenoon of December 30, 1915, an attack was made on the city +by a fleet of the enemy's aeroplanes, which sailed overhead at a great +height and dropped bombs, doing considerable damage. One bomb fell on +a detachment of Greek troops, which was carrying on drill maneuvers +outside the city in the presence of Prince Andrew of Greece. Attempts +were made from the warships in the harbor to reach the aircraft with +their antiaircraft guns, but as the aeroplanes were over ten thousand +feet high they were not hit. French aeroplanes were sent up to engage +them, but by the time they had circled up to the same high altitude, +the enemy had disappeared over the mountain tops toward Monastir. + +Less than six hours later the soldiers of the Allies suddenly +descended on the German, Austrian, Bulgarian, and Turkish consulates +and arrested the enemy consuls and vice-consuls, taking them prisoners +together with their families and entire staffs. They were immediately +marched down to the quays and sent aboard one of the battleships. The +four consular buildings were then taken over by the Allies as +barracks. On the following day the consuls and their belongings were +on their way across the Mediterranean to some unknown destination, +though, as developed later, they were landed at Marseilles in France, +thence sent to, and liberated in, Switzerland. Later the Norwegian +consul was also arrested on a charge of espionage. + +One of the disadvantages under which the Allies labored in Saloniki +was the comparative ease with which the enemy could spy on their +movements. This had especially been the case when their lines had been +advanced beyond the Greek frontier. + +The Greek Government protested at this breach of neutrality, declaring +that such high-handed proceedings undermined its sovereignty and the +enemy Powers also protested and threatened reprisals. + +Further proof of the decision that the Allies had made to remain in +Saloniki was given by their occupation of Castellorizo, an island +lying off the mainland of Asia Minor near Rhodes, commanding the Gulf +of Adalia. Five hundred French soldiers had been landed, with a view +to using the place as a base for operations in that part of Turkey, +should that later become feasible. The Greek Government again +protested, as it also did when, in the first week of January, the +Allies arrested the German, Austrian, and Turkish consuls at Mitylene +for the same reasons that had led to the arrests in Saloniki, and +shipped these men away on a man-of-war. Greece was indeed kept quite +busy framing protests during this period, for on January 11, 1916, a +detachment of French soldiers took possession and military control of +the island of Corfu, but the Greek garrison there offered no +opposition. The place had some strategic value, but the main purpose +for which it was to be used was as a sanitarium for the Serbian +refugees, who were beginning to arrive from Albania, and many of whom +were in miserable physical condition. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +ITALIAN MOVEMENTS IN ALBANIA--CONQUEST OF MONTENEGRO + + +While the French and British were strengthening their position in +Saloniki in every possible way, the Italians were beginning a movement +which was to have some influence in the Balkans. + +Already, a year before, Italy had landed a small containing force in +Avlona, Albania, on the Adriatic coast, because Greece had previously +occupied a section of southern Albania, contiguous to her frontier. +Albania, it will be remembered, had been declared an independent +nation after the Balkan wars and William of Wied had been appointed +its sovereign, by the consent of the Powers. But so turbulent had his +subjects been that finally, when an uprising threatened his life, he +fled on a foreign warship. The leader of the Albanians, in so far as +they could be brought to respect any one general leader, was Essad +Pasha, the Albanian commander at Scutari, who had defended that place +so long and so valiantly against the attacks of the Montenegrins +during the First Balkan War. + +Already in the latter days of November there had been rumors that +Italy was landing an army of considerable size in Avlona, to assist +the Serbians. This could easily be done without attracting much +attention, as this town, often described as the "Gibraltar of the +Adriatic," is not more than fifty or sixty miles from the Italian +coast and can be reached by steamer in a few hours. Its occupation by +an enemy would be highly undesirable, from the point of view of +Italian interests. + +Baron Sonnino, the Italian prime minister, made a speech in which he +declared that Italy was determined to do everything to assist the +Serbian army, and that the Italian flag on the other side of the +Adriatic would also constitute a reaffirmation of Italy's traditional +policy, which included the maintenance of Albanian independence. + +By the end of the first week of December, 1915, an army of 50,000 had +been landed. With part of this force Italy occupied Durazzo on +December 21, 1915, joining up there with Essad Pasha, who had declared +himself against Austria. A few days later this chief, in the name of +the Albanian nation, declared war on Austria. + +Meanwhile, the Austrian warships had become very active along the +coast; in December their activities culminated in an attempt to +bombard Durazzo, whereupon they were engaged by some Italian, French, +and British ships and compelled to retire, with the loss of two +destroyers. + +Thus, at the beginning of the year 1916, a period of comparative quiet +seemed to be settling down over the Balkans, with one exception. And +that exception was Montenegro. Austria was now prepared to turn her +full attention to this little state, whose soldiers had invaded her +territory several times, during the Serbian campaign at the very +beginning of the war, and now again, when the final invasion had been +undertaken. + +Little was heard of Montenegro in the press dispatches, but she had +thrown the full strength of her little army into the field against the +Austro-German invaders. Before the Balkan wars her fighting men had +numbered some forty thousand, but by this time they were reduced to +something less than twenty thousand. They were short of artillery and +munitions, short of all kinds of supplies, even food, but it was a +difficult task for the Allies to offer them any material relief. +Montenegro is unserved by any seaport and even the Italians who had +landed at Avlona did not hope to establish any communication with them +through the mountainous country intervening. + +The one topographical feature of Montenegro that must be especially +noted is a mountain which rises abruptly, dominating the surrounding +Austrian territory along the coast, more especially the seaport and +naval station, Cattaro. The importance of this eminence, Mount Lovcen, +would have been paramount, had it been properly equipped for offensive +action. + +For Cattaro is a natural harbor of the first order, capable of +accommodating the whole Austrian fleet. The barracks at Cattaro are +plainly visible from the top of Mount Lovcen, but to bring guns of a +large enough caliber up there to reach those barracks was practically +impossible, on account of the rugged nature of the surrounding +country. + +During the ten weeks the fourth and final invasion of Serbia was +running its course, the warriors of the Black Mountains were engaged +in giving their kinsmen, the Serbians, their full support. Indeed, the +Montenegrin army, though it amounted only to a few regiments, had held +a slice of Bosnia for some time, formed the left flank of the whole +Serbian position and did good service during the earlier stages of the +conflict, being opposed to the Austrian lines around Fotcha and on the +Lim, a branch of the Drina. + +But the Austrians along this part of the front were satisfied merely +to hold the Montenegrins back, not a very difficult task, considering +their numbers. On the other hand, any attempt to advance into their +mountainous country would have been an extremely arduous undertaking, +entirely out of proportion to the importance of the Montenegrin +forces, from a military point of view. + +When Serbia had finally been overrun, Mackensen withdrew his Germans +and also some of the Austrians, these being sent north up to the +Russian front, where there seemed danger of renewed activities on the +part of the czar's forces. Especially threatening were the rumors that +the Russians were about to make a descent on Bulgaria through Rumania, +or across the Black Sea. + +The Austrians along the Montenegrin front, however, remained where +they were and presently they were strongly reenforced, for Austria was +determined on the permanent elimination of Montenegro, as she had been +determined on putting an end to the Serbian nation. Nor was this +impossible, in spite of the mountainous nature of the country, if only +the invaders were provided with heavy enough guns. What could be done +in Serbia could also be done in Montenegro. + +As far back as the middle of November, 1915, it was announced in the +dispatches from Rome that Austria was assembling a force of three army +corps in Herzegovina to attack Montenegro from that side. There was +also available the Austrian troops already in Serbia on the eastern +frontier of Montenegro, to say nothing of the Bulgarians, who so far +assisted the Austrians as to take Djakova, on December 3, 1915. The +whole expedition was put under the command of Von Koevess, shortly +after the fall of Mitrovitza. + +King Nicholas was not ignorant of what was coming. At the end of +November, 1915, after Serbia's last resistance had been overcome, he +issued a proclamation to his people in which he said that Montenegro +would continue the fight to the bitter end, even though it was +probable that she would share the fate of Serbia. The Allies, he went +on to state, would make every effort to keep, not only the army, but +the people as well, supplied with all that was needed to live and to +resist the enemy. Supplies had always been a hard problem in that +poverty-stricken little land and when the Serbian refugees began +flocking in, it became an insoluble problem, unless with help from +outside, which was not always forthcoming. + +It was obvious that, in spite of the fact that they had assisted in a +successful invasion of Serbia, the Austrians, now that they were by +themselves again, were not so confident of overcoming even the +Montenegrins that they could afford to undertake the campaign +impulsively, for during the whole month of December, 1915, they did +not press the campaign on the Montenegrin front. During this period +and the first week of January, 1916, they were satisfied with more or +less holding their lines, though they did advance some distance on the +eastern, or Sanjak, front, capturing Plevlie, Ipek, and Bielopolie. +But, as an offset to this success, the Montenegrins scored at least +one victory of considerable magnitude. On December 1, 1915, the +Montenegrin forces operating in southeastern Bosnia defeated the +Austrians near Foca, on the Drina, seven miles across the Drina, +forcing the enemy to retreat along the river toward Gorazda. A few +days later the Austrians retaliated by sending an aeroplane flying +over Cettinje, which dropped a number of bombs on that small city. +Other aeroplanes, flying over the Montenegrin encampments, dropped +circulars stating that all Serbia had been conquered, and if +Montenegro made any further resistance, she would suffer the same +fate. Toward the end of the month the Austrians began a heavy +bombardment of Mount Lovcen and launched a strong infantry attack +against it, but were repelled with considerable losses. + +On December 23, 1915, the Montenegrin Government reported having +inflicted a reverse on the Austrians advancing from the east. The +Austrians bombarded violently in the Mojkovac sector, then attacked +Touriak, in the direction of Rozai-Berane, but were thrown back. At +Berane the Montenegrins assumed the offensive for a brief space, and +at Bielo they drove the enemy troops back as far as Ivania. + +However, these were all minor operations and the successes of the +Montenegrins were not of a permanent nature. Apparently the Austrians +were all this time strengthening their lines and arranging their +forces for the general offensive, which they were ready to begin early +in January, 1916. + +On January 6, 1916, Koevess began decisive operations with a series of +violent attacks on the eastern front, on the Rivers Tara, Lim, and +Ibar, while at the same time the warships in the Gulf of Cattaro +opened a terrific fire on Mount Lovcen. + +For four days the Montenegrin troops offered a determined resistance. +Berane, on the Lim, was captured by the Austrians on the 10th. On the +same day the warships suddenly ceased their bombardment of Mount +Lovcen and Austrian infantry swept up the mountain sides and delivered +a strong attack. The handful of Montenegrins at the top were +completely overwhelmed and Lovcen was captured. Some surprise was +expressed among the Allies at the time that this supposedly powerful +stronghold should so easily succumb, but it soon developed that the +defenders were not only short of food, but they had run out of +ammunition and had practically fired their last cartridges. + +With Lovcen in the hands of the enemy Cettinje could no longer be held +by the Montenegrins, and on January 13, 1916, it was occupied by the +Austrians. The back of the Montenegrin resistance had now been broken. + +On January 17, 1916, it was announced in the Austrian Parliament by +Count Tisza that the Montenegrin Government had sued for terms of +peace. Montenegro's official version of this sudden surrender was +given in a note by the Montenegrin Consul General in Paris: + +"The newspapers announce that unhappy Montenegro has had to submit to +the inevitable after having struggled heroically under particularly +disadvantageous conditions against an enemy much superior in number +and formidably armed. It may be considered as certain that if the king +and the Government have yielded it is because the army had expended +the last of its munitions. + +"Even flight was impossible. The enemy was on the frontiers; there was +no escape by the sea; inveterate hostility was to be encountered in +Albania. If the Serbian army was able to escape from Serbia, the weak +contingents of Montenegro, exhausted by the superhuman efforts of +their long and desperate, but effective resistance, and by privations +of all kinds, were not able to seek refuge on friendly territory. It +is possible to discuss _ad infinitum_ the conditions of the suspension +of hostilities, the details of which, it is to be observed, come from +enemy sources; it is even possible to heap insults on the unfortunate +conquered...." + +The question immediately raised in the British and French newspapers +was: who opened negotiations with the enemy--the king or his minister? +Miuskovitch, who was frankly in favor of the Austrians, had become +premier at a critical moment in Montenegro's fate and negotiations +were undoubtedly proceeding while the fighting on Mount Lovcen was +still in progress. It was said that this was well known to the troops +in the field, and in consequence they had not made so determined a +resistance as they might otherwise have done. + +Meanwhile throughout Germany and Austria celebrations of the great +victory were going on and a Vienna paper published what purported to +be the terms that were to be granted the conquered Montenegrins, harsh +in the extreme. It was even indicated that the Montenegrin soldiers +must all serve with the Austrians on the Italian front. And next there +was a strange silence, a period during which no mention at all was +made of Montenegrins, as to whether they had accepted the terms or +not. + +Meanwhile among the Allies, who had not expected that Montenegro would +give in so quickly, there was much criticism of the little state's +surrender. It was suggested that it had been inspired for dynastic +reasons, by a pro-Austrian section of the court. It was even asserted +that King Nicholas had secretly come to terms with Austria before the +fall of Mount Lovcen and that the resistance put up by the +Montenegrins was unreal and of a purely theatrical character. It was +recalled that the wife of the Montenegrin Crown Prince was a German +princess. It was said that a compact was in existence, and had been in +existence for several months, by which Montenegro agreed to hand Mount +Lovcen over to the Austrians in return for Scutari. + +These speculations were finally terminated by an official statement +issued by Sir J. Roper Parkington, the Consul General for Montenegro +in London, in which he said that the king and the Government of +Montenegro had peremptorily refused the conditions of peace offered +them by Austria and that Montenegro would continue the struggle to the +bitter end. The announcement made by the Austrian Government that the +Montenegrins had already laid down their arms seemed, therefore, to +have been without foundation. This communique also stated that all the +reports issued by the Austrians had been in large part untrue. + +"King Nicholas," continued this official announcement, "remains with +his two sons at the head of his troops, to organize a final defense, +and to take part, in case of necessity, in the retreat of his brave +army. His majesty expresses the hope that the Allies will eventually +afford him effectual assistance for the retreat, as they have already +done for the Serbian army." + +In the fourth week in January, 1916, the Montenegrin premier, M. +Miuskovitch, issued a note admitting there had been negotiations with +Austria, but asserted that they had been merely a pretext to gain +time, to insure the safe retreat of the army toward Podgoritza and +Scutari, as well as to give opportunity to the Serbian troops to leave +Podgoritza and Scutari for Alessio and Durazzo in Albania. + +On January 23, 1916, old King Nicholas appeared in Rome, where he was +met by his son-in-law, the King of Italy, and from thence he went on +to Lyons, in France, where his queen had preceded him and where, by +the courtesy of the French Government, the capital of Montenegro was +temporarily established. + +At this time the Austrian Government had continued issuing reports to +the effect that the Montenegrin soldiers were laying down their arms, +but this seems to have been only partly true. Though many of them were +captured, a much greater number joined the Serbians in Albania, where +they made a juncture with the forces under Essad Pasha. + +The Austrians, however, continued their advance, occupying Scutari on +the 23d and San Giovanni di Medua on the 25th. Thus Montenegro itself +was finally overrun. + +But this little country, the poorest in Europe, offered the Austrians +very little reward for their enterprise. + +An Austrian journalist, accompanying the invading forces when they +took possession of the king's palace in Cettinje, described the +interior decorations as follows: + +"In the reception room two great oil paintings occupied the positions +of honor. One was that of the Emperor of Austria and the other was +that of the Queen of Hungary. In the king's study, on one of the +writing tables, there was a portrait of Francis Joseph and in other +rooms we also came across his picture." + +[Illustration: The Austrian Campaign in Montenegro.] + +On the whole, Montenegro had not made the desperate resistance which +its reputation for hard fighting had led people to believe it would +put up. This partial failure was explained by M. Miuskovitch, who +declared that when Montenegro entered the war on the side of the +Allies she had been promised everything necessary for the army and +also for the civil population, because even in normal times they +import wheat. Russia and France were to have sent supplies, but this +promise could not be carried out. They had done the best they could +with the materials on hand, but without ammunition they could not be +expected to fight. + +The Montenegrins, said the premier, had been given the task of +protecting the rear of the Serbian army and they had defended the +Sandjak frontier so successfully that on this side the Serbians had +had time to retire. But when the Serbians were obliged to fall back on +Montenegrin territory, their arrival precipitated events. The +Montenegrins had still some supplies, but with 120,000 to 130,000 +additional mouths to feed, these were soon exhausted. On many +occasions the Montenegrin soldiers did not receive rations for a whole +week and when they did, each ration only amounted to half a pound of +corn flour a day. + +After escaping, King Nicholas sent the following letter to General +Vukovitch: + +"I order you anew to resist the enemy in the most energetic way +possible. In the event of a retreat, follow the direction of the +Serbian army toward Durazzo. The Serbian commanders have been informed +of this. You will receive food supplies at Medua and farther on. + +"Prince Mirko and all the other ministers who have remained cannot in +any case open negotiations with anyone whatever. The French Government +has promised our retreating army all possible facilities, such as it +gave to the Serbian army. Prince Mirko and the other ministers must in +no case remain, but make every possible effort to escape." + +Having completed their invasion of Montenegro, the Austrians now began +to continue their advance over into Albania. On January 26, 1916, they +reached San Giovanni di Medua, a seaport in northern Albania. At the +same time Essad Pasha at Durazzo reported that he was being threatened +by an Austrian and Bulgarian column marching northwest from Berat, +while still another column was heading toward the Italian forces in +Avlona. + +Meanwhile all haste was being made in getting the Serbians safely out +of Albania and transporting them to Corfu, the Greek island lying +south of Avlona, in the Adriatic, which the Allies had occupied under +the protest of the Greek Government. This undertaking was much +facilitated by an improvement in the weather, which until then had +been very severe, and by the construction of bridges across the rivers +by a force of British engineers. Depots of provisions were also +established along all the roads by which the refugees were straggling +in toward the coast. The few guns, limbers, and munitions which these +fragments of the Serbian army had brought with them were transported +to Brindisi. At about the same time that the Austrians occupied San +Giovanni di Medua, a Bulgarian detachment had occupied Dibra, in +southern Albania, just above the Greek frontier and not far from Lake +Ochrida and Monastir. + +On February 10, 1916, the last of the Serbian soldiers had been taken +out of Albania. In spite of the attempt made by Austrian ships and +submarines, involving several minor naval engagements with the ships +of the Allies, the embarkations had been going on at the rate of from +eight to ten thousand men a day. In Corfu alone, 75,000 had been +landed; others were taken to Bizerta, the French naval port in Tunis, +and some had been sent to Italy. On this date Dr. Vesnitch, the +Serbian minister in Paris, made the following statement: + +"One hope still illumines the night of invaded Serbia; her avenging +army. At present that army numbers more than 100,000 men. It can be +confidently stated that it will be increased to 150,000." + +On February 11, 1916, the Austrians had advanced within a few miles of +Durazzo and on the following day occupied the Tirana heights, between +Breza and Bazar Siak, Breza being about twelve miles northeast of +Durazzo and Bazar Siak about halfway between these two towns. Two days +later the Italian forces advanced against this Austrian column and +delivered a strong attack, which was repulsed by the Austrians, +according to Vienna dispatches. Meanwhile the Bulgarians were +occupying Fieri, about sixteen miles from Avlona, and claimed that +they had taken possession of a third of southern Albania. A day or two +later the Austrian and Bulgarian columns operating in central Albania +made a junction and occupied Elbassan, thirty-eight miles southeast of +Durazzo. + +The enemy was, in fact, closing in on Durazzo. On February 25, 1916, +the Austro-Bulgarian forces had driven the Italians to the isthmus +west of the Durs lakes and the Austrian artillery began to open fire +on Durazzo itself. At daybreak the next morning the Austrians closed +in and the Italians and Albanians under Essad Pasha were finally, +after a spirited resistance, driven back from their positions at Bazar +Siak. Soon afterward the Italians on the southern bank of the lower +Arzen were forced to abandon their positions. The Austrians crossed +the river and proceeded southward. + +At noon a decisive action east of Bazar Siak drove the Italians from +their positions. The same fate was suffered by the defenders of Sasso +Blanco, six miles east of Durazzo. By evening the entire outer circle +of defenses had been taken. The Austrians, advancing to the inner line +positions, observed that the Italians were embarking on their ships. + +They were now able to reach the docks with their artillery, and +attempted to hinder the retirement of the Italians with a heavy shell +fire and succeeded in inflicting some damage to some of the ships. But +by the following morning the Italians had made good their escape, and +with them went Essad Pasha and his Albanian troops. + +On February 28, 1916, the Austrian Government issued a full report on +the campaign in Albania which had culminated in that section in the +capture of Durazzo: + +"The Austrian troops have captured Durazzo. During the forenoon one +column, under the fire of the Italians, advanced across the northern +isthmus to Portos, four miles north of Durazzo. Our troops advancing +across the southern isthmus were hindered at the beginning by the fire +of the Italian artillery, but toward night numerous detachments, by +wading, swimming, and floating, reached the bridge east of Durazzo, +driving back the Italian rear guard. At dawn an Austrian battalion +entered the burning town." + +The spoils were, according to the report, twenty-three cannon, +including six big coast defense guns, 10,000 rifles, and a large +amount of artillery ammunition and provisions. + +The Italian version was: + +"After our ships had silenced the enemy batteries and swept the coast +and near-by roads of their fire, all the Italian troops which were +sent temporarily to Durazzo to cover the evacuation of the Serbians, +Montenegrins, and Albanians, reembarked without incident and were +transported to Avlona, notwithstanding the bad weather which still +prevails in the lower Adriatic. War material which was still +serviceable was also taken aboard the ships and the damaged supplies +were either rendered useless or destroyed." + +Thus, by the first of March the Austro-Bulgarian forces had almost +completed their conquest of Albania, the only important point still in +the hands of the Italians being Avlona. At this point, however, the +Italians had made longer and bigger preparations for defense, besides +which they were here in far greater numbers, estimated at from 50,000 +to 120,000. + + + + +CHAPTER XL + +CONDITIONS IN SERBIA, GREECE, AND RUMANIA + + +During this time the Bulgarians and Germans were establishing a +semicivil government in Serbia. Many conflicting reports were +circulated, some of them to the effect that there was much friction +between the German and Bulgarian officers. Whether Germany and +Bulgaria really intended to make an attack on Saloniki has until now +been a question, but in those districts near the Greek frontier +considerable forces of Germans remained, garrisoning the large towns, +notably Monastir. The forces along the frontier itself were +Bulgarians at first, but toward the end of February, 1916, detachments +of Germans began taking their places along the front. The Allies in +Saloniki reported that up to this time there were heavy desertions +from the Bulgarian forces, the deserters coming in to Saloniki, +complaining that they were starved and did not wish to fight the +French and British. When the Germans appeared on the front, these +desertions suddenly ceased. + +In the middle of January Emperor William of Germany paid Serbia a +visit and inspected the captured towns and cities of most prominence. +On the 18th he arrived in Nish, where he was met by King Ferdinand and +Prince Boris of Bulgaria. The two sovereigns then attended Mass in the +cathedral together, after which they reviewed the troops. + +At a dinner which followed the emperor announced to King Ferdinand his +nomination to the rank of a Prussian field marshal and presented him +with the baton. King Ferdinand in turn bestowed the order for bravery +on the emperor and General von Mackensen. In a speech which he made, +King Ferdinand addressed the emperor with "Ave Imperator, Caesar et +Rex." ("Hail Emperor, Caesar and King.") + +During the first two months of the year the Allies had continued to +reenforce their forces in Saloniki, and toward the end of February +there were reports to the effect that General Sarrail would assume an +offensive up into Macedonia and Bulgaria. On January 20, 1916, the +ships of the Allies again bombarded Dedeagatch vigorously, then +proceeded to Port Lagos and swept that seaport with a heavy shell +fire. A few days later a feat, which in some respects established a +new record in the annals of French aviation, was performed by an +attacking squadron of forty French aeroplanes. + +The French squadron left Saloniki at seven in the morning and divided +into two parts, one of which proceeded to Monastir, about sixty miles +distant, and the other going to Ghevgli. Some of the aeroplanes were +armed with guns. + +Altogether over two hundred projectiles were discharged at the enemy's +camp, on the building occupied by the Bulgarian headquarters in +Monastir, and on other military establishments. The airmen were +vigorously bombarded in return, but sustained no casualties. One +notable feature of the raid was that the squadron had to contend with +a forty-mile gale from abeam during the whole trip and they had also +to fly over mountains 6,000 feet in height. By noon both sections of +the squadron had returned to Saloniki. + +On the part of Greece there was no change; she still continued her +attitude of sullen acquiescence to the presence of the Allies' troops +in Saloniki. In the last week of January General Sarrail sent a +detachment to occupy Cape and Fort Kara Burun, about twelve miles from +Saloniki and commanding the harbor. This action, it was stated, was +due to the fact that a British transport had been torpedoed by a +German submarine under the very guns of the fort. As usual, Greece +protested, and, again as usual, no notice was taken of her protest. + +At about this same time King Constantine sent for the American +correspondent of the Associated Press in Athens and asked him to make +public certain statements he wished to make, whereupon he gave the +journalist an interview so remarkable that when it was published it +attracted world-wide attention. + +"It is the merest cant," he said, "for Great Britain and France to +talk about the violation of the neutrality of Belgium after what they +themselves have done and are doing.... The only forum of public +opinion open to me is the United States. The situation is far too +vital for me to care a snap about royal dignity in the matter of +interviews when the very life of Greece as an independent country is +at stake. I shall appeal to America again and again, if necessary, for +that fair hearing which has been denied me by the press of the Allies. + +"Just look at the list of Greek territories already occupied by the +allied troops--Lemnos, Imbros, Mytilene, Castelloriza, Corfu, +Saloniki, including the Chalcidice Peninsula, and a large part of +Macedonia. In proportion to all Greece it is as if that part of the +United States which was won from Mexico after the Mexican War were +occupied by foreign troops, and not so much as by your leave.... Where +is the necessity for the occupation of Corfu? If Greece is an ally of +Serbia, so also is Italy, and transportation of the Serbs to Italy +would be simpler than to Corfu. Is it because the Italians are +refusing to accept the Serbs, fearing the spread of cholera, and the +Allies are thinking that the Greeks want to be endangered by cholera +any more than the Italians?... The history of the Balkan politics of +the Allies is the record of one crass mistake after another, and now, +through pique over the failure of their every Balkan calculation, they +try to unload on Greece the results of their own stupidity. We warned +them that the Gallipoli expedition would be fruitless and that the +Austro-Germans would surely crush Serbia.... At the beginning of the +war eighty per cent of the Greeks were favorable to the Allies; to-day +not forty, no, not twenty per cent would turn their hands to aid the +Allies." + +As for Venizelos, his voice was no longer heard. So disliked was he by +the Government that when certain soldiers joined in a celebration of +his name-day, fifty of them were sentenced to a month's confinement as +a punishment for so expressing their sympathy. In the middle of +February, 1916, this enmity was especially acute. Venizelos himself +told a journalist that he was holding himself so aloof from politics +that he did not even read the reports of the proceedings of the +Chamber of Deputies. + +But on March 1, 1916, there was a report from Athens that King +Constantine had suddenly summoned Venizelos. Several interviews +followed, and it was then announced that the king and Venizelos were +reconciled. Whether that meant any change in Greece's policy was not +mentioned. The general impression prevailed at this time, however, +that the great success of the Russians in Asiatic Turkey was having +its effect on the King of Greece and his Government. + +Of Rumania little was heard during the entire winter, no startling +changes having taken place in her attitude. In January the British +Government contracted with Rumania for the purchase of 800,000 tons of +wheat, to the value of about fifty million dollars, to be delivered by +the middle of April. + +On February 14, 1916, the Rumanian Government announced that its +mobilization had been completed by the calling up of a fresh class +and that the General Staff was completing the defenses of the +Carpathians and the fortifications along the banks of the Danube in +the new Dobrudja territory, which had been taken from Bulgaria during +the Balkan Wars. Take Jonescu, the well-known Rumanian statesman, in +an interview with a French journalist on the same date said: + +"As regards Rumanian policy; we made a great mistake in not +intervening when Bulgaria entered the war. I hope that we shall not +make the same mistake again and that we shall not quail before +Germany's threats, if she makes them.... The country is unanimous on +this point." + + + + +PART VII--THE DARDANELLES AND RUSSO-TURKISH CAMPAIGN + + + + +CHAPTER XLI + +CONDITIONS IN GALLIPOLI--ATTACK AT SUVLA BAY + + +We left the allied troops at the end of July, 1915, firmly established +at two points on the Gallipoli Peninsula. But though they had won +these secure bases by terrible losses and much heroism, yet they had +progressed but slightly toward their ultimate objects--the capture of +the three key points to the peninsula defenses and the opening of the +Dardanelles to the fleets of England, France, and Russia. + +Indeed, it had become apparent, not only to those in command on the +spot, but to the authorities in London and in Paris, that the allied +forces had reached a condition of stalemate on the two fronts. In +other words, the Turks by their stubborn, intelligent, and brave +defense had eliminated the possibility of the element of surprise, +without which it was almost hopeless to expect success under the +modern conditions of trench warfare. + +Much as the world appreciated the virtues of the Turk as a fighting +man, it must be confessed that he furnished the allied troops with an +unpleasant surprise. He displayed, first of all, a quite remarkable +degree of bravery, hurling himself against the intrenched troops of +France and England with an abandon and a disregard of personal safety +that excited the admiration of his enemies. The whole Gallipoli +campaign is replete with examples of Turkish valor. + +Furthermore, the Turks were well led, not only by their German +officers, but by the Turkish commanders as well. Frequently they +surprised and confounded the allied command in this respect, +successfully foiling vital movements by daring and original maneuvers. +This was all the more remarkable because it demanded cool thinking at +critical moments, not the excited religious fanaticism for which the +Turk had been noted. The Turk is an adept in the construction of +trenches and their use. + +Thus it became apparent to all that if any real success was to be +obtained in the Dardanelles campaign the element of surprise must be +reintroduced. Sir Ian Hamilton refused to throw away his troops in +hopeless frontal attacks against practically impregnable defenses. He +called upon Lord Kitchener for reenforcements, at the same time +issuing an encouraging bulletin to his troops, telling them that help +was coming. + +These new troops, which began to arrive at Mudros about the first week +of August, 1915, were not to be used for strengthening the two fronts, +but were to be employed in an entirely fresh attempt to surprise the +Turks at a new point, push inland before the defenders had time to +bring up troops, and seize commanding positions in the first great +rush. In fact it was a repetition of the attempts made at Achi Baba +and Krithia at the original landings, applying the lessons learned at +such tremendous cost on those occasions. + +Besides the military considerations which made such an attempt +desirable, the political situation in the Balkans made an allied +success in the Dardanelles highly imperative. The success of the great +German drive against the Russians in Poland and Galicia had had a +disturbing effect upon at least one of the Balkan neutrals. Bulgaria, +it soon became apparent, was preparing to enter the struggle on the +side of the Central Powers and Entente diplomats reported to their +Governments that nothing short of a smashing victory at the Strait +would change the purpose of King Ferdinand. Furthermore, the Entente +Powers were disturbed over the attitude of Greece and Rumania. It had +been confidently expected that the latter country would enter the +struggle on the side of the Entente Powers at the same time that +Italy actively entered the struggle. Indeed, the Bank of England had +made an advance to Rumania of $25,000,000, although it was expressly +understood that the loan was purely a business transaction and had no +political import. It was believed that Rumanian sympathy, as a whole, +was with the Entente Powers, but it was known that financial, +commercial, and dynastic ties with Germany and Austria were important +and might at any moment, in favorable circumstances, turn the scales +in favor of the Central Powers. + +It had become apparent, too, that even Greece had been impressed by +the success of the Germans. It was known that King Constantine, with +his strong German sympathies, and especially his oft-expressed +admiration for the power of the German military machine, was +determined at all costs to keep his little kingdom out of the great +struggle. Inasmuch as these two countries, Greece and Rumania, had +been confidently regarded as belligerents on the side of the Entente +Powers, even their neutrality was regarded as a blow to the Allies. + +This, then, was the situation that made a dashing stroke in Gallipoli +necessary. Sir Ian Hamilton prepared for it with great skill. A point +called Suvla Bay, north of the base established by the Australian and +New Zealand troops at Anzac Cove, was selected for the point of +landing, aiming to cooperate with the force already ashore and +assisted by a strong diversion aimed against the Bulair lines. + +For this supreme attack, upon which so much was dependent, fresh +troops were brought from England--men who had seen nothing of the +fighting on any front. Indeed, it is a question for future experts and +historians to argue pro and con whether or not the outcome of the +attack was not due almost entirely to this use of green troops. How +they were depended upon in a crucial operation, how they wavered, and +the consequences to the allied operations will be told in the +narrative. + +Suvla Bay lies between five and six miles from Anzac Cove. It is a +wide, shallow indentation forming an almost perfect half circle. +Although the landing facilities were not as good as at some other +points on the coast of the peninsula, it had the advantage of +providing plenty of more or less open country for maneuvering, once +the troops were well ashore. This was an element lacking in the case +of all the other landings, and one that Sir Ian Hamilton found of +vital importance. The nature of the Gallipoli country as a whole made +flank attacks almost impossible, but he hoped in the case of the fresh +landing to be able to avoid a direct frontal assault. + +The new troops, once ashore at Suvla Bay, were to push rapidly across +country, skirt Salt Lake, and carry the crest of the Anafarta Hills, a +range running to something like 600 feet in height and dominating two +important roads and the adjacent country, excepting the all-important +peak of Sari Bair. + +At the same time the Australian and New Zealand troops were to make a +sudden and supreme attack upon Sari Bair itself. It speaks volumes for +the confidence which Sir Ian Hamilton had in the fighting qualities of +these colonial troops that he set them such a tremendous task. Since +the landing at Anzac Cove, the Turks, under the supervision of their +German mentors, had fortified every yard of the thousand feet of +heights known as Sari Bair. An unprecedented number of machine guns +had been brought up and placed in concealed positions from which it +was possible to sweep every line of advance, thus powerfully +increasing the volume of the infantry and artillery fire. It did not +seem possible that an attack, however resolutely and bravely made, +could succeed in the face of such a fierce defense. + +The third element in this new attack was to be a demonstration against +Karachali, on the European mainland of Turkey, menacing the Bulair +lines as well as the railway running to Sofia, Bulgaria. For this +purpose a number of troopships and warships carrying what was known as +the Greek Legion and made up of Cretan volunteers, were to be used. It +was hoped that this diversion would attract most of the available +reserves in and about the Gallipoli Peninsula and make impossible the +reenforcement of the troops stationed near Anafarta Hills and Sari +Bair. + +The fourth and last element was to consist of a determined attack upon +the Turkish defenses about Krithia, pinning to that spot all the +troops possible. Curiously enough the plans of the Turkish command, +dominated by Enver Pasha, favored the allied troops in that the Turks +had planned an attack upon the enemy on the Krithia lines about this +time and had concentrated most of their available reserves near the +tip of the peninsula. + +This intention on the part of the Turks was undoubtedly due to the +information they had received of the arrival of fresh British troops. +But quickly as they pushed forward their preparations, the Allies were +too lively for them. On August 6, 1915, the French and British troops +advanced against the Turks and there followed some of the most +determined and desperate fighting of the whole Dardanelles campaign. +In the fighting the East Lancashire Division, a territorial force, did +heroic work and bore the brunt of the fighting. There were many +individual feats of daring and bravery, yet one stands out +conspicuously. A youthful Manchester schoolmaster, Lieutenant W. T. +Forshaw, held his trench against attacks for forty-five hours. For +forty-one of those hours he was continuously throwing bombs and only +desisted when his arm became temporarily paralyzed. When, finally, the +Turks swarmed into his trench, revolver in hand he led his wearied +troops and drove them out. He richly deserved the coveted Victoria +Cross which was conferred upon him. + +At dawn on the following day, the Australians began the attack at Sari +Bair. The force at Anzac Cove had been reenforced with Indian troops +and two divisions of the new troops from England. As planned, the +operations at Sari Bair were to consist of an attack, first on the +right, to serve as a feint, and then a main attack on the left which +was to link up and support the attack from Suvla Bay, moving around in +back of Salt Lake. + +The attack on the right, upon what was called Lone Pine Plateau, was a +dispiriting failure on the opening day. The dismounted troops of the +Third Australian Light Horse, a magnificent body of men, were sent +forward to storm the elaborate trenches of the enemy. The attack was +made in three lines. The first was mowed down to a man; of the second +only a few survivors reached the Turkish trenches to be either +captured or killed; the third was stopped by a change of orders just +as it was about to follow the other two into the valley of sure death. + +On the following day, the 8th, the main Australian infantry forces +were sent forward against the same trenches and, after some bloody +fighting, succeeded in capturing and holding them against repeated +counterattacks. + +While this holding operation was in progress the main attack was being +made on the left. New Zealand and Australian troops, supported by a +picked force of Indian hillmen, used to night warfare and campaigning +in difficult mountain country, starting in the evening of August 6, +1915, made a rapid march along the coast as far as Fisherman's Hut. +There large quantities of stores had been gradually accumulated in +preparation for this very movement. + +At Fisherman's Hut the force, numbering 6,000 men, under the command +of Major General Sir A. J. Godley, turned sharply inland and just +before dawn, almost without the knowledge of the Turkish defenders, +had arrived within half a mile of one of the dominating hills on the +right flank of the vitally important Sari Bair. + +At this point Godley's force was split into