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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On the Relations of Man to the Lower Animals, by 
+Thomas H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Relations of Man to the Lower Animals
+
+Author: Thomas H. Huxley
+
+Posting Date: January 6, 2009 [EBook #2932]
+Release Date: November, 2001
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELATIONS OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Amy E. Zelmer
+
+
+
+
+
+ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS
+
+By Thomas H. Huxley
+
+
+
+
+     Multis videri poterit, majorem esso differentiam Simiae et
+     Hominis, quam diei et noctis; verum tamen hi, comparatione
+     instituta inter summos Europae Heroes et Hottentottos ad
+     Caput bonae spei degentes, difficillime sibi persuadebunt,
+     has eosdem habere natales; vel si virginem nobilem aulicam,
+     maxime comtam et humanissimam, conferre vellent cum homine
+     sylvestri et sibi relicto, vix augurari possent, hunc et
+     illam ejusdem esse speciei.--'Linnaei Amoenitates Acad.
+     "Anthropomorpha."'
+
+
+THE question of questions for mankind--the problem which underlies
+all others, and is more deeply interesting than any other--is the
+ascertainment of the place which Man occupies in nature and of his
+relations to the universe of things. Whence our race has come; what are
+the limits of our power over nature, and of nature's power over us; to
+what goal we are tending; are the problems which present themselves anew
+and with undiminished interest to every man born into the world. Most of
+us, shrinking from the difficulties and dangers which beset the seeker
+after original answers to these riddles, are contented to ignore them
+altogether, or to smother the investigating spirit under the featherbed
+of respected and respectable tradition. But, in every age, one or two
+restless spirits, blessed with that constructive genius, which can
+only build on a secure foundation, or cursed with the spirit of mere
+scepticism, are unable to follow in the well-worn and comfortable track
+of their forefathers and contemporaries, and unmindful of thorns and
+stumbling-blocks, strike out into paths of their own. The sceptics end
+in the infidelity which asserts the problem to be insoluble, or in
+the atheism which denies the existence of any orderly progress and
+governance of things: the men of genius propound solutions which grow
+into systems of Theology or of Philosophy, or veiled in musical language
+which suggests more than it asserts, take the shape of the Poetry of an
+epoch.
+
+Each such answer to the great question, invariably asserted by the
+followers of its propounder, if not by himself, to be complete and
+final, remains in high authority and esteem, it may be for one century,
+or it may be for twenty: but, as invariably, Time proves each reply
+to have been a mere approximation to the truth--tolerable chiefly on
+account of the ignorance of those by whom it was accepted, and wholly
+intolerable when tested by the larger knowledge of their successors.
+
+In a well-worn metaphor, a parallel is drawn between the life of man
+and the metamorphosis of the caterpillar into the butterfly; but the
+comparison may be more just as well as more novel, if for its former
+term we take the mental progress of the race. History shows that the
+human mind, fed by constant accessions of knowledge, periodically grows
+too large for its theoretical coverings, and bursts them asunder
+to appear in new habiliments, as the feeding and growing grub, at
+intervals, casts its too narrow skin and assumes another, itself but
+temporary. Truly the imago state of Man seems to be terribly distant,
+but every moult is a step gained, and of such there have been many.
+
+Since the revival of learning, whereby the Western races of Europe were
+enabled to enter upon that progress towards true knowledge, which was
+commenced by the philosophers of Greece, but was almost arrested in
+subsequent long ages of intellectual stagnation, or, at most, gyration,
+the human larva has been feeding vigorously, and moulting in proportion.
+A skin of some dimension was cast in the 16th century, and another
+towards the end of the 18th, while, within the last fifty years, the
+extraordinary growth of every department of physical science has spread
+among us mental food of so nutritious and stimulating a character that
+a new ecdysis seems imminent. But this is a process not unusually
+accompanied by many throes and some sickness and debility, or, it may
+be, by graver disturbances; so that every good citizen must feel bound
+to facilitate the process, and even if he have nothing but a scalpel to
+work withal, to ease the cracking integument to the best of his ability.
+
+In this duty lies my excuse for the publication of these essays. For it
+will be admitted that some knowledge of man's position in the animate
+world is an indispensable preliminary to the proper understanding of his
+relations to the universe--and this again resolves itself, in the long
+run, into an inquiry into the nature and the closeness of the ties which
+connect him with those singular creatures whose history [1] has been
+sketched in the preceding pages.
+
+The importance of such an inquiry is indeed intuitively manifest Brought
+face to face with these blurred copies of himself, the least thoughtful
+of men is conscious of a certain shock, due perhaps, not so much to
+disgust at the aspect of what looks like an insulting caricature, as
+to the awakening of a sudden and profound mistrust of time-honoured
+theories and strongly-rooted prejudices regarding his own position in
+nature, and his relations to the under-world of life; while that which
+remains a dim suspicion for the unthinking, becomes a vast argument,
+fraught with the deepest consequences, for all who are acquainted with
+the recent progress of the anatomical and physiological sciences.
+
+I now propose briefly to unfold that argument, and to set forth, in
+a form intelligible to those who possess no special acquaintance
+with anatomical science, the chief facts upon which all conclusions
+respecting the nature and the extent of the bonds which connect man with
+the brute world must be based: I shall then indicate the one immediate
+conclusion which, in my judgment, is justified by those facts, and I
+shall finally discuss the bearing of that conclusion upon the hypotheses
+which have been entertained respecting the Origin of Man.
+
+The facts to which I would first direct the reader's attention, though
+ignored by many of the professed instructors of the public mind, are
+easy of demonstration and are universally agreed to by men of science;
+while their significance is so great, that whoso has duly pondered over
+them will, I think, find little to startle him in the other revelations
+of Biology. I refer to those facts which have been made known by the
+study of Development.
+
+It is a truth of very wide, if not of universal, application, that every
+living creature commences its existence under a form different from, and
+simpler than, that which it eventually attains.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--A. Egg of the Dog, with the vitelline membrane
+burst, so as to give exit to the yelk, the germinal vesicle (a), and
+its included spot (b). B. C. D. E F. Successive changes of the yelk
+indicated in the text. After Bischoff.]
+
+The oak is a more complex thing than the little rudimentary plant
+contained in the acorn; the caterpillar is more complex than the egg;
+the butterfly than the caterpillar; and each of these beings, in passing
+from its rudimentary to its perfect condition, runs through a series
+of changes, the sum of which is called its Development. In the higher
+animals these changes are extremely complicated; but, within the last
+half century, the labours of such men as Von Baer, Rathke, Reichert,
+Bischof, and Remak, have almost completely unravelled them, so that
+the successive stages of development which are exhibited by a Dog, for
+example, are now as well known to the embryologist as are the steps of
+the metamorphosis of the silkworm moth to the school-boy. It will be
+useful to consider with attention the nature and the order of the
+stages of canine development, as an example of the process in the higher
+animals generally.
+
+The Dog, like all animals, save the very lowest (and further inquiries
+may not improbably remove the apparent exception), commences its
+existence as an egg: as a body which is, in every sense, as much an egg
+as that of a hen, but is devoid of that accumulation of nutritive matter
+which confers upon the bird's egg its exceptional size and domestic
+utility; and wants the shell, which would not only be useless to an
+animal incubated within the body of its parent, but would cut it off
+from access to the source of that nutriment which the young creature
+requires, but which the minute egg of the mammal does not contain within
+itself.
+
+The Dog's egg is, in fact, a little spheroidal bag (Fig. 12), formed
+of a delicate transparent membrane called the 'vitelline membrane', and
+about 1/130 to 1/120th of an inch in diameter. It contains a mass of
+viscid nutritive matter--the 'yelk'--within which is inclosed a second
+much more delicate spheroidal bag, called the 'germinal vesicle' (a). In
+this, lastly, lies a more solid rounded body, termed the 'germinal spot'
+(b).
+
+The egg, or 'Ovum,' is originally formed within a gland, from which,
+in due season, it becomes detached, and passes into the living chamber
+fitted for its protection and maintenance during the protracted process
+of gestation. Here, when subjected to the required conditions, this
+minute and apparently insignificant particle of living matter becomes
+animated by a new and mysterious activity. The germinal vesicle and
+spot cease to be discernible (their precise fate being one of the yet
+unsolved problems of embryology), but the yelk becomes circumferentially
+indented, as if an invisible knife had been drawn round it, and thus
+appears divided into two hemispheres (Fig. 12, C).
+
+By the repetition of this process in various planes, these hemispheres
+become subdivided, so that four segments are produced (D); and these,
+in like manner, divide and subdivide again, until the whole yelk is
+converted into a mass of granules, each of which consists of a minute
+spheroid of yelk-substance, inclosing a central particle, the so-called
+'nucleus' (F). Nature, by this process, has attained much the same
+result as that at which a human artificer arrives by his operations in a
+brickfield. She takes the rough plastic material of the yelk and breaks
+it up into well-shaped tolerably even-sized masses, handy for building
+up into any part of the living edifice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Earliest rudiment of the Dog. B. Rudiment
+further advanced, showing the foundations of the head, tail, and
+vertebral column. C. The very young puppy, with attached ends of the
+yelk-sac and allantois, and invested in the amnion.]
+
+Next, the mass of organic bricks, or 'cells' as they are technically
+called, thus formed, acquires an orderly arrangement, becoming converted
+into a hollow spheroid with double walls. Then, upon one side of this
+spheroid, appears a thickening, and, by and bye, in the centre of the
+area of thickening, a straight shallow groove (Fig. 13, A) marks the
+central line of the edifice which is to be raised, or, in other words,
+indicates the position of the middle line of the body of the future
+dog. The substance bounding the groove on each side next rises up into
+a fold, the rudiment of the side wall of that long cavity, which will
+eventually lodge the spinal marrow and the brain; and in the floor of
+this chamber appears a solid cellular cord, the so-called 'notochord.'
+One end of the inclosed cavity dilates to form the head (Fig. 13, B),
+the other remains narrow, and eventually becomes the tail; the side
+walls of the body are fashioned out of the downward continuation of the
+walls of the groove; and from them, by and bye, grow out little buds
+which, by degrees, assume the shape of limbs. Watching the fashioning
+process stage by stage, one is forcibly reminded of the modeller in
+clay. Every part, every organ, is at first, as it were, pinched up
+rudely, and sketched out in the rough; then shaped more accurately; and
+only, at last, receives the touches which stamp its final character.
+
+Thus, at length, the young puppy assumes such a form as is shown in
+Fig. 13, C. In this condition it has a disproportionately large head, as
+dissimilar to that of a dog as the bud-like limbs are unlike his legs.
+
+The remains of the yelk, which have not yet been applied to the
+nutrition and growth of the young animal, are contained in a sac
+attached to the rudimentary intestine, and termed the yelk sac,
+or 'umbilical vesicle.' Two membranous bags, intended to subserve
+respectively the protection and nutrition of the young creature, have
+been developed from the skin and from the under and hinder surface
+of the body; the former, the so-called 'amnion,' is a sac filled with
+fluid, which invests the whole body of the embryo, and plays the part
+of a sort of water-bed for it; the other, termed the 'allantois,' grows
+out, loaded with blood-vessels, from the ventral region, and eventually
+applying itself to the walls of the cavity, in which the developing
+organism is contained, enables these vessels to become the channel
+by which the stream of nutriment, required to supply the wants of the
+offspring, is furnished to it by the parent.
+
+The structure which is developed by the interlacement of the vessels of
+the offspring with those of the parent, and by means of which the former
+is enabled to receive nourishment and to get rid of effete matters, is
+termed the 'Placenta.'
+
+It would be tedious, and it is unnecessary for my present purpose, to
+trace the process of development further; suffice it to say, that, by
+a long and gradual series of changes, the rudiment here depicted and
+described becomes a puppy, is born, and then, by still slower and less
+perceptible steps, passes into the adult Dog.
+
+There is not much apparent resemblance between a barndoor Fowl and the
+Dog who protects the farm-yard. Nevertheless the student of development
+finds, not only that the chick commences its existence as an egg,
+primarily identical, in all essential respects, with that of the Dog,
+but that the yelk of this egg undergoes division--that the primitive
+groove arises, and that the contiguous parts of the germ are fashioned,
+by precisely similar methods, into a young chick, which, at one stage
+of its existence, is so like the nascent Dog, that ordinary inspection
+would hardly distinguish the two.
