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diff --git a/2931-h/2931-h.htm b/2931-h/2931-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4fee2a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/2931-h/2931-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2631 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Evidence As to Man's Place in Nature, by Thomas H. Huxley + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +Project Gutenberg's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature, by Thomas H. Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Release Date: January 6, 2009 [EBook #2931] +Last Updated: January 22, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN'S PLACE *** + + + + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + EVIDENCE AS TO <br /> MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Thomas H. Huxley + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + 1863 + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img alt="page1 (77K)" src="images/page1.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + Skeletons of the GIBBON. ORANG. CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. MAN. + 'Photographically reduced from Diagrams of the natural size (except that + of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn by Mr. + Waterhouse Hawkins from specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of + Surgeons. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Contents + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAN-LIKE + APES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_FOOT"> FOOTNOTES: </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + List of Illustrations + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Fig. 1.—simiae Magnatum Deliciae.—de + Bry, 1598. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Fig 2.—the Orang of Tulpius, 1641. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Figs. 3 and 4.—the 'pygmie' Reduced + from Tyson's Figures 1 and 2, 1699. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Fig. 5.—facsimile of William + Smith's Figure Of The "mandrill," 1744. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> Fig. 6.—the Anthropomorpha of + Linnaeus. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> Fig. 7.—the Pongo Skull, Sent by + Radermacher to Camper, After Camper's Original Sketches, As + Reproduced by Lucae. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> Fig. 8.—gibbon ('h. Pileatus'), + After Wolf. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> Fig. 9. An Adult Male Orang-utan, After + Muller And Schlegel. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> Fig. 10.—the Gorilla (after Wolff). + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> Fig. 11.—gorilla Walking (after + Wolff). </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAN-LIKE APES + </h2> + <p> + Ancient traditions, when tested by the severe processes of modern + investigation, commonly enough fade away into mere dreams: but it is + singular how often the dream turns out to have been a half-waking one, + presaging a reality. Ovid foreshadowed the discoveries of the geologist: + the Atlantis was an imagination, but Columbus found a western world: and + though the quaint forms of Centaurs and Satyrs have an existence only in + the realms of art, creatures approaching man more nearly than they in + essential structure, and yet as thoroughly brutal as the goat's or horse's + half of the mythical compound, are now not only known, but notorious. + </p> + <p> + I have not met with any notice of one of these MAN-LIKE APES of earlier + date than that contained in Pigafetta's 'Description of the Kingdom of + Congo,' <a href="#linknote-1" name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1"><small>1</small></a> + drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor, Eduardo Lopez, and + published in 1598. The tenth chapter of this work is entitled "De + Animalibus quae in hac provincia reperiuntur," and contains a brief + passage to the effect that "in the Songan country, on the banks of the + Zaire, there are multitudes of apes, which afford great delight to the + nobles by imitating human gestures." As this might apply to almost any + kind of apes, I should have thought little of it, had not the brothers De + Bry, whose engravings illustrate the work, thought fit, in their eleventh + 'Argumentum,' to figure two of these "Simiae magnatum deliciae." So much + of the plate as contains these apes is faithfully copied in the woodcut + (Fig. 1), and it will be observed that they are tail-less, long-armed, and + large-eared; and about the size of Chimpanzees. + </p> + <p> + It may be that these apes are as much figments of the imagination of the + ingenious brothers as the winged, two-legged, crocodile-headed dragon + which adorns the same plate; or, on the other hand, it may be that the + artists have constructed their drawings from some essentially faithful + description of a Gorilla or a Chimpanzee. And, in either case, though + these figures are worth a passing notice, the oldest trustworthy and + definite accounts of any animal of this kind date from the 17th century, + and are due to an Englishman. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig01.jpg" + alt="Fig. 1.--simiae Magnatum Deliciae.--de Bry, 1598. " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The first edition of that most amusing old book, 'Purchas his Pilgrimage,' + was published in 1613, and therein are to be found many references to the + statements of one whom Purchas terms "Andrew Battell (my neere neighbour, + dwelling at Leigh in Essex) who served under Manuel Silvera Perera, + Governor under the King of Spaine, at his city of Saint Paul, and with him + went farre into the countrey of Angola"; and again, "my friend, Andrew + Battle, who lived in the kingdom of Congo many yeares," and who, "upon + some quarell betwixt the Portugals (among whom he was a sergeant of a + band) and him, lived eight or nine moneths in the woodes." From this + weather-beaten old soldier, Purchas was amazed to hear "of a kinde of + Great Apes, if they might so bee termed, of the height of a man, but twice + as bigge in feature of their limmes, with strength proportionable, hairie + all over, otherwise altogether like men and women in their whole bodily + shape. <a href="#linknote-2" name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2"><small>2</small></a> + They lived on such wilde fruits as the trees and woods yielded, and in the + night time lodged on the trees." + </p> + <p> + This extract is, however, less detailed and clear in its statements than a + passage in the third chapter of the second part of another work—'Purchas + his Pilgrimes,' published in 1625, by the same author—which has been + often, though hardly ever quite rightly, cited. The chapter is entitled, + "The strange adventures of Andrew Battell, of Leigh in Essex, sent by the + Portugals prisoner to Angola, who lived there and in the adjoining regions + neere eighteene yeeres." And the sixth section of this chapter is headed—"Of + the Provinces of Bongo, Calongo, Mayombe, Manikesocke, Motimbas: of the + Ape Monster Pongo, their hunting: Idolatries; and divers other + observations." + </p> + <p> + "This province (Calongo) toward the east bordereth upon Bongo, and toward + the north upon Mayombe, which is nineteen leagues from Longo along the + coast. + </p> + <p> + "This province of Mayombe is all woods and groves, so over-growne that a + man may travaile twentie days in the shadow without any sunne or heat. + Here is no kind of corne nor graine, so that the people liveth onely upon + plantanes and roots of sundrie sorts, very good; and nuts; nor any kinde + of tame cattell, nor hens. + </p> + <p> + "But they have great store of elephant's flesh, which they greatly + esteeme, and many kinds of wild beasts; and great store of fish. Here is a + great sandy bay, two leagues to the northward of Cape Negro, <a + href="#linknote-3" name="linknoteref-3" id="linknoteref-3"><small>3</small></a> + which is the port of Mayombe. Sometimes the Portugals lade logwood in this + bay. Here is a great river, called Banna: in the winter it hath no barre, + because the generall winds cause a great sea. But when the sunne hath his + south declination, then a boat may goe in; for then it is smooth because + of the raine. This river is very great, and hath many ilands and people + dwelling in them. The woods are so covered with baboones, monkies, apes + and parrots, that it will feare any man to travaile in them alone. Here + are also two kinds of monsters, which are common in these woods, and very + dangerous. + </p> + <p> + "The greatest of these two monsters is called Pongo in their language, and + the lesser is called Engeco. This Pongo is in all proportion like a man; + but that he is more like a giant in stature than a man; for he is very + tall, and hath a man's face, hollow-eyed, with long haire upon his browes. + His face and eares are without haire, and his hands also. His bodie is + full of haire, but not very thicke; and it is of a dunnish colour. + </p> + <p> + "He differeth not from a man but in his legs; for they have no calfe. Hee + goeth alwaies upon his legs, and carrieth his hands clasped in the nape of + his necke when he goeth upon the ground. They sleepe in the trees, and + build shelters for the raine. They feed upon fruit that they find in the + woods, and upon nuts, for they eate no kind of flesh. They cannot speake, + and have no understanding more than a beast. The people of the countrie, + when they travaile in the woods make fires where they sleepe in the night; + and in the morning when they are gone, the Pongoes will come and sit about + the fire till it goeth out; for they have no understanding to lay the wood + together. They goe many together and kill many negroes that travaile in + the woods. Many times they fall upon the elephants which come to feed + where they be, and so beate them with their clubbed fists, and pieces of + wood, that they will runne roaring away from them. Those Pongoes are never + taken alive because they are so strong, that