three columns. One +composed of Australian troops, was based on Asma Dere, almost within +touch of Suvla Bay. The Indian troops were within striking distance of +Chunuk Bair, close to the towering peak of Koja Chemen, rising sharply +to almost 1,000 feet, while the New Zealanders were within striking +distance of Rhododendron Ridge. + +With the dawn of August 7, 1915, the Turks awoke to the seriousness of +the new menace. So difficult was the country in which the British +troops were operating that the Ottoman commander had dismissed all +idea of a serious attack from that point and had merely posted patrols +in the hills guarding the flank of Sari Bair. Now, however, reserves +were hurried to the scene, and so rapidly and in such large numbers +did they arrive that the troops from Anzac were soon compelled to dig +themselves in in an attempt to hold what they had won by their +surprise march. + +Early on the morning of August 8, 1915, the Australians moved out from +Asma Dere. They had as an objective a near-by hill from which it was +proposed to storm the height known as Koja Chemen. Unfortunately for +their plan, the Turks by this time had brought up such forces that the +Australians were outnumbered. They had not proceeded far before they +discovered that they were being rapidly encircled. A retreat was +immediately decided upon and so closely were they followed by the +Turks that the British troops had difficulty even in holding their +original position at Asma Dere. + +Meanwhile the New Zealanders were having more success. Carrying full +kit, food, and water, these splendid colonials clambered up the steep +sides of Rhododendron Ridge, swept the Turks from the crest and +charged up the southwestern slope of the main peak of Sari Bair. There +they dug in and fought desperately to hold their advantage against +successive waves of Turkish infantry that came charging down upon +them. + +At the same time the Indian troops gained some fresh ground in the +neighborhood of Hill Q. + +During the night of August 8, 1915, and the early morning of the +following day, the officers of the British forces who had survived the +fighting reorganized the scattered remnants and prepared for a fresh +advance. About midnight reenforcements arrived at all three bases and +were hurried forward to relieve as much as possible the exhausted men +in the firing line. + +Just as dawn was breaking on August 9, 1915, word was passed along the +lines that a supreme effort was to be made to carry the heights that +barred the allied troops from a great victory. British and French +warships posted close inshore and in wireless touch with the troops +opened an intense bombardment of the Chunuk Bair, Hill Q, and Koja +Chemen. Then the whistles blew, the infantry leaped out of its shallow +trenches and, with a yell that echoed and reechoed through the +Gallipoli hills, charged up the precipitous slopes. + +Of the three columns, the greatest success was gained by the Indians. +Led by the hardy Gurkhas, they actually reached the crest of Hill Q +and looked down on the much-to-be-desired Strait, bathed in the hot +August sunshine. + +The Turkish command full well realized the importance of this +position, and immediately guns from every angle were turned on the +Indian troops and the New Zealanders who were supporting them on the +left. A hurricane of shells was poured on the troops before they had +time to dig themselves in. A few seconds later a counterattack was +launched in such force against the New Zealanders that they and the +Indians were swept down the slopes of Sari Bair. + +By nightfall of August 8, 1915, the few Turkish patrols in the +district had been driven off and considerable forces of the British +troops had made their way inland. Splitting into two columns, one +moved north and seized Karakol Bagh; the other and larger force +marched across the low country until it had arrived in position facing +the Anafarta Ridge, its objective. + +Lying between the line of advance from Suvla Bay to the Anafarta Ridge +and Asma Dere, the base of the Australian troops operating against +Sari Bair, were a number of hills, two of which played supremely +important parts in the fighting of the next few days. They have been +called Chocolate Hill and Burnt Hill. + +It was in an action against Chocolate Hill that the battle opened. +Moving in a night attack on August 8, 1915, Irish troops stormed +Chocolate Hill and came within measurable distance of connecting up +with the Australian division. Then preparations were made for an +attack upon the Anafarta Ridge. + +On August 11, 1915, the right wing of the forces landed at Suvla Bay +succeeded in working along the coast and linking up with the +Australians at Asma Dere. They brought with them to the hard-hitting +Colonials the first word of the progress of the Anafarta operation, +and it was a bitter disappointment to the latter to learn that their +heroic efforts against Sari Bair had been largely made in vain because +of the failure of the Suvla Bay force to accomplish its task. + +Both sides then busied themselves preparing for the new warfare in +this region. The British consolidated their positions, and on August +15, 1915, sent forward the same Irish division that had captured +Chocolate Hill in an attempt to rush Dublin Hill. After a hand-to-hand +fight with the Turkish troops, who swarmed out of their trenches to +meet the charging Irishmen, the hill was won. + +The Turks, meanwhile, were strongly fortifying not only the Anafarta +Ridge proper but some of the hills commanding its left flank. Here +Hill 70 and Hill 112 were the major positions, and on August 21, 1915, +the British troops moved out in an effort to capture them. + +A portion of the British troops succeeded in reaching the top of Hill +70. There, however, they were greeted by a terrible fire from a +battery concealed on Hill 112 and forced to fall back, first to the +lower slopes of the hill and then, when the fire slackened, to their +original intrenched positions. + +Even less success was enjoyed by the troops making the assault upon +Hill 112. The Turkish artillery poured a curtain of fire among the +shrubs at the foot of the hill which effectively prevented the +proposed advance. Farther to the south at the same time the +Australians were attacking Hill 60 of the Sari Bair group and +succeeded in driving the Turkish defenders from its crest. + + + + +PART VIII--AGGRESSIVE TURKISH CAMPAIGN AT DARDANELLES + + + + +CHAPTER XLII + +SARI BAIR--PARTIAL WITHDRAWAL OF ALLIES + + +Thus practically ended the Suvla Bay operation and its supporting +movements. Much had been expected of it and, by the barest margin, in +the opinion of many competent military men, great results had been +missed. Just what ultimate effect its success in this operation would +have had on the Gallipoli campaign, on the position of Turkey in the +war and, finally, upon the course of the war as a whole, it is +obviously impossible to say. There are those who claim that the +capture of Constantinople would have brought the struggle to a quick +and disastrous end from the viewpoint of the Central Powers. There are +others, equally entitled by experience and knowledge to speak, who +claim that it would have had no appreciable influence on the final +result. And there is a third body of critics of opinion that the +capture of Constantinople would have been a disaster for the Allies, +inasmuch as it would have opened up vast questions of age-long +standing that would have led to wide dissension between England, +Russia, and France. + +There is another and no less interesting phase of the Suvla Bay +operation that will one day be studied with care. In this crucial +attack a reliance was placed upon raw troops who had seen little or no +actual fighting. It was, in a way, an attempt to prove that patriotic +youths, rallying to the colors at their country's need, although +without previous training, could in a few months be made more than a +match for the obligatory military service troops of the Continental +system. + +Some extremely interesting details of the preparation for the landing +at Suvla Bay have been given by a correspondent who was permitted to +be present, but who, like all except a few officers of General Ian +Hamilton's immediate staff, was kept in absolute ignorance of the +exact location of the spot selected. + +"It has long been obvious that some new landing on a vast scale was +about to be attempted," he wrote, "and surmise has therefore been rife +as to the exact point on which the blow would fall. It was hoped to +take the Turk completely by surprise, and to obtain a firm foothold on +the shore before he could bring up his reenforcements. In this it +would seem as if we have been successful, for two divisions were +yesterday (August 7, 1915) put ashore almost without opposition. The +enemy probably had accurate knowledge of the arrival of large +reenforcements, for it is almost impossible to keep movements of +troops unknown in the Near East, and his airmen have frequently flown +over our camps. He knew, therefore, we were preparing to strike, but +on the vital point as to where the blow would fall he seems to have +been entirely ignorant. + +"No one who has not seen a landing of a large army on a hostile shore +can have any idea of the enormous amount of preparation work and +rehearsal which must precede any such movement. For three weeks this +has been going on incessantly. + +"For many days past a division has been practicing embarking and +disembarking until every officer and every man knew the exact role he +had to play. + +"On the morning of August 6, 1915, I was told to hold myself in +readiness to embark that evening for an unknown destination, which +would not be disclosed to me until after I got on board the transport. +There was general rejoicing among the troops when it became known that +the period of preparation was at length passed and that the hour for +action had at last arrived. + +"Throughout the whole of August 6, 1915, the work of embarking +proceeded without a stop. Dense masses of fully equipped infantry, +each carrying two days' rations, and tin dishes strapped on their +knapsacks, moved down to the quay and were there embarked. The troops +seemed in excellent spirits and full of fight. They were cracking +jokes and singing many familiar songs, the favorite of which seemed to +be a blending of 'Tipperary' with 'Are We Downhearted?' Which query +was answered by a deafening roar of 'No!'" + +In writing of the country around Suvla Bay the same correspondent +said: + +"The country is in fact terrible; the hills are an awful jumble, with +no regular formation, but broken up into valleys, dongas, ravines, and +partly bare sandstone, and partly covered with dense shrub. In places +there are sheer precipices over which it is impossible to climb and +down which a false step may send you sliding several hundreds of +feet." + +Finally, deeply illuminating is the official communique published in +England on August 26, 1915, regarding the operations in early August. +The most striking paragraphs follow: + +"Very severe and continuous fighting, with heavy losses to both sides, +has resulted. Our forces have not yet gained the objectives at which +they were aiming in sphere eight, though they have made a decided +advance toward them and have greatly increased the area in our +possession. + +"The attack from Anzac after a series of desperately contested +actions, was carried to the summit of Sari Bair and Chunuk Bair Ridge, +which are the dominating positions on this area, but, owing to the +fact that the attack from Suvla Bay did not make the progress which +was counted upon, the troops from Anzac were not able to maintain +their position in the actual crest, and after repeating +counterattacks, were compelled to withdraw to positions close below +it." + +And the communique ends up with the significant sentence: + +"But these facts must not lead the public to suppose that the true +objective has been gained or that further serious and costly efforts +will not be required before a decisive victory is won." + +Picturesque accounts of the fighting by the Australian troops for Sari +Bair on August 6, 7, and 8, 1915, have been written by an eyewitness +of the fighting. Speaking of the few moments before the fighting, he +said: + +"Meanwhile the combined Australians and New Zealanders braced for the +desperate night attack that had been decided upon. The men had long +been waiting for this hour to arrive. + +"Strict orders were given that not a shot was to be fired; the bayonet +alone was to be used. Exactly at ten o'clock on Friday night a brigade +clambered over their trenches and furiously charged the Turkish line +amid loud cheers, bayoneting all the enemy found therein. The Turks, +taken apparently quite unawares, fired wildly and were unable to check +the advance. + +"Thus in a few minutes all the enemy nearest the sea were in our hands +and the way was thus cleared for the main advance. The New Zealanders +stopped only to take breath and then pursued their victorious career, +rushing in succession the old No. 3 outpost, 'Bauchop's Hill,' and +other Turkish positions. The native Maoris entered into the charge +with great dash, making the darkness of the night hideous with their +wild war cries, and striking terror into the hearts of the Turks with +the awful vigor with which they used their bayonets and the butt end +of their rifles. + +"The darkness of the night, the broken nature of the ground, and the +shell fire with which the enemy had smothered every available bit of +ground, with his deadly snipers, delayed the main advance somewhat +after these preliminary positions had been successfully rushed, for +every hill and spur had to be picketed to keep down the fire from +lurking marksmen left in the rear of our advancing columns. The +fighting throughout the night was continuous, for amid these gloomy +ravines the Turks offered courageous and despairing resistance to the +Australians, the New Zealanders and Maoris, and many bloody +encounters, the details of which will never be known, were fought in +the dark hours which preceded a still more eventful dawn." + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII + +AGGRESSIVE TURKISH MOVEMENTS--OPINION IN ENGLAND--CHANGE IN COMMAND + + +With the withdrawal of the allied troops from Anzac Cove and Suvla +Bay, the Turks were free to concentrate all their forces in the +Gallipoli Peninsula in the south against the British and French forces +that were still intrenched on a line running roughly from Y Beach on +the Aegean Sea to Kereves Dere on the Dardanelles, skirting the slopes +that led up to the town of Krithia and the heights of Achi Baba. + +Immediately the Turks began to transfer the guns and men that had been +used against the northern position. Obviously such a transfer in +difficult country with few roads and a restricted front took +considerable time. In the meantime the British and French in front of +Krithia were not inactive. They countered constantly against the +ever-increasing pressure of the enemy. Although few infantry attacks +were engaged in, bomb and mine warfare for the improvement of the +allied positions and the prevention of fresh inroads by the Turks was +an almost constant affair. + +Fortunately for the safety and subsequent plans of the Allies, the +Gallipoli Peninsula at that time of the year was rendered most +difficult for offensive fighting. Heavy rains and consequent floods +make the country almost impassable for the movement of big guns or +large bodies of troops in the face of a determined defense. + +But while the position of the allied troops in the hills away from the +fringe of coast was becoming desperate, at or near the beaches they +could enjoy practical immunity except from a few long-range Turkish +batteries. The powerful guns of the allied warships so far outranged +and outweighed anything the Turks could bring into the field about +Krithia and Achi Baba that the allied troops could lie sheltered under +their protection. + +This fact undoubtedly contributed largely to the astonishing success +of the reembarkation operations here, as it had at the two northern +bases. The chief danger to the allied troops about Krithia was in the +retreat over the few miles that separated them from the embarkation +beaches. + +Finally, however, the pressure of the Turks became so heavy that there +was very real apprehension for the safety of the allied troops still +left on the peninsula. Whether or not it was ever intended to maintain +the positions won in the south it is impossible to say at this time. +Some observers were of the opinion that it was England's desire to +construct on the territory in her possession at the entrance to the +Dardanelles a second Gibraltar, commanding at least one end of the +important waterway. German opinion held that it had been agreed +between the Entente Powers in the event of the forcing of the +Dardanelles that the land commanding the waterway was to be divided +among the three countries, each dominating a stretch--probably Russia +in Constantinople, England at the Narrows, and France in between. + +However that may be, any intention of hanging on to the territory +captured in the south was soon to be impracticable. By the first of +the year, 1916, the Turks were hotly pressing the allied troops to the +left of Krithia and it became imperative to shorten the line. + +Favored by the floods and the fact that, despite the knowledge of the +Turks that a reembarkation had been decided upon, they did not know +exactly when it was to be carried out, the retirement was effected +with small loss. On the nights of January 8-9, 1916, the men were +embarked from the beaches at the north of Sedd-el-Bahr under the guns +of the British and French fleet. + +At the last moment it was found impossible to get eleven British guns +away. Reluctantly it was decided to destroy them and they were +rendered useless by the last troops leaving the peninsula. Similarly +the French were compelled to abandon six heavy pieces. Immense stores +were burned and all the buildings, piers, etc., erected by the allied +troops blown up. + +While the Allies' offensive was beginning to wane at Gallipoli, an +interesting incident developed at Constantinople which gives some idea +of the high tension existing there at the time. The story is best told +in the original words of Mr. Henry Wood, an American newspaper +correspondent, who in a dispatch dated August 17, 1915, first gave the +news to the New York "World." He wrote: + +"The following is the story of the manner in which Mr. Morgenthau, the +American Ambassador, intervened in favor of 2,000 English and French +civilians whom Enver Pasha had decided to expose to the bombardment of +the allied fleet at Gallipoli: + +"The decision had not only been taken, but every detail had been +covertly prepared for its carrying out on a Monday morning, when on +the previous evening Mr. Morgenthau learned of it. He at once +telephoned to Enver Pasha and secured from him a promise that women +and children should be spared. A second request, that the execution of +the order be delayed until the following Thursday, was only granted +after the ambassador had assured Enver that it would be the greatest +mistake Turkey had ever made to carry it out without first advising +the powers interested. + +"Mr. Morgenthau at once telegraphed to France and England by way of +Washington, and no reply having arrived by Wednesday morning, again +telephoned to the War Minister, insisting on being received in +personal audience. + +"'I have not a single moment left vacant until four o'clock, at which +time I must attend a Council of the Ministers,' was the reply. + +"'But unless you have received me by four o'clock,' Mr. Morgenthau +replied, 'I will come out and enter the Council of Ministers myself, +when I shall insist upon talking to you.' + +"An appointment was therefore granted for three o'clock, and after a +long argument Enver Pasha was persuaded to agree to send only +twenty-five French and twenty-five English to Gallipoli 'as a +demonstration,' the War Minister arguing that any farther retraction +would weaken discipline. It was also agreed to send only the youngest +men, and Bedri Bey, the Constantinople chief of police, was at once +sent for in order that he might be acquainted with the new limitation +of the decision. But he at once protested. 'I don't want to send a lot +of boys down there. I want to send down notables. You have tricked +me,' he declared, turning to the ambassador. + +"Next morning the ambassador attended personally to the going aboard +of the twenty-five French and twenty-five English who had been finally +selected. For all that, they knew the original orders to expose them +to the fire of the fleet were to be carried out to the letter, and the +farewell to their friends and relatives at the Golden Horn pier was +one of the most affecting ever enacted at Constantinople. At the last +minute one of the British ministers, who still remained at +Constantinople, volunteered to go along in order that he might offer +spiritual consolation should they eventually face death, and a young +Englishman was released in his place. Mr. Morgenthau insisted that the +party be accompanied by Mr. Hoffman Phillip, First Secretary of the +American Embassy. + +"On their arrival at Gallipoli they were imprisoned in two empty +houses and informed that the allied fleet was expected any moment to +resume its bombardment. The city had been under fire for several days, +and was almost completely deserted. No provision had been made for +their subsistence. During the days which followed the fifty men +suffered considerable hardships, but at last orders came from +Constantinople for all fifty to be returned and released." + +Meanwhile a curious hardening of public opinion regarding the +Dardanelles was taking place in England, which in the course of time +was destined to have an all-important influence on the operations in +that part of the world. Before the Suvla Bay landing there had been +considerable but mild criticism of the manner in which the whole +affair had been undertaken and carried out. Close upon the early +successes of the naval bombardment there had been an unjustified +public optimism. Then came weeks of pessimism following that black day +when three battleships were sent to the bottom almost at one blow. + +Subsequent events and the false color given to them by the official, +but especially the unofficial, accounts served to hearten the British +public for a time. Then came Winston Churchill's famous speech in +which he spoke of Sir Ian Hamilton's forces being "only a few miles +from a great victory," such as would have a determining effect upon +the outcome of the war. This was followed by many absurd but +circumstantial reports that the Dardanelles had actually been forced +but, for some unexplained reasons, the news was being withheld by the +Government. + +A little later there came news of the arrival of German submarines off +Gallipoli and of the sinking of two more battleships. This was +followed by unofficial intimation that the major fleet had had to be +withdrawn from the waters about the peninsula and that the forces on +land were in a measure cut off and dependent upon smaller vessels for +naval support and supply. + +At this point criticism of the Dardanelles campaign became more +pronounced and daring in many quarters in England. The public was ripe +for it and many openly expressed their regret that it had ever been +entered upon. Then came the Suvla Bay landing, and affairs rapidly +moved to a climax. + +The Suvla Bay attempt, like all of the other operations at Gallipoli, +was conceived in a spirit of excessive optimism. It was intended to be +a surprise and the public in England were kept absolutely ignorant of +the preparations, so far as it was possible to prevent a leakage with +thousands of troops being sent out of the country. Even after the +landing and the fighting were well over, little or no news was allowed +to get into the papers. Finally there came a long dispatch from the +United States, which, curiously enough, the British censor passed, +telling of the utter defeat of the Turk, the complete success of the +Suvla Bay maneuver, and intimating that the forcing of the Dardanelles +was now but a question of a few days. + +This amazing dispatch, in which there was of course no truth, was +printed in the leading English papers, and a large part of the +unthinking public and even a portion of the more intelligent classes +swallowed it whole. The news came just at the time of the blackest +week of the war up to that time, from the British point of view, when +the Germans were racing to the end of their remarkable drive against +the Russians and the czar's great fortresses were falling like packs +of cards before the furious onslaughts of the Teuton forces. + +But with the arrival and publication in England of Sir Ian Hamilton's +account, and the declaration by him that the ends aimed at had not +been achieved, it soon was realized that even this great attempt, upon +which so much had been builded, had failed. Depression became +universal, and there were for the first time responsible demands that +the whole expedition be abandoned. + +This question of the total abandonment of the attempt to force the +Dardanelles was a tremendous problem for England. Involved in it was +the great question of her prestige, not only among her millions of +Mohammedan subjects, but also in the Balkans, then rapidly moving to a +decision. Turkey was the only Mohammedan power still boasting +independence, and for Great Britain to acknowledge herself bested in +an attempt to defeat her was likely to have far-reaching and serious +results throughout India and Egypt, where Great Britain's ability to +hold what she had won was dependent in a large measure upon the very +prestige now in danger. + +One of the reasons for urging the abandonment of the Dardanelles +campaign was the urgent need for troops elsewhere. It was declared +that it was absurd folly to be wasting troops at Gallipoli when the +western front was being starved for men. Furthermore there were +rapidly accumulating evidences that the Entente Powers were soon to be +compelled to fight on a new and important front. + +About this time Germany began her preparations for a final attack upon +Serbia. Try as the Allies might, they had not been able to force an +agreement between Serbia and Bulgaria on the question of the ownership +of those parts of Macedonia won from the Turk in the First Balkan War, +and taken from the Bulgar by the Serbians in the second. Germany, +taking advantage of these irreconcilable differences, was about to +launch a heavy attack from the north upon the kingdom of aged Peter. + +In these circumstances there came before the British Government, in +common with the French Government, the question of just how great an +obligation rested on the shoulders of the two great powers. Serbia +certainly looked to them to assist her with all their strength, and at +the height of the agitation Sir Edward Grey made a public declaration +that in every circumstance Serbia could look to England for unlimited +support. + +It was when those who knew began to discuss the question of where +Great Britain was to find the military force to make good Grey's +pledge to Serbia that the Dardanelles campaign came in for hot +criticism. It was known that few, if any, fully trained troops were +available in England for a fresh campaign. Indeed, as matters +ultimately worked out, it was France who found the bulk of the force +that was hurried to Saloniki when Bulgaria declared war on Serbia and +joined in the Austro-German attack upon the Balkan kingdom. Later, +under French pressure, England withdrew 40,000 of her troops from the +western front and rushed them off to Saloniki, but much too late to +succor Serbia. + +Finally, so powerful became the influences calling upon the Government +to retire from the Dardanelles with as much grace as possible that the +opinion of Sir Ian Hamilton was asked. Probably the inside truth of +the affair will not be known for some years, but it later developed +that there was considerable friction between Sir Ian Hamilton and the +British War Office at the time. Sir Ian, it is known, laid a large +part of blame for the failure at the Strait to the fact that Earl +Kitchener did not send him large reenforcements that were expressly +promised. At any rate he was against a withdrawal from Gallipoli in +the circumstances and in favor of a swift and overwhelming assault +with all the troops and forces that could be gathered. He was still +firmly convinced that the forcing of the Dardanelles was possible and +probable. + +Just what were the relations between France and England, and +especially how they each regarded the Dardanelles campaign in the +winter of 1915, it is impossible to say with any degree of assurance. +It is known, however, that there were serious differences of opinion, +not only among the more influential men in both Paris and London, but +between the two Governments. + +Obviously, the British were the more reluctant to abandon the project, +which had been entered upon with so much confidence and enthusiasm. It +was distinctly a British operation, although the French Government had +given its unqualified approval at the start and had loyally +contributed all the troops it could spare. But the plans had been +drawn up in London and had been worked out by British commanders; and +the acknowledgment of failure was a confession of British, not French, +incompetency. It was a blow at British prestige such as had not been +dealt since the early disasters of the Boer War. + +While the whole question of the Gallipoli campaign was being +reconsidered there occurred something that had a profound effect upon +subsequent events in that part of the war area and elsewhere. The +defeat of the Russians while the French and British troops were +unable, through lack of preparation and foresight, to carry on an +energetic offensive that might have drawn the Germans from their Slav +prey, convinced all the allied Governments that the time had arrived +for a thorough revision of their system of cooperation. In short, if +the war was to be won and each of the Entente Powers was to escape a +separate defeat while the others were doomed to a forced inactivity, +it was necessary that their military, economic, and financial affairs +should be so coordinated and administered that they should be directed +with one object only in view--the winning of the war. + +For this purpose representatives of the allied powers met in Paris and +discussed plans. One of the first results of these discussions was to +be seen in the military field. The armies of France and England in the +field became, for all practical purposes, one. The supreme command of +the allied forces in France was placed in the hands of the commander +in chief of the French army. + +General French, who had been only nominally under the orders of the +French commander in chief, retired from command of the British army in +France and one of his subordinates, Sir Douglas Haig, took his place. +Similarly, in the southwestern theatre of the war, where Sir Ian +Hamilton was in supreme command, the leadership passed to France, +Hamilton resigning and his place being taken by Sir Charles Monro. +When the British and French troops from Gallipoli were ultimately +landed at Saloniki the supreme command of the allied forces in that +theatre of war was given to General Sarrail of the French army. + +Undoubtedly, too, the influence of France, and of Joffre individually, +was thrown into the scales at these Paris meetings against a +continuance of the Dardanelles operations. French public opinion was +strongly in favor of sending immediate succor to the Serbians. So +strong, in fact, was this public opinion that, when the expected help +failed to arrive, it forced the immediate downfall of Delcasse and the +ultimate resignation of the French Cabinet. + +Soon after Kitchener returned to London from these Paris conferences a +sensation was caused by the announcement that he was leaving the War +Office temporarily and would undertake an important mission in the +Near East. Ultimately it developed that this important mission was +nothing more nor less than a first-hand examination of the problems +confronting the British commander in withdrawing his force from +Gallipoli and a study of the field into which it was proposed to +transfer, not only these troops, but hundreds of thousands of others. + +Probably no high officer of the British army was more fitted for the +mission. Whatever one may think of Kitchener's administration of the +British War Office during a period of unprecedented difficulty, no one +can deny his success in India and Egypt. With those commands had +necessarily gone an exhaustive study of military operations that might +conceivably have to be undertaken for the protection of British +prestige and power in the Mohammedan world. + +Thus he was thoroughly at home in the Near East and he brought back to +London an encouraging report. Even high military opinion in England +had been of the opinion that the withdrawal of the allied troops from +Gallipoli could not be effected without terrible losses. Some even +held that it would be better and less costly in human lives to leave +the troops there on the defensive until the end of the war than to +attempt to get them out of the death hole into which they had been +dumped. + +This, however, was not Lord Kitchener's idea. He reported that they +could be withdrawn, not, it was true, without heavy losses, but at a +cost much smaller than the general estimate. This conclusion he came +to after an examination on the spot, and subsequent events, as we +shall see, more than justified his judgment in the matter. + +Once having made up its mind to risk the loss of prestige involved and +withdraw the army from the Gallipoli Peninsula, the British Government +acted with speed and intelligence. It turned the difficult task over +to General Sir Charles Monro, whose subsequent accomplishment of the +operations earned him the admiration of every military man throughout +the world. + +General Sir Charles Monro's job was difficult and dangerous enough for +any man. In the face of an enemy numbering something like 80,000 men, +along a line of 20,000 yards, he had to withdraw an almost equal +number of men with their stores, trucks, ammunition, guns, etc. Only +by the greatest of good fortune could he have the inestimable +advantage of surprise. + +Moreover, the enemy had been tremendously encouraged and emboldened by +the successful defense which they had offered to all the allied +assaults of the previous year. Their Mohammedan fanaticism had been +stirred by the Turkish, Austrian, and German press, and their pride +quickened by the thick crop of rumors that the Allies were finally +about to acknowledge defeat. + +In many places the French and British trenches were separated by less +than fifty yards from the Turkish defenders. In few cases were they +more than 500 yards distant. Furthermore, the Turkish positions +overlooked the allied troops, being in almost every case on higher +ground. And finally the Suvla Bay and Anzac regions, the points from +which the troops would have to be embarked, were all within artillery +range and often within rifle range of the enemy. + +Every effort was made by General Monro and his subordinate officers to +conduct the preparations for the embarkation of the troops in secret. +That is to say the exact day decided upon was kept a secret from all +except the highest officers. For it was not possible to keep from the +Turks entirely the knowledge of a complete withdrawal from the +Gallipoli Peninsula of the allied troops. Too much publicity had been +given to the whole discussion in France and England for that. + +Eventually, Monday, December 19, 1915, was decided upon for the +critical operation. With all possible secrecy a great fleet of +transports was gathered at Mudros Bay and, under the protection of +this fleet of warships--the strongest that had approached the +Gallipoli Peninsula since the arrival of the German submarines in the +neighborhood--sailed for Suvla Bay and Anzac Cove. + +It had been decided to remove the allied troops from these two bases +before attempting the perhaps more difficult task of getting the force +away from the Krithia region. Indeed, after the troops had been safely +extricated from the northern bases it was officially announced in +London that the Allies would continue to hold the base won in the +south. This proved, however, to be merely in the nature of a literary +demonstration to divert the attention of the none too credulous Turk +from the real purpose of the allied command. + +While the fleet of transports and warships was approaching the two +bases under cover of the night, the Australian and New Zealand troops +at Anzac and the British troops at Suvla were hastily preparing for +leaving. Among the colonial troops there was the keenest regret in +thus relinquishing what had been so hardly won at the price of so many +precious lives. To the Australians the operations at Anzac will always +remain one of the greatest, if not the very greatest military feat in +their history. To be sure they fought in numbers and with conspicuous +bravery throughout the Boer War; but Anzac was an operation all their +own, on a scale never before attempted by them as a distinct military +organization. They had won undying fame and unstinted praise from the +highest military authorities, and the success of the operation in that +part of the Gallipoli Peninsula had become a matter affecting their +pride. + +[Illustration: Operations at the Dardanelles.] + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV + +ABANDONMENT OF DARDANELLES--ARMENIAN ATROCITIES + + +Finally, by midnight of Sunday, all was ready. Just after that hour +the allied troops on shore at Anzac and Suvla Bay could see the dark +forms of the warships and the transports as they dropped anchor close +inshore. If they had listened attentively they might have heard the +soft splash of the hundreds of muffled oars as they slowly propelled +the ships' boats toward the beaches. + +On shore preparations were being made to repel a hurricane attack by +the Turks. For it was felt that as soon as the enemy got knowledge of +the contemplated withdrawal they would attack with unprecedented fury. + +But, though the British troops waited, the expected attack never came. +Finally, just after three o'clock in the morning, the Australians +exploded a large mine at Russell's Top, between the two systems of +trenches, and made a strong demonstration as if about to initiate a +big offensive. About eight o'clock the last of them were taken off. +Before these last men left they set fire to the stores that it had +been impossible to carry away. + +It was only then, apparently, that the Turks awoke to the real +progress of events. Immediately from every Turkish battery a hurricane +of shells was poured into the deserted Allies' base. Those within +range turned their fire upon the allied fleet, now swiftly +disappearing from sight in the thin haze. + +Highly significant, as showing the serious state of public opinion in +England during the closing days of the Dardanelles campaign, were the +published statements of E. Ashmead-Bartlett. Ashmead-Bartlett was in +the nature of an official eyewitness of the major part of the +operations at the Strait, although the British War Office took no +responsibility for his opinions or statements. It was at first +intended by the British authorities that there should be no newspaper +correspondents on the spot, but finally, as a concession to the +demands of the united press of Great Britain, it was agreed that one +man should be allowed on the scene and that his dispatches should be +syndicated among the papers sharing the expense of his work. +Ashmead-Bartlett was the man selected for the unique task. + +His dispatches from the Dardanelles were censored on the spot and +again in London, so they did not possess much information of direct +value. It was when he returned to London and was in a degree free from +restraint that he wrote frankly. His remarks are quoted in part +because they are the best, perhaps the only, unprejudiced opinion on +the operations from a British point of view. + +Writing in the middle of October, 1915, he strongly advised the +abandonment of the campaign, "which," he says, "if it ever had any +hope of success, now is completely robbed of it." In his opinion, +giving up the campaign would not hurt the Allies' prestige in the +Balkans, for the simple reason that their prestige had "been reduced +to nil" by the Foreign Office, loquacious politicians, and faulty +diplomacy. + +Speaking of the military operations at the Dardanelles, after paying +the highest tribute to the ability and the courage of the Turks, and +berating the British politicians who interfered with the General +Staff, he said: + +"Apart from the question that the conception is of doubtful paternity, +we committed every conceivable blunder in our methods of carrying out +the plan. Few minds were engaged that had any knowledge of the +character of the Turks' fighting qualities and the geography of the +country. Never before in this war has the situation been more serious. + +"Our boasted financial stamina in outlasting our opponents is going +fast to ruin in excessive expenditures in enterprises which, if they +ever had any hope of success, now have been finally robbed of all such +hope. + +"A good gambler, when he loses much, can afford to stop. He waits for +a turn in his luck and a fresh pack of cards, and clears off for +another table. The mad and headstrong gambler loses everything trying +to recoup, and has nothing left to make a fresh start elsewhere. +Which is England to be, the former or the latter?" + +It is natural that the Turkish people should have been jubilant over +the turn of events in Gallipoli and elsewhere. After the series of +defeats during the Balkan War the successes of the Great War against +such redoubtable opponents as France and England were all the more +inspiring. The final success in the Dardanelles had been predicted +some weeks before in the Turkish Parliament, and therefore was not +unexpected. In the last week in October, Halil Bey, president of the +Turkish Chamber of Deputies, declared: + +"At the time when the most serious engagements were taking place in +the Dardanelles and in Gallipoli, I was in Berlin. I was there able to +realize personally the feelings of high and sincere admiration +entertained by our allies for the extraordinary bravery with which +terrible attacks were repulsed by our armies. The German nation +publicly congratulated their Government, which, at a time when we were +despised by the smallest nations, was proud to sign an alliance with +us. That alliance carries with it obligations for the distant future, +and unites in a sincere and unshakable friendship three great armies +and three great nations. + +"The cannon which thundered on the Danube will soon be heard again in +greater force and will create in the Balkans an important sector in +connection with the war. After the reestablishment of communications, +which will take place within a brief space of time, our army will be +in a better position to fulfill its mission on all the fronts, and in +irresistible fashion. The hopes of the enemy are forever destroyed as +regards Constantinople and its straits, and can never be renewed." + +Extremely significant is one of the concluding paragraphs of his +speech in which he foreshadows economic developments after the war. In +view of the Allies' expressed intention of making an effort to boycott +German trade even after the signing of peace terms, the following +words of Halil Bey are illuminating and important: + +"The most important result of this war is that from the North Sea to +the Indian Ocean a powerful group will have been created that will be +ever in opposition to English egotism, which has been the cause of the +loss of millions of human lives and of thousands of millions in money, +and will act as a check on Russian pride, French _revanche_, and +Italian treachery. In order to secure this happy result the Turkish +nation will be proud to submit to every sort of sacrifice." The +president concluded his speech by eulogizing the memory of those who +had fallen in the war. + +Halil Bey's prediction of the reestablishment of communications with +the Central Powers was not long in being fulfilled. Within two weeks +the Germano-Austrian drive from the Danube had penetrated to Bulgarian +territory opposite the Rumanian frontier, and within another fortnight +it had linked up with the Bulgarian columns in the south operating +against Nish. For all practical purposes Serbia was in their hands, +and the powerful economic group heralded by Halil Bey was in the +process of completion. + +There is no doubt that the forging of this strong link with Berlin was +one of the main considerations in inducing the Allies to abandon the +Dardanelles campaign. There were two immensely important reasons why +this should have radically changed conditions in the Gallipoli +Peninsula. + +In the first place, there was the question of supplies. There are +three ways in which modern wars on a big scale can be won: by direct +military pressure, by financial pressure, or by economic stress. In +the case of the Allies' offensive against Turkey, after the first +disappointment of the naval military operations, it was confidently +predicted that economic stress would accomplish what military pressure +had failed to do. It was known that Turkey had but meager means of +making good the enormous expenditure of heavy-gun ammunition necessary +in modern battles. Indeed, as early as the big naval attempt to force +the Dardanelles, rumors were heard of a shortage of ammunition in the +Turkish forts, and in this connection it is interesting to print a +report that gained currency at the time of the abandonment of the +Anzac and Suvla Bay bases. + +Had the allied fleet returned to its attack upon the Dardanelles +batteries on the day following the great bombardment of March 19, +1915, the waterway to Constantinople would surely have been forced, in +the opinion of several artillery officers of the defense works near +Tchanak-Kalessi expressed to the Associated Press correspondent, who +had just reached Vienna. + +One of the principal batteries, it