+
+The history of the development of any other vertebrate animal, Lizard,
+Snake, Frog, or Fish, tells the same story. There is always, to
+begin with, an egg having the same essential structure as that of the
+Dog:--the yelk of that egg always undergoes division, or 'segmentation'
+as it is often called: the ultimate products of that segmentation
+constitute the building materials for the body of the young animal;
+and this is built up round a primitive groove, in the floor of which
+a notochord is developed. Furthermore, there is a period in which the
+young of all these animals resemble one another, not merely in
+outward form, but in all essentials of structure, so closely, that the
+differences between them are inconsiderable, while, in their subsequent
+course, they diverge more and more widely from one another. And it is a
+general law, that, the more closely any animals resemble one another
+in adult structure, the longer and the more intimately do their embryos
+resemble one another: so that, for example, the embryos of a Snake and
+of a Lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a Snake and
+of a Bird; and the embryo of a Dog and of a Cat remain like one another
+for a far longer period than do those of a Dog and a Bird; or of a Dog
+and an Opossum; or even than those of a Dog and a Monkey.
+
+Thus the study of development affords a clear test of closeness of
+structural affinity, and one turns with impatience to inquire what
+results are yielded by the study of the development of Man. Is he
+something apart? Does he originate in a totally different way from Dog,
+Bird, Frog, and Fish, thus justifying those who assert him to have no
+place in nature and no real affinity with the lower world of animal
+life? Or does he originate in a similar germ, pass through the same
+slow and gradually progressive modifications,--depend on the same
+contrivances for protection and nutrition, and finally enter the world
+by the help of the same mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a
+moment, and has not been doubtful any time these thirty years. Without
+question, the mode of origin and the early stages of the development of
+man are identical with those of the animals immediately below him in the
+scale:--without a doubt, in these respects, he is far nearer the Apes,
+than the Apes are to the Dog.
+
+The Human ovum is about 1/125 of an inch in diameter, and might be
+described in the same terms as that of the Dog, so that I need only
+refer to the figure illustrative (14 A) of its structure. It leaves the
+organ in which it is formed in a similar fashion and enters the organic
+chamber prepared for its reception in the same way, the conditions of
+its development being in all respects the same. It has not yet been
+possible (and only by some rare chance can it ever be possible) to
+study the human ovum in so early a developmental stage as that of yelk
+division, but there is every reason to conclude that the changes
+it undergoes are identical with those exhibited by the ova of
+other vertebrated animals; for the formative materials of which the
+rudimentary human body is composed, in the earliest conditions in which
+it has been observed, are the same as those of other animals. Some of
+these earliest stages are figured below, and, as will be seen, they are
+strictly comparable to the very early states of the Dog; the marvellous
+correspondence between the two which is kept up, even for some time, as
+development advances, becoming apparent by the simple comparison of the
+figures with those on page 249.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A. Human ovum (after Kolliker). a. germinal
+vesicle. b. germinal spot. B. A very early condition of Man, with
+yelk-sac, allantois, and amnion (original). C. A more advanced stage
+(after Kolliker), compare Fig. 13, C.]
+
+Indeed, it is very long before the body of the young human being can be
+readily discriminated from that of the young puppy; but, at a tolerably
+early period, the two become distinguishable by the different form of
+their adjuncts, the yelk-sac and the allantois. The former, in the Dog,
+becomes long and spindle-shaped, while in Man it remains spherical; the
+latter, in the Dog, attains an extremely large size, and the vascular
+processes which are developed from it and eventually give rise to the
+formation of the placenta (taking root, as it were, in the parental
+organism, so as to draw nourishment therefrom, as the root of a tree
+extracts it from the soil) are arranged in an encircling zone, while
+in Man, the allantois remains comparatively small, and its vascular
+rootlets are eventually restricted to one disk-like spot. Hence, while
+the placenta of the Dog is like a girdle, that of Man has the cake-like
+form, indicated by the name of the organ.
+
+But, exactly in those respects in which the developing Man differs
+from the Dog, he resembles the ape, which, like man, has a spheroidal
+yelk-sac and a discoidal--sometimes partially lobed--placenta. So that
+it is only quite in the later stages of development that the young human
+being presents marked differences from the young ape, while the latter
+departs as much from the dog in its development, as the man does.
+
+Startling as the last assertion may appear to be, it is demonstrably
+true, and it alone appears to me sufficient to place beyond all doubt
+the structural unity of man with the rest of the animal world, and more
+particularly and closely with the apes.
+
+Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+originates--identical in the early stages of his formation--identical in
+the mode of his nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which
+lie immediately below him in the scale--Man, if his adult and perfect
+structure be compared with theirs, exhibits, as might be expected, a
+marvellous likeness of organization. He resembles them as they resemble
+one another--he differs from them as they differ from one another.--And,
+though these differences and resemblances cannot be weighed and
+measured, their value may be readily estimated; the scale or standard
+of judgment, touching that value, being afforded and expressed by the
+system of classification of animals now current among zoologists.
+
+A careful study of the resemblances and differences presented by
+animals has, in fact, led naturalists to arrange them into groups, or
+assemblages, all the members of each group presenting a certain amount
+of definable resemblance, and the number of points of similarity being
+smaller as the group is larger and 'vice versa'. Thus, all creatures
+which agree only in presenting the few distinctive marks of animality
+form the 'Kingdom' ANIMALIA. The numerous animals which agree only in
+possessing the special characters of Vertebrates form one 'Sub-Kingdom'
+of this Kingdom. Then the Sub-kingdom VERTEBRATA is subdivided into the
+five 'Classes,' Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, and
+these into smaller groups called 'Orders'; these into 'Families'
+and 'Genera'; while the last are finally broken up into the smallest
+assemblages, which are distinguished by the possession of constant,
+not-sexual, characters. These ultimate groups are Species.
+
+Every year tends to bring about a greater uniformity of opinion
+throughout the zoological world as to the limits and characters of these
+groups, great and small. At present, for example, no one has the
+least doubt regarding the characters of the classes Mammalia, Aves, or
+Reptilia; nor does the question arise whether any thoroughly well-known
+animal should be placed in one class or the other. Again, there is
+a very general agreement respecting the characters and limits of
+the orders of Mammals, and as to the animals which are structurally
+necessitated to take a place in one or another order.
+
+No one doubts, for example, that the Sloth and the Ant-eater, the
+Kangaroo and the Opossum, the Tiger and the Badger, the Tapir and
+the Rhinoceros, are respectively members of the same orders. These
+successive pairs of animals may, and some do, differ from one another
+immensely, in such matters as the proportions and structure of their
+limbs; the number of their dorsal and lumbar vertebrae; the adaptation
+of their frames to climbing, leaping, or running; the number and form
+of their teeth; and the characters of their skulls and of the contained
+brain. But, with all these differences, they are so closely connected in
+all the more important and fundamental characters of their organization,
+and so distinctly separated by these same characters from other animals,
+that zoologists find it necessary to group them together as members
+of one order. And if any new animal were discovered, and were found to
+present no greater difference from the Kangaroo and the Opossum, for
+example, than these animals do from one another, the zoologist would not
+only be logically compelled to rank it in the same order with these, but
+he would not think of doing otherwise.
+
+Bearing this obvious course of zoological reasoning in mind, let us
+endeavour for a moment to disconnect our thinking selves from the mask
+of humanity; let us imagine ourselves scientific Saturnians, if you
+will, fairly acquainted with such animals as now inhabit the Earth, and
+employed in discussing the relations they bear to a new and singular
+'erect and featherless biped,' which some enterprising traveller,
+overcoming the difficulties of space and gravitation, has brought from
+that distant planet for our inspection, well preserved, may be, in a
+cask of rum. We should all, at once, agree upon placing him among the
+mammalian vertebrates; and his lower jaw, his molars, and his brain,
+would leave no room for doubting the systematic position of the new
+genus among those mammals, whose young are nourished during gestation by
+means of a placenta, or what are called the 'placental mammals.'
+
+Further, the most superficial study would at once convince us that,
+among the orders of placental mammals, neither the Whales, nor the
+hoofed creatures, nor the Sloths and Ant-eaters, nor the carnivorous
+Cats, Dogs, and Bears, still less the Rodent Rats and Rabbits, or the
+Insectivorous Moles and Hedgehogs, or the Bats, could claim our 'Homo',
+as one of themselves.
+
+There would remain then, but one order for comparison, that of the Apes
+(using that word in its broadest sense), and the question for discussion
+would narrow itself to this--is Man so different from any of these Apes
+that he must form an order by himself? Or does he differ less from them
+than they differ from one another, and hence must take his place in the
+same order with them?
+
+Being happily free from all real, or imaginary, personal interest in the
+results of the inquiry thus set afoot, we should proceed to weigh the
+arguments on one side and on the other, with as much judicial calmness
+as if the question related to a new Opossum. We should endeavour to
+ascertain, without seeking either to magnify or diminish them, all the
+characters by which our new Mammal differed from the Apes; and if
+we found that these were of less structural value, than those which
+distinguish certain members of the Ape order from others universally
+admitted to be of the same order, we should undoubtedly place the newly
+discovered tellurian genus with them.
+
+I now proceed to detail the facts which seem to me to leave us no choice
+but to adopt the last mentioned course.
+
+It is quite certain that the Ape which most nearly approaches man,
+in the totality of its organization, is either the Chimpanzee or the
+Gorilla; and as it makes no practical difference, for the purposes of
+my present argument, which is selected for comparison, on the one hand,
+with Man, and on the other hand, with the rest of the Primates, [2]
+I shall select the latter (so far as its organization is known)--as a
+brute now so celebrated in prose and verse, that all must have heard of
+him, and have formed some conception of his appearance. I shall take up
+as many of the most important points of difference between man and
+this remarkable creature, as the space at my disposal will allow me to
+discuss, and the necessities of the argument demand; and I shall inquire
+into the value and magnitude of these differences, when placed side by
+side with those which separate the Gorilla from other animals of the
+same order.
+
+In the general proportions of the body and limbs there is a remarkable
+difference between the Gorilla and Man, which at once strikes the eye.
+The Gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, its lower limbs
+shorter, its upper limbs longer in proportion than those of Man.
+
+I find that the vertebral column of a full-grown Gorilla, in the Museum
+of the Royal College of Surgeons, measures 27 inches along its anterior
+curvature, from the upper edge of the atlas, or first vertebra of the
+neck, to the lower extremity of the sacrum; that the arm, without the
+hand, is 31-1/2 inches long; that the leg, without the foot, is 26-1/2
+inches long; that the hand is 9-3/4 inches long; the foot 11-1/4 inches
+long.
+
+In other words, taking the length of the spinal column as 100, the arm
+equals 115, the leg 96, the hand 36, and the foot 41.
+
+In the skeleton of a male Bosjesman, in the same collection, the
+proportions, by the same measurement, to the spinal column, taken as
+100, are--the arm 78, the leg 110, the hand 26, and the foot 32. In a
+woman of the same race the arm is 83, and the leg 120, the hand and foot
+remaining the same. In a European skeleton I find the arm to be 80, the
+leg 117, the hand 26, the foot 35.
+
+Thus the leg is not so different as it looks at first sight, in its
+proportion to the spine in the Gorilla and in the Man--being very
+slightly shorter than the spine in the former, and between 1/10 and 1/5
+longer than the spine in the latter. The foot is longer and the hand
+much longer in the Gorilla; but the great difference is caused by the
+arms, which are very much longer than the spine in the Gorilla, very
+much shorter than the spine in the Man.
+
+The question now arises how are the other Apes related to the Gorilla
+in these respects--taking the length of the spine, measured in the same
+way, at 100. In an adult Chimpanzee, the arm is only 96, the leg 90, the
+hand 43, the foot 39--so that the hand and the leg depart more from the
+human proportion and the arm less, while the foot is about the same as
+in the Gorilla.
+
+In the Orang, the arms are very much longer than in the Gorilla (122),
+while the legs are shorter (88); the foot is longer than the hand (52
+and 48), and both are much longer in proportion to the spine.
+
+In the other man-like Apes again, the Gibbons, these proportions are
+still further altered; the length of the arms being to that of the
+spinal column as 19 to 11; while the legs are also a third longer than
+the spinal column, so as to be longer than in Man, instead of shorter.
+The hand is half as long as the spinal column, and the foot, shorter
+than the hand, is about 5/11ths of the length of the spinal column.
+
+Thus 'Hylobates' is as much longer in the arms than the Gorilla, as the
+Gorilla is longer in the arms than Man; while, on the other hand, it
+is as much longer in the legs than the Man, as the Man is longer in the
+legs than the Gorilla, so that it contains within itself the extremest
+deviations from the average length of both pairs of limbs (See the
+illustration on page 196).
+
+The Mandrill presents a middle condition, the arms and legs being nearly
+equal in length, and both being shorter than the spinal column; while
+hand and foot have nearly the same proportions to one another and to the
+spine, as in Man.
+
+In the Spider monkey ('Ateles') the leg is longer than the spine, and
+the arm than the leg; and, finally, in that remarkable Lemurine form,
+the Indri ('Lichanotus'), the leg is about as long as the spinal column,
+while the arm is not more than 11/18 of its length; the hand having
+rather less and the foot rather more, than one-third the length of the
+spinal column.