ten men cannot hold one of + them; but yet they take many of their young ones with poisoned arrowes. + </p> + <p> + "The young Pongo hangeth on his mother's belly with his hands fast clasped + about her, so that when the countrie people kill any of the females they + take the young one, which hangeth fast upon his mother. + </p> + <p> + "When they die among themselves, they cover the dead with great heaps of + boughs and wood, which is commonly found in the forest." <a + href="#linknote-4" name="linknoteref-4" id="linknoteref-4"><small>4</small></a> + </p> + <p> + It does not appear difficult to identify the exact region of which Battell + speaks. Longo is doubtless the name of the place usually spelled Loango on + our maps. Mayombe still lies some nineteen leagues northward from Loango, + along the coast; and Cilongo or Kilonga, Manikesocke, and Motimbas are yet + registered by geographers. The Cape Negro of Battell, however, cannot be + the modern Cape Negro in 16 degrees S., since Loango itself is in 4 + degrees S. latitude. On the other hand, the "great river called Banna" + corresponds very well with the "Camma" and "Fernand Vas," of modern + geographers, which form a great delta on this part of the African coast. + </p> + <p> + Now this "Camma" country is situated about a degree and a-half south of + the Equator, while a few miles to the north of the line lies the Gaboon, + and a degree or so north of that, the Money River—both well known to + modern naturalists as localities where the largest of man-like Apes has + been obtained. Moreover, at the present day, the word Engeco, or N'schego, + is applied by the natives of these regions to the smaller of the two great + Apes which inhabit them; so that there can be no rational doubt that + Andrew Battell spoke of that which he knew of his own knowledge, or, at + any rate, by immediate report from the natives of Western Africa. The + "Engeco," however, is that "other monster" whose nature Battell "forgot to + relate," while the name "Pongo"—applied to the animal whose + characters and habits are so fully and carefully described—seems to + have died out, at least in its primitive form and signification. Indeed, + there is evidence that not only in Battell's time, but up to a very recent + date, it was used in a totally different sense from that in which he + employs it. + </p> + <p> + For example, the second chapter of Purchas' work, which I have just + quoted, contains "A Description and Historicall Declaration of the Golden + Kingdom of Guinea, etc. etc. Translated from the Dutch, and compared also + with the Latin," wherein it is stated (p. 986) that— + </p> + <p> + "The River Gaboon lyeth about fifteen miles northward from Rio de Angra, + and eight miles northward from Cape de Lope Gonsalves (Cape Lopez), and is + right under the Equinoctial line, about fifteene miles from St. Thomas, + and is a great land, well and easily to be knowne. At the mouth of the + river there lieth a sand, three or foure fathoms deepe, whereon it beateth + mightily with the streame which runneth out of the river into the sea. + This river, in the mouth thereof, is at least four miles broad; but when + you are about the Iland called 'Pongo', it is not above two miles + broad.... On both sides the river there standeth many trees.... The Iland + called 'Pongo', which hath a monstrous high hill." + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig02.jpg" alt="Fig 2.--the Orang of Tulpius, 1641. " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The French naval officers, whose letters are appended to the late M. + Isidore Geoff. Saint Hilaire's excellent essay on the Gorilla <a + href="#linknote-5" name="linknoteref-5" id="linknoteref-5"><small>5</small></a>, + note in similar terms the width of the Gaboon, the trees that line its + banks down to the water's edge, and the strong current that sets out of + it. They describe two islands in its estuary;—one low, called + Perroquet; the other high, presenting three conical hills, called + Coniquet; and one of them, M. Franquet, expressly states that, formerly, + the Chief of Coniquet was called 'Meni-Pongo', meaning thereby Lord of + 'Pongo'; and that the 'N'Pongues' (as, in agreement with Dr. Savage, he + affirms the natives call themselves) term the estuary of the Gaboon itself + 'N'Pongo'. + </p> + <p> + It is so easy, in dealing with savages, to misunderstand their + applications of words to things, that one is at first inclined to suspect + Battell of having confounded the name of this region, where his "greater + monster" still abounds, with the name of the animal itself. But he is so + right about other matters (including the name of the "lesser monster") + that one is loth to suspect the old traveller of error; and, on the other + hand, we shall find that a voyager of a hundred years' later date speaks + of the name "Boggoe," as applied to a great Ape, by the inhabitants of + quite another part of Africa—Sierra Leone. + </p> + <p> + But I must leave this question to be settled by philologers and + travellers; and I should hardly