appeared, had for three of its +large caliber guns just four armor-piercing shells each when night +ended the tremendous efforts of the British and French fleet. + +For the fourth gun five shells were left, making for the entire +battery a total of seventeen projectiles of the sort which the +aggressors had to fear. What this meant is best understood when it is +considered that the battery in question was the one which had to be +given the widest berth by the allied fleet. + +During the evening of March 18, 1915, the correspondent talked with +several artillery officers from this battery. + +"Better pack up and be ready to quit at daybreak," said one of them. + +"Why?" he asked. + +"Oh, they are sure to get in to-morrow!" + +Then the officer stated his reasons. He was so certain that the +British and French would return in the morning to finish their task +that there was no question in his mind as to the propriety of +discussing the ammunition matter. + +"We'll hold out well enough to make them think that there is no end to +our supply of ammunition," he said, "but it can't be done if they go +about their work in real earnest. With our heavy pieces useless they +can reduce the batteries on the other shore without trouble. The case +looks hopeless. You had better take my advice." + +Following the advice thus given, the correspondent rose early next +morning and packed his few belongings, keeping, meanwhile, a watchful +eye on the tower of Kale-Sultanie, where the flag, showing that the +allied fleet was near, was usually hoisted. But the morning passed and +still the danger signal did not appear. Evidently the allied fleet was +not inclined to risk more such losses as those of the previous day, +when the _Bouvet_, _Irresistible_, and _Ocean_ went down and five +other ships were badly damaged. Yet even with the eleven remaining +ships, it appears from the Turkish admissions, the Dardanelles could +have been forced on March 19, 1915. + +The correspondent visited several of the batteries during the day. The +damage done the day before was slight indeed, consisting mostly of +large earth displacements from the parapets and traverses. Four guns +were temporarily out of commission, but the general shortage of +ammunition made these pieces negligible quantities anyway. + +Although the British information system in this field of operations +was efficient, it must have failed in this instance, for it seems +certain that with seventeen shells the battery in question would have +been easily disposed of, a channel could have been made through the +mine field, and the way to Constantinople would have been open. + +All this was realized in the Turkish capital. The court made +arrangements to transfer to Akhissar Anatolia, and the German and +Austro-Hungarian Embassies were ready to leave for this ancient seat +of the Ottoman Government. The families of many German officers in the +Turkish service left Constantinople. In short, everybody understood +that a calamity was pending. What its exact nature was but a few knew. + +Whatever truth there may have been in this particular story, there +seems to be little doubt that the Turks were woefully short of +ammunition. During the Balkan War it was reported on good authority +that much of their ammunition was defective. When countries like +France, England, and Russia hopelessly miscalculated the need of +ammunition for modern warfare, it is not asking too much of us to +believe that the Turks suffered in a worse degree. + +Without direct or indirect communication with Germany, it is easy to +imagine this condition of affairs getting steadily worse. At the +beginning of the war, there seems to be good evidence, large +quantities of all kinds of munitions and war supplies were rushed from +Germany to Constantinople by way of Rumania and Bulgaria, but it was +not long before the Rumanian Government, either of its own volition or +in the face of threats by the allied powers, refused to permit these +supplies to pass through her territory. + +It became evident to the Allies that sooner or later the Germans would +have to make an attempt to link up with the Turks. Thus, from one +point of view, the operations at the Dardanelles became a race against +Germany, with a common objective, Constantinople. Those who laid their +money on the allied horse were confident of winning, figuring that +long before the Germans were free of the French menace on the west and +south and the Russian menace on the east, and so in a position to +undertake an offensive against Serbia, the allied troops would have +forced the Dardanelles, vanquished the Ottoman troops before the gates +of Constantinople, and opened the Strait of the Dardanelles and the +Bosporus. + +So it was that when events did not transpire as expected, and the +allied troops were still hanging desperately to their bases on +Gallipoli Peninsula, when the Germans had subdued Serbia, and arrived +in triumph in the capital of the Ottoman Empire via the Berlin to +Constantinople Express, there was no longer any hope of starving the +Turkish guns nor, having even forced the Dardanelles, any certainty of +the capture of Constantinople. In other words, conditions had +radically changed, and, even with better chances of success than were +believed to exist, the game was no longer worth the candle. + +The second reason was that, with a neutral Bulgaria, the benefits to +the Allies of a successful offensive in the Dardanelles were obvious. +The forcing of the Strait, a combined naval and land attack upon +Constantinople, the driving of the Turk from Europe, and the insertion +of a firm defensive wedge between the empire of the Sultan and any +possible German offensive from the north, were objectives important +enough to justify almost any expenditure of money, men, and effort the +Allies might have made. + +But with the Turkish army linked up with a friendly Bulgaria, and +backed by a strong Austro-German force led by General Mackensen, the +conditions were changed to a state of hopelessness. An allied army +operating on the European side against Constantinople would be +dangerously flanked by the Bulgarian and Austro-Germans and hopelessly +outnumbered if limited to the force the Allies had been able to send +to the southeastern war area. + +Just how many men it was possible for Bulgaria and Turkey to put in +the field it is not possible to state definitely. It would be +reasonable to figure that they could by a great effort, after many +months of war, put at least twice their reputed war strength into the +ranks. The larger countries far exceeded such figures. Enver Pasha, at +the end of October, 1915, stated that Turkey had raised a total of +2,000,000 soldiers. Bulgaria, in a case of necessity, might possibly +have added another million, while Germany and Austria, at the time of +the operations against Serbia, demonstrated their ability to supply, +in action and in reserve, another 500,000 for this front. + +These are huge figures. There were many reasons why all these troops +could not be used against an allied offensive. It is not meant to +imply, for instance, that an allied offensive on a large scale, based +on Saloniki, is doomed to failure. The figures are quoted simply to +show the military conditions that made an offensive from the +Dardanelles hopeless in the circumstances that obtained at the end of +1915 and that weighed with the military authorities in London and +Paris in deciding upon a withdrawal from the Gallipoli Peninsula. + +Probably it will be a long time before the world has any accurate, +adequate idea of the terrible disaster that overtook British prestige +and allied troops in their year's attempt to force the Strait. +Official figures announced by Premier Asquith speak of more than +100,000 troops killed, wounded, or missing, but these total figures +took account of the sick, who reached an extraordinary high total. +Lack of drinking water, the difficulty of keeping the troops supplied +with food, the intense heat, and the fact that the men engaged were +unused to the climatic conditions, combined to lay low thousands upon +thousands of men not mentioned in the restricted casualty lists. An +estimate of another hundred thousand put out of action, temporarily +or permanently, by sickness is not unreasonable. + +Thus 200,000 men, six battleships and smaller war vessels, enormous +stores and millions of dollars' worth of ammunitions were the price +Britain paid to discover that the Dardanelles were impregnable even to +British battleships and British endurance. And who shall estimate the +loss of vital prestige, the waste of fine efforts at a time when it +was so much needed elsewhere? Some future historian, with all the +facts in his possession, with the saving perspective that only time +can give, will have a fascinating subject for discussion in this +Dardanelles campaign, destined to go down into history as one of the +most spectacular and daring in the annals of warfare. + +It was not until some weeks later that the outside world began to hear +rumors of the dire predicament of the Armenians under Turkish rule. In +their case, as in that of the French and British who were to be sent +to the Dardanelles, Mr. Morgenthau finally intervened with effect. + +It had always been recognized that the elements of serious trouble +existed in the districts of Asiatic Turkey populated by the Armenians. +In the days of Sultan Abdul Hamid there had been frequent massacres by +the Turks, following outbreaks of racial and religious strife. The +Armenians had not been easy people to govern, and a constant and deep +hatred existed between them and their rulers. + +With the coming of the Young Turks the lot of the unhappy Armenians +had apparently bettered. Indeed, at the time of the outbreak of war, +one of two special European inspectors, specially appointed to watch +over the administration of the six provinces of Asiatic Turkey in +which the Armenians lived, was actually on his way to his post. + +Of course the war changed the entire situation and made the position +of the Armenian population a precarious one. All hope of reform for +the moment was banished and the old hatred, of which it was hoped the +world had heard the last, was revived and intensified by the passions +aroused by the entrance of Turkey into the struggle. + +Nor were the Armenians content to await their fate. In several +important instances they took matters into their own hands. It was, +perhaps quite natural that many of them, especially those who lived +near the Russian frontier, should sympathize with Russia. + +Early in April of 1915, a considerable force of Armenians in the city +of Van collected and resisted the attempts of Turkish gendarmes to +apply the terms of an order banishing certain of their number +suspected of Russian or anti-Turk sympathies. In such force were they +that they actually, with the help of Russian troops, captured the +city. + +With the Van revolt Talaat Bey, the powerful Turkish Minister of the +Interior, determined upon a ruthless policy of repression, and it was +largely due to efforts to put that policy in force that there resulted +the subsequent massacre of Armenians that shocked the world. It is +difficult for anyone not in possessions of the actual facts to +apportion an exact measure of blame for these bloody reprisals; and in +the following account, it must be remembered, we are compelled at this +juncture to rely almost entirely upon English and Russian, and +therefore biased, information. + +The district covered by the massacre, in which it has been said +1,000,000 Armenians (probably a gross exaggeration) were killed, were +Eastern Anatolia, Cilicia, and the Anti-Taurus regions. It is said +that at Marsovan, where there is an American college, the Armenians +early in June were ordered to meet outside the town. They were +surrounded and 1,200 of their number killed by an infuriated mob. +Thousands of the rest were hurled into northern Mesopotamia. + +At Bitlis and Mush, in the Lake Van district, it is reported that +12,000 were killed and several Armenian villages entirely wiped out. + +As has been pointed out, the Armenians of some districts did not sit +still and wait to be massacred. At Shaben Karahissar in northeastern +Anatolia, within a hundred miles of Trebizond, the Armenian population +held the town for a short time against Turkish troops. Finally they +were overcome and 4,000 are said to have been killed. At Kharput, a +hundred and twenty-five miles southwest of Erzerum, the Armenians held +the town for a whole week, but were finally overcome by troops and +artillery. In many of the districts the able-bodied men of the +Armenian population have been drafted into the labor battalions for +military work at the front and at the bases. The men too old for this +class of work, and yet suspected of agitating against Turkish rule, +were exiled into districts where their powers for harm would be nil. + +It must not be assumed because of these accounts that the Turkish +Government gave its unqualified approval of these massacres. +Undoubtedly Talaat Bey adopted a deliberately ruthless policy in +dealing with all cases of actual or suspected revolt. But it is a far +cry from a systematic, intelligent policy of frightfulness to an +indiscriminate massacre. + +Protests against these massacres were not confined to the outside +world. Many influential personages in Turkey openly protested, and in +some notable cases conscientious and brave officials actually refused +to obey the demands of the Constantinople authorities and hand over +Armenian subjects or assist in their exile. + +Again in this case, as in that of the proposal of Enver Pasha to send +a large number of allied citizens to the bombardment area of Gallipoli +as a reprisal, it was Mr. Morgenthau, the American Ambassador at +Constantinople, who followed up his protest by real action. He threw +himself heart and soul into the work of softening the lot of the +unfortunate Armenians. Of course he had to move warily in order not to +offend the pride of the Turkish authorities, but working through the +American Consular officials stationed throughout Turkey and through +the American missionaries and teachers working among the Armenian and +Turkish people he undoubtedly saved the lives of thousands of men, +women, and children, while other thousands undoubtedly owe to his zeal +their escape from exile or starvation. + +It was due largely to the publicity given to these deplorable +happenings in the American press that the attention of the world was +drawn to Asiatic Turkey and the conditions there, resulting in action +by the Turkish Government that effectively put a stop, for the moment +at least, to the persecution of an unhappy people. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV + +CAMPAIGN IN CAUCASUS--FALL OF ERZERUM + + +The fall of 1915 and the early winter of 1915 were periods of feverish +activity behind the lines in the Caucasus. A severe winter held up any +active operations of consequence on the part of either belligerents, +but both knew that with the coming of better conditions their +defensive and offensive organizations would be put to severe tests. + +On the part of the Russians the Caucasus front became at the time one +of prime importance. Not excepting even the Balkan frontier, to Russia +the Turkish line was of more importance than any other on which her +army was aligned. In the first place, of all her frontier that running +through the Caucasus promised the best return for the least +expenditure of effort, time, money, and men. Against both Germany, in +the north, and Germany-stiffened Austria in Galicia and the +Carpathians, Russia had had severe reverses. The czar's staff, through +grim experience, realized the tremendous difficulties that confronted +them on these two fronts. Turkey, ill prepared, lacking superlative +military leaders, without organization, and barely recovered from the +terrible effects of the Balkan wars, appeared to be an easy opponent, +comparatively speaking, despite the frightful difficulties of large +military operations in the roadless and railless mountain passes of +the Trans-caucasus. + +[Illustration: The Turkish Empire.] + +Furthermore, the military pressure was becoming steadily easier on +Russia. The great German drive was drawing to its close. With its +front established in a straight line from just south of Riga on the +north, to the Rumanian frontier on the south, the Austro-German army +decided to abandon the offensive for the time being and be content +with holding that front; and devote its energies to the Serbian and +French theatres of war. This promised to provide a very welcome +breathing spell for Russia, permitting her to reorganize her military +forces, remedy her deplorable shortage of munitions and incidentally +to turn her attentions to the Turks. + +Finally, once in the war, the whole of Russian official opinion tended +toward a settlement, once and for all, of her age-long dream of +Constantinople. The consolidation of the Balkans on a Slav, +pro-Russian basis, important as it appeared to be and furnishing the +ostensible causes of the war, was but incidental to the Russian +dominion over and control of Constantinople, the gate to the warm +waters of the Mediterranean. + +From the viewpoint of the Entente Powers as a whole there were cogent +reasons why a Russian offensive against the Turkish Caucasus front +would be highly desirable. It would, for instance, relieve the +pressure, not only on the Gallipoli front, but as well on the British +forces in Mesopotamia. In the latter field, of course, Great Britain, +with a miniature army of not more than 40,000, was attempting to reach +Bagdad, but was being hard pressed by the Ottoman forces. Furthermore, +an eventual junction of the Russian columns from the Caucasus and the +British troops from the Persian Gulf, and the establishment of an +impregnable line, would provide against any future drive of a +German-Austro-Turkish army toward India. + +These, then, were the considerations that influenced the preparations +for a resumption of the Russian offensive against Erzerum and beyond, +which had been more or less quiescent since the smashing defeat of the +Turkish army on the frontier in December, 1914. + +Undoubtedly this state of affairs had much to do with the transfer of +the Grand Duke Nicholas to the Caucasus command when it became +apparent that the German offensive in the north was nearing its +finish. With masterly skill the Russian commander in chief had +withdrawn his huge army in the face of a victorious and highly +efficient enemy, not, to be sure, without serious losses, but +certainly without permitting his long front to be really broken or his +forces utterly defeated. It was felt in Russia that he, of all men +developed by the war, was the one to organize and initiate the +proposed operations in the Caucasus. + +It was early in the month of September, 1915, September 5 to be +precise, that the czar issued his famous order relieving the Grand +Duke Nicholas of his command in the north and transferring him to the +Caucasus. Taking with him a number of the higher officers who had been +with him through the trying months on the Warsaw front, the Grand Duke +Nicholas immediately journeyed south and took over the command of the +Russian forces in that theatre of war. + +It was not long before there were to be seen many evidences of the +arrival of a commander with energy and determination. Despite the +lamentable shortage of munitions known to exist in Russia, guns, +shells, rifles, provisions, and stores of all kinds were rapidly +accumulated at the main Caucasus base and from there distributed to +the points along the line of advance into Turkey. Many of these +supplies of all kinds, provisions as well as munitions of war, came +from the United States by way of the Siberian port of Vladivostok and +even by way of Archangel, although that port was, in most cases, +reserved for British shipments. From Vladivostok the American +shipments were carried over the 6,000 miles of the great +Trans-Siberian railway to Petrograd and from there continued on their +long and slow journey to the Caucasus front. + +Among the endless stream of supplies were many special and ingenious +conveyances for transporting guns, provisions, and soldiers over the +otherwise impassable snows of this terrible region. It was necessary, +to insure success, that by some means hitherto unknown to military +transportation guns weighing tons should be moved about the trackless, +roadless country almost like playthings. Only thus could a commander +hope to secure that preponderance of heavy gunfire without which the +modern offensive is doomed to defeat or stalemate. + +By the beginning of February, 1916, all was ready for the Russian +advance upon Erzerum. To begin with, the Turks were known to be +busily occupied in other fields. The British forces in Mesopotamia, +although held up at Kut-el-Amara, and known to be in sore straits, +were in daily expectation of strong reenforcements. The campaign +against Bagdad, which had been originally undertaken by the Indian +army, had proved too big a task for that relatively small +organization, and the conduct of that campaign was taken over by the +imperial military authorities in Great Britain, who have larger +militant forces at their disposal than those possessed by the Indian +Government. + +Aside from this fear of strong reenforcements, the Turkish commanders +were straining every effort to capture the British force shut up in +Kut-el-Amara, and thus secure a great victory that could not fail to +have far-reaching military and political effects both in Turkey and +throughout the whole warring world. For this reason every unit of +troops that could be possibly spared from other fields was rushed to +Bagdad and thrown into the field against General Townshend's sorely +pressed command awaiting relief at Kut-el-Amara. + +Furthermore, although the pressure on the Gallipoli front had been +relaxed through the practical abandonment by the allied troops of the +attempt to force the Dardanelles, with the entrance of the Bulgarians +into the war and the prosecution of the offensive against Serbia a new +need had been found for Turkish troops. For the Bulgarian and Serbian +development had brought the Allies in ever-increasing strength to +Saloniki. The Allies at the Greek port were a constant potential +menace to Turkey, as well as to Bulgaria, and through the Entente +press were running constant rumors of a coming offensive directed at +Constantinople "through the back door," as it was called. + +To be sure the allied forces at Saloniki, beyond a half-hearted +effort, with but a fraction of their numbers to assist the escape of +the Serbian army from the menace of the Austro-German-Bulgarian +pincers that threatened it on three sides, had made no move to carry +the war to the Bulgarian or Turkish enemy. Yet Turkey found it +necessary to keep constantly at Constantinople, or in the country +immediately to the north and in close touch with the Bulgarian forces, +an army estimated at at least 200,000 men. + +In other words, the Turkish General Staff could withdraw few if any of +the men concentrated about Constantinople at the beginning of the war +to fill the enormous gaps made in her line on other fronts. Indeed, +she had need to add to them to offset the extraordinary number of men +who were constantly being poured into Saloniki by France and England +until, in the early spring, their total was variously estimated at +from 250,000 to 350,000 men of all services. + +It was in these circumstances, then, that the Grand Duke Nicholas +ordered the advance upon Erzerum. They go far to explain the events of +the subsequent few weeks in and about the great Turkish Caucasian +fortress town. + +Russian forces had, during the three months immediately preceding the +big offensive, prepared the way by the capture of points from which +the grand attack was to be launched. In command of the czar's troops +was General Judenich, although the Grand Duke Nicholas was officially +responsible for operations on this front. General Judenich had devoted +years of his life to a study of the special problems attending an +offensive in the Kars-Erzerum regions and carried through his task +with a skill and an expedition that have hardly their equal in the +history of the war. + +The advance of the Russian forces upon Erzerum was made from three +points. It is well for the reader to keep this constantly in mind. It +was an application of the principle of the pincers, combined with a +great frontal attack, used so often and so successfully by the Germans +in their Russian drive. It adds tremendously to the difficulties of a +commander battling to defend a big position. Nowadays, under the new +conditions of warfare, fortresses or other positions are not defended +to the end. They are held just as long as it is safe for the army +within to hold out. But a commander must on no account endanger his +force. Discretion is more than ever the better part of valor, and "he +who fights and runs away, lives to fight another day," is the guiding +principle of the general of modern times. + +Now this triple menace, striking not only on the front but on both +sides and menacing the roads by which a defeated army must retreat, +seriously weakens the defense which an army within a fortress can +make. It was just such an operation or series of operations that +carried the tremendously strong fortress of Antwerp in record time, +that accounted for the surprising fall of Namur in two days, and that +explains the rapidity with which a score of almost impregnable Russian +fortresses in Poland fell before the rush of the German avalanche. + +The triple Russian thrust at Erzerum was made from Olty, which had +been captured as far back as August 3, 1915, along the Kars-Erzerum +road by way of Sarikamish, the scene of the great Turkish defeat of +the early days of the war, and from Melazghert and Khynysskala. + +Erzerum was undoubtedly one of the strongest positions in the Turkish +Empire, although the experience of the war had tended to detract from +previous confidence in the strength of old-style concrete forts when +attacked by concentrated big-gun bombardment. Opinions differ on the +question of whether or not the Erzerum armament had been maintained up +to a modern standard. But as regards the number of its guns, and the +size and number of its individual forts, there are no two opinions. + +Its eighteen separate positions encircling the city in two rings, +defended by concrete forts, would, under ordinary conditions, have +made it virtually impregnable. One count mentions as many as 467 big +guns in the outer forts, 374 in the inner forts, and 200 more or less +mobile fieldpieces scattered about the country intervening. Although +this was an early Russian report, issued in the delirium of national +joy that followed the capture of the fortress, and should be +considerably discounted, nevertheless, Erzerum boasted a plentiful +supply of big guns, few if any of which were taken away by the fleeing +Turkish army, although the majority of them were probably rendered +useless at the last moment. According to Entente information, among +these guns were 300 of the very latest pattern Krupp pieces, but on +the other hand, according to German information, the fortress boasted +no guns less than twenty years old. Arguing from the known shortage of +big guns in Turkey and the fact that of late years other fronts have +been of prime importance and have undoubtedly received what fresh +ordnance the army was able to purchase and secure, it does not seem +likely that much modern equipment was found in the Caucasus fortress +by the Russian victors. + +Quickly the three Russian forces converged upon Erzerum. Finally, +driving outlying Turkish forces before them, in the second week of +February, 1916, they were in touch with the outer defenses of the +great fortress. It was rumored at this time that both Von der Goltz +and Liman von Sanders, the two high German commanders, lent by the +kaiser to Turkey, were in Erzerum superintending the defense and, +furthermore, that huge Turkish reenforcements were covering the 200 +miles from the nearest railway head by forced marches in an effort to +arrive at the fortress and prevent its encircling and isolation by the +Russians. Both of these reports, however, ultimately were proved to be +figments of the active imaginations of local correspondents. + +The Turkish plan of campaign for the defense of Erzerum, according to +official Russian sources, was as follows: The Third Army Corps, which +had been ordered up to replace the losses in the Caucasus front of the +previous nine months, was moved out of Erzerum and took up a position +between that town and the Russian front. The Ninth and Tenth Corps +moved out toward Olty to form an offensive ring, while the Eleventh +Corps was to hold the Russian offensive on the Kars-Erzerum road. In +case the Russians in the last named region were too strong for the +Eleventh Corps to hold, it was to fall back slowly on the fortress of +Erzerum, drawing the army of the Grand Duke Nicholas with it. When +this movement had progressed sufficiently, the Ninth and Tenth Corps +were to attack energetically on the flank. + +Unfortunately for the success of this plan, although the Eleventh +Corps performed its function and drew the Russian army with it in its +retreat toward Erzerum, the Ninth and Tenth Corps suffered a reverse +and were compelled to fall back also. Similarly, the Third Corps was +compelled to yield before superior numbers and barely escaped +envelopment. + +Naturally, there is considerable difference of opinion as to the +question of numbers involved in these operations. It seems to be +fairly well established, however, that the Russians used, roughly, +eight army corps, or slightly more than 300,000 men. Eight corps are +known to have been at the disposal of the grand duke, but a small +portion of his force was at the same time engaged in an expedition +into northern Persia, so that the round figures given would seem to be +conservative. + +Although but four Turkish corps are mentioned, it is known that the +Ottoman command had at its disposal considerable numbers of Kurds, +Persians, Arabs, and other irregular troops, as well as several units +not specifically mentioned in the official accounts. Thus the estimate +of 180,000 to 200,000 men would not seem to be out of the way. + +While the thrusts from the northeast and southeast were fighting their +way toward the flanks of Erzerum, the Russian troops advancing along +the Kars-Erzerum road, driving the Eleventh Corps before them, made a +fierce frontal assault upon the outer forts of the town. + +In this connection it would be well to examine more minutely the +conditions that confronted the Russian commander. Erzerum is situated +on a plateau some 6,000 feet above sea level, and the key forts had +been placed on high ground commanding the surrounding country. However +well the Russian transport department had done its work, the Russian +supply of heavy artillery could not have been overwhelming in the +sense that heavy guns were overwhelming on other fronts. There could, +therefore, have been no condition of affairs where the infantry was +called upon simply to occupy positions previously shattered by +gunfire. Indeed, the best opinions agree that little or no real damage +was done by the artillery to the Erzerum forts and that the infantry +had to advance against practically intact defenses. Yet, after five +days of fierce assault, the hardy Siberian troops of General +Judenich's army carried nine of the outlying forts and forced the +evacuation of the entire fortress. + +There can be but one explanation of this astonishing result. It is +hardly possible for any troops to take a position like Erzerum by +direct assault. The fortress successfully resisted all Russian +attempts to capture it in the Russo-Turkish War, although then far +less strong than in 1916. Some foreign military critics have tried to +explain the puzzling facts by claiming that the well-known bravery +and tenacity of the Turk on defense, shown all through his history and +never more evident than in the Gallipoli campaign, was, for some +unknown reason, totally lacking at Erzerum. Such claims, however, do +not hold water. + +Erzerum was evacuated simply because of a menace to the Turkish lines +of communication and the danger of isolation. However well provisioned +the fortress might have been--and its stores were vast, for it was the +chief supply and provisioning center for the whole Turkish military +organization in Asia Minor--it could not hope to withstand an +indefinite siege. The Turkish high command would not view with +equanimity the bottling up of close upon 200,000 of its first-line +troops. With the example of Przemysl, and Metz in 1870 in its mind, it +decided upon a, perhaps, temporary abandonment of the position +immediately it became apparent that the Russian advance from the +northeast and southeast could not be successfully opposed by the +troops available. + +Furthermore, the defense of the fortress was weakened by the condition +of the country over which the Turkish army had to retreat in any +retirement from Erzerum. It is no simple matter to transport a +defeated army, with its supplies, enormous guns, ammunition, and other +impedimenta, even with an efficient railway organization at its back. +It is comparatively easy, then, to imagine some of the difficulties +that confronted the Turkish command. From Erzerum to the nearest +railhead is something like 200 miles. A blinding snowstorm was raging +and the temperature was hovering around 25 degrees below zero. Few +roads, and those almost impassable at that season of the year, must +supply all the needs of scores of thousands of men and thousands of +animals, carts, trucks, guns, carriages, etc. + +[Illustration: The Russian Advance on Turkey in Armenia.] + +The retreat of the Turkish forces from Erzerum, resembling a rout in +its inevitable haste and confusion, had to be made in the face of a +victorious enemy and, menaced by superior forces on both flanks, under +terrific weather conditions and through roadless and highly broken +country. After a preliminary artillery bombardment of the Turkish +forts on the southeast front of the city, the Russian infantry began +to assault Fort Kara Gubek. Finally this was carried and then fell +in quick succession Forts Tafta and Chobandede, six miles south on the +commanding and important Deyer Boyum Heights. By February 15, 1916, +the Russians were masters of the city and fortress. + +At first it was supposed in the allied countries that the Turkish army +had been trapped in the fortress and more or less authoritative +accounts spoke of the surrender of 180,000 Turkish troops. These +accounts were circumstantial enough. Several days before the news of +the fall of Erzerum came through there appeared stories of the +envelopment of the city. It soon became known, however, that less than +17,000 troops had been taken with the abandoned forts--merely a rear +guard left behind to delay the onward sweep of the Russians and give +the retreating Turkish army a chance to put a few miles between it and +its pursuers. + +If the country to the west of Erzerum was rugged and difficult for the +retiring Turk, it also followed that it was not only difficult for the +pursuing Russians, but also offered many opportunities for a stern +resistance. Thus it was not astonishing to learn that the Russians had +little chance of following up their success at Erzerum. The Turkish +army, largely intact, made good its escape across Armenia, followed by +the troops of the Grand Duke Nicholas, much to the chagrin of allied +public opinion, which had hoped for a smashing victory such as the +fall of Przemysl, or Metz in 1870, or Plevna in 1877. + +The grand duke decided to advance with the right of his army on +Trebizond, the Turkish supply base on the Black Sea. Turkey was known +to be hurrying reenforcements to this town in the hope of preventing +its capture by the Russians. It became a race across difficult country +and, although Petrograd and London reports confidently predicted the +success of the Russians, in the end the Turks were able to bring up +strong enough forces to prevent its capture, for the time being at +least. + +It is difficult to measure with any accuracy the political results of +the success of the Russians at Erzerum, for the political results far +outweighed the military. In a general way it can be said that it had +little or no effect upon the Balkans, and upon Mohammedan opinion +throughout the East, merely serving to offset in a small measure the +effects of the allied withdrawal from the Dardanelles. On the other +hand, it had a tremendously important effect upon the situation in +Persia. In that kingdom, just prior to the Russian offensive, there +were many evidences that affairs were ripe for a rising of the local +tribes against the Russians in occupation of the northern zone of +influence. Indeed, at the very time the grand duke gave his orders for +the advance upon Erzerum he was compelled to detach troops for +operations in Persia. This force advanced against a body numbering +about 2,000, made up of Turks, Persians, and some Germans, and +finally, after some small fighting, occupied the Persian towns of +Hamadan, Kurn, and Kermanshah. + +Even with these successes there was great difficulty in controlling +the Persians, who had gained courage through the defeat of the British +in Mesopotamia and in Gallipoli. However, the capture of Erzerum and +the rout of the Turks had a quieting effect, for the time being at +least. + + + + +PART IX--ITALY IN THE WAR + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI + +REVIEW OF PRECEDING OPERATIONS--ITALIAN MOVEMENTS + + +A retrospect of the Austro-Italian struggle, taken from the vantage +point afforded by nine months of fighting, revealed what was intended +to be a campaign of invasion as developing all the characteristics of +trench warfare. Following shortly on the declaration of war by Italy, +General Cadorna deployed the whole of the Italian Third Army on the +right bank of the Isonzo between Tolmino and Monfalcone, and carried +out a vigorous offensive in order to gain a secure footing on the left +bank--an antecedent condition to further operations eastward. Italian +troops crossed the river at five different points, Caporetto, Plava, +Castelnuovo, Gradisca, and Monfalcone. Considering the immense +strength of the Austrian defenses this was considered a good start. +Along the thirty-mile front from Tolmino to the sea there is a +continuous wall of defensive works, flanked on the north by the +fortified position of Tolmino, and on the south by the formidable +Carso Plateau, while Gorizia constitutes the central Austrian _point +d'appui_, having been converted into a modern fortress with a girdle +of exterior forts supplemented by advanced batteries provided by +armored cars on which the latest types of howitzers are mounted. All +that military science could do to render this iron barrier impregnable +had been done, and the Italians from the first had a hard struggle in +their attacks on it. + +While regular siege operations were being carried on against Tolmino +and Gorizia, the Italians were putting forth great efforts to secure +possession of the Carso Plateau, which dominates the rail and carriage +road between Monfalcone and Trieste, as well as the Isonzo Valley up +to Gorizia. The plateau had to be completely occupied before any +advance could be made along the coast road into Istria and before +Gorizia could be attacked from the south. Two months after the +declaration of war the Italians, who by that time were in possession +of the bridgehead at Sagrada, stormed with great gallantry several +lines of trenches on the summit of the western face of the plateau, +and captured two thousand prisoners with a large quantity of war +material. They followed up this success by an infantry attack, +supported by a large number of heavy and field guns. Farther north +another army operated against Tarvis along two routes, one of which +goes over the Pontafel Pass and is traversed by the railroad running +between Vienna and Venice, while the other is a coach road leading +from Plezzo over the Predil Pass to the Save Valley. The progress of +the Italian columns was checked at Malborgeth, where the Austrians had +constructed a chain of permanent forts, while along the coach road an +equally strong group of forts covering the Predil Pass blocked the +way. A further offensive was directed across the Carnic Alps by way of +the Kreuzberg Pass down the Seoten Valley to Innichen and Toblach on +the Pusterthal railway. Formidable works had been constructed at +Seoten and Lambeo, covering the approaches to the railroad, and on +these the Italians opened a furious bombardment for the purpose of +clearing a way into the Drave Valley. The object aimed at here was +very clear to the Austrians, for when the railroad was reached +communication along the Pusterthal between the Adige and Isonzo would +be cut, and the Austrian position on the Trentino turned. This was the +position in August, 1915, when the Italians were exerting pressure on +the Austrians for the further purpose of diverting troops from the +Russian frontier, where was being carried on the greatest offensive +known to history. + +During August, 1915, a continuous night and day battle was waged on +the Isonzo frontier for the possession of the Carso Plateau. Gorizia, +with its circle of outlying forts, proved itself practically +unavailable from either the north or west, for two fortified heights, +Monte Sabatino, on the right bank, and Monte Gabrielle on the left +bank, of the Isonzo River, stood sentry over the town on the north, +while the plateau of Podgora, which is a perfect labyrinth of deep, +intercommunicating trenches, barred the approach to the town from the +west. A determined and carefully prepared attack was made by a large +Italian force on Podgora, but though ten regiments were sent against +the position they failed to get through. In another movement the +troops of General Cadorna were successful in obtaining a firm footing +on the western face of the Carso Plateau, occupying Sdraissima, +Polazzo, Vermegbano, and Monte Sei Bussi, which overlooks Monfalcone. +Finding, however, that the Austrians had been strongly reenforced, +General Cadorna abandoned his storming tactics, and began advancing +along the plateau by the slower methods of siege operations. From the +beginning, both Italians and Austrians recognized the Carso Plateau as +the key to Gorizia, and around it have been waged some of the +bitterest conflicts of the war. + +During September, 1915, General Cadorna was able to report progress +all along the front occupied, and especially on the Trentino frontier, +where Italian troops moved along the three main routes which converge +on the Adige Valley from the Italian plain. The route taken was +through the Val Giudicaria on the western face of the Trentino +salient, up the Adige on the south side, and along the Val Sugano on +the eastern front. The Val Giudicaria is the highway into the Tyrol +from Brescia, and on either side of it are fortified positions nearly +the whole way to Trent. During the first week of the war the Italians, +taking the Austrians by surprise, seized Condino by a coup de main, +and compelled the Austrian garrison to fall back on the second line of +defense higher up the valley. Then the Italian troops began to secure +the position gained by constructing defensive works covering the road +approaches to Brescia, and linking these up with other defensive +positions extending along the entire front from the Stelvio pass to +Lake Garda. Simultaneously with the occupation of Condino, an Italian +force, based on Verona, moved up both banks of the Adige, crossed the +Austrian frontier near Borghetto, and seized Ala with hardly any +opposition. Continuing their offensive the Italians then seized Monte +Altissimo and its northern spurs, which command the railroad between +Riva and Rovereto, and at the same time occupied the important +position of Gori Zugra, which is four miles north of Ala, and flanks +the Rovereto road. From there on advance was subsequently made to +Pozzachio, an unfinished fort eight miles from Rovereto, which was +abandoned by the Austrians as soon as the Italian offensive began to +develop. Another force then moved up the Val Astico from Asiero, and +succeeded in storming the Austrian positions on Monte Maronia, whence +the Italians threatened the main defenses of Rovereto on the +Lavaone-Folgaria Plateau. Rovereto is at the junction of three +mountain roads leading into Italy in this locality, and has a +strategical importance second only to that of Trent. Its occupation +was recognized from the start as a necessary preliminary to advanced +operations up the Adige. The third Italian column, directed against +Trent, moved up the Brenta along the Val Sugana, and in September, +1915, its advanced guards, operating right and left of the valley, +reached Monte Salubion on the north and Monte Armenderia on the south +of Borgo. These heights command the town of Borgo, but as the +inhabitants are all Italians, the place was not occupied lest this +should lead to its bombardment by the Austrian artillery. The Austrian +commander, however, did not spare the town, which had been repeatedly +bombarded by the guns north of Ronegno. Borgo is only eighteen miles +from Trent and its investment by Italian troops brought them almost +within striking distance of the great Tyrol fortress. + +During November and December, 1915, a series of most desperate +attempts were made by the troops under General Cadorna to storm the +bridgehead of Gorizia and establish a firm footing on the Doberdo +Plateau. This plateau, which acts as the citadel for the more extended +position of the Carso, rises from 350 to 650 feet above the level of +the valley, and dominates all the approaches to Gorizia. Monte San +Michele, which is a ridge on the north side of the plateau, and rises +in one place to 900 feet above sea level, is the key to the whole +position; and round it there was a continuous sanguinary hand-to-hand +fight, the Italians sometimes gaining the advantage, and at other +times the Austrians. Against this position General Cadorna +concentrated 1,500 guns, some of them 14-and 15-inch howitzers, and +naval guns. A tremendous artillery duel, interspersed with infantry +attacks, thus set in, and for a long time the fate of Gorizia trembled +in the balance. But the advantage of position and the systematic +preparation of long years told heavily on the side of the Austrians, +who had defended the town with a determination and courage equal to +that of their adversaries. General Boroevich had all along had general +charge of the Isonzo defenses, while the Archduke Joseph, who held the +Dukla Pass for so many weeks against the Russian attacks, succeeded to +the command of the corps holding the Doberdo Plateau. Meanwhile the +Italian troops were achieving successes elsewhere. They occupied +during the month of November, 1915, Bezzecea in the Ledro Valley, and +took possession of Col di Lava (8,085 feet) in the Dolomite district. + +This was roughly the position from the military point of view on the +various Austro-Italian fronts toward the close of the year, when the +obstacles facing the Italian forces began to be appreciated by the +outside world. It was by that time generally recognized that, though +the Italians outnumbered the Austro-Hungarian troops, and but few +reserves were available to reenforce General Boroevich, the Austrian +defenses were enormously strong, and could only be captured after a +heavy sacrifice of life and an unlimited expenditure of artillery +ammunition. No mere study of the map can convey any true idea of the +difficulties to be overcome before the Austrian positions in the +Dolomites and Carnic Alps could be captured. For such a survey could +give no indication of the huge guns mounted on the very summit of +snow-clad peaks, or the lines of armored trenches stretching +uninterruptedly from the Stelvio to the Isonzo. In the mountain +warfare that had to be undertaken amidst the terrific heights, +progress by either side could all but be reckoned by yards. The +convoys had to plod up and down precipitous mountain sides. Instead of +the fighting taking place in valleys and passes, as many thought, the +positions and even the trenches were revealed as frequently on the +very summits of almost inaccessible peaks and crags, often above the +snow line. At high altitudes the few observers admitted on either side +saw artillery of a caliber usually associated with defensive works at +sea level. The intrepidity required in operations over such a terrain +is illustrated by the Italian capture of Monte Vero, when a battalion +of Alpini ascended barefooted the precipitous face of the mountain in +the middle of the night and stormed the Austrian position on the +summit. In such enterprises youth and enthusiasm were found the best +assets. The Alpine troops of Italy are recruited from mountain +populations, whose hearts and lungs, accustomed to high altitudes, can +well bear the strain of mountain fighting. + +On the lower Isonzo front the character of the operations has somewhat +recalled the aspect of the fighting area and the troop movements in +France. Here low foothills and undulating plains predominate. There +was on the Isonzo front, however, an absence of the horrors of war in +the shape of devastated towns, villages, and countryside, with which +the world has become familiar in illustrations from Belgium and +northern France. + +Over no field of operations was the veil of official secrecy more +securely held than over the events proceeding on the Austro-Italian +front. Newspaper men were rigorously excluded from the area over which +martial law prevailed and the official communiques seldom erred on the +side of perspicuity. This procedure gave rise to a widespread +impression that the Italian forces had been largely marking time. The +brilliant dash into the Isonzo Valley and the capture of Austrian +positions in the Trentino which were chronicled during the months of +June and July, 1915, marked an advance which was not equaled by any +achievements in the months that followed. Nevertheless, a detailed +study of the changes in position during that time show that the +Italians were drilling their path forward with unflagging +determination. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII + +ITALY'S RELATIONS TO THE OTHER WARRING NATIONS + + +Meanwhile, events of a most startling character were taking place +close to the Italian frontier, every one of them big with consequence +to Italy's vital interests. The conquest of Serbia by the forces of +Germany and Austria-Hungary under General von Mackensen was begun and +completed in two months. On October 14, 1915, Bulgaria declared war +against the Allies and immediately attacked Serbia from the south, +cooperating with the Austro-German forces with whom direct +communication was established toward the end of November, 1915. A +belated French-British expedition landed at Saloniki for the purpose +of lending aid to harassed Serbia, but the forces, which were united +under the command of the French General, Sarrail, were capable of +achieving little. After coming into contact with the Bulgarians they +began on November 27, 1915, to retire to their base at Saloniki, with +Irish troops covering their retreat. The conquest of Montenegro +followed that of Serbia. The much-coveted strategic position of Mount +Lovcen, commanding the Bocca di Cattaro, was captured by the Austrians +on January 10, 1916, while the capital, Cettinje, was likewise +occupied three days later. Farther east, the ill-starred Dardanelles +venture was coming to a disastrous end. Evacuation of the Gallipoli +Peninsula by the forces of Britain and France began in December, 1915, +the last soldiers of these two powers leaving Sedd-el-Bahr on January +7, 1916. + +It was expected that Italy would take a prominent part in the series +of events which had taken place on these various fields. More than +once the message was sent round the world that a well-equipped Italian +expedition had left for the Dardanelles. It was considered certain +that Italy would lend her assistance to the forces landed at Saloniki, +and thus aid in preventing the overrunning of Montenegro, which could +not but constitute a direct menace to herself. Apart from the landing +of a number of troops at Avlona in Albania, Italy kept aloof. This +rigid abstinence, coupled with the appearance of deadlock on Italy's +two main frontiers, set in motion an undercurrent of criticism among +the friends of the Allies. A further source of uncertainty was found +in the relations still maintained between Italy and Germany. "Why did +not Italy declare war against Germany as well as against Austria?" was +a query that was continually put. In the face of this attitude of +doubt the Italian Government still continued what it considered its +sound and well-matured policy of concentrating its forces for the +protection of its own frontiers against Austria, and looking on every +other enemy as secondary. + +As regards the Balkans, it has to be recalled that it was Italy who +first suggested that Serbia receive the assistance of the Allies +against the superior Austrian forces. This suggestion was at that +early time taken into but slight consideration by France and Great +Britain. A battery or two was lent to Serbia by Great Britain, but +little more was done until the spectacle of invasion became imminent. +While Italy recognized that her interests were of a paramount +character in the Balkans, she was convinced that the war would be +decided in the main theatre, and not on any of the side theatres that +Germany might decide to choose. Nor was Italy under any +misapprehension as to what would be her fate were the Austrians to +succeed in breaking through the lines of defense on her northern +frontier. These considerations decided her against participating in +any over-sea adventure unless she was absolutely compelled to do so. + +Italy's interest in the problem as to who was to dominate +Constantinople and the Dardanelles was less than that of either +England or Russia. The apologists of her policy of abstention +maintained, indeed, that jealousy of Russia was Great Britain's main +motive in deciding on the expedition to Gallipoli. Italy had a more +important work to do than to lend her aid in playing off one ally +against another. Any aid given to that expedition had, necessarily, to +be of a comprehensive character if success was to be achieved. This +would have meant a serious depletion of the Italian forces and might +have opened up a way that would have enabled the enemy to strike at +the very heart of Italy. + +When the possibility of Bulgaria taking the side of the Central Powers +loomed into the domain of actuality, Italy with her nearer intuition +in Balkan affairs called attention to the impending denouement. In +this she was seconded by Serbia, who asked the aid of the Allies in +striking a blow which would have prevented what proved from the allied +point of view to be a calamity. Italy's suggestion was that Sofia be +at once occupied before Bulgarian mobilization could be got under way. +The policy of hoping against hope took the place of energetic action. +Then action on the part of the Allies followed when the blow had +fallen. Yet Italy knew that Serbia was doomed the moment Bulgaria +declared war. + +Bitter as the admission might be to Italy, it was convinced that +Montenegro was in the like case with Serbia. Montenegro had as little +hope of coping with the combined forces of Germany, Austria, and +Bulgaria as Serbia. A mere consideration of the alternative plans of +rendering aid to her small neighbors revealed the most promising of +them as entailing a useless sacrifice. It would have meant the taking +over-sea of some hundreds of thousands of men and large guns during +the worst period of the year. The passage to the Montenegrin port of +Antivari would have required the protection of the entire Italian +navy, thus leaving the coasts of Italy exposed to the attacks of the +enemy. And what would have been the main purpose of the expedition? To +save the celebrated Mount Lovcen, which indeed dominates the Bocca di +Cattaro, but does not dominate the Bocca di Teodo, where at the time +of the combined attacks of Montenegrins and French from Mount Lovcen +months before, and of the French and English from the sea, the +Austrian navy was safely sheltered. What Italy could wisely do she did +so. She succored the retreating Serbian and Montenegrin soldiers, gave +them food, clothing, and shelter, and brought them in safety to the +different places to which they had been assigned. + +Even before hostilities commenced between Italy and Austria the +Italian Government accomplished a _tour de force_. Against the tacit +opposition of Austria she transported a considerable body of troops to +the port of Avlona, which, with Brindisi, commands the entrance to the +Adriatic. A glance at the map will immediately reveal the vital +importance of this strategic position as a base for expeditionary +forces in Albania and the Balkans, while its naval possibilities make +it inferior to no port on the Adriatic. The fly in the ointment was +in the Austrian hold on the Bocca di Cattaro. Thence Austrian +submarines could menace Italian shipping, even though no Austrian +surface craft dare approach the Strait of Otranto. To this has to be +added the further peril arising from the strong current that is +supposed to descend from the head of the Adriatic. While transporting +troops from Brindisi to Avlona, more than one Italian vessel fell +victim to floating mines borne down by this current. + +Such in general outline was Italy's position at the end of the year +1915, and such the tenor of those who sought to vindicate her policy +in the Balkans and elsewhere. It was maintained by Italian publicists +that the Italian fleet had fought with the fleets of France and +England on several occasions against the Turks. It was pointed out +that that fleet was on continual patrol duty in the Mediterranean with +those of the Allies. Italian troops had also been landed with French +troops on the island of Corfu, and, according to report, had +cooperated to some extent with British troops in Egypt and North +Africa. Nevertheless, political and military reasons all combined to +make the Austro-Italian frontier the one battle ground where Italy +could hope for an enduring victory and fight for it with all her +strength. + +In regard to the absence of a declaration of war between Germany and +Italy, the attitude of the Government of King Victor Emmanuel was thus +explained: First of all, the treaty of the Triple Alliance did not +consist of a single document, but of three separate agreements: one +between Germany and Austria, another between Germany and Italy, and +another between Austria and Italy. When Austria declared war on +Serbia, Italy registered her protest against the policy of Austria in +which she claimed to recognize a violation of that country's treaty +with herself. The pourparlers thus gradually turned for subject matter +to the time-honored grievances which Italy cherished against her +present ally, but old oppressor. In these negotiations Germany +rendered continued aid to Italy, who sought by peaceful means to +secure the return of the provinces to which she had an immemorial +claim. These negotiations failed, and Italy, denouncing her treaty +with Austria-Hungary, declared war against her. But except in so far +as she was the ally of Austria-Hungary, Italy had no grievance against +Germany. She broke off diplomatic relations with both empires, and she +expected that Germany would declare war against her. Germany did not +do so, and there the matter remained. + +Italy had undoubted historic grounds for this procedure, which was +likewise in full agreement with the national feeling. For well over a +century feeling in Italy against Austria has been deep and widespread. +Toward Germany, on the other hand, the feeling is largely neutral, +tinged with a certain awe of German efficiency. German investments in +Italy are also said to total something like $3,000,000,000, and the +economic domination which that vast sum denotes was bound to be felt +through every channel of the national life. But neither the respect +felt for German ability nor the secret influence of German finance has +hampered Italy in the conduct of the war. Besides breaking off +diplomatic relations with the kaiser, she treated the Germans within +her gates exactly as she treated the citizens and subjects of other +enemy countries. She formed a commercial alliance with France, Great +Britain, and Russia, an alliance the chief aim of which was the +removal of German economic domination in Italy. She, moreover, +requisitioned German merchant ships that had taken shelter in Italian +ports; and finally she broke off commercial relations with Germany, +and took measures to prevent Germany from obtaining through +Switzerland any goods necessary for the welfare of the population or +the prosecution of the war. Germany allowed the serious measures taken +by Italy to pass unchallenged, and so Italy was content to let the +relations between the two countries continue on that basis. + +But beneath all these surface movements ran a deeper current of +influence that was partly hidden from all except those who were +active participants in affairs of southeastern Europe. There was, for +example, the rivalry between Italy and Greece, a factor that may yet +be discovered to have had a deciding influence in the war. For it was +the entrance of Italy into the war, with the assumed pledge of +territorial profits in the Balkans and in Asia Minor, that forced +Greece into maintaining her neutrality at a time when the alignment of +forces in the Balkans was still in complete doubt. A well-informed and +well-conducted diplomacy, steering skillfully amid the eddies of +Balkan affairs, might have brought the combined strength of Italy, +Bulgaria, and Greece to the side of the Allies. But Greek jealousy of +Italy was allowed to smolder and even to be fanned into flame by the +awakened pretensions of the Italian press, whose ambitions in the East +became inflated at the prospect of a victorious war, out of which +Italy was mirrored as issuing as an imperial state holding a hegemony +over the lesser lands on her extended border. While hesitation and +doubt held sway in the councils of the Allies, Bulgaria struck, and at +one stroke brought disaster on Serbia and Montenegro, and stiffened +Greece into an attitude of unshakable neutrality. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII + +PROBLEMS OF STRATEGY + + +Meanwhile, with more than half a year's fighting behind them, the +Italian commanders had come to certain well-defined military +conclusions. The plans of General Cadorna had involved three separate +campaigns--one in the Trentino, the other in the Carso, and a +subsidiary campaign in the Carnic Alps to the north, along the main +watershed of the mountains. A general offensive in the Trentino had +been tested and found well-nigh impossible. Trentino is indeed a +military paradox--a sharp salient jutting into Italy, which is strong +by reason of its being a salient. This is because it is inclosed on +eight sides by great walls, the batteries of the main Alpine chain. A +salient is weak as a strategical situation in proportion to the +possibility of crushing in its sides and threatening the lines of +retreat of the forces occupying the point. Where the sides cannot be +successfully attacked, it becomes a position of strength and remains a +constant threat. This was the situation in the Trentino. The main +Alpine chain is not impassable. It is indeed conceivable, under +exceedingly favorable circumstances, that one or more of the passes on +the east or west side might be taken and an advance down the valleys +to the Adige turn the positions of the defenders. But ordinary +foresight on the part of the defense would make this impossible. The +valley of the Adige is the only avenue through the Trentino, and this +avenue, which is at best only a narrow road, was heavily guarded by +the strong fortress of Trent. Moreover, there could be but little +result accruing to Italy if the Trentino were forced. The Adige leads +only to the main chain of the Alps, and farther on, across the +mountains by the easiest of Alpine highways, is the Brenner Pass. +Modern defensive power is so great that its development to the point +where this highway would be impregnable, except against overwhelmingly +superior numbers, would be a matter of great simplicity. Along the +northern frontier, in the Carnic Alps, the situation is similar. There +is only one pass across these mountains, and this the Austrians could +block with the same facility and certainty with which they could block +the Brenner Pass. + +On the other hand the presumption that the Isonzo sector had a degree +of vulnerability was found correct, and along the Isonzo line the real +Italian offensive from the beginning continued to be directed. The +Isonzo is roughly about three miles into Austria, beyond the political +boundary. But it is the true military boundary between Italy and +Austria, and it was always regarded by the Austrians as their first +line of defense. For almost its entire length, as far south as +Salcaro, about four miles north of Gorizia, the Isonzo River runs +through a deep gorge and is easily defended. From Salcaro to the sea +it issues from the gorge into a more level country--the plateaus of +Gorizia and of Carso--although even the southern part of the line is +dominated by a series of elevations in supporting distance of each +other. Until the line of the Isonzo was forced, Trieste and the entire +Istrian Peninsula might be regarded as safe. + +Although the line of the Isonzo was, as has been shown, the only +feasible line on which Italy could advance, no serious offensive could +be attempted until the outlets from the Trentino were thoroughly and +effectively stopped up. For Italy to have advanced in the Carso, with +her rear open to attack by the Austrians coming through the Tyrolean +passes, would have been foolhardy. Italy's first step, therefore, was +to start a simultaneous forward movement through every pass from +Stelvio on the west to the pass near Pontebba on the north. These +movements naturally were of an offensive nature, although they were +really for a defensive purpose. No attempt was made to advance any +distance through the western passes. The Italians were content to take +the fortifications guarding the entrance and to seize heights +commanding the approaches. + +On the south and east of the Trentino, however, the operations took on +a more extended and, for the Austrians, a more serious aspect. On the +south the principal efforts were directed against Riva and Rovereto. +The operations against Riva, which is situated at the head of Lake +Garda, were directed along the valley of the Ledro and thence along +the Tonale River, a small stream connecting Lake Ledro and Lake Garda. +At the same time the Italians pushed with energy down the Val Sugana, +which leads directly to Trent. The advance was pushed to a point where +there was no possibility of the Austrians coming through, and there +the Italian forces rested. + +Well up, toward the north, in the Dolomites there followed +considerable fighting, in the Cordevole Valley particularly, for the +Col di Lona, the loftiest of the mountain tops in that region. The +Cordevole unites with the Val Forsa some twenty miles east of the +Adige Valley, the Val Forsa connecting with the Adige at the town of +Lavio, six miles north of Trent. To cut in behind the Austrians south +of Trent would, of course, have created havoc with the entire Austrian +forces in the Trentino, but, as stated, the defensive possibilities of +the situation are so formidable that success would appear almost +beyond the realms of actuality. + +On the Isonzo front the fighting all along continued on a large scale. +An idea of the immensity of the struggle is suggested by the Austrian +estimate in January, 1916, that Italian casualties had passed the +million mark. Exaggerated as this number was regarded in allied +circles, it showed Austria-Hungary's opinion of the severity of the +fighting in what was considered a subsidiary theatre of the Great War. + +The railroad situation on the Isonzo front is, as in practically all +modern military situations, of primary strategic importance. The +Istrian Peninsula is served by three lines, each of which runs to +Austrian bases of supply. One runs up the valley of the Isonzo, +through Gorizia and Tolmino and through the Hochein Tunnel to Vienna. +At Gorizia a branch leaves this line, running southeast, and connects +Gorizia with Trieste across the Carso Plateau. The second line comes +from the east from Laibach through San Pietro, where a branch runs +south to Fiume, and the third comes north from the Austrian naval base +at Pola. Gorizia is served by the northern road from Vienna, from +Trieste by the main line, and by the branch just described. Supplies +from Vienna would be stopped by cutting the road anywhere north of +Gorizia. But to shut off Trieste as a source, both of the southern +rail communications must be cut. Early in June, 1915, the Italians +forced a passage of the Isonzo at Plava and at Monfalcone, and cut the +railroad at these two points. Gorizia then continued to be supplied +only by the Trieste branch. Nor was Trieste itself cut off, as the +road from Laibach through San Pietro continued open. The only way to +isolate Istria was to take the San Pietro junction, and this was the +ultimate aim of the operations at that region. + +The Italian objective in Istria was, of course, Trieste. In order to +advance on Trieste the Italians must be secured from a flank attack, +and Gorizia, which is a strongly fortified bridgehead, would be +directly on their flank. Therefore, it must be either captured or +masked before an advance to the south could be started. Gorizia, too, +was important for another reason. It was the point which the +Austrians had chosen to be the center of their first main line of +defense. If it fell, not only was the way open for an advance on +Trieste, but the entire Austrian line to the north and south was +jeopardized through the fact that, with the center pierced, both wings +were exposed to flank attacks, and would have to retreat or be rolled +up and defeated in detail. In other words, the fall of Gorizia would +uncover Austria's entire Isonzo line, and, although there might be +some subsequent resistance in the mountains to the north, the giving +way of the line would be inevitable. + +Gorizia, however, as has been shown, stands in the front rank of +strong natural defensive positions. The foothills of the Julian Alps +descend sharply to a plain near where the Isonzo issued from the gorge +which it has cut through the mountains. The line between the plain and +the mountains is sharp and clearly marked. There is no gentle tapering +off of one into the other. This line between the hills and plain is +somewhat irregular in shape and incloses a pocket in which Gorizia is +situated. It is not unlike a huge elliptical stadium. At the north +end, level with the ground, is Gorizia, with the Julian Alps mounting +on all sides. The southern bank is constituted by the plateau of the +Carso, in which is situated the town of Doberdo. Thus the plain of +Gorizia is surrounded on three sides by elevations which serve as +admirable watchmen for the city beneath. Just across the Isonzo from +Gorizia are the town and spur of Podgora, which absolutely command the +city and prevent an Italian attack from that side. With Podgora +completely in Italian hands, it is difficult to see how Gorizia could +hold out. From Podgora the depots, barracks, and supply houses of +Gorizia are within artillery range of guns of all calibers, and the +environs of Podgora have changed hands several times. + +To the north of Podgora, at a distance of between two and three +miles, is a second series of heights--the heights of Oslavia, which +also dominate the bridgehead. These the Italians rushed in December, +1915, so the heights northwest of Gorizia continued in Italian +hands. To the south, on the Carso Plateau, the Italians also pushed +forward. The heights on the edge of the plateau--San Michele and +San Martine di Carso--came into Italian hands. The fortifications of +Gorizia--temporary field fortifications--are not at all like the +more modern fortifications of Europe, which, previous to the +shelling of Liege and Namur, were considered almost impregnable. +They are more nearly like the little town of Ossowetz on the Bobr +River, which held out against the German 42-centimeter guns for over +six months, and was then evacuated only because its defenders were +flanked out. There was very little concrete in the Gorizia defenses, +which were mostly earthworks formed into terraces on which the guns +were mounted. Many of these gun positions have been destroyed, but +Gorizia has continued to hold out despite the desperate attacks of +the besiegers. + +Because of the natural defensive strength of the line less men have +been used by Austria on this front than in any other theatre of the +war. When war between Italy and Austria broke out the Austrians had +already commenced the vast operations which flung Russia from the +Carpathians and behind Lemberg. The men were therefore not available +in sufficient numbers to defend the line of the Isonzo, otherwise it +is likely it would have remained intact from the outset, and the +Italian forces would never have been able to force their way through +Flava and Monfalcone. That Austria harbored little anxiety regarding +her Italian frontier likewise appears from her relinquishment of the +Russian offensive to begin operations in the Balkans. Whether a real +Italian offensive at any time was among her military plans will remain +doubtful till events make the situation clear. Austria would appear to +have little to gain from a conquest of Italian provinces in which her +former rule brought her the deep and ordained resentment of the +Italian people. + +During the month of January, 1916, the southern theatre of war was +comparatively quiet. The forces under General Cadorna maintained their +offensive on the Isonzo without any decisive revolt taking place. +There was considerable bombardment of the bridgeheads at Tolmino and +Gorizia. In the Gorizia sector the Austrians attacked the Italian +positions at Oslavia, capturing 900 men and inflicting severe losses +in killed and wounded. Determined attacks by the Italian troops +followed, and the positions were again transferred to Italian hands. +At the end of this month an official resume covering Italy's entrance +into the war and the operations of the Italian army in the intervening +months was issued at Rome. In this official communique it was +estimated that 30,000 Austrian prisoners, 5 guns, 65 machine guns, and +a large quantity of war material had so far been captured by the +Italians from the Austrian forces. Twenty-five Austrian divisions, +totaling about 425,000 men, were said to have been massed along the +Italian frontier at the beginning of the war. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX + +MOVE AGAINST GERMANY + + +A royal decree was issued at Rome on February 11, 1916, prohibiting +the importation into Italy or transit through Italy of all German and +Austrian merchandise, as well as the exportation of all merchandise of +German or Austrian origin through Italian ports. This was the formal +recognition of a policy that had been followed out with increasing +strictness since hostilities commenced, but which had never been +officially declared. The declaration of war by Italy against Austria +carried with it the prohibition of trading with Austro-Hungarian +subjects, and announcement had been made in the Italian press of +prosecution of persons on the charge of trading with the nation's +enemy. The coupling of the German Empire with Austria-Hungary in this +royal decree was the first formal act on the part of Italy in the way +of making it clear that all commercial relations with Germany were +suspended. This was in accordance with the general policy of +cooperation among the Allies, whose disjointed action had hitherto +seriously hampered the conduct of the war. + +It was also decided by the Italian Government on February 16, 1916, +that warmer commercial relations with the allied nations should be +cultivated. In pursuance of this policy a program was mapped out +covering the following five years, during which period machinery, raw +materials, and manufactured articles destined for the development of +existing industries or the creation of new ones could be imported free +of any duty if their origin was in allied or friendly countries. In +this way it was aimed to disintegrate the commercial domination of +Germany which had been built up by the efforts of a generation. It was +felt that by this method efforts on the part of Germany and +Austria-Hungary to recapture lost Italian import trade would be +rendered futile. During this same month announcement was made +regarding the third Italian war loan. This was declared to have +reached on February 6, 1916, 3,000,000,000 lire, which, together with +former loans, showed that altogether 5,000,000,000 lire had been +contributed. Considerable satisfaction was expressed at this result. +It was conceded that in the realm of finance, in which Italy had been +considered weakest, the country had done remarkably well. Considering +that Italy not long ago was considered one of the poorest nations of +Europe, bearing taxes out of all proportion to her wealth, and that +even now she had been enjoying but half a century of national +independence, the showing was full of promise for the future. In +general, it was held that Italy had revealed herself in a character +different from that which had been made traditional by the criticisms +of foreigners. + +Not only on the declaration of war had the traditional "Latin +temperament" shown itself to be surprisingly calm and self-possessed, +but various other traits were revealed that militated against the +conventional view. When hostilities began on the Austro-Italian +frontier the stroke of the fateful hour found Italy prepared to the +last button and the last man. An organization that was the fruit of +years of toil had been built up, ready for action on any frontier. +That such action would be first needed on the frontier of a former +ally could not have been foreseen. But within a very short time Italy +was mobilized, and her prompt efficiency made it possible at once to +carry the war on to Austrian territory, where it has since been waged. + +On the last day of the month of February, 1916, Italy took still +another step which showed her prepared to burn all her boats as far as +Germany was concerned. On that date the Italian Government +requisitioned thirty-four large German steamers interned in Italian +harbors. A total of fifty-seven German and Austrian vessels were in +Italian ports at the beginning of the war. The Austrian ships were +seized by Italy when war was declared on the Dual Monarchy. No action +had, however, been taken in regard to German vessels. Their status in +the ports of Italy had been regarded as parallel to that of German +vessels which remained in American ports after war began. This led to +a certain amount of heartburning among the friends of the Allies, who +pointed out that it was in line with the Italian policy of maintaining +commercial relations with Germany as far as they could be maintained. +Rumors had also been rife regarding alleged secret agreements that had +been made with the German Government. + +These rumors were gradually dissipated by the successive measures +taken by the Italian Government and the requisitioning of the German +interned vessels revealed her as in full cooperation with the Allies. +There were also other considerations that weighed with Italy. The +submarine had revealed itself as a powerful destructive weapon, and +the toll taken by it of allied ships was a heavy one. It was seen that +the transfer of German vessels to the flag of Italy and their use by +the Allies would do much toward relieving the congestion of goods at +American docks which were awaiting shipment to the allied countries. +The loot of German vessels then in Italian ports and their tonnage +formed a formidable total. They were as follows: At Ancona, _Lemnos_, +24,873 tons; at Bari, _Waltraute_, 3,818; at Cagliari, _Spitzfels_, +5,809; at Catania, _Lipari_, 1,539; at Genoa, _Hermesburg_, 2,824, +_Koenig Albert_, 10,484, _Moltke_, 12,325, _Prinz-Regent Luitpold_, +6,595; at Girgenti, _Imbros_, 2,380; at Leghorn, _Amalfi_, 1,756, +_Termini_, 1,523; at Licata, _Portfino_, 1,745; at Naples, _Bayern_, +8,000, _Marsala_, 1,753, _Herania_, 6,455; at Palermo, _Algier_, +3,127, _Catania_, 3,000, _Tunis_, 1,833; at Savona, _Bastia_, 1,527; +at Syracuse, _Albany_, 5,882, _Ambria_, 5,143, _Barcelona_, 5,465, +_Katterturm_, 6,018, _Mudros_, 3,137, _Sigmaringen_, 5,710, _Italia_, +3,498; at Venice, _Samo_, 1,922, _Volos_, 1,903; at Massowah, +_Aspemfell_, 4,361, _Borkum_, 5,645, _Choising_, 1,657, _Christian X_, +4,956, _Ostmark_, 4,400, _Persepolis_, 5,446, _Segovia_, 4,945, and +_Sturmfels_, 5,660. All these were at the end of February, 1916, put +into the service of the Allies, compensating in some degree for the +losses suffered by each of these nations from mines and the deadly +submarine. + + + + +CHAPTER L + +RENEWED ATTACKS--ITALY'S SITUATION AT THE BEGINNING OF MARCH, 1916 + + +During the month of February, 1916, the war on the Italian front +continued with bitterness but without decisive result. Early in the +month the Austrians attacked the heights of Oslavia northwest of +Gorizia, capturing 1,200 men and several trenches. Several days later +the Italians achieved some results after weeks of hammering in the +Sugana Valley. They captured the mountainous region of Collo and also +occupied the towns of Roncegno and Romchi. By this new acquisition of +territory the Italians came almost within striking distance of one of +their chief objectives in the war--the city of Trent--which lies, +protected on the northeast and north by a line of forts, fifteen miles +west of the conquered terrain. Meanwhile several aerial attacks, which +had been fitfully chronicled since the beginning of the war, brought +anxiety to the coast towns of Italy. Venice with its arsenal was +visited more than once. In February, 1916, hostile aeroplanes +bombarded the town of Setio, fifteen miles from Vicenza, killing six +persons, wounding many others, and doing considerable material damage. +The aerial attack on Setio was the third reported in one week on +Italian cities, following raids on the districts of Ravenna and Milan. +Setio is in northeastern Italy, fifteen miles south of the Austrian +border, and fifty miles northwest of Venice. On February 14, 1916, +Austrian aeroplanes dropped bombs on Rimini, but were chased to the +east by the fire of antiaircraft batteries. + +In the last week of February, 1916, a report that Durazzo, an Albanian +port on the Adriatic Sea, had been evacuated by the Italian troops was +confirmed. The Italian brigade stationed there had been withdrawn, it +was officially declared. The Italian troops were drawn back in company +with Serbians, Montenegrins, and Albanians. Men and horses were +gathered together, revictualed, and transported with light losses in +the midst of grave difficulties, by the combined action of Italian and +allied warships and Italian troops along the Albanian coast. When the +evacuation was completed by the departure of the Albanian Government +from Durazzo, the Italian brigade assigned to the city began a +retreat, which was accomplished according to plan despite serious +attacks from the Austrian forces, which advanced as far as the +isthmuses to the east and north of Durazzo. The fall of the city of +Durazzo resulted from the defeat of the Italian and the Albanian +forces under Essad Pasha, the provisional president. A strong line of +outer defenses for the city had been constructed and the indications +were that a spirited resistance would be offered. The Austrian and +German forces attacked at daybreak. The defenders were soon ejected +from their positions at Bazar Sjak. Soon afterward the Italians on the +southern bank of the lower Arzen were forced to abandon their +positions. The Austrians crossed the river and proceeded southward. At +noon a decisive action east of Bazar Sjak drove the Italians from +strong positions. The same fate was suffered by the defenders of Sassa +Bianeo, six miles east of Durazzo. By the evening of February 23, +1916, the entire outer girdle of defenses was taken. The attackers, +advancing to the inner line positions, established the fact that the +Italians were embarking their troops hurriedly. The final result was +that the only position held by Italian troops in the Balkans was +Avlona in Albania. The situation was viewed with much concern in +Italy, where the ambition was to make the Adriatic an Italian sea. It +was an unsatisfactory result of a series of operations in which +Italian interests were vital, but in which Italians had taken but a +negligible part. The conquest of most of the territory north of +Greece had left the Austro-Germans with a large army released for work +elsewhere. French and British were intrenching strongly at Saloniki, +backed by a powerful fleet. The Italians still held Avlona. Greece +remained neutral, but was filled with resentment against the Allies, +who were repeatedly violating her territory. Bulgaria, flushed with +victory, now held her strong army in leash. Serbia and Montenegro had +gone down before the invader. Rumania was resisting every effort +whether by threat or force or cajolement to lead her into war. The +situation called for the most serious consideration from Italy and her +allies. + +During February, 1916, M. Briand, the French Premier, was the guest of +the Italian Government in Rome, where he had gone with the object--the +words are M. Briand's--"of establishing a closer and more fruitful +cooperation between the Italians and their allies." Political +cooperation was complete, he declared, but military cooperation on +their part had been admittedly less so, and that was the supreme want +of the moment. Italy rightly hesitated to embark on adventure, but in +order to secure her political aims her primary object was identical +with that of her allies, namely, to break down the military strength +of the Central Powers. For this purpose it was necessary to strike +together, and strike at the enemy's heart. The world knew what +Italians wanted, and meant to get--the Italian Trentino and Trieste; +but frontal attacks were costly, as General Cadorna had discovered, +and the Italian strategist had not yet said his last word. + +The fate of Trieste might perhaps be more quickly decided on the +Danube than on the Isonzo. There was a general agreement that an error +had been committed by the Allies in letting the Central Powers cross +the Danube into Serbia. Except along the 250-mile gap between the +Adriatic and the Serbo-Rumanian frontier, the Central Powers were +blockaded either by ships and soldiers or by neutral territory. +Opinions differed as to where the Allies should strike to reach the +heart of Germany, but there were many who thought that the first +offensive should be to close the gateway into the Balkans by +reconquering Serbia and cutting the communications between the +Central Powers and their allies. Time would show what the allied +Governments meant to do, but if this intention was to get back to the +Danube half a million men would be required at Saloniki with an equal +force in reserve. + +It was generally admitted that the territorial ambitions of Italy had +been seriously checked by the development of Austrian strength. The +war as originally planned on the Austro-Italian frontier was to be one +of swift movement in the direction of Trieste and Dalmatia; with the +gradual cooperation of the Balkan nations and a general invasion into +the interior of Austria. Until, therefore, decided headway could be +made on the Isonzo front and Gorizia had fallen, a feeling-out +movement would appear the best to be followed. The Italian people were +learning to accept the delay with philosophic resignation. The axiom +of Napoleon was recalled that it was always the unsuspected that +happened in war, and events in the other fighting areas enabled them +to grasp the difficulties of the situation on their own border. + +Already in February, 1916, the conquest of Montenegro and the capture +of Mount Lovchen, long the nightmare of Italian statesmen, by the +Austrians, began to be less a subject of anxiety. Serious blow as it +was to Italian prestige, it did not appear irreparable. Even before, +Austria had already a magnificent series of natural harbors in the +Adriatic. But it was argued that Austria had not a sufficiently strong +fleet to take advantage of the new wonderful natural harbor now +entirely in her possession. The chief perils lay in the formidable +obstacle to naval activity formed by Mount Lovchen, with 305-mm. guns +mounted on its summit and in the facile use of the Bocca di Cattaro as +a submarine base from which to harass the Italian fleet. Italy, it was +recognized, was contending with geographical disadvantages everywhere, +but in the Adriatic more than elsewhere, owing to the peculiarly tame +configuration of her coast line. As compared with that on the eastern +side of the Adriatic the contrast was great. + +Nature had, indeed, been lavish in her gifts to Austria in this +direction. Deep water inlets forming natural harbors, which at the +present time are invaluable as harbors for warships or as submarine +bases, are to be found all along the Dalmatian coast. + +Tajer, Zara, Lesina, Lissa, Curzola, Maleda, Sabbioncello, Grayosa, +and Sebenico are almost in themselves sufficient to counterbalance any +numerical disparity between the Austrian and Italian fleets. Several +of these natural harbors have of late years been transformed, at +enormous expense, into naval ports and strongly fortified. Millions +have been spent on Sebenico, and it has been so fortified as to be +absolutely impregnable from the sea, even the rocks facing the harbor +having been cased in ferroconcrete and turned into forts. The claim of +Venice to be mistress of the Adriatic belongs to a remote age; it has +long since been ousted by Pola, which has gradually been developed +into one of the strongest naval arsenals and ports in the world. +Similarly the whole coast line of Dalmatia is fronted by a chain of +islands, round which submarines can receive supplies and lurk in +absolute security. In the rear of these islands is a succession of +navigable channels through which a war fleet can pass under cover from +Pola to Cattaro. The Italian coast line is the very antithesis of the +Austrian. Between Venice and Brindisi, the whole length of the +Adriatic, there is not a single natural harbor. But, said the +Italians: + +"What is the good of a fine stable without horses?" Italy had the +ships, Austria the harbors: it remained to be seen which would win +out. + +The bearing of all this on the question of Italy's cooperation with +the Allies in the Balkans is apparent. It had been frequently remarked +that the Dalmatian coast line was likely one day to bring on a +European war, for its possession is of vital interest to Italy. +Austria, with twelve naval bases and all the natural advantages of +coast line in her favor, is in a far stronger position than Italy. How +can Italy hope to occupy the Dalmatian coast? There was and is a +considerable diversity of opinion in Italy as to the wisdom of an +over-sea expedition in addition to the occupation of Avlona in +Albania. At one moment it was suggested that in view of the +preponderating call on the military resources of the country in the +areas of operations on the Isonzo, in Carnia, Cadore, and the +Trentino, it would be wiser to withdraw for the time being from +Avlona. But it would seem as though Italy is bound to see the thing +through. The place has been put into a state of comparative +impregnability. Italy is well aware that her line of communication +must remain more or less at the mercy of the Austrian fleet operating +from Pola and the naval bases along the coast. She would need very +material assistance from the allied fleets, and her part in the Balkan +operations would appear therefore to depend on cohesive action among +the allied admirals. The loss of Avlona would inflict a blow on the +prestige of the Allies paralleling that of the Gallipoli debacle. Yet +at the end of