+
+These examples might be greatly multiplied, but they suffice to show
+that, in whatever proportion of its limbs the Gorilla differs from
+Man, the other Apes depart still more widely from the Gorilla and that,
+consequently, such differences of proportion can have no ordinal value.
+
+We may next consider the differences presented by the trunk, consisting
+of the vertebral column, or backbone, and the ribs and pelvis, or
+bony hip-basin, which are connected with it, in Man and in the Gorilla
+respectively.
+
+In Man, in consequence partly of the disposition of the articular
+surfaces of the vertebrae, and largely of the elastic tension of some of
+the fibrous bands, or ligaments, which connect these vertebrae together,
+the spinal column, as a whole, has an elegant S-like curvature, being
+convex forwards in the neck, concave in the back, convex in the loins,
+or lumbar region, and concave again in the sacral region; an arrangement
+which gives much elasticity to the whole backbone, and diminishes the
+jar communicated to the spine, and through it to the head, by locomotion
+in the erect position.
+
+Furthermore, under ordinary circumstances, Man has seven vertebrae in
+his neck, which are called 'cervical'; twelve succeed these, bearing
+ribs and forming the upper part of the back, whence they are termed
+'dorsal'; five lie in the loins, bearing no distinct, or free, ribs, and
+are called 'lumbar'; five, united together into a great bone, excavated
+in front, solidly wedged in between the hip bones, to form the back of
+the pelvis, and known by the name of the 'sacrum', succeed these; and
+finally, three or four little more or less movable bones, so small as to
+be insignificant, constitute the 'coccyx' or rudimentary tail.
+
+In the Gorilla, the vertebral column is similarly divided into cervical,
+dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae, and the total number
+of cervical and dorsal vertebrae, taken together, is the same as in
+Man; but the development of a pair of ribs to the first lumbar vertebra,
+which is an exceptional occurrence in Man, is the rule in the Gorilla;
+and hence, as lumbar are distinguished from dorsal vertebrae only by the
+presence or absence of free ribs, the seventeen "dorso-lumbar" vertebrae
+of the Gorilla are divided into thirteen dorsal and four lumbar, while
+in Man they are twelve dorsal and five lumbar.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Front and side views of the bony pelvis of Man,
+the Gorilla and Gibbon: reduced from drawings made from nature, of the
+same absolute length, by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins.]
+
+Not only, however, does Man occasionally possess thirteen pair of
+ribs, but the Gorilla sometimes has fourteen pairs, while an Orang-Utan
+skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons has twelve
+dorsal and five lumbar vertebrae, as in Man. Cuvier notes the same
+number in a 'Hylobates'. On the other hand, among the lower Apes, many
+possess twelve dorsal and six or seven lumbar vertebrae; the
+Douroucouli has fourteen dorsal and eight lumbar, and a Lemur ('Stenops
+tardigradus') has fifteen dorsal and nine lumbar vertebrae.
+
+The vertebral column of the Gorilla, as a whole, differs from that
+of Man in the less marked character of its curves, especially in the
+slighter convexity of the lumbar region. Nevertheless, the curves are
+present, and are quite obvious in young skeletons of the Gorilla and
+Chimpanzee which have been prepared without removal of the ligaments. In
+young Orangs similarly preserved, on the other hand, the spinal column
+is either straight, or even concave forwards, throughout the lumbar
+region.
+
+Whether we take these characters then, or such minor ones as those which
+are derivable from the proportional length of the spines of the cervical
+vertebrae, and the like, there is no doubt whatsoever as to the marked
+difference between Man and the Gorilla; but there is as little, that
+equally marked differences, of the very same order, obtain between the
+Gorilla and the lower Apes.
+
+The Pelvis, or bony girdle of the hips, of Man is a strikingly human
+part of his organization; the expanded haunch bones affording support
+for his viscera during his habitually erect posture, and giving space
+for the attachment of the great muscles which enable him to assume and
+to preserve that attitude. In these respects the pelvis of the Gorilla
+differs very considerably from his (Fig. 15). But go no lower than the
+Gibbon, and see how vastly more he differs from the Gorilla than the
+latter does from Man, even in this structure. Look at the flat, narrow
+haunch bones--the long and narrow passage--the coarse, outwardly curved,
+ischiatic prominences on which the Gibbon habitually rests, and which
+are coated by the so-called "callosities," dense patches of skin, wholly
+absent in the Gorilla, in the Chimpanzee, and in the Orang, as in Man!
+
+In the lower Monkeys and in the Lemurs the difference becomes more
+striking still, the pelvis acquiring an altogether quadrupedal
+character.
+
+But now let us turn to a nobler and more characteristic organ--that
+by which the human frame seems to be, and indeed is, so strongly
+distinguished from all others,--I mean the skull. The differences
+between a Gorilla's skull and a Man's are truly immense (Fig. 16).
+In the former, the face, formed largely by the massive jaw-bones,
+predominates over the brain case, or cranium proper: in the latter, the
+proportions of the two are reversed. In the Man, the occipital foramen,
+through which passes the great nervous cord connecting the brain with
+the nerves of the body, is placed just behind the centre of the base of
+the skull, which thus becomes evenly balanced in the erect posture; in
+the Gorilla, it lies in the posterior third of that base. In the Man,
+the surface of the skull is comparatively smooth, and the supraciliary
+ridges or brow prominences usually project but little--while, in the
+Gorilla, vast crests are developed upon the skull, and the brow ridges
+overhang, the cavernous orbits, like great penthouses.
+
+Sections of the skulls, however, show that some of the apparent defects
+of the Gorilla's cranium arise, in fact, not so much from deficiency of
+brain case as from excessive development of the parts of the face.
+The cranial cavity is not ill-shaped, and the forehead is not truly
+flattened or very retreating, its really well-formed curve being simply
+disguised by the mass of bone which is built up against it (Fig. 16).
+
+But the roofs of the orbits rise more obliquely into the cranial cavity,
+thus diminishing the space for the lower part of the anterior lobes of
+the brain, and the absolute capacity of the cranium is far less than
+that of Man. So far as I am aware, no human cranium belonging to an
+adult man has yet been observed with a less cubical capacity than
+62 cubic inches, the smallest cranium observed in any race of men by
+Morton, measuring 63 cubic inches; while, on the other hand, the most
+capacious Gorilla skull yet measured has a content of not more than
+34-1/2 cubic inches. Let us assume, for simplicity's sake, that the
+lowest Man's skull has twice the capacity of that of the highest
+Gorilla. [4]
+
+No doubt, this is a very striking difference, but it loses much of its
+apparent systematic value, when viewed by the light of certain other
+equally indubitable facts respecting cranial capacities.
+
+The first of these is, that the difference in the volume of the cranial
+cavity of different races of mankind is far greater, absolutely, than
+that between the lowest Man and the highest Ape, while, relatively,
+it is about the same. For the largest human skull measured by Morton
+contained 114 cubic inches, that is to say, had very nearly double the
+capacity of the smallest; while its absolute preponderance, of 52 cubic
+inches--is far greater than that by which the lowest adult male human
+cranium surpasses the largest of the Gorillas (62 - 34-1/2 = 27-1/2).
+Secondly, the adult crania of Gorillas which have as yet been measured
+differ among themselves by nearly one-third, the maximum capacity being
+34.5 cubic inches, the minimum 24 cubic inches; and, thirdly, after
+making all due allowance for difference of size, the cranial capacities
+of some of the lower Apes fall nearly as much, relatively, below those
+of the higher Apes as the latter fall below Man.
+
+Thus, even in the important matter of cranial capacity, Men differ more
+widely from one another than they do from the Apes; while the lowest
+Apes differ as much, in proportion, from the highest, as the latter does
+from Man. The last proposition is still better illustrated by the study
+of the modifications which other parts of the cranium undergo in the
+Simian series.
+
+It is the large proportional size of the facial bones and the great
+projection of the jaws which confers upon the Gorilla's skull its small
+facial angle and brutal character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Sections of the skulls of Man and various Apes,
+drawn so as to give the cerebral cavity the same length in each case,
+thereby displaying the varying proportions of the facial bones. The line
+'b' indicates the plane of the tentorium, which separates the cerebrum
+from the cerebellum; 'd', the axis of the occipital outlet of the skull.
+The extent of cerebral cavity behind 'c', which is a perpendicular
+erected on 'b' at the point where the tentorium is attached posteriorly,
+indicates the degree to which the cerebrum overlaps the cerebellum--the
+space occupied by which is roughly indicated by the dark shading. In
+comparing these diagrams, it must be recollected, that figures on so
+small a scale as these simply exemplify the statements in the text, the
+proof of which is to be found in the objects themselves.]
+
+But if we consider the proportional size of the facial bones to the
+skull proper only, the little 'Chrysothrix' (Fig. 16) differs very
+widely from the Gorilla, and, in the same way, as Man does; while the
+Baboons ('Cynocephalus', Fig. 16) exaggerate the gross proportions of
+the muzzle of the great Anthropoid, so that its visage looks mild and
+human by comparison with theirs. The difference between the Gorilla and
+the Baboon is even greater than it appears at first sight; for the great
+facial mass of the former is largely due to a downward development of
+the jaws; an essentially human character, superadded upon that almost
+purely forward, essentially brutal, development of the same parts which
+characterizes the Baboon, and yet more remarkably distinguishes the
+Lemur.
+
+Similarly, the occipital foramen of 'Mycetes' (Fig. 16), and still
+more of the Lemurs, is situated completely in the posterior face of the
+skull, or as much further back than that of the Gorilla, as that of the
+Gorilla is further back than that of Man; while, as if to render patent
+the futility of the attempt to base any broad classificatory distinction
+on such a character, the same group of Platyrhine, or American monkeys,
+to which the Mycetes belongs, contains the Chrysothrix, whose occipital
+foramen is situated far more forward than in any other ape, and nearly
+approaches the position it holds in Man.
+
+Again, the Orang's skull is as devoid of excessively developed
+supraciliary prominences as a Man's, though some varieties exhibit great
+crests elsewhere (See pp. 231, 232); and in some of the Cebine apes and
+in the 'Chrysothrix', the cranium is as smooth and rounded as that of
+Man himself.
+
+What is true of these leading characteristics of the skull, holds good,
+as may be imagined, of all minor features; so that for every constant
+difference between the Gorilla's skull and the Man's, a similar constant
+difference of the same order (that is to say, consisting in excess or
+defect of the same quality) may be found between the Gorilla's skull
+and that of some other ape. So that, for the skull, no less than for the
+skeleton in general, the proposition holds good, that the differences
+between Man and the Gorilla are of smaller value than those between the
+Gorilla and some other Apes.
+
+In connection with the skull, I may speak of the teeth--organs which
+have a peculiar classificatory value, and whose resemblances and
+differences of number, form, and succession, taken as a whole, are
+usually regarded as more trustworthy indicators of affinity than any
+others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lateral views, of the same length, of the upper
+jaws of various Primates. 'i', incisors; 'c', canines' 'pm', premolars;
+'m', molars. A line is drawn through the first molar of Man, 'Gorilla',
+'Cynocephalus', and 'Cebus', and the grinding surface of the second
+molar is shown in each, its anterior and internal angle being just above
+the 'm' of 'm2'.]
+
+Man is provided with two sets of teeth--milk teeth and permanent teeth.
+The former consist of four incisors, or cutting teeth; two canines, or
+eyeteeth; and four molars, or grinders, in each jaw--making twenty in
+all. The latter (Fig. 17) comprise four incisors, two canines, four
+small grinders, called premolars or false molars, and six large
+grinders, or true molars, in each jaw--making thirty-two in all. The
+internal incisors are larger than the external pair, in the upper jaw,
+smaller than the external pair, in the lower jaw. The crowns of the
+upper molars exhibit four cusps, or blunt-pointed elevations, and a
+ridge crosses the crown obliquely, from the inner, anterior cusp to the
+outer, posterior cusp (Fig. 17 m2). The anterior lower molars have five
+cusps, three external and two internal. The premolars have two cusps,
+one internal and one external, of which the outer is the higher.
+
+In all these respects the dentition of the Gorilla may be described in
+the same terms as that of Man; but in other matters it exhibits many and
+important differences (Fig. 17).
+
+Thus the teeth of man constitute a regular and even series--without any
+break and without any marked projection of one tooth above the level of
+the rest; a peculiarity which, as Cuvier long ago showed, is shared by
+no other mammal save one--as different a creature from man as can well
+be imagined--namely, the long extinct 'Anoplotherium'. The teeth of
+the Gorilla, on the contrary, exhibit a break, or interval, termed the
+'diastema', in both jaws: in front of the eye-tooth, or between it and
+the outer incisor, in the upper jaw; behind the eyetooth, or between
+it and the front false molar, in the lower jaw. Into this break in the
+series, in each jaw, fits the canine of the opposite jaw; the size of
+the eye-tooth in the Gorilla being so great that it projects, like a
+tusk, far beyond the general level of the other teeth. The roots of the
+false molar teeth of the Gorilla, again, are more complex than in Man,
+and the proportional size of the molars is different. The Gorilla has
+the crown of the hindmost grinder of the lower jaw more complex, and
+the order of eruption of the permanent teeth is different; the permanent
+canines making their appearance before the second and third molars in
+Man, and after them in the Gorilla.
+
+Thus, while the teeth of the Gorilla closely resemble those of Man in
+number, kind, and in the general pattern of their crowns, they exhibit
+marked differences from those of Man in secondary respects, such as
+relative size, number of fangs, and order of appearance.
+
+But, if the teeth of the Gorilla be compared with those of an Ape, no
+further removed from it than a 'Cynocephalus', or Baboon, it will be
+found that differences and resemblances of the same order are easily
+observable; but that many of the points in which the Gorilla resembles
+Man are those in which it differs from the Baboon; while various
+respects in which it differs from Man are exaggerated in the
+'Cynocephalus'. The number and the nature of the teeth remain the same
+in the Baboon as in the Gorilla and in Man. But the pattern of the
+Baboon's upper molars is quite different from that described above (Fig.
+17), the canines are proportionally longer and more knife-like; the
+anterior premolar in the lower jaw is specially modified; the posterior
+molar of the lower jaw is still larger and more complex than in the
+Gorilla.
+
+Passing from the old-world Apes to those of the new world, we meet with
+a change of much greater importance than any of these. In such a genus
+as 'Cebus', for example (Fig. 17), it will be found that while in
+some secondary points, such as the projection of the canines and the
+diastema, the resemblance to the great ape is preserved; in other and
+most important respects, the dentition is extremely different. Instead
+of 20 teeth in the milk set, there are 24: instead of 32 teeth in the
+permanent set, there are 36, the false molars being increased from eight
+to twelve. And in form, the crowns of the molars are very unlike those
+of the Gorilla, and differ far more widely from the human pattern.
+
+The Marmosets, on the other hand, exhibit the same number of teeth as
+Man and the Gorilla; but, notwithstanding this, their dentition is very
+different, for they have four more false molars, like the other American
+monkeys--but as they have four fewer true molars, the total remains the
+same. And passing from the American apes to the Lemurs, the dentition
+becomes still more completely and essentially different from that of
+the Gorilla. The incisors begin to vary both in number and in form. The
+molars acquire, more and more, a many-pointed, insectivorous character,
+and in one Genus, the Aye-Aye ('Cheiromys'), the canines disappear, and
+the teeth completely simulate those of a Rodent (Fig. 17).
+
+Hence it is obvious that, greatly as the dentition of the highest Ape
+differs from that of Man, it differs far more widely from that of the
+lower and lowest Apes.
+
+Whatever part of the animal fabric--whatever series of muscles, whatever
+viscera might be selected for comparison--the result would be the
+same--the lower Apes and the Gorilla would differ more than the Gorilla
+and the Man. I cannot attempt in this place to follow out all these
+comparisons in detail, and indeed it is unnecessary I should do so. But
+certain real, or supposed, structural distinctions between man and the
+apes remain, upon which so much stress has been laid, that they require
+careful consideration, in order that the true value may be assigned to
+those which are real, and the emptiness of those which are fictitious
+may be exposed. I refer to the characters of the hand, the foot, and the
+brain.
+
+Man has been defined as the only animal possessed of two hands
+terminating his fore limbs, and of two feet ending his hind limbs, while
+it has been said that all the apes possess four hands; and he has been
+affirmed to differ fundamentally from all the apes in the characters of
+his brain, which alone, it has been strangely asserted and re-asserted,
+exhibits the structures known to anatomists as the posterior lobe, the
+posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus minor.
+
+That the former proposition should have gained general acceptance is not
+surprising--indeed, at first sight, appearances are much in its favour:
+but, as for the second, one can only admire the surpassing courage
+of its enunciator, seeing that it is an innovation which is not only
+opposed to generally and justly accepted doctrines, but which is
+directly negatived by the testimony of all original inquirers, who have
+specially investigated the matter: and that it neither has been, nor can
+be, supported by a single anatomical preparation. It would, in fact,
+be unworthy of serious refutation, except for the general and natural
+belief that deliberate and reiterated assertions must have some
+foundation.
+
+Before we can discuss the first point with advantage we must consider
+with some attention, and compare together, the structure of the human
+hand and that of the human foot, so that we may have distinct and clear
+ideas of what constitutes a hand and what a foot.
+
+The external form of the human hand is familiar enough to every one. It
+consists of a stout wrist followed by a broad palm, formed of flesh, and
+tendons, and skin, binding together four bones, and dividing into four
+long and flexible digits, or fingers, each of which bears on the back of
+its last joint a broad and flattened nail. The longest cleft between any
+two digits is rather less than half as long as the hand. From the outer
+side of the base of the palm a stout digit goes off, having only two
+joints instead of three; so short, that it only reaches to a little
+beyond the middle of the first joint of the finger next it; and further
+remarkable by its great mobility, in consequence of which it can be
+directed outwards, almost at a right angle to the rest. This digit is
+called the 'pollex,' or thumb; and, like the others, it bears a
+flat nail upon the back of its terminal joint. In consequence of the
+proportions and mobility of the thumb, it is what is termed "opposable";
+in other words, its extremity can, with the greatest ease, be brought
+into contact with the extremities of any of the fingers; a property upon
+which the possibility of our carrying into effect the conceptions of the
+mind so largely depends.
+
+The external form of the foot differs widely from that of the hand; and
+yet, when closely compared, the two present some singular resemblances.
+Thus the ankle corresponds in a manner with the wrist; the sole with the
+palm; the toes with the fingers; the great toe with the thumb. But the
+toes, or digits of the foot, are far shorter in proportion than the
+digits of the hand, and are less moveable, the want of mobility being
+most striking in the great toe--which, again, is very much larger
+in proportion to the other toes than the thumb to the fingers. In
+considering this point, however, it must not be forgotten that the
+civilized great toe, confined and cramped from childhood upwards, is
+seen to a great disadvantage, and that in uncivilized and barefooted
+people it retains a great amount of mobility, and even some sort of
+opposability. The Chinese boatmen are said to be able to pull an oar;
+the artisans of Bengal to weave, and the Carajas to steal fishhooks, by
+its help; though, after all, it must be recollected that the structure
+of its joints and the arrangement of its bones, necessarily render its
+prehensile action far less perfect than that of the thumb.
+
+But to gain a precise conception of the resemblances and differences of
+the hand and foot, and of the distinctive characters of each, we must
+look below the skin, and compare the bony framework and its motor
+apparatus in each (Fig. 18).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18--The skeleton of the Hand and Foot of Man reduced
+from Dr. Carter's drawings in Gray's 'Anatomy.' The hand is drawn to
+a larger scale than the foot. The line 'a a' in the hand indicates the
+boundary between the carpus and the metacarpus; 'b b' that between the
+latter and the proximal phalanges; 'c c' marks the ends of the distal
+phalanges. The line "a' a'" in the foot indicates the boundary between
+the tarsus and metatarsus; "b' b'" marks that between the metatarsus
+and the proximal phalanges; and "c' c'" bounds the ends of the distal
+phalanges; 'ca', the calcaneum; 'as', the astragalus; 'sc', the scaphoid
+bone in the tarsus.]
+
+The skeleton of the hand exhibits, in the region which we term the
+wrist, and which is technically called the 'carpus'--two rows of closely
+fitted polygonal bones, four in each row, which are tolerably equal in
+size. The bones of the first row with the bones of the forearm, form the
+wrist joint, and are arranged side by side, no one greatly exceeding or
+overlapping the rest.
+
+The four bones of the second row of the carpus bear the four long bones
+which support the palm of the hand. The fifth bone of the same character
+is articulated in a much more free and moveable manner than the others,
+with its carpal bone, and forms the base of the thumb. These are called
+'metacarpal' bones, and they carry the 'phalanges', or bones of the
+digits, of which there are two in the thumb, and three in each of the
+fingers.
+
+The skeleton of the foot is very like that of the hand in some respects.
+Thus there are three phalanges in each of the lesser toes, and only
+two in the great toe, which answers to the thumb. There is a long bone,
+termed 'metatarsal', answering to the metacarpal, for each digit; and
+the 'tarsus', which corresponds with the carpus, presents four short
+polygonal bones in a row, which correspond very closely with the four
+carpal bones of the second row of the hand. In other respects the foot
+differs very widely from the hand. Thus the great toe is the longest
+digit but one; and its metatarsal is far less moveably articulated with
+the tarsus, than the metacarpal of the thumb with the carpus. But a far
+more important distinction lies in the fact that, instead of four
+more tarsal bones there are only three; and, that these three are not
+arranged side by side, or in one row. One of them, the 'os calcis' or
+heel bone ('ca'), lies externally, and sends back the large projecting
+heel; another, the 'astragalus' ('as'), rests on this by one face, and
+by another, forms, with the bones of the leg, the ankle joint; while a
+third face, directed forwards, is separated from the three inner tarsal
+bones of the row next the metatarsus by a bone called the 'scaphoid'
+('sc').
+
+Thus there is a fundamental difference in the structure of the foot and
+the hand, observable when the carpus and the tarsus are contrasted; and
+there are differences of degree noticeable when the proportions and
+the mobility of the metacarpals and metatarsals, with their respective
+digits, are compared together.
+
+The same two classes of differences become obvious when the muscles of
+the hand are compared with those of the foot.
+
+Three principal sets of muscles, called "flexors," bend the fingers and
+thumb, as in clenching the fist, and three sets--the extensors--extend
+them, as in straightening the fingers. These muscles are all "long
+muscles"; that is to say, the fleshy part of each, lying in and being
+fixed to the bones of the arm, is, at the other end, continued into
+tendons, or rounded cords, which pass into the hand, and are ultimately
+fixed to the bones which are to be moved. Thus, when the fingers are
+bent, the fleshy parts of the flexors of the fingers, placed in the arm,
+contract, in virtue of their peculiar endowment as muscles; and pulling
+the tendinous cords, connected with their ends, cause them to pull down
+the bones of the fingers towards the palm.
+
+Not only are the principal flexors of the fingers and of the thumb long
+muscles, but they remain quite distinct from one another through their
+whole length.
+
+In the foot, there are also three principal flexor muscles of the digits
+or toes, and three principal extensors; but one extensor and one flexor
+are short muscles; that is to say, their fleshy parts are not situated
+in the leg (which corresponds with the arm), but in the back and in the
+sole of the foot--regions which correspond with the back and the palm of
+the hand.
+
+Again, the tendons of the long flexor of the toes, and of the long
+flexor of the great toe, when they reach the sole of the foot, do not
+remain distinct from one another, as the flexors in the palm of the
+hand do, but they become united and commingled in a very curious
+manner--while their united tendons receive an accessory muscle connected
+with the heel-bone.
+
+But perhaps the most absolutely distinctive character about the muscles
+of the foot is the existence of what is termed the 'peronaeus longus',
+a long muscle fixed to the outer bone of the leg, and sending its tendon
+to the outer ankle, behind and below which it passes, and then crosses
+the foot obliquely to be attached to the base of the great toe. No
+muscle in the hand exactly corresponds with this, which is eminently a
+foot muscle.
+
+To resume--the foot of man is distinguished from his hand by the
+following absolute anatomical differences:--
+
+1. By the arrangement of the tarsal bones.
+
+2. By having a short flexor and a short extensor muscle of the digits.
+
+3. By possessing the muscle termed 'peronaeus longus'.
+
+And if we desire to ascertain whether the terminal division of a limb,
+in other Primates, is to be called a foot or a hand, it is by the
+presence or absence of these characters that we must be guided, and not
+by the mere proportions and greater or lesser mobility of the great toe,
+which may vary indefinitely without any fundamental alteration in the
+structure of the foot.
+
+Keeping these considerations in mind, let us now turn to the limbs
+of the Gorilla. The terminal division of the fore limb presents no
+difficulty--bone for bone and muscle for muscle, are found to be
+arranged essentially as in man, or with such minor differences as are
+found as varieties in man. The Gorilla's hand is clumsier, heavier, and
+has a thumb somewhat shorter in proportion than that of man; but no one
+has ever doubted its being a true hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 19.--Foot of Man, Gorilla, and Orang-Utan of the same
+absolute length, to show the differences in proportion of each.
+Letters as in Fig. 18. Reduced from original drawings by Mr. Waterhouse
+Hawkins.]