February, 1916, the Austrians, advancing along the coast +in conjunction with Bulgarians coming from Monastir, would appear to +be making Avlona their objective. Austrian success would make the +Adriatic a _mere clausum_ to the allied fleets and cripple Italy in +one of her chief arms of defense and offense. + + + + +PART X--CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA + + + + +CHAPTER LI + +OPERATIONS AGAINST BAGDAD AND AROUND THE TIGRIS + + +The British campaign in Mesopotamia during the first year of the war +had been generally successful. After the capture of Basra in November, +1914, the Delta country was cleared of the enemy and the safety of the +oil fields assured. A period of quiet followed, broken only when the +Turks took the offensive, which failed, in April, 1915. Late in May +the British won a decisive victory over the Turkish troops at Kurna. +In July, 1915, the ill-fated expedition against the enemy forces +guarding Bagdad was planned. Later, after the failure in the +Dardanelles, it was necessary to attempt something spectacular that +would restore British prestige in the Orient, and this could be +accomplished by the capture of Bagdad. + +The British position in regard to Persia had become difficult. It was +known that the German Ambassador at Teheran, Prince Henry XXXI of +Reuss, was scheming with Persian tribes and Persian statesmen and +politicians, and also trying to win over the armed police and their +Swedish officers. Russia and Great Britain had established this police +system to protect the highways from brigands, and Swedish officers had +been chosen to command them because they might be counted on not to +favor Russian or British interests. + +[Illustration: The Bagdad Railroad.] + +The mountain tribes on the Turko-Persian border were in a state of +unrest and seemed to be only waiting an opportunity to show their +hostility toward the foes of Germany and Turkey. The Swedish-led +gendarmerie were also more than suspected by the British of having +been won over by German agents. The Russian army in the Caucasus +meanwhile was accomplishing little or nothing, while the Turkish +forces in part were extending toward the Persian highlands, with the +purpose, it was suspected, of joining with the Swedish-led rebels and +mountain tribes. The Turks and intriguers in Persia evidently thought +the time ripe for a quick conquest of Persia, as the main Russian +armies in Poland were not in a position to interfere. It seemed to the +Turks and their German advisers that the hour was propitious to send +forward an army that would drive the British-Indian Expeditionary +Force out of Mesopotamia. + +Sir John Nixon had no adequate forces at his command for the proposed +task of capturing Bagdad, having only at his disposal one division of +Indian and British troops, and a brigade or so in reserve with which +to attack the Turkish army that was daily increasing in numbers. + +The most implacable foe that the British troops had to contend against +was the climate. It was found impossible to march more than eight +miles a day and after sundown. The heat in the tents at times varied +between 128 and 130 degrees Fahrenheit. With burning sand underfeet, +and scorching rays of the sun from above, blood dried up in the body, +the brain became inflamed, followed by delirium, coma, death. It was +impossible for the white soldiers to perspire unless they were near +marshes where they might quench their intolerable thirst in the +brackish waters. Owing to the lack of fresh vegetables and improper +food, the rations of bully beef and hard-tack, and the assaults of +blood-sucking insects, many deaths occurred. Even the Northwest Indian +troops, accustomed to the desert and life in a hot climate, suffered +intensely in Mesopotamia. It is necessary to consider the climatic +conditions the British forces had to contend with in this country to +understand why their progress was necessarily slow, and why so many +men fell by the way. + +The attempt to capture Bagdad was much criticized when projected, and +since, as being foolhardy, and likely to fail, and in any case not +worth the great loss of men it must entail. But the British-Indian +Expeditionary Force was in a position where it must take a gambler's +chance and stand to win or lose. To capture the city of the Caliphs +would in the first place greatly impress the Mohammedan population and +restore British prestige, which had sadly suffered through the +Dardanelles failure. And it was necessary that the British troops +should act promptly and without counting the possible cost, for every +hour's delay permitted the Turks and their allies to grow in strength. + +To the British, Bagdad was of importance. It was needed as a base at +the head of navigation. It would enable them to prevent Turkish troops +from traveling over Persian highways, and, most important of all, it +would afford the British opportunities to check Mohammedan +organization and subdue attempted risings. + +General Townshend, who commanded the division that was sent forward to +attempt the capture of Bagdad, had all the odds against him. His small +force, consisting of two-thirds Indian and one-third British troops, +was hopelessly inadequate for the projected campaign. It was known +that the Turks were well equipped with guns of superior power, and +that they were directed by German officers, assisted by German +engineers; that the very able German officer Marshal von der Goltz was +in charge of operations. When it is considered that the Turkish force +was three times as strong in numbers as General Townshend's, the +British general's advance on Bagdad seemed foredoomed to failure. His +only hope lay in delivering a swift defeat to the Turks before their +reenforcements could arrive from the Caucasian front, a movement which +began about the middle of September, 1915. + +Before an advance could be made on Bagdad it was necessary for the +British to defeat a large Turkish force at Nasiriyeh and at +Kut-el-Amara, where the British captured fourteen guns and about 1,000 +prisoners, losing in killed and wounded 500 officers and men. The +Turkish trenches were destroyed and within a small area about 900 +Turkish dead were counted. + +The British troops, having fought in an atmosphere of 130 degrees, +were thoroughly exhausted when they encamped in Nasiriyeh. Like most +Arab towns, the place was in such a filthy condition that it required +weeks to clean it up and make it habitable for Europeans. Meanwhile +the British troops lived in tents and enjoyed a much needed rest. It +was stated that fully 95 per cent of the men were in such a state of +exhaustion as to be quite unfit for active service. If the Turkish +commander in chief had known of this, the reenforcements he had +dispatched from his base at Kut-el-Amara might easily have compelled +the British force to retire. Fortunately for the British, the Turkish +reenforcements encountered on the way the routed Turkish army of the +Euphrates and evidently heard such tales of the fighting powers of the +British and Indian soldiers that they joined the fugitives in their +retreat. + +At the close of August, 1915, Nasiriyeh had been made habitable by the +British engineers and a large part of the force departed for Amara on +steamers and barges, most of the soldiers wearing only a waist-clout +and still suffering from the intense heat, as they crouched under the +grass-mat shelters that had been provided. The garrison left in the +town to keep the Arabs in order suffered from swarms of flies, heat, +fever, and dysentery, and would have welcomed a Turkish attack if only +that it might afford some variety to their monotonous life. + +During this time General Townshend, from his base at Amara on the +Tigris, was moving his heterogeneous collection of vessels up the +river and had begun friendly negotiations with the powerful tribes of +the Beni Lam Arabs, who held most of the land between the Tigris and +the northern mountains, and much territory on the southern side of the +river. Here stretched out a desert waste between Amara and +Kut-el-Amara, occupied by powerful confederations of fighting +Bedouins, the Abu Mohammed tribes, known by their black tents, who +moved about the British base on the river; the Makusis tribes, who +fought as light cavalry on the side of the Turks, and the Abu Dir +Diraye Arabs, who were ready to fight on any side that promised the +most booty. For religious reasons their priests urged the Arabs to +fight against the infidels, but the Britons had enjoyed considerable +prestige in Mesopotamia; thousands of Arabs calling themselves English +subjects and claiming the help of the British Consul in Bagdad when +they were in difficulties. + +A fighting league with the great federation of Beni Lam was greatly to +be desired by the British, for it would enable them to use freely a +considerable stretch of the Tigris, and secure safety from attack from +both banks. The Beni Lam by siding with the English, whose recent +victories had not failed to impress them, hoped to gain new grazing +territory from their rivals who fought with the Turks, so an alliance +was formed and ratified by the Sheiks of the confederation, and Sir +John Nixon, Commander in Chief; Sir Percy Cox, British Resident in the +Persian Gulf, and General Townshend commanding the troops at Amara. + +The British were under no illusions regarding the Arab character, +having learned from some bitter experiences just how much the wily +nomads were to be trusted. As long as the British were victorious they +might count on the Arabs' allegiance, but in case of defeat he was +more than likely to turn about and fight with the enemy. The alliance +between the British and the Beni Lam Arabs was of problematic value, +but it was worth while under the circumstances. It was better to +secure their friendship even temporarily, for the Arabs had been a +constant source of trouble from the time the British Expeditionary +Force entered Mesopotamia. Fighting to them was a pastime rather than +a serious business, and whenever the struggle became deadly they would +very likely disappear. A veritable nuisance to the British force were +the Arabs who hung around the skirts of the expeditionary force and +amused themselves by reckless sniping. + +Conflicts with mounted bands offered no difficulties, for having no +artillery they would disappear among the dunes to be located later by +British aeroplanes, and could then be hunted down by columns of +infantry. When aeroplanes were not available, it was impossible to +follow their movements. Having perfect mounts they could afford to +laugh at a cavalry charge. + +"They would simply melt away into thin air," wrote an officer at the +front, who had led a charge against these sons of the desert. "They +are a quaint mixture," he adds: "some of them being distinctly gallant +fellows, but the greater part are curs and jackals and will never take +you on unless they are at least three, or four, to your one. +Incidentally, they have the pleasant habit of turning on the Turks +(for whom they are nominally fighting) and looting and harassing them +as soon as they (the Turks) take the knock from us, and as a +consequence the Turk does not much care about having a real scrap with +us." + +Sometimes the Arabs led the British into desert wastes where they +could get water from hidden springs known only to themselves, and +where the British soldier, who literally traveled on his water bottle, +suffered tortures from thirst under a heat that dried up the blood in +his veins. In some of these attempts to round up Bedouin marauders the +British lost a number of men because the water supply gave out. These +conditions will explain why in so many dispatches sent by General +Townshend from the front, it was stated that he had to fall back on +the Tigris because his troops lacked water. In such parts of the +country where it was possible to employ armed motor cars and even the +best Arabian steed could be run down, the Bedouins found their old +tactics of little account and were inspired with a wholesome fear of +the British soldier. Portable wireless apparatus used by airmen and +troops, and scouting aeroplanes, made difficulties for the elusive +Bedouins whose methods of desert warfare had not changed in centuries. +So it happened that in proportion as British fighting methods and +British resources became known and feared by the Arab in Mesopotamia +he grew more and more wary of running into danger, unless the odds +were altogether in his favor. What the German and Turkish officers +endured from their Arab allies will probably never be known, but on +more than one occasion when the British won a victory and the Turks +were in retreat, the Arabs were active in despoiling the fugitives and +then made off with their loot, and with the new rifles and equipment +they had been supplied with by the Turks or Germans. + +Being accomplished robbers, the Arabs were constantly making raids on +British stores under cover of the night and were generally successful. +On one occasion a party of eight got by the pickets and crawled into +the regimental slaughterhouse. But they had not counted on modern +science. There were mines planted outside the door and every Arab who +was a robber was killed. + + + + +CHAPTER LII + +ADVANCE TOWARD BAGDAD--BATTLE OF KUT-EL-AMARA + + +The advance toward Bagdad was begun in the middle of September, 1915, +but owing to the constantly changing conditions in the bed of the +Tigris, which hindered the progress of vessels, and the necessity for +constant reconnaissances of the river region, it was not until the +last of the month that the British force, consisting of only four +brigades, reached the vicinity of Kut-el-Amara. + +Nuredin Pasha's troops occupied a strong position near the Kut, with +carefully constructed intrenchments protected by large areas of +barbed-wire entanglements and supported by considerable heavy +artillery. The British camp was about ten miles away from the Turkish +position. They were weaker in men and in guns than the enemy. The heat +was overpowering. The British lost some men on the way to this camp +and others continued to drop out from heat exhaustion. + +On September 23, 1915, two British brigades advanced to within sight +of the Turkish tents, while their principal camp was pitched on the +south bank of the Tigris. The British steamers took up a position +between the two armies in readiness to shatter a surprise attack. It +was discovered when the two brigades made a demonstration against the +enemy on September 25, 1915, that the Turks had thoroughly mined all +the southern bank of the river, which caused the British commander to +alter his plans of attack. + +On the night of September 27, 1915, the two brigades, leaving their +tents standing to deceive the Turks, crossed the Tigris by a flying +bridge. It is said that this dummy camp which a Turkish division was +facing was the direct cause that enabled the British to win a victory. +If the Turks had concentrated all their forces on the north bank of +the river the British attack would undoubtedly have failed. It was the +absence of the division facing the empty tents from the real battle +field that caused them to lose the day. + +In order to understand the magnitude of the British victory it is +necessary to describe the seemingly impregnable character of the +Turkish defenses. There were twelve miles of defenses across the river +at right angles to its general direction at this point--six miles to +the right and six miles to the left. The works on the right bank had +been strengthened by the existence of an old water cut. The banks at +this point were from ten to twenty feet high and afforded excellent +facilities for viewing the deployment of troops advancing to attack. A +strong redoubt on the extreme right opposed any flank movement that +might be attempted in that direction. On the left bank the line of +defenses was separated by a heavy marsh about two miles wide, so that +from the left bank of the river there were, first, two miles of +trenches, then two miles of marsh, and then two miles of defenses. It +was evident that much labor had been expended in preparing these +defenses, showing the skilled hand of German engineers. Each section +of the successive lines of trenches was connected by an intricate +network of communication trenches. Along these complete lines of water +pipes had been laid. + +It was known that the Turkish army holding this strong position had +been largely reenforced by the arrival of fresh troops from Nasiriyeh, +and the Turkish commander in chief, Nuredin Pasha, may well have +believed that victory would crown his arms that day and that the +British expeditionary force would be annihilated. There was no lack of +confidence in the British camp either, though it was known that the +Turks were vastly superior in numbers to their own army. For, despite +some hard lessons learned from the enemy, the British soldier +considers himself a superior fighter to the Turk, and is always eager +for an opportunity to prove it. + +If the Turks had made their position almost impregnable on land, they +had neglected nothing to prevent the British from gaining any +advantage on the Tigris. The river was blocked at different points by +lines of sunken dhows, while across the water, and a little above it, +was stretched a great wire cable. Special care had been taken to +protect the Turkish guns from being destroyed. Each one of them was +placed in such position that nothing less than a direct hit by a +howitzer shell could damage it. + +On September 26, 27, and 28, 1915, a column under General Fry, by +ceaseless effort day and night, had managed to work its way up to +within four hundred yards of the Turkish barbed-wire entanglements, +round what was known from its shape as the Horseshoe Marsh. The troops +went forward slowly under continual shell fire and hail of rifle +bullets, digging themselves in as they advanced. The British guns in +the open could not check the Turkish artillery, which increased in +intensity as the British troops continued to advance. The nature of +the ground was decidedly to the advantage of the attackers, for at +intervals there were deep, firm-bottomed trenches that afforded +excellent cover. If the Turks had been provided with good ammunition +the British would have lost vastly more men than they did. It is said +that the Turkish shrapnel was of such poor quality that the British +troops passed unscathed through it, only being wounded when they were +hit by cases and fuses. All told, the British suffered ninety +casualties in this attack on the enemy round the Horseshoe Marsh. The +main object of this operation was to hold the Turkish attention at a +point where they hoped to be attacked while more important work was +going forward elsewhere. + +A second column under General Delamain, which had crossed the Tigris +from the south side, marched all night of September 27, 1915, and +reached their new attacking position on a neck of dry land between two +marshes where the Turks were intrenched at five o'clock in the morning +of September 28, 1915. Advancing cautiously for a mile between the two +marshes, Delamain's column came in sight of the enemy's intrenchments. +Before the fight opened General Townshend directed General Houghton to +lead a detachment of Delamain's force around the marsh to the north +and make a flank attack on the Turkish intrenchments. That Nuredin +Pasha should have left his northern flank exposed to a turning +movement appeared to some of the British officers at the time as a +piece of incredible stupidity; but it developed afterward that the +Turkish commander knew perfectly well what he was about. The open road +around the marsh was a skillfully prepared trap. A carefully concealed +Turkish brigade that had escaped the observations of the British +airmen lay behind the ridges near the most northern marsh. But the +Turkish surprise did not come off as they expected, for General +Houghton's column moved forward so swiftly through the dark around the +marsh that, at 8.20 a. m., he was ready to send a wireless message to +his superior officer announcing that he had reached the left rear of +the Turkish lines. Everything now being ready for a general attack, +General Townshend proceeded to give battle. Since sunrise on September +27, 1915, the fleet on the river, consisting of armed steamers, +tugboats, launches, etc., had been firing on the main Turkish +position. Attempts made by H. M. S. _Comet_, leading a flotilla to get +in near to the shore at the bend of the river and bombard the Turks at +close range, were a failure. For the enemy quickly noted this movement +and dropped shells so fast on the British vessels that they were +compelled to retire. Some boats had been struck by Turkish shells, but +the damages were not serious. Later some armed launches were able to +creep near to the Turkish field batteries, and about noon their guns +were silenced and the gunners killed or dispersed. The British shore +batteries did some effective work, but the Turks succeeded in getting +in one shot that killed two gunners and wounded a number of others. It +was the only shot, and the last, that caused any British loss of life. + +During most of the long hot day General Fry's brigade occupied a +position in front of the Horseshoe Marsh, subjected to a constant +shower of shells from quick-firing guns. It was evident that the enemy +artillery was manned by Germans, for the firing showed speed and +accuracy. It was an advantage to the British that the enemy had no +airmen to scout and spot for them, and consequently there were few +casualties as the result of the almost continuous deluge of shells +poured forth by the Turkish guns. Early in the morning the Turks +discovered that the British camp was a dummy, and a division crossing +the Tigris by means of a flying bridge dashed into the fight. A +counterattack was made against General Delamain by the greater part +of this fresh division. + +The British column which was operating between what were known as the +Suwada Marsh and Circular Marsh started its assault between eight and +nine o'clock in the morning. The British had concentrated all their +available artillery between the marshes, and under the protection of +the guns and the supporting fire of Maxims and musketry a double +company of the 117th Mahrattas made a headlong charge on the Turkish +trenches. The daring Indians suffered great losses, not more than half +the number who had set out reaching the Turkish trenches, into which +they dashed intrepidly and bayoneted their way along them, causing +heavy losses to the enemy. A double company of Second Dorsets was now +sent against the Turkish trenches, and after meeting with desperate +resistance they succeeded in entering the enemy's deeply dug line. The +rest of the battalion followed a little later, joining their comrades +in the captured position. + +General Houghton's leading troops now came into action around the rear +of the Circular Marsh. The Turks' northern flank had been stormed, but +they still held desperately to their southern flank, from which they +poured a devastating stream of shells against the British troops that +caused many casualties. + +General Houghton's troops had had little rest since the previous day, +but they were cheered by the prospect of success, and with the Oxfords +leading they entered the fight, and after four hours of continuous +struggle surrounded and destroyed or captured the enemy force. The +Turkish troops, concealed in deep ditches protected from the scorching +rays of the sun by grass matting, fought on with dogged determination +and were with difficulty dislodged. The British troops exposed to the +pitiless heat, and exhausted from lack of sleep and from having had no +water since the previous day, suffered terribly and could not possibly +have held out much longer if the Turkish resistance had not collapsed. + +General Delamain, commanding the victorious columns, had made a night +march from the dummy camp on the Tigris, and his soldiers and horses +also suffered from thirst, having been forced into action before it +was possible to renew the water supply. + +In the afternoon of the same day, September 28, 1915, General +Houghton's exhausted troops were furiously attacked by the Turkish +division that had crossed the Tigris at nine o'clock in the morning, +while a force of Turkish cavalry at the same time attempted an +outflanking charge. + +The British troops beat off the Turkish horsemen and infantry and +endeavored to reach the river, which was over a mile to the rear of +the Turkish intrenched forces at Horseshoe Marsh. Exhausted with +weariness, consumed by a feverish thirst, the gallant troops were +swept by showers of shrapnel from heavy Turkish batteries stationed +near the Kut just when they were nearing the longed-for river that +promised relief for their sufferings. It was impossible for them to +continue in that unprotected position, and reluctantly the troops +turned back from the inviting waterway and struggled back to the +Suwada Marsh, where General Delamain's force was concentrated. The +filthy marsh water was undrinkable, but it could be used to cool the +superheated jackets of the guns and thus keep them in a condition for +action. After nearly fourteen hours of continuous fighting and +marching the troops at last had an opportunity to take a short and +much-needed rest. + +At 5 p. m. a wireless message was received from General Townshend +ordering a combined attack on the Turkish lines around Horseshoe +Marsh. General Delamain's column was ordered to move forward to the +rear of the enemy's position, while General Fry's column, which had +been moving toward the Turkish center, was directed to hold back until +Delamain had reached the appointed place. + +Behind Nuredin Pasha's main position the two brigades under General +Delamain and General Houghton, skirting the Suwada Marsh, struggled +once more to gain the river. Suddenly, out of the dust clouds that +obscured the view for any distance, appeared a Turkish column about a +mile to the west marching almost parallel with the British force, but +a little behind it. It is related by one who was present that this +sudden appearance of the enemy so close at hand, and marching in the +open, had such a stimulating and heartening effect on the exhausted +and thirst-stricken British troops that they forgot for a time all +about the river toward which they were eagerly pressing, and, dashing +forward, charged the Turks with the bayonet and routed them before +they had time to recover from their surprise or could fire more than a +few wild shots. The British captured all the enemy guns and pursued +the enemy fleeing toward the river, shooting them down as they +scattered, and only ceasing their destructive work when darkness fell +and the few living Turks had escaped over their bridge of boats on the +river. + +The combat here had not lasted more than an hour, and the British +brigades, now that the excitement was over, were too exhausted to +proceed any farther and bivouacked on the ground near the scene of +their victory. + +It was hopeless now to attempt to continue the encircling movement, +which was started at five o'clock, owing to the darkness and the +condition of the men. Some time during the night Nuredin Pasha, having +evacuated his fortified position, moved his troops across the Tigris +to the southern bank and, by forced marches, reached Shat-el-Hai. From +there he proceeded to Azizie, where, for the defense of Bagdad, +extensive fortifications had been constructed. It was evident from the +rapidity of his movements that the Turkish commander was afraid of +being overtaken by the British forces, for in two days he had marched +his men sixty-five miles toward Bagdad. + +The Turkish forces made good their retreat, and so General Townshend, +who had accomplished some remarkable successes at the beginning of the +battle, was deprived of a decisive victory. He had evidently planned +the battle on the impulse of the moment and when it was impossible to +secure an adequate water supply. His men fought with courage and +determination, but tormented by thirst and worn out from loss of sleep +it was physically impossible for them to accomplish more than they +did. It was a bitter blow to General Townshend that the Turks had been +able to retreat in good order. The importance of such a victory could +not be overestimated. It meant the conquering of entire Mesopotamia as +far as Bagdad, and the moral effect of such a success on the Arabs and +tribesmen would have greatly raised British prestige in that region. + +An attempt was made to give chase to the fleeing Turks on the river +during the night, when Lieutenant Commander Cookson, the senior naval +officer, with his ship, the destroyer _Comet_, and several other +smaller vessels set out after them. The Turks fired on the boats from +the shore, and the _Comet_, which had steamed in close to the bank, +was assailed with hand grenades by the enemy. A strong, thick wire had +been stretched across the river, attached to sunken dhows, and it +became necessary to remove these obstructions before an advance could +be made. A vivid description of the heroic death of Lieutenant +Commander Edgar Christopher Cookson, D. S. O., R. N., who won the +Victoria Cross for his bravery at this time, is given in a letter home +by one of his crew of the destroyer _Comet_: "Just as it was getting +dark our seaplane dropped on the water alongside of us and told +Lieutenant Commander Cookson that the Turks were on the run, but that +a little farther up the river they had placed obstructions across, so +that we could not pass without clearing it away. This turned out to be +the liveliest time that I have had since we began fighting. It was +very dark when we started off, the _Comet_ leading, and the _Shaitan_ +and _Sumana_ following. When we got around the head of land the Turks +opened fire with rifles, but we steamed up steadily to the +obstruction. The Turks were then close enough to us to throw hand +bombs, but luckily none reached the deck of our ship. + +"During all this time we weren't asleep. We fired at them with guns +and rifles, and the _Shaitan_ and _Sumana_ were also blazing away. Our +troops ashore said it was a lively sight to see all our guns working. + +"We found that the obstruction was a big wire across the river, with +boats made fast to it. An attempt to sink the center dhow of the +obstruction by gunfire having failed, Lieutenant Commander Cookson +ordered the _Comet_ to be placed alongside and himself jumped on to +the dhow with an ax and tried to cut the wire hawsers connecting it +with two other craft forming the obstruction. He was shot in seven +places and when we dragged him over his last words were: 'I am done; +it is a failure. Return at full speed!' He never spoke afterward. We +had six wounded, but none seriously." + +The adventure which had cost the British the loss of a brave officer +was not a failure, as this writer concludes: "We must have frightened +the Turks, because on going up the river again about daybreak (after +we had buried our commander) we found the Turks had cleared out and +retired farther up the river. So we steamed up after them and when we +reached Kut-el-Amara we found the army there." The friendly but keen +rivalry that existed between the two services is amusingly shown in +the sea-man's final comment, "This is the first place that the army +has got ahead of the navy." + +A little later the gunboats were ordered to pursue the fleeing Turks. +The _Shaitan_ and the _Sumana_ grounded on uncharted mud banks and +were unable to proceed, but the _Comet_ continued on its way and +forced the Turks to leave several dhows behind them laden with +military stores, provisions, and ammunition. + +Kut-el-Amara, the Arab town which General Townshend was to make famous +in history, was occupied by the British troops on September 11, 1915. +It is situated on a bend of the Tigris and is 120 miles from Bagdad by +road, and 220 miles by water. The retreating Turkish army made a stand +a little to the west of Azizi, which is forty miles to Bagdad by road +and about four times that distance by water. The object of the Turks +in taking up a position at this place, it was discovered later, was to +enable their engineers to prepare near Bagdad the most elaborate and +scientifically arranged system of fortifications that had so far been +constructed in Mesopotamia. + +When the British Expeditionary Force began to threaten the "City of +the Caliphs," it was evident that the Turks had found it possible to +extend the Bagdad railway line, by means of which Nuredin Pasha +received fresh troops to reenforce his army, brought hurriedly down +out of Syria. For when the British force reached Azizi on October 13, +1915, it was known that the Turkish commander had recently received +some thousands of fresh troops. Their presence in that part of +Mesopotamia, at that time, could only be explained on the ground that +with the aid of German engineers the Turks had been enabled to +complete railway communications, an important fact that seems to have +been unsuspected by the British military authorities, and which might +lead to serious consequences for the already outnumbered British +force. Until the beginning of November General Townshend's division +remained here, part of the Turkish force being intrenched about four +miles up the river. While it was expected that at any hour the Turks +would attack, they did not attempt the offensive with any strong +force, but skirmishes between the opposing troops were of frequent and +almost daily occurrence. The British infantry were busy many days +digging intrenchments, and every preparation was made by the British +general to make his position impregnable. With shore batteries and a +number of armed steamers and armored boats on the river, it was hoped +that the Turks would make a grand attack. Why they did not when they +had four times the number of men as the British was inexplainable. +Some such move was necessary if they hoped to restore the confidence +of their Arab allies, which was said to be wavering. The recent +British victory had, perhaps, made the Turkish commander doubtful of +his troops, for no serious offensive against the British position was +attempted. + +About the middle of October, 1915, General Townshend received some +reenforcements who had fought their way along the river, constantly +harassed by Bedouins and hostile tribesmen, reaching the British +position in a thoroughly exhausted condition. Even with the arrival of +the reenforcements General Townshend's force numbered little more than +a complete division, and a small reserve. During the stay at Azizi it +was rumored that a large contingent of troops was on its way from +India to strengthen the force at this place. + +As time passed and nothing more was heard of these promised +reenforcements the small British army settled down with grim +determination to make the best of their situation, but there was a +general feeling among them that the Government had not acted fairly +by them in not sending help. It was evident that the Indian and +British Governments were imperfectly informed as to the strength of +the enemy's forces and of the means whereby they could fill up the +ranks when depleted by battle. This is the only explanation or excuse +that could be made. At no time did General Townshend's force number +more than four brigades, which, under the circumstances, was wholly +inadequate to accomplish the conquest of Bagdad. + +General Townshend being thrown on his own resources proceeded to act +with extreme caution, for the whole fate of the British Expeditionary +Force hung in the balance. It was not a time to take venturesome +risks, for he could not spare a man. The Turks, fortunately, showed no +disposition to attack in force, but they resorted to methods of +guerrilla warfare. + +The Turks had only left one brigade to hold their advanced position, +the remainder joining the forces established in the new fortifications +near Bagdad. + +The rear guard remaining near Azizi did not allow the British to +forget their presence. They were well equipped with guns and at +frequent intervals sent shells into the British camp without, however, +doing much damage. Along the river they were strong enough to hold +back the British gunboats. For a time General Townshend pursued the +policy of watchful waiting, but one dark night toward the close of +October, 1915, the opportunity arrived for an operation which promised +success. Two brigades were sent out to make a long detour, with the +object of getting behind the Turkish position. This, it was expected, +would take most of the night. At sunrise it was proposed that another +brigade should make a frontal attack on the enemy. The Turks, however, +were not to be caught napping. Their outposts, far flung into the +desert, soon gave warning of the attempted British enveloping +movement, and they were in full retreat with most of their stores and +guns before the British force could reach their main position. The +Turkish retreat in the face of superior numbers was the logical thing +to do under the circumstances, and from the manner in which the +movement was conducted it was evident that it had been prepared for in +advance. The brigades of British and Indian troops that had been sent +forward to make a frontal attack on the Turkish position now embarked +on the miscellaneous flotilla of boats on the river to pursue the +retreating foe. The attempt was not successful, for, owing to the +condition of the river which abounded in mud banks not down on the +chart, the British boats were constantly sticking fast in the mud or +grounding on shoals. Such slow progress was made that the pursuit, if +such it could be called, was abandoned. + +British seaplanes and aeroplanes meanwhile had been scouting around +Bagdad and keeping a watchful eye on the Turkish lines of +communication that extended up the river toward the Caucasus heights, +and across the desert in the direction of Syria. The difficult task +set before the small British force was to break its way through to +Bagdad, where it was hoped it would be joined by the advanced columns +of the Russian army in the Caucasus. Early in November, 1915, General +Townshend knew that a Russian advanced column was rapidly forcing its +way down the border of Persia by Lake Urumiah. In a more southerly +direction a second column was on the march to the city of Hamadan, 250 +miles from Bagdad. It was hoped that the small British force would +smash the Turks at Bagdad and the Germano-Persian Gendarmes Corps be +vanquished at Hamadan, after which it would be no difficult task for +the troops of Sir John Nixon to link up with the army of the Grand +Duke Nicholas. These far too sanguine hopes were not destined to be +fulfilled. + + + + +CHAPTER LIII + +BATTLE OF CTESIPHON + + +General Townshend having captured the village of Jeur on November 19, +1915, marched against Nuredin Pasha's main defenses which had been +constructed near the ruins of Ctesiphon, eighteen miles from Bagdad. +Ctesiphon at the present time is a large village on the Tigris, once a +suburb of ancient Seleucia, and the winter capital of the Parthian +kings. The vicinity is of great historic interest. About thirteen +centuries ago Chosroes, the great Persian emperor, erected a vast and +splendid palace, said to be the greatest on earth in that period, and +of which the ruins are still standing near the marshy edge of the +river. Neither the ravages of time, nor the devastations of the +destructive Mongols who swept the country in ages past could +obliterate this palatial memorial to the genius of Persian architects. +The ruins of the palace at Ctesiphon contain the greatest vaulted room +in the world, and its battered walls, grand in decay, stand to-day an +enduring monument to the invincible power of Islam in the days of +Mohammed. For one of the first of the well-known achievements of the +army of the Arabian prophet was the capture of Ctesiphon and the +burning and despoiling of the palace of the Persian kings. + +[Illustration: The Russian Advance through Persia.] + +Nuredin Pasha was well aware when he selected his defensive position +near the ruins of this memorial to the valor of Islam in ancient days, +that every Turk, Arab, and tribesman of his troops was familiar with +the story, and he doubtless hoped that its memory might inspire the +descendants of the Prophet's army to fresh deeds of valor for the +honor of Islam. + +Around this ruin the Turks had constructed their position, on the +right bank of the river and on the left. For miles around the country +was perfectly flat and devoid of cover of any description. A network +of deep and narrow trenches stretched back to within a short distance +of the River Dialah, six miles to the rear, which flows into the +Tigris at this point. The earth from the trenches had been carried to +the rear, and there were no embankments or parapets of any kind. Along +the entire front a thick barbed-wire fence had been set up. + +The hard-fought action at Ctesiphon must rank as one of the greatest +battles in which the Indo-British army has ever been engaged. The +troops were in an emaciated condition through constant fighting, first +in excessively hot weather, and afterward suffering intensely from the +cold, which made the nights unendurable at this time of the year in +Mesopotamia. In such a physically weakened condition did the +Indo-British troops engage the vastly stronger forces of Nuredin +Pasha at Ctesiphon. An officer who participated in the battle +describes in a letter home some of the striking incidents of that +important action. + +"Morning of the 22d of November, 1915, found the troops in readiness +to attack, stretched out on the wide plain facing the Ctesiphon +position, the troops detailed for the frontal attack nearest the +river. As soon as dawn broke the advance commenced. The left of the +columns marching against the enemy's flank were faintly visible on the +horizon. The gunboats opened fire against the enemy's trenches close +to the left bank. The field artillery drew in and pounded the ground +where they imagined the trenches must be, but there was no reply, nor +any sound of movement at Ctesiphon until the lines of advancing +infantry got within 2,000 yards of the wire entanglements. Then, as by +signal, the whole of the Turkish line broke into a roar of fire, and +we knew that the struggle had commenced. + +"Under the heavy artillery fire the attack pushed in toward the enemy +with a steadiness which could not have been beaten on parade until +effective rifle range was reached, where a pause was made to build up +the strength. The fight for the trenches from now on until the British +succeeded in reaching the first line of trenches baffles description. +The gallant advance across the open ground, the building up of the +firing line, the long pause under murderous rifle fire, while devoted +bodies of men went forward to cut the wire, the final rush and the +hand-to-hand fighting in the trenches, are stories which have been +told before. No description could do justice to the gallantry of the +men who carried it out. + +"Meanwhile, the flank attack had crushed the enemy's left and driven +it back on its second line a mile or so to the rear. Courage and +determination carried the day, and by the afternoon the whole of the +front Turkish position, and part of the second line was in the hands +of the British. The intensity of the fighting, however, did not abate. +The Turks pressed in counterattacks at several points from their +second position on which they had fallen back. Twelve Turkish guns +were captured, taken again by the enemy, recaptured by the British, +and retaken finally by the Turks, and so the fighting went on until a +merciful darkness fell, and, as if by mutual agreement, the fire of +both sides, too weary for more, died away." + +Nuredin Pasha's forces were numerically far superior to the British. +General Townshend had only four brigades, while the Turkish commander +had four divisions, and was much stronger in artillery. + +The Turkish commander, who was well informed as to the strength or +weakness of the British force, may well have looked forward to an easy +victory. But the many successes gained by British arms during the +campaign in Mesopotamia had not failed to impress the Turkish troops +and the tribesmen, their allies, with a wholesome respect for British +valor. If General Townshend had been reenforced by another division +that might easily have been spared to him from the army that had been +in training in India for ten months previous, he could have smashed +the Turks at Ctesiphon and conquered Mesopotamia. As it was, the +British victory was all but complete. An entire Turkish division was +destroyed. They took 1,600 prisoners and large quantities of arms and +ammunition. But these successes had been dearly won. Some of the +British battalions lost half their men. According to the best +authorities the British casualties totaled 4,567, of whom 643 were +killed, 3,330 wounded, and 594 men not accounted for. According to the +Turkish accounts of the Battle of Ctesiphon, which emanated from +Constantinople, the British had 170,000 men in action, and their +losses exceeded 5,000. This estimate of General Townshend's strength +was far from the truth. At no time did the British commander's troops +number more than 25,000, and 16,000 men would be a liberal estimate of +his striking force. + +A graphic description of what followed the battle is furnished by a +letter home, written by an officer who participated in the struggle. + +"The cold of the night, want of water, the collecting of the wounded, +gave little rest to the men, though many snatched a few hours' sleep +in the trenches among the dead. Dawn of November 23, 1915, broke with +a tearing wind and a dust storm which obscured the landscape for some +hours, and then the air, becoming clearer, allowed us to take in the +scene of the fight. Whatever losses we suffered the Turks must have +suffered even more severely. They had fought desperately to the end, +knowing that to attempt to escape over the open ground was to court +instant death. The trenches were full of their dead, and here and +there a little pile of men showed where a lucky shell had fallen. +Ctesiphon loomed through the dust before us, still intact for all the +stream of shell which had passed it, for our gunners had been asked +not to hit the ancient