+
+At first sight, the termination of the hind limb of the Gorilla looks
+very hand-like, and as it is still more so in many of the lower apes,
+it is not wonderful that the appellation "Quadrumana," or four-handed
+creatures, adopted from the older anatomists [5] by Blumenbach, and
+unfortunately rendered current by Cuvier, should have gained such
+wide acceptance as a name for the Simian group. But the most cursory
+anatomical investigation at once proves that the resemblance of the
+so-called "hind hand" to a true hand, is only skin deep, and that,
+in all essential respects, the hind limb of the Gorilla is as truly
+terminated by a foot as that of man. The tarsal bones, in all important
+circumstances of number, disposition, and form, resemble those of
+man (Fig. 19). The metatarsals and digits, on the other hand, are
+proportionally longer and more slender, while the great toe is not only
+proportionally shorter and weaker, but its metatarsal bone is united by
+a more moveable joint with the tarsus. At the same time, the foot is set
+more obliquely upon the leg than in man.
+
+As this passage was published in 1699, M. I. G. St. Hilaire is clearly
+in error in ascribing the invention of the term "quadrumanous" to
+Buffon, though "himanous" may belong to him. Tyson uses "Quadrumanus"
+in several places, as at p. 91.... "Our 'Pygmie' is no Man, nor yet the
+'common Ape', but a sort of 'Animal' between both; and though a 'Biped',
+yet of the 'Quadrumanus'-kind: though some 'Men' too have been observed
+to use their 'Feet' like 'Hands', as I have seen several."
+
+As to the muscles, there is a short flexor, a short extensor, and a
+'peronaeus longus', while the tendons of the long flexors of the great
+toe and of the other toes are united together and with an accessory
+fleshy bundle.
+
+The hind limb of the Gorilla, therefore, ends in a true foot, with a
+very moveable great toe. It is a prehensile foot, indeed, but is in no
+sense a hand: it is a foot which differs from that of man not in
+any fundamental character, but in mere proportions, in the degree of
+mobility, and in the secondary arrangement of its parts.
+
+It must not be supposed, however, because I speak of these differences
+as not fundamental, that I wish to underrate their value. They are
+important enough in their way, the structure of the foot being in strict
+correlation with that of the rest of the organism in each case. Nor can
+it be doubted that the greater division of physiological labour in Man,
+so that the function of support is thrown wholly on the leg and foot, is
+an advance in organization of very great moment to him; but, after all,
+regarded anatomically, the resemblances between the foot of Man and
+the foot of the Gorilla are far more striking and important than the
+differences.
+
+I have dwelt upon this point at length, because it is one regarding
+which much delusion prevails; but I might have passed it over without
+detriment to my argument, which only requires me to show that, be the
+differences between the hand and foot of Man and those of the Gorilla
+what they may--the differences between those of the Gorilla, and those
+of the lower Apes are much greater.
+
+It is not necessary to descend lower in the scale than the Orang for
+conclusive evidence on this head.
+
+The thumb of the Orang differs more from that of the Gorilla than
+the thumb of the Gorilla differs from that of Man, not only by its
+shortness, but by the absence of any special long flexor muscle. The
+carpus of the Orang, like that of most lower apes, contains nine bones,
+while in the Gorilla, as in Man and the Chimpanzee, there are only
+eight.
+
+The Orang's foot (Fig. 19) is still more aberrant; its very long
+toes and short tarsus, short great toe, short and raised heel, great
+obliquity of articulation in the leg, and absence of a long flexor
+tendon to the great toe, separating it far more widely from the foot of
+the Gorilla than the latter is separated from that of Man.
+
+But, in some of the lower apes, the hand and foot diverge still more
+from those of the Gorilla, than they do in the Orang. The thumb ceases
+to be opposable in the American monkeys; is reduced to a mere rudiment
+covered by the skin in the Spider Monkey; and is directed forwards and
+armed with a curved claw like the other digits, in the Marmosets--so
+that, in all these cases, there can be no doubt but that the hand is
+more different from that of the Gorilla than the Gorilla's hand is from
+Man's.
+
+And as to the foot, the great toe of the Marmoset is still more
+insignificant in proportion than that of the Orang--while in the Lemurs
+it is very large, and as completely thumb-like and opposable as in
+the Gorilla--but in these animals the second toe is often irregularly
+modified, and in some species the two principal bones of the tarsus,
+the 'astragalus' and the 'os calcis', are so immensely elongated as to
+render the foot, so far, totally unlike that of any other mammal.
+
+So with regard to the muscles. The short flexor of the toes of the
+Gorilla differs from that of Man by the circumstance that one slip of
+the muscle is attached, not to the heel bone, but to the tendons of the
+long flexors. The lower Apes depart from the Gorilla by an exaggeration
+of the same character, two, three, or more, slips becoming fixed to the
+long flexor tendons--or by a multiplication of the slips.--Again, the
+Gorilla differs slightly from Man in the mode of interlacing of the long
+flexor tendons: and the lower apes differ from the Gorilla in exhibiting
+yet other, sometimes very complex, arrangements of the same parts, and
+occasionally in the absence of the accessory fleshy bundle.
+
+Throughout all these modifications it must be recollected that the
+foot loses no one of its essential characters. Every Monkey and Lemur
+exhibits the characteristic arrangement of tarsal bones, possesses a
+short flexor and short extensor muscle, and a 'peronaeus longus'. Varied
+as the proportions and appearance of the organ may be, the terminal
+division of the hind limb remains, in plan and principle of
+construction, a foot, and never, in those respects, can be confounded
+with a hand.
+
+Hardly any part of the bodily frame, then, could be found better
+calculated to illustrate the truth that the structural differences
+between Man and the highest Ape are of less value than those between the
+highest and the lower Apes, than the hand or the foot, and yet, perhaps,
+there is one organ the study of which enforces the same conclusion in a
+still more striking manner--and that is the Brain.
+
+But before entering upon the precise question of the amount of
+difference between the Ape's brain and that of Man, it is necessary that
+we should clearly understand what constitutes a great, and what a small
+difference in cerebral structure; and we shall be best enabled to
+do this by a brief study of the chief modifications which the brain
+exhibits in the series of vertebrate animals.
+
+The brain of a fish is very small, compared with the spinal cord into
+which it is continued, and with the nerves which come off from it: of
+the segments of which it is composed--the olfactory lobes, the cerebral
+hemisphere, and the succeeding divisions--no one predominates so much
+over the rest as to obscure or cover them; and the so-called optic lobes
+are, frequently, the largest masses of all. In Reptiles, the mass of
+the brain, relatively to the spinal cord, increases and the cerebral
+hemispheres begin to predominate over the other parts; while in Birds
+this predominance is still more marked. The brain of the lowest Mammals,
+such as the duck-billed Platypus and the Opossums and Kangaroos,
+exhibits a still more definite advance in the same direction. The
+cerebral hemispheres have now so much increased in size as, more or
+less, to hide the representatives of the optic lobes, which remain
+comparatively small, so that the brain of a Marsupial is extremely
+different from that of a Bird, Reptile, or Fish. A step higher in the
+scale, among the placental Mammals, the structure of the brain acquires
+a vast modification--not that it appears much altered externally, in
+a Rat or in a Rabbit, from what it is in a Marsupial--nor that the
+proportions of its parts are much changed, but an apparently new
+structure is found between the cerebral hemispheres, connecting them
+together, as what is called the 'great commissure' or 'corpus callosum.'
+The subject requires careful re-investigation, but if the currently
+received statements are correct, the appearance of the 'corpus callosum'
+in the placental mammals is the greatest and most sudden modification
+exhibited by the brain in the whole series of vertebrated animals--it is
+the greatest leap anywhere made by Nature in her brain work. For the
+two halves of the brain being once thus knit together, the progress of
+cerebral complexity is traceable through a complete series of steps from
+the lowest Rodent, or Insectivore, to Man; and that complexity consists,
+chiefly, in the disproportionate development of the cerebral hemispheres
+and of the cerebellum, but especially of the former, in respect to the
+other parts of the brain.
+
+In the lower placental mammals, the cerebral hemispheres leave the
+proper upper and posterior face of the cerebellum completely visible,
+when the brain is viewed from above; but, in the higher forms, the
+hinder part of each hemisphere, separated only by the tentorium (p.
+281) from the anterior face of the cerebellum, inclines backwards and
+downwards, and grows out, as the so-called "posterior lobe," so as at
+length to overlap and hide the cerebellum. In all Mammals, each cerebral
+hemisphere contains a cavity which is termed the 'ventricle,' and as
+this ventricle is prolonged, on the one hand, forwards, and on the other
+downwards, into the substance of the hemisphere, it is said to have two
+horns or 'cornua, an 'anterior cornu,' and a 'descending cornu.' When
+the posterior lobe is well developed, a third prolongation of the
+ventricular cavity extends into it, and is called the "posterior cornu."
+
+In the lower and smaller forms of placental Mammals the surface of the
+cerebral hemispheres is either smooth or evenly rounded, or exhibits a
+very few grooves, which are technically termed 'sulci,'separating ridges
+or 'convolutions' of the substance of the brain; and the smaller species
+of all orders tend to a similar smoothness of brain. But, in the higher
+orders, and especially the larger members of these orders, the grooves,
+or sulci, become extremely numerous, and the intermediate convolutions
+proportionately more complicated in their meanderings, until, in the
+Elephant, the Porpoise, the higher Apes, and Man, the cerebral surface
+appears a perfect labyrinth of tortuous foldings.
+
+Where a posterior lobe exists and presents its customary cavity--the
+posterior cornu--it commonly happens that a particular sulcus appears
+upon the inner and under surface of the lobe, parallel with and beneath
+the floor of the cornu--which is, as it were, arched over the roof of
+the sulcus. It is as if the groove had been formed by indenting the
+floor of the posterior horn from without with a blunt instrument, so
+that the floor should rise as a convex eminence. Now this eminence is
+what has been termed the 'Hippocampus minor;' the 'Hippocampus major'
+being a larger eminence in the floor of the descending cornu. What may
+be the functional importance of either of these structures we know not.
+
+As if to demonstrate, by a striking example, the impossibility of
+erecting any cerebral barrier between man and the apes, Nature has
+provided us, in the latter animals, with an almost complete series of
+gradations from brains little higher than that of a Rodent, to brains
+little lower than that of Man. And it is a remarkable circumstance that
+though, so far as our present knowledge extends, there 'is' one true
+structural break in the series of forms of Simian brains, this hiatus
+does not lie between Man and the man-like apes, but between the lower
+and the lowest Simians; or, in other words, between the old and new
+world apes and monkeys, and the Lemurs. Every Lemur which has yet been
+examined, in fact, has its cerebellum partially visible from above, and
+its posterior lobe, with the contained posterior cornu and hippocampus
+minor, more or less rudimentary. Every Marmoset, American monkey,
+old-world monkey, Baboon, or Man-like ape, on the contrary, has its
+cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by the cerebral lobes, and
+possesses a large posterior cornu, with a well-developed hippocampus
+minor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Drawings of the internal casts of a Man's and
+of a Chimpanzee's skull, of the same absolute length, and placed in
+corresponding positions. 'A'. Cerebrum; 'B'. Cerebellum. The former
+drawing is taken from a cast in the Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons, the latter from the photograph of the cast of a Chimpanzee's
+skull, which illustrates the paper by Mr. Marshall 'On the Brain of the
+Chimpanzee' in the 'Natural History Review' for July, 1861. The sharper
+definition of the lower edge of the cast of the cerebral chamber in the
+Chimpanzee arises from the circumstance that the tentorium remained in
+that skull and not in the Man's. The cast more accurately represents the
+brain in Chimpanzee than in the Man; and the great backward projection
+of the posterior lobes of the cerebrum of the former, beyond the
+cerebellum, is conspicuous.]
+
+In many of these creatures, such as the Saimiri ('Chrysothrix'), the
+cerebral lobes overlap and extend much further behind the cerebellum, in
+proportion, than they do in man (Fig. 16)--and it is quite certain that,
+in all, the cerebellum is completely covered behind, by well-developed
+posterior lobes. The fact can be verified by every one who possesses the
+skull of any old or new world monkey. For, inasmuch as the brain in all
+mammals completely fills the cranial cavity, it is obvious that a cast
+of the interior of the skull will reproduce the general form of the
+brain, at any rate with such minute and, for the present purpose,
+utterly unimportant differences as may result from the absence of the
+enveloping membranes of the brain in the dry skull. But if such a cast
+be made in plaster, and compared with a similar cast of the interior of
+a human skull, it will be obvious that the cast of the cerebral chamber,
+representing the cerebrum of the ape, as completely covers over
+and overlaps the cast of the cerebellar chamber, representing the
+cerebellum, as it does in the man (Fig. 20). A careless observer,
+forgetting that a soft structure like the brain loses its proper
+shape the moment it is taken out of the skull, may indeed mistake the
+uncovered condition of the cerebellum of an extracted and distorted
+brain for the natural relations of the parts; but his error must become
+patent even to himself if he try to replace the brain within the cranial
+chamber. To suppose that the cerebellum of an ape is naturally uncovered
+behind is a miscomprehension comparable only to that of one who should
+imagine that a man's lungs always occupy but a small portion of the
+thoracic cavity--because they do so when the chest is opened, and their
+elasticity is no longer neutralized by the pressure of the air.
+
+And the error is the less excusable, as it must become apparent to
+every one who examines a section of the skull of any ape above a Lemur,
+without taking the trouble to make a cast of it. For there is a
+very marked groove in every such skull, as in the human skull--which
+indicates the line of attachment of what is termed the 'tentorium'--a
+sort of parchment-like shelf, or partition, which, in the recent state,
+is interposed between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and prevents the
+former from pressing upon the latter. (See Fig. 16.)
+
+This groove, therefore, indicates the line of separation between that
+part of the cranial cavity which contains the cerebrum, and that which
+contains the cerebellum; and as the brain exactly fills the cavity of
+the skull, it is obvious that the relations of these two parts of the
+cranial cavity at once informs us of the relations of their contents.
+Now in man, in all the old-world, and in all the new-world Simiae,
+with one exception, when the face is directed forwards, this line of
+attachment of the tentorium, or impression for the lateral sinus, as it
+is technically called, is nearly horizontal, and the cerebral chamber
+invariably overlaps or projects behind the cerebellar chamber. In the
+Howler Monkey or 'Mycetes' (see Fig. 16), the line passes obliquely
+upwards and backwards, and the cerebral overlap is almost nil; while in
+the Lemurs, as in the lower mammals, the line is much more inclined in
+the same direction, and the cerebellar chamber projects considerably
+beyond the cerebral.
+
+When the gravest errors respecting points so easily settled as
+this question respecting the posterior lobes can be authoritatively
+propounded, it is no wonder that matters of observation, of no very
+complex character, but still requiring a certain amount of care, should
+have fared worse. Any one who cannot see the posterior lobe in an ape's
+brain is not likely to give a very valuable opinion respecting the
+posterior cornu or the hippocampus minor. If a man cannot see a church,
+it is preposterous to take his opinion about its altar-piece or painted
+window--so that I do not feel bound to enter upon any discussion of
+these points, but content myself with assuring the reader that the
+posterior cornu and the hippocampus minor, have now been seen--usually,
+at least as well developed as in man, and often better--not only in the
+Chimpanzee, the Orang, and the Gibbon, but in all the genera of the old
+world baboons and monkeys, and in most of the new world forms, including
+the Marmosets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Drawings of the cerebral hemispheres of a Man
+and of a Chimpanzee of the same length, in order to show the relative
+proportions of the parts: the former taken from a specimen, which Mr.
+Flower, Conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
+was good enough to dissect for me; the latter, from the photograph of
+a similarly dissected Chimpanzee's brain, given in Mr. Marshall's paper
+above referred to. 'a', posterior lobe; 'b', lateral ventricle; 'c',
+posterior cornu; 'x', the hippocampus minor.]
+
+In fact, all the abundant and trustworthy evidence (consisting of the
+results of careful investigations directed to the determination of these
+very questions, by skilled anatomists) which we now possess, leads
+to the conviction that, so far from the posterior lobe, the posterior
+cornu, and the hippocampus minor, being structures peculiar to and
+characteristic of man, as they have been over and over again asserted
+to be, even after the publication of the clearest demonstration of the
+reverse, it is precisely these structures which are the most marked
+cerebral characters common to man with the apes. They are among the most
+distinctly Simian peculiarities which the human organism exhibits.
+
+As to the convolutions, the brains of the apes exhibit every stage of
+progress, from the almost smooth brain of the Marmoset, to the Orang
+and the Chimpanzee, which fall but little below Man. And it is most
+remarkable that, as soon as all the principal sulci appear, the pattern
+according to which they are arranged is identical with that of the
+corresponding sulci of man. The surface of the brain of a monkey
+exhibits a sort of skeleton map of man's, and in the man-like apes
+the details become more and more filled in, until it is only in minor
+characters, such as the greater excavation of the anterior lobes, the
+constant presence of fissures usually absent in man, and the different
+disposition and proportions of some convolutions, that the Chimpanzee's
+or the Orang's brain can be structurally distinguished from Man's.
+
+So far as cerebral structure goes, therefore, it is clear that Man
+differs less from the Chimpanzee or the Orang, than these do even
+from the Monkeys, and that the difference between the brains of the
+Chimpanzee and of Man is almost insignificant, when compared with that
+between the Chimpanzee brain and that of a Lemur.
+
+It must not be overlooked, however, that there is a very striking
+difference in absolute mass and weight between the lowest human
+brain and that of the highest ape--a difference which is all the more
+remarkable when we recollect that a full grown Gorilla is probably
+pretty nearly twice as heavy as a Bosjes man, or as many an European
+woman. It may be doubted whether a healthy human adult brain ever
+weighed less than thirty-one or two ounces, or that the heaviest Gorilla
+brain has exceeded twenty ounces.
+
+This is a very noteworthy circumstance, and doubtless will one day help
+to furnish an explanation of the great gulf which intervenes between
+the lowest man and the highest ape in intellectual power; [6] but it has
+little systematic value, for the simple reason that, as may be concluded
+from what has been already said respecting cranial capacity, the
+difference in weight of brain between the highest and the lowest men
+is far greater, both relatively and absolutely, than that between
+the lowest man and the highest ape. The latter, as has been seen, is
+represented by, say twelve ounces of cerebral substance absolutely, or
+by 32:20 relatively; but as the largest recorded human brain weighed
+between 65 and 66 ounces, the former difference is represented by
+more than 33 ounces absolutely, or by 65:32 relatively. Regarded
+systematically, the cerebral differences of man and apes are not of
+more than generic value; his Family distinction resting chiefly on his
+dentition, his pelvis, and his lower limbs.
+
+A man born dumb, notwithstanding his great cerebral mass and his
+inheritance of strong intellectual instincts, would be capable of few
+higher intellectual manifestations than an Orang or a Chimpanzee, if he
+were confined to the society of dumb associates. And yet there might not
+be the slightest discernible difference between his brain and that of
+a highly intelligent and cultivated person. The dumbness might be the
+result of a defective structure of the mouth, or of the tongue, or
+a mere defective innervation of these parts; or it might result from
+congenital deafness, caused by some minute defect of the internal ear,
+which only a careful anatomist could discover.
+
+The argument, that because there is an immense difference between a
+Man's intelligence and an Ape's, therefore, there must be an equally
+immense difference between their brains, appears to me to be about as
+well based as the reasoning by which one should endeavour to prove that,
+because there is a "great gulf" between a watch that keeps accurate
+time and another that will not go at all, there is therefore a great
+structural hiatus between the two watches. A hair in the balance-wheel,
+a little rust on a pinion, a bend in a tooth of the escapement, a
+something so slight that only the practised eye of the watchmaker can
+discover it, may be the source of all the difference.
+
+And believing, as I do, with Cuvier, that the possession of articulate
+speech is the grand distinctive character of man (whether it be
+absolutely peculiar to him or not), I find it very easy to comprehend,
+that some equally inconspicuous structural difference may have been the
+primary cause of the immeasurable and practically infinite divergence of
+the Human from the Simian Stirps.
+
+Thus, whatever system of organs be studied, the comparison of their
+modifications in the ape series leads to one and the same result--that
+the structural differences which separate Man from the Gorilla and the
+Chimpanzee are not so great as those which separate the Gorilla from the
+lower apes.
+
+But in enunciating this important truth I must guard myself against a
+form of misunderstanding, which is very prevalent. I find, in fact, that
+those who endeavour to teach what nature so clearly shows us in this
+matter, are liable to have their opinions misrepresented and their
+phraseology garbled, until they seem to say that the structural
+differences between man and even the highest apes are small and
+insignificant. Let me take this opportunity then of distinctly
+asserting, on the contrary, that they are great and significant; that
+every bone of a Gorilla bears marks by which it might be distinguished
+from the corresponding bone of a Man; and that, in the present creation,
+at any rate, no intermediate link bridges over the gap between 'Homo'
+and 'Troglodytes'.
+
+It would be no less wrong than absurd to deny the existence of this
+chasm; but it is at least equally wrong and absurd to exaggerate its
+magnitude, and, resting on the admitted fact of its existence, to refuse
+to inquire whether it is wide or narrow. Remember, if you will, that
+there is no existing link between Man and the Gorilla, but do not forget
+that there is a no less sharp line of demarcation, a no less complete
+absence of any transitional form, between the Gorilla and the Orang, or
+the Orang and the Gibbon. I say, not less sharp, though it is somewhat
+narrower. The structural differences between Man and the Man-like apes
+certainly justify our regarding him as constituting a family apart from
+them; though, inasmuch as he differs less from them than they do from
+other families of the same order, there can be no justification for
+placing him in a distinct order.
+
+And thus the sagacious foresight of the great lawgiver of systematic
+zoology, Linnaeus, becomes justified, and a century of anatomical
+research brings us back to his conclusion, that man is a member of the
+same order (for which the Linnaean term PRIMATES ought to be retained)
+as the Apes and Lemurs. This order is now divisible into seven families,
+of about equal systematic value: the first, the ANTHROPINI, contains
+Man alone; the second, the CATARHINI, embraces the old-world apes; the
+third, the PLATYRHINI, all new-world apes, except the Marmosets; the
+fourth, the ARCTOPITHECINI, contains the Marmosets; the fifth, the
+LEMURINI, the Lemurs--from which 'Cheiromys' should probably be excluded
+to form a sixth distinct family, the CHEIROMYINI; while the seventh,
+the GALEOPITHECINI, contains only the flying Lemur 'Galeopithecus',--a
+strange form which almost touches on the Bats, as the 'Cheiromys' puts
+on a rodent clothing, and the Lemurs simulate Insectivora.
+
+Perhaps no order of mammals presents us with so extraordinary a series
+of gradations as this--leading us insensibly from the crown and summit
+of the animal creation down to creatures, from which there is but a
+step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of
+the placental Mammalia. It is as if nature herself had foreseen
+the arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his
+intellect, by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves,
+admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust.
+
+These are the chief facts, this the immediate conclusion from them
+to which I adverted in the commencement of this Essay. The facts, I
+believe, cannot be disputed; and if so, the conclusion appears to me to
+be inevitable.
+
+But if Man be separated by no greater structural barrier from the brutes
+than they are from one another--then it seems to follow that if any
+process of physical causation can be discovered by which the genera
+and families of ordinary animals have been produced, that process of
+causation is amply sufficient to account for the origin of Man. In other
+words, if it could be shown that the Marmosets, for example, have
+arisen by gradual modification of the ordinary Platyrhini, or that
+both Marmosets and Platyrhini are modified ramifications of a primitive
+stock--then, there would be no rational ground for doubting that man
+might have originated, in the one case, by the gradual modification of
+a man-like ape; or, in the other case, as a ramification of the same
+primitive stock as those apes.
+
+At the present moment, but one such process of physical causation
+has any evidence in its favour; or, in other words, there is but one
+hypothesis regarding the origin of species of animals in general
+which has any scientific existence--that propounded by Mr. Darwin. For
+Lamarck, sagacious as many of his views were, mingled them with so much
+that was crude and even absurd, as to neutralize the benefit which his
+originality might have effected, had he been a more sober and cautious
+thinker; and though I have heard of the announcement of a formula
+touching "the ordained continuous becoming of organic forms," it is
+obvious that it is the first duty of a hypothesis to be intelligible,
+and that a qua-qua-versal proposition of this kind, which may be read
+backwards, or forwards, or sideways, with exactly the same amount of
+signification, does not really exist, though it may seem to do so.
+
+At the present moment, therefore, the question of the relation of man to
+the lower animals resolves itself, in the end, into the larger question
+of the tenability, or untenability of Mr. Darwin's views. But here
+we enter upon difficult ground, and it behoves us to define our exact
+position with the greatest care.
+
+It cannot be doubted, I think, that Mr. Darwin has satisfactorily proved
+that what he terms selection, or selective modification, must occur, and
+does occur, in nature; and he has also proved to superfluity that such
+selection is competent to produce forms as distinct, structurally, as
+some genera even are. If the animated world presented us with none but
+structural differences, I should have no hesitation in saying that Mr.
+Darwin had demonstrated the existence of a true physical cause, amply
+competent to account for the origin of living species, and of man among
+the rest.
+
+But, in addition to their structural distinctions, the species of
+animals and plants, or at least a great number of them, exhibit
+physiological characters--what are known as distinct species,
+structurally, being for the most part either altogether incompetent to
+breed one with another; or if they breed, the resulting mule, or hybrid,
+is unable to perpetuate its race with another hybrid of the same kind.