monument. + +"The early part of the morning was occupied in clearing to the rear +the transport which had come up to the first line during the night. At +about ten o'clock the air cleared and the enemy's artillery began to +boom fitfully. Their guns from across the river began to throw heavy +shells over us, and as the light grew better it developed into an +artillery duel which lasted throughout the day. General Townshend +during the afternoon parked his transport two miles to the rear, and +while holding the front line of the Turkish position swung his right +back to cover his park. In the late afternoon the artillery fire +briskened, and long lines of Turkish infantry could be seen in the +half light advancing against the British. The first attack was +delivered against our left just after dark with a heavy burst of fire, +and from then until four o'clock the next morning the Turkish force, +strengthened by fresh troops that had arrived from Bagdad, flung +themselves against us and attempted to break the line. On three +separate occasions during the night were infantry columns thrown right +up against the position at different points, and each effort was +heralded by wild storms of artillery and infantry fire. The line held, +and before dawn had broken the Turks had withdrawn, subsequently to +re-form on their third position on the banks of the Dialah River." + +By November 24, 1915, the casualties had been evacuated to the ships +eight miles to the rear. The British force remained on the position +which they had won for another day and then withdrew toward +Kut-el-Amara. + +General Townshend's force reached the Kut on or about December 5, +1915, having fought some rear-guard actions on the way, and lost +several hundred men. The news had been skillfully spread about the +country that the Turks had won a great victory at Ctesiphon, in proof +of which it was known that the British were retreating, and that the +Turkish forces were in pursuit. These facts had the usual effect on +the Arabs, who had been friendly to the British, and who now deserted +them to join forces with the Turks. For the wily nomads are ever ready +to go over to the side which seems to be winning, for then there is +promise of much loot. There is no profit in aiding lost causes or the +weaker side. + +An officer describing General Townshend's retreat on Kut-el-Amara +through a country swarming with hostile Arabs has this to say: "It +speaks well for the spirit of the troops under his command that, in +the face of overwhelming numbers the retirement was carried out with +cheerfulness and steadiness beyond all praise, and not even the +prisoners, of whom 1,600 had been captured at Ctesiphon, were allowed +to fall into the hands of the enemy. The country around is perfectly +flat, covered with short grass or shrub, though here and there old +irrigation channels make it difficult for carts or motor cars to +negotiate. The operations above the Kut were carried out by land, +though ships bore an important part in bringing up supplies and the +thousand and one things required by an army in the field. An enemy +report was published to the effect that the Turks had captured one of +our armored trains. It will not be giving away a military secret when +I say that no railway of any sort exists south of Bagdad." + +How closely General Townshend was pressed by the enemy in his retreat +to Kut-el-Amara is evident from an officer's letter: "We found the +Turks in camps sitting all around us. We had to fight a rear-guard +action all day and marched twenty-seven miles before we halted. After +lying down for two or three hours, we marched on fifteen miles more to +within four miles of the Kut. Here we had to stop for a time because +the infantry were too tired to move." + + + + +CHAPTER LIV + +STAND AT KUT-EL-AMARA--ATTEMPTS AT RELIEF + + +Kut-el-Amara, where General Townshend and his troops were so long +besieged, stands on the left bank of the Tigris, almost at the water's +level, with sloping sand hills rising to the north. The desert beyond +the river is broken here and there by deep nullahs which, when they +are filled with water after a rainfall, are valuable defensive +features of the country. Five miles from the town, and surrounding it +on all sides but the waterside, is a series of field forts of no great +value against heavy artillery. Had the Turks been equipped with large +guns such as the Germans employed in Europe these fortifications would +have been shattered to pieces in a few hours. But the forts proved +useful. + +The spaces between them were filled with strong barbed-wire +entanglements and carefully prepared intrenchments. To the southeast +the position was further strengthened by a wide marshy district that +lies just outside the fortified line. General Townshend was holding a +position that was about fifteen miles in circumference, to adequately +protect which it would have been necessary for him to have twice as +many men as were at his disposal. For one of the lessons that has been +learned in the Great War is that 5,000 men, including reserves, are +required to the mile to properly defend a position. General +Townshend's occupation of the Kut was therefore precarious, and he +could only hope to hold out until the arrival of reenforcements which +had been held back by the Turks when they were within sight of the +British general's position. + +The Turkish success in checking the British advance and in bottling up +General Townshend's troops in Kut-el-Amara had inspired them with hope +and courage and the town was subjected to almost constant bombardment. +Confident of the outcome the Turks fought with considerable bravery. + +It was known to the Turks that reenforcements had been sent to the +relief of the British commander, and they hoped to capture the Kut +before these arrived. On December 8, 1915, they shelled the British +position all day; the bombardment was continued on the 9th and they +made some desultory attacks on all sides. From the British point of +view the attitude of the Arabs at this time was satisfactory. General +Townshend received encouraging news that a relieving force was pushing +its way rapidly to his aid. + +On December 10, 1915, the Kut was again heavily bombarded by the Turks +and an attack was developed against the northern front of the +position, which however was not pressed. On the day following the +bombardment was continued. Two attacks made on the northern front of +the British position were repulsed, the enemy losing many men. + +December 11, 1915, the bombardment was renewed. The Turks reported the +capture of Sheik Saad on the line of retreat, twenty-five miles east +of the Kut. They also gave out a statement that the British had lost +700 men in this fight. + +Heavy musketry fire marked the Turkish offensive on December 12, 1915. +They attacked on the same day a river village on the right bank of the +Tigris, but were repulsed with heavy casualties. It was estimated by +the British commander that the Turks lost at least 1,000 men during +this abortive attack. + +British losses at the Kut since their return totaled 1,127, including +200 deaths, 49 from disease. Reenforcements were constantly joining +the Turkish besieging army, and it was estimated that in the first +weeks of December, 1915, they had been strengthened by 20,000 men. +Every day the enemy's ring of steel became stronger, while the British +were in such a position that if the Kut became untenable they could +not retreat with any hope of success. If forced out into the open, +there would be nothing left for them to do but surrender. + +A sortie of British and Indian troops was made on December 17, 1915, +who surprised the enemy in the advanced trenches, killed 30, and took +11 prisoners and returned without suffering any casualties. + +On or about this date, on the Sinai Peninsula, a British +reconnoitering party routed a hostile band of Arabs near Matruh, +losing 15 men killed and 15 wounded, 3 of whom were officers. The +Arabs had 35 killed and 17 taken prisoners. + +On December 24, 1915, the Turks having made a breach in the north +bastion of one of the Kut forts succeeded in forcing their way in, but +were repulsed, leaving 200 dead. On Christmas Day there was fierce +fighting again at this point, when the Turks once more entered through +the breach and were driven out with heavy losses. + +The garrison consisting of the Oxford Light Infantry and the 103d, +being reenforced by the Norfolk Regiment and 104th Pioneers, drove the +Turks back over their second line of trenches and reoccupied the +bastion. The total British losses in the fighting on Christmas Day +were 71 killed, of whom three were officers, one missing, and 309 +wounded. It was estimated that the enemy lost about 700. + +The Turks continued to bombard the Kut almost hourly, but the only +serious damage effected by their fire was when on December 30, 1915, +shells burst through the roof of the British hospital and wounded a +few men. + +General Aylmer's leading troops under General Younghusband of the +British force sent to relieve the besieged army at the Kut left Ali +Gherbi on January 4, 1916. Following up both banks of the Tigris, +British cavalry came in contact with the enemy on the following day. +These advanced Turkish troops were on the right bank of the river and +few in number, but farther on at Sheik Saad, the enemy in considerable +strength occupied both sides of the river. On January 6, 1916, the +British infantry attacked and then dug itself in in front of the +Turkish position on the right bank. In the morning of the following +day by adroit maneuvering, the British cavalry succeeded in getting +around to the rear of the enemy's trenches on the right bank and +destroyed nearly a whole battalion, taking over 550 prisoners. + +Among the number of captives were sixteen officers. Several mountain +guns were also taken. The British casualties were heavy, especially +among the infantry. + +The remainder of General Aylmer's force having advanced from Ali +Gherbi, January 6, 1916, fought a simultaneous action on the left bank +of the river while the action on the right bank just described was in +progress. + +Early in the afternoon of this day the British forces were subjected +to heavy rifle and Maxim fire from the Turkish trenches 1,200 yards +away. The hazy, dusty atmosphere made it difficult to see with any +accuracy the enemy's defenses. Their numerous trenches were most +carefully concealed. Toward evening the Turkish cavalry attempted an +enveloping move against the British right, but coming under the fire +of the British artillery, that move failed. Finding the resistance of +the Turkish infantry too strong, the British troops abandoned any +further offensive and intrenched in the positions they had won. Later +in the evening the Turks suddenly evacuated their defenses and +retired. A heavy rainfall hindered the British commander from +pursuing, and a stop was made at Sheik Saad to enable him to get his +wounded away. The Turks finding that General Aylmer did not pursue, +fell back on Es Sinn, from which they had been ousted by General +Townshend in September of the previous year. The Turkish version of +the Battle of Sheik Saad estimated the British losses at 3,000. + +On January 12, 1916, the Turks advanced from Es Sinn to the Wadi, a +stream that flows into the Tigris about twenty-four miles from +Kut-el-Amara. Here the British relieving force came in touch with the +enemy on January 13, 1916, and a hotly contested struggle ensued that +lasted all day long. The British force consisted of three divisions. +One of these, occupying a position on the south bank of the Tigris, +was being opposed by a column under General Kemball. On the northern +bank General Aylmer's troops engaged two divisions in the neighborhood +of the Wadi. + +On January 14, 1916, the Turkish army began a general retreat and +General Aylmer moved his headquarters and transport forward to the +mouth of the Wadi. On the day following the whole of the Wadi position +was captured by the British relieving force, and the Turkish rear +guard again took up a position at Es Sinn. It was reported that German +officers were with the Turkish force. + +Further military operations against the Turks were delayed by storms +of great violence that continued for about ten days. General Aylmer +found it impossible to move his troops through the heavy mire, and not +until January 21, 1916, could he advance and attack the Turks who +after their retreat occupied a position near Felahie, about +twenty-three miles from Kut-el-Amara. Here a brisk engagement was +fought in the midst of torrents of rain that greatly hindered +operations. The struggle was indecisive. Owing to the floods, General +Aylmer could not attack on the following day, but took up a position +about 1,300 yards from the enemy's trenches. + +Mr. Edmund Candler, the well-known English writer, who was with the +British troops operating on the Tigris, furnishes some striking +details of the engagement. His picturesque description of what took +place at this point in General Aylmer's advance to relieve the +besieged army at the Kut, shows the desperate character of the Turkish +resistance: + +"The Turks were holding a strong position between the left bank of the +Tigris and the Suweki Marsh, four miles out of our camp. It was a +bottle-neck position, with a mile and a half of front: there was no +getting around them, and the only way was to push through. + +"We intrenched in front of them. On January 20, 1916, we bombarded +them with all our guns and again on the morning of the 21st +preparatory to a frontal attack. + +"At dawn the rifle fire began, and the tap-tap-tap of the Maxims, +steady and continuous, with vibrations like two men wrestling in an +alternate grip, tightening and relaxing." It was not light enough for +the gunners to see the registering marks, but at a quarter before +eight in the morning the bombardment began. "The thunderous orchestra +of the guns shook the earth and rent the skies. Columns of earth rose +over the Turkish lines, and pillars of smoke, green and white and +brown and yellow, and columns of water, where a stray shell--Turkish +no doubt--plunged into the Tigris. + +"The enemy lines must have been poor cover, and I was glad we had the +bulk of the guns on our side. All this shell fire should have been a +covering roof to our advance, but the Turk it appears was not skulking +as he ought. + +"The B's came by in support and occupied an empty trench. They were +laughing and joking, but it was a husky kind of fun, and there was no +gladness in it, for everyone knew that we were in for a bloody day. +One of them tripped upon a telegraph wire. 'Not wounded yet!' a pal +cried. Just then another stumbled to an invisible stroke and did not +rise. A man ahead was singing nervously, 'That's not the girl I saw +you with at Brighton.' + +"I went on to the next trench where a sergeant showed me his +bandolier. A sharp-nosed bullet had gone through three rounds of +ammunition and stuck in the fourth, during the last rush forward. + +"I could conceive of the impulse that carried one over those last two +hundred yards--but as an impulse of a lifetime; to most of my friends +this kind of thing was becoming their daily bread. The men I was with +were mostly a new draft. I could see they were afraid, but they were +brave. Word was passed along to advance to the next bit of cover. + +"The bombardment had ceased. The rifle and Maxim fire ahead was +continuous, like hail on a corrugated roof of iron. The B's would soon +be in it. I listened eagerly for some intermission, but it did not +relax or recede, and I knew that the Turks must be holding on. The +bullets became thicker--an ironic whistle, a sucking noise, a gluck +like a snipe leaving mud, the squeal and rattle of shrapnel. + +"I found the brigade headquarters. We had got into the Turkish +trenches, the general told me, but by that time we were sadly thin, +and we had been bombed out. At noon the rain came down, putting the +crown upon depression. All day and all night it poured, and one +thought of the wounded, shivering in the cold and mud, waiting for +help. At night they were brought in on slow, jolting transport carts." + +The writer met a boy, the only officer of his regiment who had come +out of the trenches alive and unwounded, and who had a bullet through +his pocket and another through his helmet. He was in a dazed state of +wonder at finding himself still alive. + +"It was a miracle that anyone had lived through that fire in the +attack and retreat, but the boy had been in the Turkish trenches and +held them for an hour and a quarter. Oddments of other regiments had +got through, two British and two Indian. I saw their dead being +carried out during the truce of the next day." + +The boy officer's regiment had been the first to penetrate the enemy's +trenches. As he dropped into the trench a comrade next to him was +struck in the back of the head and dropped forward on his shoulder. "I +saw eight bayonets and rifles all pointing to me," said the boy +officer describing his experiences. "I saw the men's faces, and I was +desperately scared. I expected to go down in the next two yards. I +felt the lead in my stomach. I thought I was done for. I don't know +why they didn't fire. They must have been frightened by my sudden +appearance. I let off my revolver at them and it kicked up an awful +lot of dust." + +The British troops that had charged the Turkish trenches were not +supplied with bombs, but the enemy were well equipped with them. +Consequently the British were gradually driven down the trench from +traverse to traverse, in the direction of the river, where they +encountered another bombing party that was coming up a trench at right +angles. The British were placed in a desperate position, being jammed +in densely between these attacks, and literally squeezed over the +parapet. In evacuating the trench they were subjected to a deadly fire +in which they lost more men than in the attack. + +[Illustration: The British Campaign in Mesopotamia.] + +The uniform flatness of the terrain in this region and entire absence +of cover for the attacker, whether the movement be frontal or +enveloping, was responsible for the heavy losses the British incurred +in this engagement. Here there were no protecting villages, hedges, or +banks. A swift, headlong rush that could be measured in seconds was +impossible under the circumstances. At 2000 yards the British infantry +came under rifle fire, and had no communication trenches to curtail +the zone of fire. An armistice was concluded on January 21, 1916, for +a few hours, to allow for the removal of the wounded and the burial of +the dead. In forty-eight hours the Tigris had risen as high as seven +feet in some places and the country around was under water, which +effectually prevented all movements of troops by land. + +General Townshend meanwhile, besieged at Kut-el-Amara, continued +cheerfully to repel attacks and to await the arrival of the relieving +force. He was well supplied with stores, and there was no fear of a +famine. He described his troops at this time as being in the best of +spirits. Evidently he was not in a position to be of any assistance to +the relieving force, whose advance had been delayed by the storms. At +the close of January, 1916, he reported that the enemy had evacuated +their trenches on the land side of the Kut defenses, and had retired +to a position about a mile away from the British intrenchments. + +The floods of January, 1916, were a distinct benefit to General +Townshend, for the Turks, intrenched in a loop of the Tigris, were +driven out by the deluge and compelled to seek higher ground. + +In the first days of February, 1916, Sir Percy Lake, who had succeeded +Sir John Nixon to the chief command of the British forces in +Mesopotamia, dispatched General Brooking from Nasariyeh with a column +up the River Shatt-el-Har, a branch of the Tigris, to make a +reconnaissance. On February 7, 1916, on his way back, General Brooking +was attacked by hostile Arabs near Butaniyeh. He was also attacked by +tribesmen who had been considered friendly to the British and who +issued from villages along the route. There was some sharp fighting in +which the losses were heavy on both sides. The British had 373 men +killed or wounded, while the Arab dead numbered 636. On the 9th a +small punitive expedition was sent against the treacherous tribesmen, +and four Arab villages were destroyed. The incident offered another +striking proof that no dependence could be placed on the faith of the +Arabs. + +General Aylmer finding, after his failure at Felahie, that his force +was too weakened physically to attempt to break through to relieve the +beleaguered division at the Kut, decided to intrench in the position +then occupied by his troops and to await the reenforcements which were +on the way. + +On February 17-19, 1916, hostile aeroplanes dropped bombs on the Kut, +without doing any damage, General Townshend reported. For two and a +half months the British army had been bottled up in this river town, +and the Turks had tried every means to dislodge them. + +On February 22, 1916, British columns under General Aylmer advanced up +the river on the right bank to Um-el-Arak, occupying a position which +commanded the Turkish camp behind their trenches at El Henna, a marsh +on the left bank. At daybreak the British guns opened a heavy +bombardment on the enemy's camp across the Tigris, which at this point +makes a sharp bend to the north. The Turks were evidently taken by +surprise, for a lively stampede followed. + +On March 6, 1916, General Aylmer marched up the Tigris to the Turkish +position at Es Sinn, which is only seven miles from Kut-el-Amara. This +is a Turkish stronghold and was carried by General Townshend on his +way to the Kut. The position had been greatly strengthened since that +time, that General Aylmer could hardly have hoped to succeed in +driving the enemy out. But the effort had to be made, and resulted in +a failure. The enemy lost heavily according to the British accounts, +while their own casualties were unimportant. The Turkish version of +the struggle was as follows: + +"On the morning of March 8, 1916, the enemy attacked from the right +bank of the Tigris with his main force. The fighting lasted until +sunset. Assisted by reenforcements hastily brought to his wing by his +river fleet, he succeeded in occupying a portion of our trenches, but +the latter were completely recaptured by a heroic counterattack by our +reserves, the enemy being then driven back to his old positions." + +Owing to the lack of water, General Aylmer was forced to fall back on +the Tigris. On March 10, 1916, information reached the Tigris corps +that the Turks had occupied an advanced position on the river. The +following day a British column was sent to turn the enemy out. The +British infantry daringly assaulted the position and bayoneted a +considerable number of the Turks, after which the column withdrew. + + + + +PART XI--THE WAR IN THE AIR + + + + +CHAPTER LV + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRATEGY AND TACTICS OF AIR FIGHTING + + +The student or observer of the Great European War inevitably must be +impressed with its impersonal character. Everywhere masses and +organizations rule supreme, and men and material are thought of and +used as aggregations rather than as individuals and units for +destruction and defense. The individual, save as he gives himself up +to the great machine, everywhere is inconspicuous, and while no less +courage is demanded than in the days of the short-range weapons and +personal combat, yet the heroic note of personal valor and initiative +in most cases is unheard, and the individual is sunk in the mass. One +is almost tempted to believe that chivalry and individual heroism no +longer bulk large in the profession of arms, and that in the place of +the knightly soldier there is the grim engineer at telescope or +switchboard, touching a key to produce an explosion that will melt +away yards of trenches and carry to eternity not tens but hundreds and +thousands of his fellows; there are barriers charged with deadly +currents; guns hurling tons of metal at a foe invisible to the +gunners, whose position is known only by mathematical deductions from +observers at a distance. + +All of this and much more the engineer has brought to +twentieth-century warfare, and the grim fact remains that trained +masses are used, made and destroyed in vain attempts at an object +often unknown to the individual. + +Accordingly, when we turn to the work of the aviators we pass back +from the consideration of the mass to the individual. Whatever may be +the airman's convictions as to the ethics of the Great War, always his +duty and his adversary are well defined, and it is his personal +devotion, his skill and daring, his resourcefulness and intrepidity +that are to-day playing no small part on the battle fronts of Europe. +He too is an engineer with scientific and technical knowledge and +training that control the most delicate of machines ever at the mercy +of the elements, and engineer and scientist have supplied him with +instruments and equipments embodying the results of refined research +and investigation. Withal, he is a soldier, yet not one of a mere mass +aggregation, but an individual on whose faithful and intelligent +performance of his duty mid extreme perils the issue of a great cause +may depend. But not entirely a free-lance, for experience in aerial +warfare has shown that in the air, as on the ground, harmony of action +and plan of operation avail and contribute to success. Consequently, +with the development of military aeronautics during the course of the +war, the work of the flying corps, with training and practical +experience, gradually became more systematic and far more efficient. + +While many of their achievements were distinctly sensational, +involving extreme personal daring and heroism, yet usually the general +operations were as methodical and prearranged as other forms of +military activity carried on by the different armies on the ground +below. No longer were single aeroplanes used exclusively, but large +numbers of machines were brought to bear, with the pilots drilled not +only in the manipulation of their individual machines, but to work +with others in military formations and groups, while increased +attention was paid to weapons and the protection of vulnerable parts. + +The flying craft cooperated constantly with the intelligence +departments of the various staffs, observing the enemy positions, the +distribution and movement of troops, and photographing the territory, +and their observations were not only useful but essential to the +artillery engaged so extensively in indirect fire. As their work +became more practical and understood, it was the more appreciated and +its volume increased. Indeed, by the summer of 1915 the aviation corps +of the various belligerent armies in Europe had settled down to more +or less of a routine of observation, reconnaissance, and patrol, +enlivened by bombing expeditions against the enemy and frequent aerial +combats. What once would have been considered feats of usual +intrepidity and skill on the part of the aviators, long since had +become commonplace, and the standard of operation developed to a +degree that at the beginning of the war would have been considered +phenomenal. + +Reconnaissance was actively in progress on all of the battle fronts, +combats in the air were more frequent, bombing expeditions were +conducted across the frontiers, and with a constantly increasing +supply of new and improved machines, and freshly trained aviators, the +work progressed, so that before the end of 1915, on the part of the +Allies at least, there was probably ten times as much flying as at the +beginning of the year. Even when the heavy fogs pervading the battle +fields of western Europe in the early part of 1916 prevented other +operations, reconnaissance was actively carried on, and this, with the +routine work of determining ranges, positions, etc., for the +artillery, in active progress, gave little quiet to the airmen. With +the development of the war there was a constantly increasing demand on +the skill of the aviators. + +Many of the places from which it was necessary to begin flights did +not furnish good starting, and often the same condition held as +regards the landing places. Furthermore, flying was attended with much +greater danger, with a corresponding increase in fatalities, on +account of the improvements in the antiaircraft guns and ranging +apparatus and the skill of the gunners. Withal, all official reports +agree in stating that the proportion of casualties was smaller in the +air service than in other branches of the service. There has been an +ever-increasing number of combats in the air. Often when aeroplanes +were observed in reconnaissance the enemy would make an attack upon +them in force and endeavor to destroy the machines. Indeed, this was a +marked tendency of the war, and the record from the first of August +would show not only an increased number of duels between individual +machines, but of skirmishes between air patrols, and contests in which +a number of machines would attack in force opposing aeroplanes. + +As the war developed there was an increased tendency toward the +tactical maneuvering of a number of aeroplanes, a greater frequency of +bombing raids, and these attempts naturally led to reprisals as well +as to defensive efforts. Often the aeroplanes designed for dropping +bombs were heavy and powerful machines, not armed primarily for +attack, but depending for protection upon one or more fighting +aeroplanes of greater maneuvering power which accompanied them and +carried machine guns and other weapons. In these bombing raids the +tendency was to use a number of machines. In the raids of October 2, +1915, on the stations of Vosiers and Challeranges, sixty-five machines +were employed. A few days later a fleet of eighty-four French +aeroplanes made a raid on the German lines, starting from an aerodrome +near Nancy. Since then raids by large flocks of aeroplanes have become +common. + +One important objective of such attacks was the destruction of the +enemy's communication, and the bombing of railway trains bringing up +supplies or reenforcements, became a most important feature. Often +this involved considerable daring on the part of the pilot and his +companion, as to insure a successful dropping of bombs the aeroplanes +had to descend to comparatively low levels. The British Royal Flying +Corps on several occasions dropped bombs from a height hardly more +than 500 feet, and in the operations at the end of September, 1915, +within five days, nearly six tons of explosives were dropped on moving +trains with considerable damage. + +The most striking feature, perhaps in the work of the aeroplanes, was +the increased height of flight which developing conditions made +necessary. At the beginning of the war it was assumed that overhead +reconnaissance could be carried on in safety at a height of from 4,000 +to 6,000 feet above the surface of the earth. At such altitude it was +assumed that the aeroplane was safe from terrestrial artillery on +account of offering so small a target, as well as on account of its +speed and the difficulty of determining its range, but this condition +of affairs did not long remain. Both armies, and particularly the +Germans, acquired experience in the use of their antiaircraft guns, +and improved weapons were placed at their disposal, so that it was not +long before the gunners could cause their shrapnel to burst with +deadly effect some three miles in vertical height above the ground, +and up to 10,000 feet their shooting compelled the admiration of the +aviators of the Allies. + +Such efficient gunnery practice, of course, contributed to the loss of +life among the aviators and the destruction of machines, +notwithstanding the constantly increased height of flying. In some +cases aeroplanes managed to reach the ground safely with as many as +300 bullet holes, but in other cases a single bullet sufficed to kill +the aviator or to hit a vital part, and this was a compelling reason +for armoring the aeroplanes and protecting their engines and controls. + +All of this naturally produced a higher standard of skill in the +European armies than was ever before realized, and the training of new +aviators, especially in the light of war experience, was carried on in +large part by convalescent members of the aviation corps who had seen +actual service in the field, so that the quota of recruits was not +only maintained but supplied, trained to a high degree of efficiency. + +The progress of the war marked changes in the tactics of the aerial +services of the various armies. The French and English believed that +in the course of the war the Germans had lost a number of their most +skilled and intrepid aviators, and that the expert pilots were held in +readiness for more serious effort rather than being sacrificed for any +contests of doubtful outcome. The Germans for a time became more +cautious in their fights over the French lines, and in the summer and +autumn of 1915 seldom crossed. This probably was due in large part to +the increased number of aeroplanes at the disposal of the French and +English. Apparently for a number of weeks there was a decrease in the +reckless flights on the part of the Germans and desire to give battle, +and more attention was paid to developing tactical efficiency and +securing military results. Often their aeroplanes operated in +connection with the artillery, and in many cases their object was to +draw the Allies' machines within range of the German antiaircraft +artillery, which was efficiently served. + +A complete chronicle of the flights and air battles of the period of +the war under review would contain a record where hardly a day passed +without some flight or contest of greater or less significance. A duel +between two hostile airmen might be of less importance than an +exchange of shots between members of opposing outposts, yet it might +involve heroic fighting and a skillful manipulation of aeroplane and +machine gun, when one or both of the contestants might be thrown +headlong to the ground. So for these pages we may select some of the +more significant of the battles in the air with the understanding that +many of those ignored were not without their vital interest. + + + + +CHAPTER LVI + +ZEPPELIN RAIDS--ATTACKS ON GERMAN ARMS FACTORIES--GERMAN OVER-SEA +RAIDS + + +The second year of the war opened with a spirited combat between the +German and French aeroplanes, on August 1, 1915, when six attacking +German machines engaged fifteen French machines over Chateau Salins. +This fight, which at the time was widely discussed, lasted +three-quarters of an hour, and as the French reenforcements came the +Germans retreated to their own lines, though it was reported that +several of the French machines were disabled and forced to land. +Regarding this contest the opinion was expressed that the French were +inadequately armed to fight the Germans, and that the latter were not +driven back until armed scouts had joined the French. Furthermore, it +was believed that the German aeroplanes were more heavily armed than +those previously employed, and represented a new and more powerful +type of machine. If the French suffered in this battle for lack of +armament, the lesson was taken to heart, for the following week a +French squadron of thirty-two units, including bombing machines +convoyed by a flotilla of armed scouts (_avions de chasse_) made an +attack on the station and factories of Saarbruecken. + +There was air war over sea as well as over land. On August 3, 1915, a +squadron of Russian seaplanes attacked a German gunboat near Windau +and forced her to run ashore, while the same squadron attacked a +Zeppelin and two German seaplanes, one of which was shot down. The +Russians the following day attacked Constantinople and dropped a +number of bombs on the harbor fortifications. That the advantage was +not entirely with the Allies at this time was shown by the report that +on August 10, 1915, a Turkish seaplane attacked an ally submarine near +Boulair. The Russian seaplanes were again successful on August 10, +1915, when they participated in the repulse of the Germans off the +Gulf of Riga, where they attempted to land troops. The Russians had +merely small sea craft such as torpedo boats and submarines in this +engagement, but their seaplanes proved very effective, and the Germans +retired with a cruiser and two torpedo boats damaged. + +After the attack by German Zeppelins on the east coast of England in +June, 1915, there was a lull in the activity of the German airships. +Count Zeppelin had stated early in the spring that in August fifteen +airships of a new type capable of carrying at least two tons of +explosives would be available, and accordingly, when a squadron of +five Zeppelins were sighted off Vlieland, near the entrance of the +Zuyder Zee, pointed for England, it was realized that attempted aerial +invasion was being resumed in earnest. These airships bombed war +vessels in the Thames, the London docks, torpedo boats near Harwich, +and military establishments on the Humber, with the result, slight in +its military importance, of some twenty-eight casualties and a number +of fires due to incendiary bombs. This attack encountered resistance +and counterattacks from the British aerial services, not without +effect, but lacking in positive achievement. One Zeppelin was damaged +by the gunfire of the land defenses, and upon her return an Ally +aeroplane squadron from Dunkirk attacked the disabled airship and +finally blew her up after she had fallen into the sea off Ostend. + +It was realized, particularly by the British, that the best way to +meet the Zeppelins was by aeroplane attack, yet on the raid just +described, the great airships entirely escaped the British aviators. +This Zeppelin raid was followed by a second on the night of August +12-13, 1915, which was directed against the military establishment at +Harwich. Six people were killed and seventeen wounded by the bombs, +and the post office was set on fire by an incendiary bomb. Aside from +this, damage was limited. On August 17 and 18, 1915, a squadron of +four Zeppelins again attacked the English east coast, and their bombs +killed ten persons and wounded thirty-six. Once again the airships +were able to escape the British air patrols and made their escape +apparently without damage, though one, the _L-10_, while flying over +Vlieland, Holland, was fired upon by Dutch troops. + +An important effect of the Zeppelin raids was to bring the war +directly to the experience of the British public, and the effect on +recruiting as well as in arousing an increased national spirit for +defense was marked. On the other hand, in Germany the Zeppelin raids +produced great elation, and the German populace anticipated that the +aerial invasion of Great Britain would contribute materially toward +the conclusion of the war. + +In the early summer of 1915 there had been rather less activity on the +war front in eastern France and Flanders, especially on the part of +the Germans, and as later developments proved, they apparently were +engaged in experiments with new types of machines and engines. There +was also in this time a manifestation of increased skill on the part +of the German air pilots, so that when the new machines were brought +out they were handled with skill and ease, especially when climbing to +the upper air and dodging the shells from antiaircraft guns of the +Allies. + +In the meantime, and especially during August, 1915, the French began +to develop bombing attacks against German arms and ammunition +factories, railway junctions, and other military establishments, on a +scale never before attempted in aerial warfare. Toward the middle of +the month as many as eighty-four French aeroplanes were assembled for +a flight over the German lines, and so carefully were these aviators +trained that in less than four minutes the eighty-four aeroplanes were +in the sky, arranged in perfect tactical formation. On this particular +occasion a reconnaissance was made in force, and the various +evolutions and the distributions of the machines were carefully tried. +With such practice, on August 25, 1915, a French aerial squadron, +including sixty-two aviators, flew over the heights of Dilligen in +Rhenish Prussia, thirty miles southeast of Treves, and dropped more +than 150 bombs, thirty of which were of large caliber. This raid, +while successful in many respects, was not without damage, for the +French lost four aeroplanes. One fell to earth on fire near Bolzhen +with the pilot and observer killed. A second was captured by the +Germans, together with its occupants, near Romilly, a third was forced +to land near Arracourt, north of Luneville, and was destroyed by +German artillery, and the fourth landed within range of the German +guns near Moevruns, south of Nomeny, behind the French front. On this +very day a second French squadron bombed the German camps of Pannes +and Baussant, starting fires, and discharged bombs over other German +stations and bivouacs. In Argonne stations were bombarded as well as +the aviation park of Vitry-en-Artois. Allied fleets of French, +British, and Belgian aeroplanes, both of the land and sea services, +comprising some sixty machines in all, bombarded the wood of Houthulst +and set a number of fires. + +It must not be inferred that at this time there was any lack of +individual effort or achievement. Often bombs were dropped at +important stations on lines of communication, and on August 26, 1915, +a poisoned gas plant at Dornach was bombed by a French aeroplane and +ten shells dropped. + +[Illustration: German aeroplane guns, mounted on turntables. They can +be turned quickly to any direction and to whatever angle of elevation +is required.] + +On the other side, during the month of August, 1915, and particularly +toward the end, raiding expeditions were organized by the Germans, and +on August 28, 1915, an attack on Paris was organized, in which six +German aeroplanes were to take part. This furnished a striking test of +the French aerial defenses, for none of the German aeroplanes was able +to get near Paris, and in the attempt one was shot to pieces by a +French gun plane which overtook the German and riddled the machine +with bullets, causing it to fall in flames with the pilot incinerated. +The German aeroplanes were first discovered by the French scouts as +they flew over the French battle front at so great a speed and height +that attack from the ground from the parks near the battle lines was +impossible. The alarm was given by telephone, however, while north of +Paris the French patrol flotilla was found in readiness. The Germans +were forced to retreat, and in addition to the aeroplane shot down, as +already mentioned, another was fired upon after it had dropped five +bombs on Montmorency. + +On September 3, 1915, a raid nearly 150 miles from the French base was +made by two French aviators on Donaueschingen and Marbach in Bavaria. +On the same day in retaliation for the German bombardment at Luneville +and Compiegne the French air service sent out a squadron of nineteen +aeroplanes over the town of Treves, which dropped about 100 shells. +The same squadron, after returning to its base, proceeded in the +afternoon to drop fifty-eight shells on the station at Dommary and on +Baroncour. + +During September, 1915, the Germans resumed over-sea raids, and naval +airships attacked the city of London, with results considered +generally satisfactory, as German bombs were dropped on the western +part of the city, the factories at Norwich, and the harbor and iron +works near Middlesbrough. In this raid, made by three Zeppelins on the +night of September 8-9, 1915, the British reported as a result 20 +killed, 14 seriously wounded, 74 slightly wounded. The Zeppelins flew +over Trafalgar Square, one of the innermost places of London, and were +clearly visible from the streets. They were attacked by antiaircraft +guns, and by aeroplanes, but the latter were unable to locate the +airships, whose bombs, both incendiary and explosive, fell on +buildings and in the streets. Later in the month of September other +Zeppelin raids occurred over various parts of the eastern countries of +England. + +On September 22, 1915, French aviators made a spectacular raid and +shelled the royal palace and station at Stuttgart in the kingdom of +Wuerttemburg. This was partly in retaliation for the bombarding by the +Germans of open towns and civilian populations, and in the course of +the attack about 100 shells were dropped on the royal palace and the +station, killing, according to German reports, four persons, and +wounding a number of soldiers and civilians, but without doing +important material damage. Antiaircraft opened fire on the French +raiders and they were forced to retire. In this attack the French +machines were painted with the German distinguishing marks, with the +result that after their attack a German airman arriving at Stuttgart +was fired on by the German troops until he was recognized as one of +their own officers, fortunately landing unhurt near the town. + +During the first three weeks in September, 1915, the Royal Flying +Corps, with the British army in the field, was very active, and there +were forty air duels in eighteen days. During the first three weeks +four monoplanes were known to have been destroyed, and at least seven +others sent heavily to earth, and all survivors were, of course, +forced to retire to their own lines. + +One notable contest by a British pilot took place one morning when he +beat off the first four German machines that had come to attack him, +one after the other, but by the time of the onslaught of the fifth, he +had exhausted all of his machine-gun and revolver ammunition. The +British airman proceeded to go through the motions of aiming and +firing his revolver, and the German pilot not realizing that the +weapon was useless, after firing a number of shots at him, retired, so +that the British officer was able to finish his reconnoitering and +return to his own lines. + +On September 7, 1915, a furious battle in the plain sight of thousands +of soldiers occurred in midair, and resulted in the destruction of a +German aeroplane, which had been particularly active in ranging the +German guns, and had circled and