+
+A true physical cause is, however, admitted to be such only on one
+condition--that it shall account for all the phenomena which come
+within the range of its operation. If it is inconsistent with any
+one phenomenon, it must be rejected; if it fails to explain any one
+phenomenon, it is so far weak, so far to be suspected; though it may
+have a perfect right to claim provisional acceptance.
+
+Now, Mr. Darwin's hypothesis is not, so far as I am aware, inconsistent
+with any known biological fact; on the contrary, if admitted, the facts
+of Development, of Comparative Anatomy, of Geographical Distribution,
+and of Palaeontology, become connected together, and exhibit a meaning
+such as they never possessed before; and I, for one, am fully convinced,
+that if not precisely true, that hypothesis is as near an approximation
+to the truth as, for example, the Copernican hypothesis was to the true
+theory of the planetary motions.
+
+But, for all this, our acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis must be
+provisional so long as one link in the chain of evidence is wanting; and
+so long as all the animals and plants certainly produced by selective
+breeding from a common stock are fertile, and their progeny are fertile
+with one another, that link will be wanting. For, so long, selective
+breeding will not be proved to be competent to do all that is required
+of it to produce natural species.
+
+I have put this conclusion as strongly as possible before the reader,
+because the last position in which I wish to find myself is that of
+an advocate for Mr. Darwin's, or any other views--if by an advocate is
+meant one whose business it is to smooth over real difficulties, and to
+persuade where he cannot convince.
+
+In justice to Mr. Darwin, however, it must be admitted that the
+conditions of fertility and sterility are very ill understood, and that
+every day's advance in knowledge leads us to regard the hiatus in his
+evidence as of less and less importance, when set against the multitude
+of facts which harmonize with, or receive an explanation from, his
+doctrines.
+
+I adopt Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, therefore, subject to the production of
+proof that physiological species may be produced by selective breeding;
+just as a physical philosopher may accept the undulatory theory of
+light, subject to the proof of the existence of the hypothetical ether;
+or as the chemist adopts the atomic theory, subject to the proof of the
+existence of atoms; and for exactly the same reasons, namely, that it
+has an immense amount of prima facie probability: that it is the only
+means at present within reach of reducing the chaos of observed facts
+to order; and lastly, that it is the most powerful instrument of
+investigation which has been presented to naturalists since the
+invention of the natural system of classification, and the commencement
+of the systematic study of embryology.
+
+But even leaving Mr. Darwin's views aside, the whole analogy of natural
+operations furnishes so complete and crushing an argument against
+the intervention of any but what are termed secondary causes, in the
+production of all the phenomena of the universe; that, in view of the
+intimate relations between Man and the rest of the living world, and
+between the forces exerted by the latter and all other forces, I can see
+no excuse for doubting that all are co-ordinated terms of Nature's great
+progression, from the formless to the formed--from the inorganic to the
+organic--from blind force to conscious intellect and will.
+
+Science has fulfilled her function when she has ascertained and
+enunciated truth; and were these pages addressed to men of science only,
+I should now close this essay, knowing that my colleagues have learned
+to respect nothing but evidence, and to believe that their highest duty
+lies in submitting to it, however it may jar against their inclinations.
+
+But desiring, as I do, to reach the wider circle of the intelligent
+public, it would be unworthy cowardice were I to ignore the repugnance
+with which the majority of my readers are likely to meet the conclusions
+to which the most careful and conscientious study I have been able to
+give to this matter, has led me.
+
+On all sides I shall hear the cry--"We are men and women, not a mere
+better sort of apes, a little longer in the leg, more compact in the
+foot, and bigger in brain than your brutal Chimpanzees and Gorillas.
+The power of knowledge--the conscience of good and evil--the pitiful
+tenderness of human affections, raise us out of all real fellowship with
+the brutes, however closely they may seem to approximate us."
+
+To this I can only reply that the exclamation would be most just and
+would have my own entire sympathy, if it were only relevant. But, it is
+not I who seek to base Man's dignity upon his great toe, or insinuate
+that we are lost if an Ape has a hippocampus minor. On the contrary, I
+have done my best to sweep away this vanity. I have endeavoured to show
+that no absolute structural line of demarcation, wider than that between
+the animals which immediately succeed us in the scale, can be drawn
+between the animal world and ourselves; and I may add the expression of
+my belief that the attempt to draw a psychical distinction is equally
+futile, and that even the highest faculties of feeling and of intellect
+begin to germinate in lower forms of life. [7] At the same time, no one
+is more strongly convinced than I am of the vastness of the gulf between
+civilized man and the brutes; or is more certain that whether 'from'
+them or not, he is assuredly not 'of' them. No one is less disposed
+to think lightly of the present dignity, or desparingly of the future
+hopes, of the only consciously intelligent denizen of this world.
+
+We are indeed told by those who assume authority in these matters, that
+the two sets of opinions are incompatible, and that the belief in
+the unity of origin of man and brutes involves the brutalization and
+degradation of the former. But is this really so? Could not a sensible
+child confute by obvious arguments, the shallow rhetoricians who would
+force this conclusion upon us? Is it, indeed, true, that the Poet, or
+the Philosopher, or the Artist whose genius is the glory of his age, is
+degraded from his high estate by the undoubted historical probability,
+not to say certainty, that he is the direct descendant of some naked
+and bestial savage, whose intelligence was just sufficient to make him a
+little more cunning than the Fox, and by so much more dangerous than
+the Tiger? Or is he bound to howl and grovel on all fours because of the
+wholly unquestionable fact, that he was once an egg, which no ordinary
+power of discrimination could distinguish from that of a Dog? Or is the
+philanthropist or the saint to give up his endeavours to lead a noble
+life, because the simplest study of man's nature reveals, at its
+foundations, all the selfish passions and fierce appetites of the merest
+quadruped? Is mother-love vile because a hen shows it, or fidelity base
+because dogs possess it?
+
+The common sense of the mass of mankind will answer these questions
+without a moment's hesitation. Healthy humanity, finding itself hard
+pressed to escape from real sin and degradation, will leave the brooding
+over speculative pollution to the cynics and the 'righteous overmuch'
+who, disagreeing in everything else, unite in blind insensibility to
+the nobleness of the visible world, and in inability to appreciate the
+grandeur of the place Man occupies therein.
+
+Nay more, thoughtful men, once escaped from the blinding influences
+of traditional prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has
+sprung, the best evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will
+discern in his long progress through the Past, a reasonable ground of
+faith in his attainment of a nobler Future.
+
+They will remember that in comparing civilised man with the animal
+world, one is as the Alpine traveller, who sees the mountains soaring
+into the sky and can hardly discern where the deep shadowed crags and
+roseate peaks end, and where the clouds of heaven begin. Surely the
+awe-struck voyager may be excused if, at first, he refuses to believe
+the geologist, who tells him that these glorious masses are, after all,
+the hardened mud of primeval seas, or the cooled slag of subterranean
+furnaces--of one substance with the dullest clay, but raised by inward
+forces to that place of proud and seemingly inaccessible glory.
+
+But the geologist is right; and due reflection on his teachings, instead
+of diminishing our reverence and our wonder, adds all the force
+of intellectual sublimity to the mere aesthetic intuition of the
+uninstructed beholder.
+
+And after passion and prejudice have died away, the same result will
+attend the teachings of the naturalist respecting that great Alps
+and Andes of the living world--Man. Our reverence for the nobility of
+manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge that Man is, in substance
+and in structure, one with the brutes; for, he alone possesses the
+marvellous endowment of intelligible and rational speech, whereby,
+in the secular period of his existence, he has slowly accumulated and
+organized the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation
+of every individual life in other animals; so that now he stands raised
+upon it as on a mountain top, far above the level of his humble fellows,
+and transfigured from his grosser nature by reflecting, here and there,
+a ray from the infinite source of truth.
+
+'A succinct History of the Controversy respecting the Cerebral Structure
+of Man and the Apes.'
+
+UP to the year 1857 all anatomists of authority, who had occupied
+themselves with the cerebral structure of the Apes--Cuvier, Tiedemann,
+Sandifort, Vrolik, Isidore G. St. Hilaire, Schroeder van der Kolk,
+Gratiolet--were agreed that the brain of the Apes possesses a POSTERIOR
+LOBE.
+
+Tiedemann, in 1825, figured and acknowledged in the text of his 'Icones'
+the existence of the POSTERIOR CORNU of the lateral ventricle in
+the Apes, not only under the title of 'Scrobiculus parvus loco cornu
+posterioris'--a fact which has been paraded--but as 'cornu posterius'
+('Icones', p. 54), a circumstance which has been, as sedulously, kept in
+the background.
+
+Cuvier ('Lecons', T. iii. p. 103) says, "the anterior or lateral
+ventricles possess a digital cavity [posterior cornu] only in Man and
+the Apes...its presence depends on that of the posterior lobes."
+
+Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik, and Gratiolet, had also figured and
+described the posterior cornu in various Apes. As to the HIPPOCAMPUS
+MINOR Tiedemann had erroneously asserted its absence in the Apes; but
+Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik had pointed out the existence of what
+they considered a rudimentary one in the Chimpanzee, and Gratiolet had
+expressly affirmed its existence in these animals. Such was the state of
+our information on these subjects in the year 1856.
+
+In the year 1857, however, Professor Owen, either in ignorance of these
+well-known facts or else unjustifiably suppressing them, submitted to
+the Linnaean Society a paper "On the Characters, Principles of Division,
+and Primary Groups of the Class Mammalia," which was printed in the
+Society's Journal, and contains the following passage:--"In Man,
+the brain presents an ascensive step in development, higher and
+more strongly marked than that by which the preceding sub-class
+was distinguished from the one below it. Not only do the cerebral
+hemispheres overlap and the olfactory lobes and cerebellum, but they
+extend in advance of the one and further back than the other. The
+posterior development is so marked, that anatomists have assigned to
+that part the character of a third lobe; 'it is peculiar to the
+genus Homo, and equally peculiar is the posterior horn of the lateral
+ventricle and the 'hippocampus minor,' which characterise the hind
+lobe of each hemisphere'."--'Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnaean
+Society, Vol. ii. p. 19.
+
+As the essay in which this passage stands had no less ambitious an aim
+than the remodelling of the classification of the Mammalia, its
+author might be supposed to have written under a sense of peculiar
+responsibility, and to have tested, with especial care, the statements
+he ventured to promulgate. And even if this be expecting too much,
+hastiness, or want of opportunity for due deliberation, cannot now be
+pleaded in extenuation of any shortcomings; for the propositions cited
+were repeated two years afterwards in the Reade Lecture, delivered
+before so grave a body as the University of Cambridge, in 1859.
+
+When the assertions, which I have italicised in the above extract,
+first came under my notice, I was not a little astonished at so flat a
+contradiction of the doctrines current among well-informed anatomists;
+but, not unnaturally imagining that the deliberate statements of a
+responsible person must have some foundation in fact, I deemed it my
+duty to investigate the subject anew before the time at which it
+would be my business to lecture thereupon came round. The result of my
+inquiries was to prove that Mr. Owen's three assertions, that "the third
+lobe, the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus
+minor," are "pecular to the genus 'Homo'," are contrary to the plainest
+facts. I communicated this conclusion to the students of my class;
+and then, having no desire to embark in a controversy which could not
+redound to the honour of British science, whatever its issue, I turned
+to more congenial occupations.
+
+The time speedily arrived, however, when a persistence in this reticence
+would have involved me in an unworthy paltering with truth.
+
+At the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, in 1860, Professor
+Owen repeated these assertions in my presence, and, of course, I
+immediately gave them a direct and unqualified contradiction, pledging
+myself to justify that unusual procedure elsewhere. I redeemed that
+pledge by publishing, in the January number of the 'Natural History
+Review' for 1861, an article wherein the truth of the three following
+propositions was fully demonstrated (l. c. p. 71):--
+
+"1. That the third lobe is neither peculiar to, nor characteristic of,
+man, seeing that it exists in all the higher quadrumana."
+
+"2. That the posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle is neither
+peculiar to, nor characteristic of, man, inasmuch as it also exists in
+the higher quadrumana."
+
+"3. That the 'hippocampus minor' is neither pecular to, nor
+characteristic of, man, as it is found in certain of the higher
+quadrumana."
+
+Furthermore, this paper contains the following paragraph (p. 76): "And
+lastly, Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik (op. cit. p. 271), though they
+particularly note that 'the lateral ventricle is distinguished from that
+of Man by the very defective proportions of the posterior cornu, wherein
+only a stripe is visible as an indication of the hippocampus minor;' yet
+the Figure 4, in their second Plate, shows that this posterior cornu is
+a perfectly distinct and unmistakeable structure, quite as large as it
+often is in Man. It is the more remarkable that Professor Owen should
+have overlooked the explicit statement and figure of these authors, as
+it is quite obvious, on comparison of the figures, that his woodcut of
+the brain of a Chimpanzee (l. c. p. 19) is a reduced copy of the second
+figure of Messrs. Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik's first Plate.
+
+"As M. Gratiolet (l. c. p. 18), however is careful to remark,
+'unfortunately the brain which they have taken as a model was greatly
+altered (profondement affaisse), whence the general form of the brain
+is given in these plates in a manner which is altogether incorrect.'
+Indeed, it is perfectly obvious, from a comparison of a section of the
+skull of the Chimpanzee with these figures, that such is the case; and
+it is greatly to be regretted that so inadequate a figure should have
+been taken as a typical representation of the Chimpanzee's brain."
+
+From this time forth, the untenability of his position might have been
+as apparent to Professor Owen as it was to every one else; but, so far
+from retracting the grave errors into which he had fallen, Professor
+Owen has persisted in and reiterated them; first, in a lecture delivered
+before the Royal Institution on the 19th of March, 1861, which is
+admitted to have been accurately reproduced in the 'Athenaeum' for the
+23rd of the same month, in a letter addressed by Professor Owen to that
+journal on the 30th of March. The 'Athenaeum report was accompanied by
+a diagram purporting to represent a Gorilla's brain, but in reality so
+extraordinary a misrepresentation, that Professor Owen substantially,
+though not explicitly, withdraws it in the letter in question. In
+amending this error, however, Professor Owen fell into another of
+much graver import, as his communication concludes with the following
+paragraph: "For the true proportion in which the cerebrum covers the
+cerebellum in the highest Apes, reference should be made to the figure
+of the undissected brain of the Chimpanzee in my 'Reade's Lecture on the
+Classification, etc., of the Mammalia', p. 25, fig. 7, 8 vo. 1859."
+
+It would not be credible, if it were not unfortunately true, that this
+figure, to which the trusting public is referred, without a word of
+qualification, "for the true proportion in which the cerebrum covers the
+cerebellum in the highest Apes," is exactly that unacknowledged copy of
+Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik's figure whose utter inaccuracy had
+been pointed out years before by Gratiolet, and had been brought to
+Professor Owen's knowledge by myself in the passage of my article in the
+'Natural History Review' above quoted.
+
+I drew public attention to this circumstance again in my reply to
+Professor Owen, published in the 'Athenaeum' for April 13th, 1861; but
+the exploded figure was reproduced once more by Professor Owen, without
+the slightest allusion to its inaccuracy, in the 'Annals of Natural
+History' for June 1861!
+
+This proved too much for the patience of the original authors of the
+figure, Messrs. Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik, who, in a note
+addressed to the Academy of Amsterdam, of which they were members,
+declared themselves to be, though decided opponents of all forms of the
+doctrine of progressive development, above all things, lovers of truth:
+and that, therefore, at whatever risk of seeming to lend support to
+views which they disliked, they felt it their duty to take the first
+opportunity of publicly repudiating Professor Owen's misuse of their
+authority.
+
+In this note they frankly admitted the justice of the criticisms of
+M. Gratiolet, quoted above, and they illustrated, by new and careful
+figures, the posterior lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus
+minor of the Orang. Furthermore, having demonstrated the parts, at
+one of the sittings of the Academy, they add, "la presence des parties
+contestees y a ete universellement reconnue par les anatomistes presents
+a la seance. Le seul doute qui soit reste se rapporte au pes Hippocampi
+minor.... A l'etat frais l'indice du petit pied d'Hippocampe etait plus
+prononce que maintenant."
+
+Professor Owen repeated his erroneous assertions at the meeting of the
+British Association in 1861, and again, without any obvious necessity,
+and without adducing a single new fact or new argument, or being able
+in any way to meet the crushing evidence from original dissections of
+numerous Apes' brains, which had in the meanwhile been brought forward
+by Prof. Rolleston, [8] F.R.S., Mr. Marshall, [9] F.R.S., Mr. Flower,
+[10] Mr. Turner, [11] and myself, [12] revived the subject at the
+Cambridge meeting of the same body in 1862. Not content with the
+tolerably vigorous repudiation which these unprecedented proceedings
+met with in Section D, Professor Owen sanctioned the publication of
+a version of his own statements, accompanied by a strange
+misrepresentation of mine (as may be seen by comparison of the 'Times'
+report of the discussion), in the 'Medical Times' for October 11th,
+1862. I subjoin the conclusion of my reply in the same journal for
+October 25th.
+
+"If this were a question of opinion, or a question of interpretation of
+parts or of terms,--were it even a question of observation in which
+the testimony of my own senses alone was pitted against that of another
+person, I should adopt a very different tone in discussing this matter.
+I should, in all humility, admit the likelihood of having myself erred
+in judgment, failed in knowledge, or been blinded by prejudice.
+
+"But no one pretends now, that the controversy is one of the terms or
+of opinions. Novel and devoid of authority as some of Professor Owen's
+proposed definitions may have been, they might be accepted without
+changing the great features of the case. Hence though special
+investigations into these matters have been undertaken during the last
+two years by Dr. Allen Thomson, by Dr. Rolleston, by Mr. Marshall,
+and by Mr. Flower, all, as you are aware, anatomists of repute in this
+country, and by Professors Schroeder Van der Kolk, and Vrolik (whom
+Professor Owen incautiously tried to press into his own service) on
+the Continent, all these able and conscientious observers have with
+one accord testified to the accuracy of my statements, and to the utter
+baselessness of the assertions of Professor Owen. Even the venerable
+Rudolph Wagner, whom no man will accuse of progressionist proclivities,
+has raised his voice on the same side; while not a single anatomist,
+great or small, has supported Professor Owen.
+
+"Now, I do not mean to suggest that scientific differences should be
+settled by universal suffrage, but I do conceive that solid proofs must
+be met by something more than empty and unsupported assertions. Yet
+during the two years through which this preposterous controversy has
+dragged its weary length, Professor Owen has not ventured to bring
+forward a single preparation in support of his often-repeated
+assertions.
+
+"The case stands thus, therefore:--Not only are the statements made by
+me in consonance with the doctrines of the best older authorities,
+and with those of all recent investigators, but I am quite ready to
+demonstrate them on the first monkey that comes to hand; while Professor
+Owen's assertions are not only in diametrical opposition to both old
+and new authorities, but he has not produced, and, I will add, cannot
+produce, a single preparation which justifies them"
+
+I now leave this subject, for the present.--For the credit of my
+calling I should be glad to be, hereafter, for ever silent upon it. But,
+unfortunately, this is a matter upon which, after all that has occurred,
+no mistake or confusion of terms is possible--and in affirming that the
+posterior lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor exist in
+certain Apes, I am stating either that which is true, or that which
+I must know to be false. The question has thus become one of personal
+veracity. For myself, I will accept no other issue than this, grave as
+it is, to the present controversy.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: It will be understood that, in the preceding Essay, I have
+selected for notice from the vast mass of papers which have been written
+upon the man-like Apes, only those which seem to me to be of special
+moment.
+
+[Footnote 2: We are not at present thoroughly acquainted with the brain
+of the Gorilla, and therefore, in discussing cerebral characters, I
+shall take that of the Chimpanzee as my highest term among the Apes.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "More than once," says Peter Camper, "have I met with more
+than six lumbar vertebrae in man.... Once I found thirteen ribs and four
+lumbar vertebrae." Fallopius noted thirteen pair of ribs and only four
+lumbar vertebrae; and Eustachius once found eleven dorsal vertebrae and
+six lumbar vertebrae.--'Oeuvres de Pierre Camper', T. 1, p. 42. As
+Tyson states, his 'Pygmie' had thirteen pair of ribs and five lumbar
+vertebrae. The question of the curves of the spinal column in the Apes
+requires further investigation.]
+
+[Footnote 4: It has been affirmed that Hindoo crania sometimes contain
+as little as 27 ounces of water, which would give a capacity of about
+46 cubic inches. The minimum capacity which I have assumed above,
+however, is based upon the valuable tables published by Professor R.
+Wagner in his "Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen Morphologie und
+Physiologie des menschlichen Gehirns." As the result of the careful
+weighing of more than 900 human brains, Professor Wagner states that
+one-half weighed between 1200 and 1400 grammes, and that about
+two-ninths, consisting for the most part of male brains, exceed 1400
+grammes. The lightest brain of an adult male, with sound mental
+faculties, recorded by Wagner, weighed 1020 grammes. As a gramme equals
+15.4 grains, and a cubic inch of water contains 252.4 grains, this is
+equivalent to 62 cubic inches of water; so that as brain is heavier than
+water, we are perfectly safe against erring on the side of diminution in
+taking this as the smallest capacity of any adult male human brain. The
+only adult male brain, weighing as little as 970 grammes, is that of an
+idiot; but the brain of an adult woman, against the soundness of whose
+faculties nothing appears, weighed as little as 907 grammes (55.3 cubic
+inches of water); and Reid gives an adult female brain of still smaller
+capacity. The heaviest brain (1872 grammes, or about 115 cubic inches)
+was, however, that of a woman; next to it comes the brain of Cuvier
+(1861 grammes), then Byron (1807 grammes), and then an insane person
+(1783 grammes). The lightest adult brain recorded (720 grammes) was
+that of an idiotic female. The brains of five children, four years old,
+weighed between 1275 and 992 grammes. So that it may be safely said,
+that an average European child of four years old has a brain twice as
+large as that of an adult Gorilla.]
+
+[Footnote 5: In speaking of the foot of his "Pygmie," Tyson remarks,
+p. 13:-- "But this part in the formation and in its function too, being
+liker a Hand than a Foot: for the distinguishing this sort of animals
+from others, I have thought whether it might not be reckoned and called
+rather Quadru-manus than Quadrupes, 'i.e.' a four-handed rather than a
+four-footed animal."]
+
+[Footnote 6: I say 'help' to furnish: for I by no means believe that
+it was any original difference of cerebral quality, or quantity which
+caused that divergence between the human and the pithecoid stirpes,
+which has ended in the present enormous gulf between them. It is
+no doubt perfectly true, in a certain sense, that all difference of
+function is a result of difference of structure; or, in other words, of
+difference in the combination of the primary molecular forces of
+living substance; and, starting from this undeniable axiom, objectors
+occasionally, and with much seeming plausibility, argue that the vast
+intellectual chasm between the Ape and Man implies a corresponding
+structural chasm in the organs of the intellectual functions; so that,
+it is said, the non-discovery of such vast differences proves, not that
+they are absent, but that Science is incompetent to detect them. A very
+little consideration, however, will, I think, show the fallacy of this
+reasoning. Its validity hangs upon the assumption, that intellectual
+power depends altogether on the brain--whereas the brain is only one
+condition out of many on which intellectual manifestations depend;
+the others being, chiefly, the organs of the senses and the motor
+apparatuses, especially those which are concerned in prehension and in
+the production of articulate speech.]
+
+[Footnote 7: It is so rare a pleasure for me to find Professor Owen's
+opinions in entire accordance with my own, that I cannot forbear from
+quoting a paragraph which appeared in his Essay "On the Characters,
+etc., of the Class Mammalia," in the 'Journal of the Proceedings of the
+Linnean Society of London' for 1857, but is unaccountably omitted in the
+"Reade Lecture" delivered before the University of Cambridge two years
+later, which is otherwise nearly a reprint of the paper in question.
+Prof. Owen writes: "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the
+distinction between the psychical phenomena of a Chimpanzee, and of a
+Boschisman or of an Aztec, with arrested brain growth, as being of a
+nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between them, or as
+being other than a difference of degree, I cannot shut my eyes to the
+significance of that all-pervading similitude of structure--every tooth,
+every bone, strictly homologous--which makes the determination of the
+difference between 'Homo' and 'Pithecus' the anatomist's difficulty."
+Surely it is a little singular, that the 'anatomist,' who finds it
+'difficult' to 'determine the difference' between 'Homo' and 'Pithecus',
+should yet range them on anatomical grounds, in distinct sub-classes!]
+
+[Footnotes 8: On the Affinities of the Brain of the Orang. 'Nat. Hist.
+Review', April, 1861.]
+
+[Footnotes 9: On the Brain of a young Chimpanzee. 'Ibid.', July, 1861.]
+
+[Footnotes 10: On the Posterior lobes of the Cerebrum of the Quadrumana.
+'Philosophical Transactions', 1862.]
+
+[Footnotes 11: On the anatomical Relations of the Surfaces of the
+Tentorium to the Cerebrum and Cerebellum in Man and the lower Mammals.
+'Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh', March, 1862.]
+
+[Footnotes 12: On the Brain of Ateles. 'Proceedings of Zoological
+Society', 1861.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On the Relations of Man to the Lower
+Animals, by Thomas H. Huxley
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