signaled above the British positions, +apparently with considerable effect. A British aeroplane straightway +went out and attacked the German at a height of 9,000 feet above the +latter's lines, and the duel was in clear sight of the armies. Every +form of maneuver known to the expert pilot was indulged in, and in the +meantime, both foes were shooting at each other as rapidly as +possible. Finally the German aeroplane was seen to fall erratically at +an angle, nose downward, that indicated its probable destruction. + +On September 13, 1915, two German aeroplanes were brought down by the +British within their lines, one of which fought a most thrilling +battle before it succumbed. It was a large biplane of considerable +speed, armed with two machine guns, one fore and one aft. Flying over +the British lines, it was sighted by the English, and a similar type +aeroplane attacked. A shot hit the German machine in the gasoline +tank, putting the motor out of commission, and, notwithstanding their +rapid fall, the aviators maintained their firing until the end. The +machine crashed to the earth, and both pilot and observer were killed, +but the aeroplane itself was not badly damaged. On the same day, +September 13, 1915, a German aeroplane visited the coast of Kent and +dropped bombs, which resulted in damage to a house and injured four +persons before it was chased off by two British naval aeroplanes. + +Regarding the British aviation service, Field Marshal Sir John French, +in a dispatch to the secretary of state for war, said with special +reference to the fighting on September 25, 1915, at Artois, "that the +wing of the Royal Flying Corps attached to the Third Army performed +valuable work, and not only in times of actual battle, but throughout +the summer. They continuously cooperated with the artillery, +photographing the positions of the enemy, bombing their +communications, and reconnoitering far over hostile country." In the +period under review by the field marshal, he stated that there had +been more than 240 combats in the air, and in nearly every case the +British pilots had to seek out the Germans behind the German lines, +where their aeroplanes were aided by the fire of the movable +antiaircraft guns, and that they were successful in bringing down four +German machines behind the British trenches, and at least twelve in +the German lines, as well as putting out of action many others more or +less damaged. + +While considerable has been made of the Zeppelins, the French airships +were also active during the war. One of the latter craft of this type, +the _Alsace_, having a capacity of 23,000 cubic meters (30,000 cubic +yards), on the night of September 30 and October 1, 1915, bombarded +the junction of Amagne-Lucquy, and the stations of Attigny and +Vouziers on the trunk-line railroad going through Luxemburg and the +Ardennes, which was the main supply line for the whole German line +from Verdun to the neighborhood of Novon. This airship made its +journey and returned safely. However, three days later, in a cruise in +the Reathel district, it was forced to land, and the crew were +captured by the Germans. + +On October 3, 1915, a group of French aeroplanes started out to attack +Luxemburg, where the kaiser on his return from Russia had established +his headquarters. The station was bombarded at the railroad bridge and +also military buildings. The "group" that was used for this work +consisted of three flotillas and a flotilla leader, that is, a total +of nineteen aeroplanes. + + + + +CHAPTER LVII + +ATTACKS ON LONDON--BOMBARDMENT OF ITALIAN PORTS--AEROPLANE AS COMMERCE +DESTROYER + + +On the evening of October 13, 1915, one of the most noted of the +Zeppelin raids over Great Britain occurred, with London as the +objective. The airships flew very high to avoid searchlights and +gunfire, thus interfering with the accuracy of the bomb dropping, and +in only one case was damage done to property connected with the +conduct of the war. The darkening of the city and the various +protective measures required high flying, so that the dropping of +bombs was more or less at random. The raid occurred in the early +evening, and while hundreds of thousands of persons heard the bursting +bombs and the guns, there was no panic, and the majority of the +citizens took shelter as they had been warned officially. An +investigation of the damage the next morning showed five distinct +areas where bombs containing high explosives had been dropped, and +the principal damage was where the explosion of the bombs falling into +subways containing gas and water pipes had ignited the former. In one +case a number of bombs were dropped on a suburban area where there +were no aerial defenses or searchlights, but in few cases were houses +actually struck or seriously damaged. Most of the damage was done to +people in the streets, and the effect on buildings, while serious, +possessed no military importance, and fires produced by incendiary +bombs were readily extinguished. The London police officials repeated +the warning to the citizens to remain within doors during any +subsequent air raids and advising them to keep at hand supplies of +water and sand as a safeguard against incendiary bombs. + +In the raid of German Zeppelins over the British Isles on the night of +October 13-14, 1915, and the attack on London, forty-five were killed +and 114 wounded. It was reported during November that Great Britain +proposed to construct fifty dirigibles within two years to meet the +Zeppelin menace, and to construct each year a sufficient number to +secure complete mastery of the air for England. The attack produced a +degree of indignation and irritation that was more than proportional +to the damage done, and the Government was criticized for the +inadequacy of the protective measures. + +After these air raids on Great Britain there was a lull in such +activities, but it was realized by the English that with the opening +of spring these attacks probably would be carried on with greater +vigor and determination, as there would be an increased number both of +Zeppelins and Schuette-Lanz airships. The atmospheric conditions +pervading the British Isles formed as important a defense against +airship attacks for almost half the year as actual military measures. +Several times fogs and high winds prevented attempts of this kind, and +it was realized by the German air pilots that unless weather +conditions were favorable flights should not be attempted. Therefore, +during the late autumn and winter of 1915-1916, they concerned +themselves with problems of construction and equipment, and the +training of air pilots rather than actual attempts. + +In the meantime the Germans suffered by the destruction of several +Zeppelins. One was destroyed with its crew by colliding with a dummy +on October 18, 1915, near Maubeuge, and the _Z-28_ was lost near +Hamburg, and a third, whose number was unknown, at Bitterfeld, Saxony. +On December 5, 1915, the Russians brought down another Zeppelin near +Kalkun on the Libau-Romin railway, locating it with a powerful +searchlight and destroying it by artillery fire. The airship +previously had escaped several attacks after being caught by the +searchlights, but when it appeared for a second time over Kalkun, with +its motors silent, it was hit by gunfire. Another accident at Tondern +resulted in the destruction of the Zeppelin _Z-22_ during the first +week in December, 1915, this being the same station at which the +_Z-19_ was destroyed in the previous month. The _Z-22_ had been in +service only a few weeks, and was of the latest type, with invisible +gondolas, platforms at the top of the envelope, and detachable rafts +for use in case of accident while crossing the sea. Its destruction +was due to the accidental explosion of a bomb while the airship was +leaving the shed, and nearly all the forty members of the crew were +killed or wounded. Still another Zeppelin was reported to have been +destroyed by a storm in Belgium about December 12, 1915. + +On November 15, 1915, two Austrian aeroplanes bombarded Brescia, +killing seven persons and wounding ten, all of whom were civilians, +and some of them women. None of the bombs hit any of the arms +factories of the city, which is about fifteen miles west of the +southern part of the Lago di Garda, while Verona, which was attacked +by Austrian aeroplanes on the previous Sunday, is about the same +distance east. The attack on Verona resulted in the death of thirty +persons and injury to about twice that number, and was made possible +in a degree by the fog which allowed the aircraft to approach close to +the city before they were discovered. They flew as low as 4,500 feet, +it is stated, each dropping five or six bombs. On November 18, 1915, +the Austrians' seaplane squadron dropped bombs on the forts at San +Nicole and Alberoni, and also on the arsenal, the aviation station, +gas works, railway station, and several parks at Venice. The Italians +attacked in turn, and there was a heavy fire of antiaircraft guns, but +the Austrian squadron retired in safety. On November 19, 1915, +Austrian aviators threw fifteen bombs on Udine, Italy, killing twelve +persons and wounding twenty-seven. + +The activity of the Italian aero service developed in the course of +the war, and there were many combats between them and Austrian +aviators. On December 30, 1915, it was reported that during the naval +engagement off Durazzo an Austrian seaplane was shot down by an +Italian destroyer, while a fortnight later, January 12, 1916, when +four Austrian aeroplanes were attacking Rimini with bombs with little +success, one of them was brought down by fire from the main artillery +and shells from the warships. On January 13, 1916, Italian aeroplanes +dropped bombs on a barracks in the Breguzzo zone in the valley of the +Giudicaria, with success. On January 15, 1916, an Italian air squadron +made an extensive raid in the region of the East Isonzo and bombarded +the enemy aviation camp at Assevizza, the cantonments at Cihapovano +and Boruberg, and the railway stations at Longatica, Pregasina, and +Lubiana. This squadron was under continuous fire by antiaircraft +batteries, but returned in safety. + +Reports from Montenegro during January, 1916, reported the activity of +Austrian aeroplanes in bombing operations. On January 7, 1916, an +Austrian aeroplane fell near Dulcigno, and the aviators were taken +prisoners. + +On November 28, 1915, the French were successful in three battles in +the air and two raids. A French aeroplane in Belgium pursued a German +squadron and brought down one of the German machines in the sea off +Westende-Bains, between Nieuport and Ostend. On the same day ten +French aeroplanes set fire to the German hangars in Habsheim in +southern Alsace, and also damaged an aeroplane that was on the ground. +Two German machines that attempted a pursuit of the French were +repulsed, one being damaged by machine gunfire, and the other being +capsized. On the same day, near Nancy, French aeroplanes shot down a +German machine and put another to flight. + +The Allies continued vigorously their attacks on various munition +plants and aero stations of the Germans. How much damage can be done +by aeroplane attacks was indicated in an item in the annual financial +statement of the Krupps, which was published during the year 1915 in a +German paper. This item reads: "Claims and damages due to the war, ten +million marks ($2,375,000)," and deals with the effect of the raid +over Essen by the airmen of the Allies. + +The German aerodrome at Gits, containing fourteen machines, was +attacked, and at La Chapelette the ammunition factory with nineteen +machines was also the object of an attempt by the Allies. Some sixteen +British aeroplanes bombarded a stores depot at Miramont in the Somme +district, and the aerodrome at Hervilly. All of the machines returned +safely, and considerable damage was believed to have been done at the +above points. + +The aeroplane as a commerce destroyer had a test on October 30, 1915, +when three German machines attacked the steamship _Avocet_ of the Cork +Steamship Company. One of these, a large battle plane, discharged some +thirty-six bombs, but none hit. With the supply of projectiles +exhausted, the battle plane, handled with great skill, opened gunfire +on the vessel, while the small planes crossed and recrossed, dropping +their bombs, but without effect. The aviators and their observers also +opened rifle fire on the steamer, but in the space of thirty-five +minutes they were unable to do any serious damage, and none of the +crew was injured. It was noted that the failure to fly low so as to +get sufficient accuracy for dropping the bombs was responsible for the +miscarriage of this attack. + +The use of seaplanes to attack merchantmen and smaller warcraft became +a feature of the Austrian and German campaign, and in November and +December, 1915, several attacks were reported on steamers of the +Allies. Two German aeroplanes dropped bombs on a British patrol ship +off North Hinder Lightship in the North Sea on November 6, 1915, and +set her on fire. The French steamer _Harmonie_ was attacked in the +Mediterranean by an Austrian aeroplane, but none of the six bombs +which were dropped struck the vessel. Three German seaplanes attacked +a British cargo boat aground off the coast of Belgium, but before they +could succeed in destroying her with bombs, the attempt was reported +by the Allies' aero scouts, and a squadron of aeroplanes went to the +rescue. The Germans were forced to retire, while French torpedo boats +floated the British freighters. + +One of the notable events of the year was the first seaplane battle +between the British and German seaplanes near Dunkirk on November 28, +1915. The British were successful, as they were also in an attack on a +large German seaplane by one of their aeroplanes patrolling off the +Belgian coast. The German machine was hit and fell on the sea, +bursting into flames and exploding on striking the water. No trace of +pilot, passengers, or machine could be found. The British aeroplane, +under command of Lieutenant Graham, was also damaged by gunfire and +fell into the sea, but the officers were picked up and safely landed. + +The Allies, and particularly the British, employed aeroplanes chiefly +for patrolling their coasts, naval harbors and subsidiary fleet bases, +as well as the principal shipping lanes, in order to keep them clear +of the insidious action of hostile submarines. Of this silent and +steady coast patrol work, which is deprived of any spectacular side, +little has come to light, except where a reconnaissance also involved +an attack upon forces of the enemy. + +It was during such patrol flights, along the Belgian coast, that two +German submarines were put out of action by aviators of the Allies. +The first of these engagements occurred on August 26, 1915, when +Squadron Commander A. W. Bigsworth of the Royal Naval Air Service +destroyed a German submarine off Ostend by dropping several bombs on +the but partly submerged vessel. The second German submarine was +destroyed off Middelkerke, Belgium, on November 28, 1915, by a British +seaplane, piloted by Flight Sub-Lieutenant Viney, and carrying a +French officer, Lieutenant Count de Sincay, as an observer. German +submarines having been reported in the vicinity, the aviators were +ordered to patrol the coast with the object of watching for the enemy. +The aviators rose to an altitude of 3,000 meters, and had been up for +half an hour when they sighted, four miles from the shore, two +submarines side by side on the surface. The place was favorable for +attack, the sea being shallow there, and the aviators hoped that the +enemy boats would be unable to escape by diving. The seaplane quickly +dived to about 200 meters above the sea and attacked the submarines, +one of which succeeded in escaping, the other boat, however, was hit +by two bombs, which broke open its hull and caused it to sink in a few +minutes. + +Owing to the great range of vision afforded by a seaplane, both +horizontally and vertically, owing also to its considerable speed and +ease of maneuvering, marine aeroplanes have proven formidable foes for +submarines, which they can easily overtake and destroy with bombs. +Especially is this true when a submarine is steaming partly submerged, +with only its periscope visible above the sea, for, whereas, the +submarine's outline is easily detected from great heights, the +periscope has but a limited range of vision horizontally, and none +vertically. + +Another instance of how aeroplanes can be used for attacking war +vessels was furnished by the feat of a British aviator who attacked a +Turkish army transport on August 12, 1915, in the Marmora Sea and sank +the vessel with a heavy projectile, which, it is claimed, weighed over +200 pounds. + +Although not yet sufficiently developed to fulfill the functions +for which they are ultimately intended, i. e., strategical +reconnaissance and offensive action against vessels of war and +coast fortifications--seaplanes have played a very useful role in +tactical operations, and particularly in convoying troop ships, as +well as in "spotting" for naval guns. Whenever the comparatively +limited range of seaplanes precluded their employment for +long-range reconnaissances or bombardment, airships were called +upon to carry out these duties. + +In the matter of airships, Germany was markedly favored by the +possession of the Zeppelin type, whose speed and endurance is still +unequaled by the smaller, nonrigid dirigibles which constitute the +chief bulk of the British, French, Italian, and Russian fleets of +"lighter-than-air" machines. + +Obviously, the employment of airships is fraught with even more +danger, on account of the large hull exposed to enemy fire, than that +of aeroplanes. A great number of Zeppelins have been destroyed either +by antiaircraft guns or by storms, although the gallant feat of the +late Flight Lieutenant Warneford, who blew up single-handed a Zeppelin +near Ghent, has not yet been repeated by aviators of the Allies. + +An Austrian aviator, however, succeeded on August 5, 1915, in putting +out of action the Italian dirigible _Citta-di-Jesi_, which was +returning from a bombing raid on Pola. Soaring above the airship the +aviator dropped several bombs on the envelope, which was damaged, the +hydrogen being ignited thereby. The airship did not explode, but was +forced to alight on the sea, her crew being captured by the Austrians. + + + + +CHAPTER LVIII + +AIR FIGHTING ON ALL FRONTS--LOSSES + + +By December, 1915, and January, 1916, the official reports of the war +in the air contained a continued account of activity. Almost every day +reconnoitering machines were sent out over one city or another, and +attempts were made to interfere with their work or to bring on battle, +and on December 19, 1915, the British War Office reported forty-four +combats in the air, with two enemy aeroplanes brought to the ground +within their own lines, and two brought down in damaged condition. On +this day one of the British machines was missing. + +Again, the report on December 29, 1915, from the British War Office +mentioned an unsuccessful attack by the Germans on one of the British +aerodromes by four machines, only two of which reached their +objective, and no damage was done to them, although one of the British +aeroplanes was shot down. On December 29, 1915, sixteen British +aeroplanes attacked the Comines station with bombs, and hit the +station railway and sheds in the vicinity. Ten of the British +aeroplanes attacked the aerodromes and did considerable damage, in +both cases all machines returning safely. + +On this day, December 29, 1915, there were twelve encounters with +hostile aeroplanes, and a British aeroplane engaged four belonging to +the Germans, one of which was believed to have been brought down, +while another was damaged, and all four were driven off. The British +aeroplane fell as the result of a struggle with two machines. On +January 5, 1916, a number of British aeroplanes made a bombing raid +against enemy aeroplanes at Douai, while the Germans retaliated by an +aeroplane raid over Boulogne, dropping a few bombs without damage. The +next day the British made another raid with eleven machines on gun and +supply stations at Lesars. On January 10, 1916, enemy aircraft dropped +bombs near Starzelle, Hazebrouck and St. Omer, and one woman and one +child were killed. + +That the activities of the British were not always crowned with +success is stated in the report for January 13, 1916, where record is +made of the fact that four of the British aeroplanes sent out on the +previous day had not returned. On January 17, 1916, sixteen British +aeroplanes attacked the German supply depot at Lesars, northeast of +Albert, and did considerable damage. On this day there were nineteen +encounters in the air, and five of the German machines were driven +down, and two British aeroplanes were lost. + +The activity of the French did not diminish as the war progressed, and +the activity of the bomb-operating squadron continued. On December 20, +1915, four French aeroplanes designed for bomb-dropping, escorted by +seven machines with rapid-fire guns dropped on the fort and station at +Muelhausen six shells of 155-millimeter caliber, and twenty shells of +ninety-six caliber. In the terse language of the official report, +"they reached their objective." The damage must be imagined as it was +not specified. + +During December, 1915, and January, 1916, the French aviators were +active with the eastern army, although many difficulties were +encountered, especially the intense cold in the Balkan Mountains when +reconnoitering around the Bulgarian lines and elsewhere. French +aviators during December, 1915, shelled Uskub, Istip, Strumitza, and +other encampments with great effect, and they made a remarkable +series of photographs and maps, in addition to reporting to +headquarters by wireless. The aviation corps in this section of Europe +furnished daily weather reports to the headquarters staff regarding +the speed of the wind and the height of the clouds from 1,000 meters +altitude, and this work shows the extent of the organization and plan +of campaign. On December 29, 1915, the French aeroplanes bombarded +parks and encampments of the Bulgarians at Petrik, east of Lake +Doiran, and that the activity in this region was not all one-sided was +evident by the fact that on January 27, 1916, hostile aeroplanes +bombarded the cantonments of the Allies in the environs of Saloniki, +doing little damage, but losing one of their aeroplanes, which was +brought to earth by gunfire. On January 14, 1916, the Allies were +again attacked, and bombs were dropped on Janes (Yanesh), northwest of +Kukus (Kilkich), and on Doganizi. + +In the operations around Constantinople both sides employed aeroplanes +for various purposes. On the Gallipoli front on December 20, 1915, it +was reported that the Allies had a seaplane shot down and its +occupants made prisoners, while on December 23, 1915, an ally +aeroplane was shot down at Birheba. On December 26, 1915, an ally +aeroplane was brought to earth near Birelsabe, and the French pilot, +Captain Baron de Ceron, and a British lieutenant were killed. On +December 27, 1915, the Turkish forces sent out a seaplane, which made +a reconnoitering flight over Tenedos, the island of Mavro, and the +many positions near Sedd-ul-Bahr, striking a torpedo boat south of +this point with a bomb. On December 28, 1915, three ally aeroplanes +flew over Ari-Burnu, and one of these was hit by artillery fire and +fell into the sea, while a British seaplane successfully dropped some +bombs on a tent camp. On December 28, 1915, Turkish artillery brought +down a biplane flying over Yent Shehr and Kum Kaleh, and on the +previous day a reconnoitering and bombing expedition was undertaken by +a Turkish seaplane, which dropped bombs on the harbor tool house at +Mudros. + +On January 1, 1916, a Turkish seaplane attacked and repulsed a hostile +ally aeroplane while reconnoitering, and on the following day a +Turkish seaplane dropped bombs on the enemy's camp at Sedd-ul-Bahr. +Lieutenant Ryck Boddike figured prominently in a number of successful +flights, in one of which he attacked a French aeroplane on January 6, +1916, killing the aviator and bringing down the machine on the +Anatolian coast, near Akbanca. On the following day he shot down, east +of Yalova, a British Farman aeroplane. On January 7, 1916, also there +was bomb dropping by the Turkish aviators over the enemy's positions +at Sedd-ul-Bahr, and their aviation station on the island of Imbros. +January 10, 1916, Lieutenant Ryck Boddike brought down his fourth +enemy aeroplane, which fell into the open sea, and two days later he +shot down his fifth, a British machine of the Farman type, killing one +of the aviators and wounding the other. This aeroplane fell in such +condition that it could be repaired by the Turks. On January 14, 1916, +a Turkish aeroplane attacked a monitor which, with other vessels, +opened fire in the direction of Kilid Bahr. The monitor was forced to +withdraw in flames. + +Late in the year 1915 the Germans, after a period of inactivity, made +a raid in force on the French fortress at Belfort. At least three +aeroplanes dropped bombs over the city, and were attacked in turn by +the machine and antiaircraft guns of the garrison, and French aviators +proceeded to the attack, beating off the Germans, who returned again +later in the day discharging another shower of shells over the +fortress. + +On December 29, 1915, the Germans reported that they had shot down an +English biplane in an aerial flight near Bruges, and the occupants of +the machine were killed. The English machine had been flying over the +district of Lichtervelde, south of Bruges, and had dropped several +bombs, one of which had hit a munitions depot with disastrous effect. +A German aeroplane intercepted the British machine on its return, and +in the course of the battle both machines were disabled and crashed to +earth. The same day the Germans reported the loss of two aeroplanes by +the British, one of which was forced to descend at a point to the +north of Lens, and the other, a large battle aeroplane, was shot down +in a fight north of Han, on December 27, 1915, and three British +aeroplanes were destroyed by fire west of Lille. The Berlin report on +December 29, 1915, stated that on the whole front artillery and +aeroplanes were active. The enemy's aircraft attacked the towns and +railroad stations of Wervick and Menin, Belgium, without, however, +doing military damage. A British aeroplane was shot down in a fight +northeast of Cambrai, and on January 6, 1916, the Allies made an +aircraft attack upon Douai, which failed, and two British aeroplanes +were shot down by German aviators. One of these was brought down by +Lieutenant Boelke, and was the seventh aeroplane that he had disabled. +January 10, 1916, a German air squadron attacked the warehouses of +Furnes. On this same day an interesting air battle occurred, involving +a series of fights, with casualties on both sides, between the French +and German aeroplanes above the lines of the latter near Dixmude. +Three French avions cannon (Voisin steel biplanes armed with +37-millimeter quick-firing guns at the bow) fought with German +scouting aeroplanes of the Fokker type. The attack was brought on by +the Fokker assailing a French machine which was forced to descend, but +one of its companions straightway attacked the German and brought him +down by machine gunfire at a distance of twenty-five meters. A third +French machine was also successful in attacking another Fokker, which +fell in the forest of Houthulst, southeast of Dixmude. + +On January 11, 1916, a French battle aeroplane was attacked by German +rifle fire and forced to land near Noumen, south of Dixmude in +Belgium, and the aeroplane and its occupants, uninjured, became German +prisoners. On this day a British biplane was shot down in an encounter +near Tournai, Belgium. Lieutenant Boelke on January 13, 1916, shot +down a British aeroplane, as did also Lieutenant Immelmann--one +northeast of Tourcoing and the other near Bapaume. Both were decorated +with the Order of Pour-le-Merite by the emperor. A third British +aeroplane was shot down in an aerial fight near Roubaix, and a fourth +was brought down by German defense guns near Ligne, northwest of +Lille. Of the eight British officers on these four aeroplanes six were +killed and two wounded. + +On January 15, 1916, Lieutenant Boelke again shot down an enemy +aeroplane, which fell within the British lines and was set on fire by +German artillery. On January 18, 1916, there were aerial battles near +Paschendaele and Dadezelle in Flanders, and three of the four +occupants of one machine were killed. A French aeroplane was shot down +by German airmen near Moyenvic, and the pilot and observer were +captured. + +In the course of the war the German aeroplane fleet developed at the +close of the year 1915, and at the beginning of 1916, a renewed +activity and initiative of attack. In the period from December 20, +1915, to January 19, 1916, an analysis of the official reports +indicated that the British airmen had had seventy-five individual +combats with the Germans, in the course of which nine British and +eight German machines were lost. The Germans, on the other hand, +reported in this time that they had destroyed fourteen British and +three French aeroplanes, while the French claimed the destruction of +three German machines, one of which was shot down in the Balkans; +while the Turks, defending the Dardanelles, claimed to have shot down +seven ally aeroplanes. Italian airmen overcame two Austrian machines, +and Austria and Montenegro each overcame one enemy aeroplane. An +analysis of these figures indicates that for this month the advantage +was distinctly with the Germans, as they had destroyed twenty-five +machines as against fourteen aeroplanes brought down by the enemy. + +The statements concerning the losses of airships and aeroplanes +published by the various armies and newspapers in most cases were +disputed for their accuracy. The Paris "Temps" on February 5, 1916, +criticising a German statement, stated as the correct figures for the +aeroplane losses of the various combatants on the western front +between October 1, 1915, and January 31, 1916, the following: +"Thirteen English and seventeen French aeroplanes lost on the side of +the Allies--eleven German aeroplanes destroyed on the English front +and twenty on the French front. Of the French machines lost, four were +overcome in aerial combats, one destroyed by artillery fire, three +were forced to descend by motor troubles, and eight disappeared on +land-scouting missions." + +During the month of February, 1916, patrol service was actively +maintained on both sides of the frontier; a large number of attempts +at bombing were made, and many individual combats took place, with the +losses, so far as the French and Germans were concerned, about evenly +divided, the French reporting the destruction of nine German +aeroplanes, while the Germans claimed to have destroyed eight French +and four British machines. For this period the official reports of the +British claimed that four German machines were forced to the ground, +but it was not apparent whether they had been actually destroyed or +merely forced to retire. In the French reports, in addition to the +nine German aeroplanes destroyed as noted, it was stated that two +additional were "forced down." + +In January and February, 1916, the German air service again began its +activity against the British Isles, and not only Zeppelins but also +seaplanes and aeroplanes crossed the Channel and dropped explosives +and incendiary bombs on English towns and villages, mostly on the east +coast. The Germans claimed that in one instance a Zeppelin had gone as +far as Midlands in an attempt at some of the great manufacturing +centers of England, and this seemed to indicate that the campaign +would be carried on with greater relentlessness than ever and more +attempt at material damage. More and more aeroplanes of the German +service were beginning to cooperate with the Zeppelins, and it was +clear that future attacks would be in forces with aeroplanes to +protect the Zeppelins from attack by quick-flying hostile aeroplanes. +It was evident from the activity of the Germans that in all +departments of its aerial services increases were being made, and +increased activity was to be manifested. At the same time the Allies +were showing corresponding activity in their attempts to destroy the +air cruisers of the enemy. + +The German military Zeppelin _L-Z-77_ was brought down by a French +incendiary shell from a 75-millimeter antiaircraft gun of the +motor-gun section of Renigny in the neighborhood of Brabant-le-roi, on +February 21, 1916. This airship was hit by an explosive shell which +ignited the gas bag and caused an explosion of the bombs, so that it +was completely wrecked and fell in flames. The _L-19_, belonging to +the German navy, previously had been destroyed by a storm in the North +Sea on January 31, 1916. + + + + +PART XII--THE UNITED STATES AND THE BELLIGERENTS + + + + +CHAPTER LIX + +SINKING OF THE ARABIC--ANOTHER CRISIS--GERMANY'S DEFENSE AND +CONCESSIONS. + + +The _Lusitania_ issue, after the dispatch to Germany of the third +American note of July 21, 1915, was withdrawn from the publicity in +which the exchange of diplomatic communications had been made. Note +writing having fulfilled its mission in stating the case, an interlude +followed devoted to private conversations between the American +Ambassador at Berlin and the German Foreign Office and between the +German Ambassador at Washington and the State Department. Apparently a +way out of the impasse was seen in conferences in the privacy of the +chancelleries rather than by negotiations conducted in the light of +day on the theory that absorbed public observation and criticism of +every stage in the exchanges was not helpful to a settlement. But time +did not show that this resort to secrecy smoothed the path of Germany +meeting the American demands. + +In fact, the ruthless course of the submarine warfare, which the +sinking of the _Lusitania_ only momentarily checked, relegated that +specific issue to the background, or at least made it only one of a +series of indictments by the United States of the entire submarine +policy pursued by the Teutonic Powers. + +Thirty days after the American Government had warned Germany that any +further contravention of American neutral rights at sea would be +regarded as an act "deliberately unfriendly," the White Star Atlantic +liner, the _Arabic_, with twenty-nine Americans among her company, was +sunk without warning off the south of Ireland by a German submarine. +Germany had not responded to the reiterated demands made in the third +American note on the _Lusitania_ and the question was impetuously +asked in the press: Was the sinking of the _Arabic_ Germany's answer? +This view of Germany's second blow at transatlantic liners, made at a +time when the _Lusitania_ crisis had only seemingly abated because +withdrawn from the public gaze, found its best expression from a +pro-German quarter. The "New Yorker Staats-Zeitung" deplored the +absence of a reply from the German Government to the third _Lusitania_ +note as "most unfortunate," because the subsequent destruction of the +_Arabic_ could therefore be held to be a "direct challenge," +particularly as reports showed that the liner had been torpedoed +without warning and the rescuing of the passengers had been left to +"blind chance." + +The _Arabic_ was bound from Liverpool to New York, so that the motive +for sinking her could not be that advanced by Germany for destroying +the _Lusitania_--that the vessel was carrying war munitions to her +enemies. The fact that she was headed for the United States inspired +some incensed commentators to make the direct charge that the German +submarine commander deliberately aimed at the lives of Americans on +board. As elsewhere described, the _Arabic_ was sunk on August 19, +1915, without being first warned by the attacking submarine. Abundant +testimony from survivors satisfied the Administration as to this +circumstance, in addition to disproving the belief originating from +German sources that the liner was being convoyed by a warship, whose +presence would deprive her of any right to protection from attack. The +Administration was also assured that the liner, contrary to Germany's +allegation, did not attempt to ram the submarine or escape from it. +Two Americans were among the passengers lost; but this was not the +sole issue. + +The days immediately following were charged with dangerous +undercurrents. The President was silent. Had he not said all there was +to be said in the _Lusitania_ notes? But there was no doubt that the +press correctly divined what was passing through his mind, and the +press said that, short of a satisfactory explanation from Germany, +made in a proper spirit, accompanied by a disavowal of the deed, a +break in diplomatic relations was inevitable. But the onus was on +Germany to speak before the Administration took action, which could +not take the form of another protest. The situation had grown beyond +the stage of protests. They had already been made. If Germany could +not show extenuating circumstances that palliated the sinking of the +_Arabic_, the President must act on his _Lusitania_ warning, or remain +silent--must go forward or recede. + +This ominous condition of American sentiment was not lost on Germany. +It was true the Berlin press affected an apathetic tone in referring +to the _Arabic_, saw nothing calling for perturbation, and, in casting +doubt on the accounts of the liner's destruction, hinted that a mine +was responsible. But the German Government, wisely informed by Count +von Bernstorff on the state of American feeling, knew better than to +belittle the situation. Pending the receipt of any report from the +submarine commander who sank the _Arabic_, it charged Ambassador von +Bernstorff to ask the American Government to defer judgment. + +"The German Government," Count von Bernstorff pleaded, "trusts that +the American Government will not take a definite stand after hearing +the reports of only one side, which in the opinion of the Imperial +Government cannot correspond with the facts, but that a chance be +given Germany to be heard equally. Although the Imperial Government +does not doubt the good faith of the witnesses whose statements are +reported by the newspapers in Europe, it should be borne in mind that +these statements are naturally made under excitement, which might +easily produce wrong impressions. If Americans should actually have +lost their lives, this would naturally be contrary to our intentions. +The German Government would deeply regret the fact and beg to tender +sincerest sympathies to the American Government." + +This statement, made five days after the _Arabic's_ destruction, was +viewed as the first ray of hope in the crisis. A disavowal of +unfriendly intent was seen in the regrets expressed for the loss of +American lives. There was a disposition to credit Germany with +cherishing a desire to avert a rupture with the United States and to +go to considerable lengths in that endeavor. This impression eased the +Washington atmosphere, which had been weighed by the President's +determination not to depart from the stand he took in the third +_Lusitania_ note, and also by Germany's apparent indifference to its +warning, as shown by her pursuit of submarine warfare seemingly +regardless of consequences. + +What the "facts" were in the sinking of the _Arabic_ to which, +according to the German statement, the reports to hand could not +correspond, exercised official Washington. As the German Government +had not so far heard from the submarine commander of its own +acknowledgment, it could not itself be aware of this version of how +the _Arabic_ sank. Why Germany was so confident that the reports the +Administration accepted were inaccurate was explained on the surmise +that she had revised her orders to submarine commanders governing the +conduct of their operations. For some time before the sinking of the +_Arabic_ the German submarine commanders had been conforming closely +to the rules of search and seizure demanded by the United States. The +sudden divergence from this procedure in the sinking of the _Arabic_, +according to the accepted reports, implied that the submarine +commander had contravened instructions, or could plead justification. +Germany was indisposed to believe that the submarine commander had +disobeyed orders. But if he had done so, the German Government would +give "full satisfaction" to the United States. This assurance came +from the Imperial German Chancellor, Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, the day +after Ambassador von Bernstorff had revealed Germany's conciliatory +spirit. + +The United States consented to withhold judgment until Germany had +presented her side of the case. Meantime Count von Bernstorff urged +upon his Government the imperative necessity of making more +substantial concessions to the United States on the submarine issue. +Another catastrophe such as the sinking of the _Lusitania_ or +_Arabic_, he warned Berlin, would aggravate the situation beyond his +control. That Germany recognized the danger was shown by a further +declaration from her Imperial Chancellor on August 26, 1915, wherein +he endeavored to placate American feeling by declaring that the +sinking of the _Arabic_, if caused by a German submarine, was not a +"deliberately unfriendly act," but, if the accepted version of the +disaster proved to be true, was "the arbitrary deed of the submarine +commander, not only not sanctioned but decidedly condemned by the +German Government," and that the latter, being "most anxious to +maintain amicable relations with the United States, would express its +deep regret and make full reparation." This conditional promise was +made in the continued absence of any report from the implicated +submarine commander, whose silence became mysterious. The British +added to the perplexity by making the unqualified statement that the +submarine which sank the _Arabic_ had herself been sunk by a British +patrol boat. + +While the United States waited significantly for Germany to make the +_amende honorable_, an internal conflict was proceeding in Berlin over +the submarine policy. The _Arabic_ crisis had been transferred to +Germany by the stand the Chancellor, Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, and the +Foreign Minister, Herr von Jagow, made for modifying the ruthless +conditions under which the German admiralty had pursued the submarine +warfare. Grand Admiral von Tirpitz and the extremists opposed any +relaxation permitting passenger ships to be warned before being +torpedoed or safeguarding the lives of passengers. The chancellor +desired to place Germany on record as an observer of international +law, and the kaiser faced the task of determining which side should +prevail. + +Admiral von Tirpitz was generally regarded as the originator of the +policy of sinking merchant shipping without heeding the recognized +laws of visit and search. "What would America say if Germany declares +war on all enemy merchant ships?" he had asked before Germany +initiated the submarine methods which caused the destruction of the +_Lusitania_ and the _Arabic_ and numerous other craft. His view of the +_Lusitania_ issue, as freely expressed in an interview, was that the +maintenance of friendly relations with the United States was of far +less importance than the continuance of the submarine blockade of +British ports, and that the entrance of the United States into the +war among Germany's enemies was preferable to acceding to the American +demands. + +Since the _Lusitania_ disaster the imperial chancellor had been the +target of sustained attacks from the Von Tirpitz group, who charged that +he was not radical enough and inclined to abandon the extreme aims of +German policy. The agitation attained such serious proportions that the +National Liberal party issued a statement denying knowledge of any lack +of confidence in the Government. Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg's difficult +position in trying to save Germany from international outlawry, however, +was not sensibly weakened. Events temporarily showed that the kaiser +concurred more in his view than that of the hotspurs. There was a +momentary cessation of submarine activity. The chancellor's policy, the +keynote of which was: "Keep at peace with the United States," gained the +upper hand, and Admiral von Tirpitz grudgingly bowed to the chancellor's +contentions, on the condition that his acquiescence must be deemed +unofficial; but he held out against any formal disavowal by Germany of +the sinking of the _Arabic_. This attitude was comprehensible, for a +disavowal meant a repudiation of his submarine policy. Thus the +surrender of the extremists did not go very far; it merely helped to +relax the friction between the kaiser's councilors. + +The outcome of this agreement was a note (September 1, 1915) from +Count von Bernstorff to Secretary Lansing announcing that his +instructions concerning Germany's answer to the last American note on +the _Lusitania_ contained this passage: + +"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without +safety of the lives of noncombatants, provided the liners do not try +to escape or offer resistance." + +The German Ambassador added that this policy had been decided on +before the _Arabic_ was sunk. Secretary Lansing, commenting upon this +abatement of Germany's sea war methods, said: "It appears to be a +recognition of the fundamental principles for which we have +contended." A settlement of the _Lusitania_ case, however, was +deferred until that of the _Arabic_ had been satisfactorily disposed +of. + +The atmosphere was clearer. But Germany was still silent regarding the +report of the submarine commander, on whose version of the _Arabic's_ +destruction hinged the question whether Germany would disavow his act. +The report that the submarine had been sunk revived in London, but the +British admiralty maintained an impenetrable silence regarding its +truth or falsehood. The circumstantial story was that the submarine +later sighted a cattle boat, and was engaged in shelling it when a +British patrol boat appeared and, opening fire, sank the submarine +with its crew except two or three survivors. Hence London concluded +that in the disappearance of the submarine lay Germany's reason for +her readiness to climb down to the United States on the _Arabic_ +controversy. + +On September 7, 1915, nineteen days after the _Arabic_ was sunk, +Germany appeared to disprove this story of furnishing a report to the +American Government giving the submarine commander's account of the +sinking. This delay was in contrast to the promptitude with which the +German Government had officially announced the sinking of the +_Lusitania_. The British openly charged that Germany could not have +heard from the submarine commander, for the sufficient reason, they +iterated, that he was drowned with his craft, and that the German +Government, waiting in vain for him to report, had resorted to +"manufacturing" a report to conform with its preconceived theories of +the _Arabic's_ destruction. This, however, remained an unsolved press +controversy in face of the British admiralty's silence. The American +Government gave no indication that it took cognizance of the charge, +or that the British admiralty had privately enlightened it as to +whether it had any real basis. Hence Germany's report officially stood +unquestioned. + +The defense of Germany was that before sighting the _Arabic_ the +submarine commander had stopped the British steamer _Dunsley_ and was +about to sink her by gunfire, after the crew had left the vessel, when +the _Arabic_ appeared, headed directly toward the submarine. From the +_Arabic's_ movements the commander became convinced that the liner +intended to attack and ram his submarine; whereupon, to forestall such +an attack, he ordered the submarine to dive, and fired a torpedo at +the _Arabic_. After doing so he had convinced himself that the people +on board were being rescued in fifteen boats. + +"According to his instructions," the German report continued, "the +commander was not allowed to attack the _Arabic_ without warning and +without saving the passengers' lives unless the ship attempted to +escape or offered resistance. He was forced, however, to conclude from +the attendant circumstances that the _Arabic_ planned a violent attack +on the submarine. + +"The German Government most deeply regrets that lives were lost +through the action of the commander. It particularly expresses this +regret to the Government of the United States on account of the death +of American citizens. + +"The German Government is unable, however, to acknowledge any +obligation to grant indemnity in the matter, even if the commander +should have been mistaken as to the aggressive intentions of the +_Arabic_. + +"If it should prove to be the case that it is impossible for the +German and American Governments to reach a harmonious opinion on this +point, the German Government would be prepared to submit the +difference of opinion, as being a question of international law, to +The Hague Tribunal for arbitration, pursuant to Article 38 of The +Hague Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes. + +"In so doing it assumes that, as a matter of course, the arbitral +decision shall not be admitted to have the importance of a general +decision on the permissibility or the converse under international law +of German submarine warfare." + +Here Germany affirmed that submarine commanders were forbidden to +attack liners without warning and safeguarding passengers' lives, but +that commanders could justifiably disregard this precaution if they +deemed that a vessel's movements, designedly or otherwise, jeopardized +the safety of the attacking submarine. On this reasoning a submarine +commander could excuse a wanton act on the plea of self-defense, which +Germany appeared eager to accept, whether the need of self-defense was +actual or fancied. + +The Washington Government declined to consent to clothing a submarine +commander with the discretionary power of determining whether a vessel +should be sunk on sight because of movements he considered suspicious. +The German Government would absolve him from blame and repudiate any +obligation to grant indemnity, even if the commander was mistaken in +attributing aggressive intentions in a vessel's movements. Germany's +precept, as laid down by Count von Bernstorff in his note of September +1, 1915, and Germany's practice, as illustrated by the foregoing +defense for the sinking of the _Arabic_, were thus widely divergent. + +The situation receded to the _Lusitania_ stage. Ambassador von +Bernstorff's assurances as to warning and safety to passengers were +negatived by the new condition that submarine commanders could +disregard instructions, whether right or wrong, in doing so. The +Administration accepted as convincing the abundant evidence before it +that the _Arabic_ made no attempt to ram the submarine. According to +this testimony, no one on board the _Arabic_ even saw the submarine; +only the torpedo was seen coming from the direction of the sinking +_Dunsley_, behind which, it was supposed, the submarine had been +screened when the _Arabic_ came in view, whereupon it submerged. +Moreover, the _Arabic_ was struck astern from a direction which showed +that the submarine was at right angles to her. If the _Arabic_ had +been heading toward the submarine with the intention of ramming it, +the torpedo should have struck her at the bow. But the _Arabic_ +testimony was that the submarine was invisible. + +Germany's explanation was so unsatisfactory, so discredited by the +overwhelming evidence of the _Arabic_ survivors, as well as being +qualified by an indirect recognition of the possibility that the +submarine commander might have erred, that the question of severing +diplomatic relations again became imminent. A resort to arbitration, +as proposed by Germany, with the nullifying condition that any +decision of a Hague tribunal was not to affect Germany's conduct of +submarine warfare, was not deemed worthy of serious consideration. The +question now was whether, after the pledge given by Count von +Bernstorff, the German Government intended to allow submarine +commanders a broad discretion in deciding the circumstances under +which passenger ships may be torpedoed. The ambassador was informed of +the Administration's conviction that the torpedoing of the _Arabic_ +could not have been a mistake, justified or unjustified. Germany's +unreadiness to disavow responsibility for the act of the submarine +commander as "arbitrary" and "unsanctioned," to quote the German +Chancellor, showed that she accepted her submarine commander's +purported report, not the _Arabic_ testimony. In this impasse the +Administration was credited with being almost ready to break off +relations with Germany, but deferred doing so until the German +Government had studied the evidence on which the American Government +had decided that the submarine commander was solely to blame. + +In the negotiations which followed, the _Arabic_ issue went the way of +the unsettled _Lusitania_ case by its withdrawal from being threshed +out in public. The exchange of notes was abandoned for pourparlers, +which were resorted to as seeming to afford a more supple means of +arriving at a settlement. Germany was afforded an opportunity of +privately establishing her good faith--which was in serious +question--by reconciling her acts on the seas with her pledge not to +attack passenger vessels without warning. No official disclosure was +made to enlighten a forgetful public as to the extent to which she had +done so in the negotiations which occupied the American and German +Governments throughout September, 1915. But a communication from Count +von Bernstorff to Secretary Lansing, which passed October 2, 1915, was +permitted to be revealed acknowledging that the submarine commander +was mistaken in believing that the _Arabic_ intended to ram his +vessel, and disavowing the act. The Von Bernstorff note contained this +passage: "The order issued by His Majesty the Emperor to the +commanders of the German submarines, of which I notified you on a +similar occasion, has been so stringent that the recurrence of +incidents similar to the _Arabic_ case is considered out of the +question." + +The United States had thus brought Germany to an admission that the +sinking of the liner was unjustified. This important point gained, +the issue was removed from the acute stage at which it had dangerously +lingered, and only left undetermined the question of indemnity to be +paid by Germany to the _Arabic_ victims. + +It cleared the diplomatic decks sufficiently to enable the deferred +negotiations on the _Lusitania_ dispute to be resumed; but these had +made little headway when both the _Lusitania_ and _Arabic_ issues were +overshadowed by the sinking of the _Ancona_. + + + + +CHAPTER LX + +ISSUE WITH AUSTRIA-HUNGARY OVER THE ANCONA--SURRENDER TO AMERICAN +DEMANDS + + +The attention of the United States was abruptly diverted from Germany +to Austria-Hungary. The _Ancona_, an Italian liner en route for New +York, was steaming westward in the Mediterranean, between the coasts +of Sicily and Tunis, on November 9, 1915, when a submarine flying the +Austro-Hungarian flag fired a shot at the steamship. As described by +the American protest sent to Austria-Hungary on December 6, 1915, +based upon the testimony of American and other survivors, the _Ancona_ +thereupon "attempted to escape, but being overhauled by the submarine +she stopped; that after a brief period, and before the crew and +passengers were all able to take to the boats, the submarine fired a +number of shells at the vessel and finally torpedoed and sank her +while there were yet many persons on board, and that by gunfire and +floundering of the vessel a large number of persons lost their lives +or were seriously injured, among whom were citizens of the United +States." + +A heated protest from the Italian Ambassador to the State Department +thus depicted the same scene: "Without any warning whatever, without +even a blank shot, without observing any of the formalities +accompanying the right of search, the submarine encountered by the +_Ancona_ opened fire upon the unarmed passenger liner, relentlessly +shelling not only the wireless apparatus, side, and decks of the ship +while she was at a stop, but even the lifeboats in which the terrified +passengers were seeking refuge. Many of the passengers were killed +outright or wounded. Some who approached the submarine in the hope of +rescue were driven off with jeers. As a result of this inhumane +procedure more than two hundred men, women and children lost their +lives." + +An impenitent explanation came from the Austro-Hungarian admiralty, +who in upholding the submarine commander, saw "no reason to find fault +with his course of action," and while recognizing that a commander in +the heat of battle could act contrary to instructions, "nothing of the +kind has occurred in this case." + +"It appears from his report," said the admiralty defense, "that his +ship was in danger; indeed, in double danger; first, that an enemy +boat was approaching on a line that threatened to cut off his retreat, +and the enemy ship and the Ancona could have established his radius of +action and could have set a torpedo boat flotilla on him; and second, +there was danger of the Ancona escaping, which, according to his +instructions, was to be prevented in all circumstances. Hence the +conduct of the commander, much as the loss of innocent lives must be +regretted and deplored, cannot be disapproved. On the contrary, if he +had departed without destroying the Ancona, it would have been failure +to do his duty since the Ancona could have notified other ships of his +whereabouts. The loss of American lives is regrettable, as well as +that Americans used a vessel belonging to a nation at war with +Austria-Hungary." + +This statement amplified a previous defense by the Austrian admiralty, +in which the latter admitted that the _Ancona_ was torpedoed after her +engines had been stopped and when passengers were still on board. The +American protest cited the admiralty's admission as substantially +confirming the principal testimony of the survivors. It, moreover, +alluded to the correspondence which had passed between Germany and the +United States on the use and misuse of submarines in attacking vessels +of commerce, and to Germany's acquiescence in the American stand +thereon. Yet despite the "full knowledge" possessed by the +Austro-Hungarian Government of the views of the United States, "as +expressed in no uncertain terms to the ally of Austria-Hungary," the +commander of the submarine which attacked the _Ancona_, the United +States protested, failed to put in a place of safety the crew and +passengers before destroying the vessel. + +The United States accused the submarine commander of violating the +principles of international law and humanity, and characterized his +conduct as "wanton slaughter of defenseless noncombatants," as the +vessel was not resisting or attempting to escape, and no other reason +was sufficient to excuse such an attack, not even the possibility of +rescue. + +A tone of severity and bluntness, not hitherto used in American +communications with the belligerents, marked this note of protest to +Austria-Hungary. Demands were made for a denunciation of the submarine +commander's act as "illegal and indefensible," for his punishment, and +for reparation by the payment of indemnity for the loss of American +lives. The United States left an avenue open through which +Austria-Hungary could find an acceptable excuse. It preferred to believe +that the submarine commander acted contrary to instructions rather than +accept the alternative assumption that the Austro-Hungarian Government +"failed to issue instructions to the commanders of the submarines in +accordance with the laws of nations and the principles of humanity." + +The answer of Austria-Hungary (December 13, 1915) was deftly befogging +by clouding in diplomatic rhodomontade the familiar issues raised by +the United States. Its deliberate evasiveness was so direct as to be +almost an affront. Stripped of its confusing terminology, the Austrian +note declared that the United States had not adequately stated its +cause of complaint, and had wrongly assumed that the Austrian +Government was fully acquainted with all communications passed between +the German and American Governments on the submarine issue. This plea +of ignorance was made in face of the precautionary transmission by the +State Department to the Austrian embassy of copies of all the +American notes sent to Germany. The Austrian note also questioned +whether the testimony made by the _Ancona_ survivors, whom the +American protest had not specifically named, was to be deemed more +trustworthy than the report of the submarine commander. As to +Austria-Hungary's knowledge of the American issues with Germany, that +Government was not of the opinion that "this knowledge could be +sufficient for the present case, which, according to its own +information, is materially different from the case or cause to which +the American Government apparently is referring." The note thus +proceeded: + +"Therefore, the Austro-Hungarian Government must leave it to the +Washington Cabinet to draw up the individual legal maxims which the +commander of the submarine is alleged to have violated when sinking +the _Ancona_. + +"The American Government also thought it advisable to point out the +attitude which the Berlin Cabinet in the before-mentioned exchange of +correspondence had taken. In the highly esteemed note the +Austro-Hungarian Government finds no support for this course. If the +American Government should have intended thereby to express an opinion +as if a precedent exists for the present case, the Austro-Hungarian +Government, in order to prevent misunderstandings, must declare that +it, of course, must preserve full liberty to urge its own legal +interpretations during the discussion of the _Ancona_ case." + +This was a virtual refusal by Austria-Hungary to be bound by or +concerned with the submarine agreement between her ally and the United +States. As viewed through German-American eyes (the "New Yorker +Herold"), the Austrian answer represented "a very sharp censure of a +dilettante diplomacy which desires to negotiate and expects plain +replies before the most essential preliminaries are given. The tenor +of the Vienna note is in substance this: 'We are willing to negotiate, +but first you must furnish us with the necessary material--undebatable +material at that.' It is quite comprehensible that Washington is +peeved at this censure." + +Austria's demand for a "bill of particulars" was aptly expressed in +this hostile view of the American note. The United States declined to +accede to the request, which was viewed as a resort to the evasive +methods practiced by Germany, but rested its case on the Austrian +admiralty's self-condemning admission that the _Ancona_ was sunk while +people were still on board her. Nor would the American Government +assent to the Austrian proposal that the two governments "exchange +views" as to the legality of the act as described by the Austrian +admiralty. President Wilson and his advisers saw no loophole for +argument as to the justification or otherwise of a submarine sinking +an unarmed merchantman with passengers on board her when the vessel +was at a standstill. + +Hence the second American note sent on December 19, 1915, was confined +to a simple issue. The Government brushed aside the questions Austria +raised as immaterial to the main fact based on the incriminating +report of her own admiralty. The Austrian Government was informed that +the admission that the _Ancona_ was torpedoed after her engines had +been stopped and while passengers remained on her was alone sufficient +to fix the blame on the submarine commander. His culpability was +established. + +"The rules of international law," the American note continued, "and +the principles of humanity which were thus willfully violated by the +commander of the submarine have been so long and so universally +recognized and are so manifest from the standpoint of right and +justice that the Government of the United States does not feel called +upon to debate them and does not understand that the Imperial and +Royal Government questions or disputes them. + +"The Government of the United States therefore finds no other course +open to it but to hold the Imperial and Royal Government responsible +for the act of its naval commander and to renew the definite but +respectful demands made in its communication of the 6th of December, +1915." + +[Illustration: Firing a torpedo from the deck of a German destroyer. +The torpedo has just left the tube. Dropping into the water it will +continue its course, like a small submarine boat, straight to its +mark.] + +Austria yielded. A lengthy response from Vienna, disclosed on December +31, 1915, was couched in a spirit which removed all danger of a +cleavage of relations between the two countries on the _Ancona_ issue. +The United States drew from the Dual Monarchy an affirmation that +"the sacred commandments of humanity" must be observed in war, and a +concurrence in the principle that "private ships, in so far as they do +not flee or offer resistance, may not be destroyed without the persons +aboard being brought into safety." Austria-Hungary was thus ranged in +line with Germany in the recognition of, and pledging compliance with, +principles for which the United States stood. + +The Vienna Government, however, adhered to its own version of the +sinking of the _Ancona_, and from it sought to show that the +statements made in the first American note were based on incorrect +premises, i. e.: + +"Information reaching the United States Government that solid shot was +immediately fired toward the steamer is incorrect; it is incorrect +that the submarine overhauled the steamer during the chase; it is +incorrect that only a brief period was given for getting the people +into the boats. On the contrary an unusually long period was granted +to the _Ancona_ for getting passengers in the boats. Finally it is +incorrect that a number of shells were still fired at the steamer +after it had stopped. + +"The facts of the case demonstrate further that the commander of the +submarine granted the steamer a full forty-five minutes' time--that is +more than an adequate period to give the persons aboard an opportunity +to take to the boats. Then, since the people were not all saved, he +carried out the torpedoing in such a manner that the ship would remain +above water the longest possible time, doing this with the purpose of +making possible the abandonment of the vessel on boats still in hand. + +"Since the ship remained a further forty-five minutes above water he +would have accomplished his purpose if the crew of the _Ancona_ had +not abandoned the passengers in a manner contrary to duty. + +"With full consideration, however, of this conduct of the commander, +aimed at accomplishing the rescue of the crew and passengers, the +Imperial and Royal Marine authorities reached the conclusion that he +had omitted to take adequately into consideration the panic that had +broken out among the passengers, which rendered difficult the taking +to the boats, and the spirit of the regulation that Imperial and +Royal Marine officers shall not fail in giving help to anybody in +need, not even to an enemy. + +"Therefore the officer was punished, in accordance with the existing +rules, for exceeding his instructions." + +On the question of reparation by indemnity for the loss of American +lives, Austria-Hungary would not admit liability for damages resulting +from the "undoubtedly justified bombarding of the fleeing ship," but +was willing to come to an agreement on the subject. + +It will be seen that the note did not denounce the attack on the +_Ancona_ as "illegal and indefensible"; but Austria's acquiescence in +the American demand for the punishment of the submarine commander was +viewed as a virtual admission of the illegality and indefensibility of +the method of attack. Coupled with her expressed disposition to pay +damages and her acceptance of the humane principle of warning and +safety to passengers, Austria regarded her concessions as closing the +_Ancona_ issue, in so far as it affected the friendly relations +between the two Governments. As the complaint of the American +Government had been principally against the method of attack, and had +been met by Austria, the crisis passed. + + + + +CHAPTER LXI + +THE LUSITANIA DEADLOCK--AGREEMENT BLOCKED BY ARMED MERCHANTMEN +ISSUE--CRISIS IN CONGRESS + + +The _Lusitania_ negotiations were resumed, only to encounter a deadlock. +The issue had been eased in one important particular--Germany's +undertaking, drawn from her in the _Arabic_ crisis, not to sink unarmed +merchant vessels without warning and regard for the safety of passengers +and crews. But there remained the no less vital questions of indemnity +to relatives of the Americans who lost their lives when the _Lusitania_ +sank and a disavowal by Germany of the submarine commander's act. Here +was ground well traversed by the State Department in its communications +with Austria over the _Ancona_; but Germany was much less pliant. The +United States insisted that not only must full indemnity be paid for the +American lives lost, but that the agreement for such payment must be +accompanied by a declaration of disavowal acknowledging that the +submarine commander committed an illegal act in sinking the _Lusitania_. + +The stumbling-block lay in Germany's objection to subscribing to such +a principle as was here implicated--that her war-zone decree against +Great Britain, carried out by submarine attacks on merchant vessels, +was illegal. She held that her submarine policy was a just reprisal +for Great Britain's "starvation" blockade of Germany. The United +States held that reprisals in the form of sinking helpless ships +without warning were illegal. Germany would not admit that her +submarine policy as practiced when the _Lusitania_ went down was +illegal. To do so would be an admission that her entire submarine +campaign against Great Britain violated international law, and that +Americans surrendered none of their rights as neutral citizens in +traveling through a war zone on merchant ships of a belligerent power. +But Germany was willing to pay an indemnity for the loss of American +lives, not as an admission of wrongdoing, but as an act of grace. + +Despite this deadlock the private conversations between Secretary +Lansing and Count von Bernstorff continued. Germany submitted +proposals in various forms aiming at making concessions to meet the +American demand for disavowal of an illegal act; but in each case +Secretary Lansing discerned an effort to evade acknowledging +wrongdoing. + +Matters remained at this stage toward the close of January, 1916, +after negotiations extending over several weeks, apparently fruitless +in opening any acceptable channel toward a settlement. That the status +of the _Lusitania_ case was unsatisfactory was vaguely hinted, and the +alternative to Germany's meeting the American demands--a severance of +diplomatic relations--which remained the menace it was from the +outset, loomed up again. A speech by President Wilson before the +Railway Business Association in New York City on January 27, 1915, +ostensibly on preparedness for war, was interpreted as having a +bearing on the deadlock in the _Lusitania_ negotiations. At least it +was significantly coincidental both in time and subject, and did not +pass without comment in Europe, especially this passage: + +"I cannot tell you what the international relations of this country +will be to-morrow. I would not dare keep silent and let the country +suppose that to-morrow was certain to be as bright as to-day. There is +something the American people love better than peace. They love the +principles upon which their political life is founded. They are ready +at any time to fight for the vindication of their character and honor. +I would rather surrender territory than ideals." + +Whether this utterance was a warning to Germany or not, the +_Lusitania_ negotiations afterward became more promising. Throughout +them Germany balked at making an outright disavowal; she indicated a +willingness to go part of the way to meet the United States, but +always conditional to an expression being inserted in her apologia +that the attack on the _Lusitania_ was a justifiable reprisal against +Great Britain. A proposal by Germany to submit the question of +disavowal to arbitration was rejected, for the second time, on the +ground that the "vital interests and national honor" of the United +States were involved and were therefore not arbitrable. The right of +Americans to be on board the _Lusitania_, under the protection of +international law accorded to neutrals on the high seas in war time, +was too firmly established to admit of debate. A renewed reminder to +Germany that the private conversations threatened to end in failure, +which meant further consideration of the alternative of a cleavage of +relations between the two countries, brought from Germany a reply on +February 4, 1916, which was described as "one word short" of a +satisfactory surrender. The word needed was a synonym for "disavowal" +which did not convey that Germany had committed an illegal act. So the +proposal again fell short of the demand; it did not contain the exact +form of disavowal insisted upon by the United States. But it came +nearer to meeting the American demands than any of the varied +proposals Germany had previously submitted. The dispute turned on +terminology that did not affront Germany's sensibilities. The aim +sought was the avoidance of the words "illegal" and "disavowal" or +whether to "assume" liability, which seemed to imply a voluntary act +of grace, or "admit" liability, which implied an acknowledgment of an +illegal act, or "recognize" liability, which was President Wilson's +solution. On February 8, 1916, the outcome of these efforts in search +of the acceptable word or words was a reported agreement on a +memorandum which contained "language sufficiently broad to cover +substantially the demands of the United States." + +This bright prospect of a speedy settlement was suddenly dimmed by a +communication received from Germany and Austria-Hungary two days later +notifying that, beginning March 1, 1916, their submarines would sink +all armed merchantmen without warning. Germany's revised draft +apparently deciding the _Lusitania_ issue came to hand on February 15, +1916. The following day the Administration intimated that the +submarine controversy over the _Lusitania_ could not be closed until +the United States had fully considered the possible effect of the new +policy of the Teutonic Powers. + +Germany later informed the United States that her assurances regarding +the future conduct of submarine warfare, given in the _Lusitania_ and +_Arabic_ cases, were still binding, but that they applied only to +merchantmen of a peaceful character; that the new orders issued to the +submarine commanders, which directed them to sink without warning all +belligerent merchantmen carrying arms, either for defense or offense, +were not in conflict with these assurances; and that Germany and +Austria-Hungary had entered into an agreement regarding the new +submarine orders, which would go into effect by midnight, February 29, +1916. + +Germany charged that Great Britain had instructed all her merchantmen +to arm for offensive purposes against submarine attacks, and cited +instances in which submarines were attacked by vessels seemingly of a +peaceful character. This accusation was denied by Lord Robert Cecil, +Great Britain's Minister for War Trade, who told the House of Commons: + +"The British view has always been that defensively armed merchantmen +must not fire on submarines or on any other warships, except in +self-defense. The Germans have twisted a passage in a document taken +from a transport which they sank into meaning that merchant vessels +have instructions to take the offensive. This is not so." + +The question of armed merchantmen had been simmering during the course +of the _Lusitania_ negotiations. It arose over the unexplained sinking +in the Mediterranean of a Peninsular and Oriental liner, the _Persia_, +on December 29, 1915. The American Consul to Aden, Robert N. McNeely, +was among the passengers who lost their lives. The _Persia_ carried a +4.7 gun. The Administration was believed to be exercised--though +erroneously--over the question whether an armed liner was entitled to +be regarded as any other than an auxiliary cruiser, and hence liable +to be sunk without warning. No new issue, however, was raised by the +United States with the Teutonic Powers, because both Germany and +Austria-Hungary--Turkey also--categorically denied that the liner had +been sunk by any of their submarines. The loss of the _Persia_ thus +remained a mystery, though there were not wanting suspicions in the +American press that the Teutonic Powers, in disclaiming that they had +any hand in the vessel's destruction, might have hit upon a new device +to evade further controversies with the United States. + +The _Persia's_ gun, added to the frequent reports rife of other +merchantmen being similarly armed, injected a new element in the +submarine controversy, which could not be wholly removed from the +pending _Lusitania_ negotiations. Germany had excused the sinking of +vessels without warning on the plea that her submarine commanders, if +they appeared on the surface to warn them to haul to for visit and +search, or for those on board to take to the boats, could never be +assured that they would not be fired upon and sunk. Hence she regarded +armed merchantmen as being more than a match for submarines and not +entitled to any consideration. Had evidence been forthcoming that the +_Persia_ was sunk by a German submarine, the presence of a gun on +board her would, in Germany's view, have justified the vessel's +destruction without warning, and the uncertain attitude of the +American Government, at this stage, appeared to lean toward the +acceptance of such a defense. It was even hinted that the +Administration was considering whether the situation did not call for +a proclamation warning all Americans off armed merchantmen. Sweden had +done so in the case of her nationals. + +The Administration soon dissipated the impression current that it +contemplated a change of policy in the submarine issue. But, while the +uncertainty lasted, it appeared to have a credible basis in a proposal +Secretary Lansing had made to the Entente Powers, as a _modus vivendi_ +of the submarine controversy, for the disarmament of merchant vessels, +to assure the safety of their passengers and crews if attacked. The +success of this course depended wholly upon Germany living up to her +guarantees. The proposal was not well received by the Entente Powers, +who doubted the good faith of Germany's pledges, and only saw in the +Lansing suggestion an assurance of safety to her submarines in their +raids on allied shipping. + +The American attitude to the new Teutonic policy of sinking all armed +merchantmen on sight remained to be declared. The Administration had +upheld the right of Americans to travel on the high seas in +merchantmen, and saw a surrender of national principle and an +abridgment of personal liberty if the United States yielded to the +terrorism caused by submarine warfare and warned Americans to stay at +home. The United States also recognized the right of belligerent +merchantmen to arm, but for defensive purposes only. At the beginning +of the war it so notified Germany in a memorandum naming the following +American regulations, among others, governing such vessels: + +"A merchant vessel of belligerent nationality may carry an armament +and ammunition for the sole purpose of defense without acquiring the +character of a ship of war. + +"The presence of an armament and ammunition on board a merchant ship +creates a presumption that the armament is for offensive purposes, but +the owners or agents may overcome this presumption by showing that the +vessel carries armament solely for defense." + +The memorandum was sent to Germany as an answer to Germany's protest +against the refusal of the United States to intern as ships of war +British liners leaving or entering New York with guns mounted. Germany +dissented from the view that any belligerent merchant ship could carry +guns. The United States declined to modify its rulings, but informed +Germany that, recognizing the "desirability of avoiding a ground of +complaint", it had disapproved of British vessels using American ports +if armed, and had made such representations to Great Britain that no +armed merchant vessel, since September, 1914, with the exception of +two, had entered an American port. + +The situation disturbed Congress. A resolution came before the Senate +on February 18, 1916, opposing acquiescence by the United States in +the notifications of the Central Powers of the right of their +submarines to sink armed merchantmen. The foreign policy of the +Administration was bitterly assailed by Senators Lodge and Sterling, +especially for its attitude in relation to the pending negotiations +over the new submarine order. For the Administration, Senator Stone, +chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, said the question of +armed merchantmen was at least debatable. The position at this stage +was that the Administration was taking cognizance of Germany's charge +that British merchantmen were armed for offensive purposes, had been +instructed to attack submarines, and that rewards had been offered for +their success in so doing. Germany offered to furnish proofs to show +that the American rules recognizing merchantmen armed for defensive +purposes as peaceful ships could not now apply. + +There was a division of sentiment in the Senate as to the stand the +United States should take, and a wider one in the House of +Representatives, where a panic-stricken feeling arose that the country +was slowly but surely heading toward war with Germany. A vociferous +demand was made by a minority of congressmen for strong action warning +Americans off armed merchantmen of belligerents to prevent the United +States raising further critical issues with Germany. The House leaders +informed the President that they could not control their following, +and that on a vote the House would be two to one in favor of such +legislation. They even were tempted to force the passage of such a +resolution on the patriotic ground that in doing so they would merely +be seeking to prevent American citizens from jeopardizing the peace of +the nation. The President suspected that pro-German propaganda was +behind the hysteria in Congress, and objected to any legislative +interference in his handling of the submarine controversy. A +resolution was actually pending in the House forbidding Americans to +travel on armed merchantmen. The President finally stated his position +in a forceful letter to Senator Stone on February 24, 1916, refusing +to assent to any such abridgment of the rights of American citizens. +This letter followed an emphatic rejection by him of a proposal made +by the Democratic leaders in Congress that that body should relieve +him of all responsibility of forcing an issue with Germany. + +"The course which the Central European Powers have announced their +intention of following in the near future with regard to undersea +warfare," the President wrote, "seems for the moment to threaten +insuperable obstacles, but its apparent meaning is so manifestly +inconsistent with explicit assurances recently given us by those +powers with regard to their treatment of merchant vessels on the high +seas that I must believe that explanations will presently ensue which +will put a different aspect upon it.... But in any event our duty is +plain. No nation, no group of nations, has the right, while war is in +progress, to alter or disregard the principles which all nations have +agreed upon in mitigation of the horrors or sufferings of war, and if +the clear rights of American citizens should ever unhappily be +abridged or denied by any such action, we should, it seems to me, have +in honor no choice as to what our own course should be. + +"For my own part I cannot consent to any abridgment of the rights of +American citizens in any respect. The honor and self-respect of the +nation is involved. We covet peace, and shall preserve it at any cost +but the loss of honor. To forbid our people to exercise their rights +for fear we might be called upon to vindicate them would be a deep +humiliation indeed. It would be an implicit, all but an explicit, +acquiescence in the violation of the rights of mankind everywhere and +of whatever nation or allegiance. It would be a deliberate abdication +of our hitherto proud position as spokesmen even amid the turmoil of +war for the law and the right. It would make everything this +Government has attempted, and everything it has achieved during this +terrible struggle of nations, meaningless and futile. + +"It is important to reflect that if in this instance we allowed +expediency to take the place of principle the door would inevitably be +opened to still further concessions. Once accept a single abatement of +right and many other humiliations would certainly follow, and the +whole fine fabric of international law might crumble under our hands +piece by piece. What we are contending for in this matter is of the +very essence of the things that have made America a sovereign nation. +She cannot yield them without conceding her own impotency as a nation +and making virtual surrender of her independent position among the +nations of the world." + +The leaders in Congress were so impressed by this uncompromising +declaration of the President that they set about allaying the revolt +against the Administration's policy, which, it was feared, was drawing +the United States into war. Efforts were made to smother in committee +the resolutions pending in both the House and Senate forbidding +Americans to travel on armed merchant ships. But the President later +saw that much harm had already been done. An impression became current +abroad that Congress and the President were at cross purposes +regarding the attitude the United States should take toward the new +submarine policy of the Teutonic Powers. In the belief that the +country was with him in his stand, the President decided that such an +impression ought not to be permitted to prevail, and that the question +should be determined as to whether Congress upheld him also. In almost +irreconcilable contrast to his previous opposition to Congress voting +on the resolutions forbidding Americans to travel on armed +merchantmen, the President suddenly executed an audacious _volte face_ +on February 29, 1916, by demanding a test vote upon them. The +congressional leaders were confounded by the request, coming as it did +after they had done their utmost to suppress the resolutions in +deference to the President. But the latter made his reasons for +changing his attitude cogent enough in a letter he addressed to +Representative Pou of the House Rules Committee. + +"The report," he wrote, "that there are divided counsels in Congress +in regard to the foreign policy of the Government is being made +industrious use of in foreign capitals. I believe that report to be +false, but so long as it is anywhere credited it cannot fail to do the +greatest harm and expose the country to the most serious risks. + +"I therefore feel justified in asking that your committee will permit +me to urge an early vote upon the resolutions with regard to travel on +armed merchantmen, which have recently been so much talked about, in +order that there may be afforded an opportunity for full public +discussion and action upon them, and that all doubts and conjectures +may be swept away and our foreign relations once more cleared of +damaging misunderstandings." + +The House resolution, which was proposed by Representative McLemore of +Texas, was thereupon revived for immediate consideration. The +President's demand for a vote upon it came on the eve of the date set +by the Teutonic Powers for inaugurating their submarine war on armed +merchantmen, March 1, 1916. The ensuing events belong to the next +volume of this history. + + + + +CHAPTER LXII + +DEVELOPMENTS OF PRO-GERMAN PROPAGANDA--MUNITIONS CRUSADE DEFENDED--NEW +ASPECTS OF AMERICAN POLICY + + +Pro-German propaganda soon developed far beyond its original aim. +Registering protests against the Administration preserving a +neutrality according to its own interpretation of American laws proved +ineffective. Balked in this, the crusade took a form which was plainly +an outgrowth of a countrywide circulation of literature emanating +from German publicity organizations devoted to presenting the Teutonic +cause in the most favorable light to the American people. Opinions +being free, epistolary zeal of this kind violated no laws, and words +broke no bones. In the fact that the crusade failed perceptibly to +swing national sentiment regarding the European war to a recognition +of the German view of American neutrality obviously lay a stimulus and +incitement for resorting to sterner measures, since mild measures were +vain. Events already narrated show the extent to which German zealots +pursued a defiant criminal course in making their "protests," but +there was no certainty--though suspicions and allegations were not +wanting--that their activities had official German inspiration and +sanction. But as the summer of 1915 wore on, the Administration became +satisfied--through an accumulation of evidence--that this was the +case. For reasons of state, in view of the delicate stages of the +_Lusitania_ and _Arabic_ issues with Germany, the Government forbore +to take cognizance of the undoubted participation of German diplomats +and secret-service agents in plots hatched and pursued on American +soil against the country's neutrality, and provoking unrest and +disorder. The Government's tolerance of such a situation did not long +endure. + +The first revelation that these activities were organized on an +extended scale came through the columns of the New York "World" in +August, 1915. The country was not unprepared for the disclosure. They +had had forerunners in repeated rumors and accusations that German +Embassy officials were involved in the passport frauds and were using +American territory as a base for an espionage system, whose coils were +wound about this country and Canada, as well as in the charge that +German money had been freely spent in a way inconsistent with +international friendship. The newspaper named unreservedly charged +that "The German propaganda in the United States has became a +political conspiracy against the Government and people of the United +States." To substantiate that sweeping indictment the "World" +reproduced the text of a series of letters it had obtained, addressed +to Dr. Heinrich F. Albert, a German Privy Councilor, who acted as the +fiscal agent of the Kaiser's Government in the United States. + +The correspondence, as printed, linked Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, the +German Imperial Chancellor, and Count von Bernstorff, the German +Ambassador, with a vast project for spreading German propaganda. The +disclosures of the correspondence, the authenticity of which was not +contested, were described as showing that the German propaganda had +for its purpose "the involving of the United States in the +complications of the European war," and that the plans "designed to +accomplish this result were carefully and deliberately projected, +efficiently organized, superbly executed, and adequately financed." +These plans embraced an elaborate scheme to control and influence the +press of the United States to establish newspapers and news services, +finance professional lecturers and moving-picture entertainments and +publish books "for the sole purpose of fomenting internal discord +among the American people to the advantage of the German Empire." + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR, VOLUME +IV (OF 8)*** + + +******* This file should be named 29340.txt or 29340.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/9/3/4/29340 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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