have dwelt so long upon it except for the + curious part played by this word 'Pongo'in the later history of the + man-like Apes. + </p> + <p> + The generation which succeeded Battell saw the first of the man-like Apes + which was ever brought to Europe, or, at any rate, whose visit found a + historian. In the third book of Tulpius' 'Observationes Medicae', + published in 1641, the 56th chapter or section is devoted to what he calls + 'Satyrus indicus', "called by the Indians Orang-autang or + Man-of-the-Woods, and by the Africans Quoias Morrou." He gives a very good + figure, evidently from the life, of the specimen of this animal, "nostra + memoria ex Angola delatum," presented to Frederick Henry Prince of Orange. + Tulpius says it was as big as a child of three years old, and as stout as + one of six years: and that its back was covered with black hair. It is + plainly a young Chimpanzee. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile, the existence of other, Asiatic, man-like Apes became + known, but at first in a very mythical fashion. Thus Bontius (1658) gives + an altogether fabulous and ridiculous account and figure of an animal + which he calls "Orang-outang"; and though he says "vidi Ego cujus effigiem + hic exhibeo," the said effigies (see Fig. 6 for Hoppius' copy of it) is + nothing but a very hairy woman of rather comely aspect, and with + proportions and feet wholly human. The judicious English anatomist, Tyson, + was justified in saying of this description by Bontius, "I confess I do + mistrust the whole representation." + </p> + <p> + It is to the last mentioned writer, and his coadjutor Cowper, that we owe + the first account of a man-like ape which has any pretensions to + scientific accuracy and completeness. The treatise entitled, + "'Orang-outang, sive Homo Sylvestris'; or the Anatomy of a Pygmie compared + with that of a 'Monkey', an 'Ape', and a 'Man'," published by the Royal + Society in 1699, is, indeed, a work of remarkable merit, and has, in some + respects, served as a model to subsequent inquirers. This "Pygmie," Tyson + tells us "was brought from Angola, in Africa; but was first taken a great + deal higher up the country"; its hair "was of a coal-black colour and + strait," and "when it went as a quadruped on all four, 'twas awkwardly; + not placing the palm of the hand flat to the ground, but it walk'd upon + its knuckles, as I observed it to do when weak and had not strength enough + to support its body."—"From the top of the head to the heel of the + foot, in a strait line, it measured twenty-six inches." + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig03-4.jpg" + alt="Figs. 3 and 4.--the 'pygmie' Reduced from Tyson's Figures 1 and 2, 1699. " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + These characters, even without Tyson's good figures (Figs. 3 and 4), would + have been sufficient to prove his "Pygmie" to be a young Chimpanzee. But + the opportunity of examining the skeleton of the very animal Tyson + anatomised having most unexpectedly presented itself to me, I am able to + bear independent testimony to its being a veritable 'Troglodytes niger' <a + href="#linknote-6" name="linknoteref-6" id="linknoteref-6"><small>6</small></a>, + though still very young. Although fully appreciating the resemblances + between his Pygmie and Man, Tyson by no means overlooked the differences + between the two, and he concludes his memoir by summing up first, the + points in which "the Ourang-outang or Pygmie more resembled a Man than + Apes and Monkeys do," under forty-seven distinct heads; and then giving, + in thirty-four similar brief paragraphs, the respects in which "the + Ourang-outang or Pygmie differ'd from a Man and resembled more the Ape and + Monkey kind." + </p> + <p> + After a careful survey of the literature of the subject extant in his + time, our author arrives at the conclusion that his "Pygmie" is identical + neither with the Orangs of Tulpius and Bontius, nor with the Quoias Morrou + of Dapper (or rather of Tulpius), the Barris of d'Arcos, nor with the + Pongo of Battell; but that it is a species of ape probably identical with + the Pygmies of the Ancients, and, says Tyson, though it "does so much + resemble a 'Man' in many of its parts, more than any of the ape kind, or + any other 'animal' in the world, that I know of: yet by no means do I look + upon it as the product of a 'mixt' generation—'tis a 'Brute-Animal + sui generis', and a particular 'species of Ape'." + </p> + <p> + The name of "Chimpanzee," by which one of the African Apes is now so well + known, appears to have come into use in the first half of the eighteenth + century, but the only important addition made, in that period, to our + acquaintance with the man-like apes of Africa is contained in 'A New + Voyage to Guinea', by William Smith, which bears the date 1744. + </p> + <p> + In describing the animals of Sierra Leone, p. 51, this writer says:— + </p> + <p> + "I shall next describe a strange sort of animal, called by the white men + in this country Mandrill <a href="#linknote-7" name="linknoteref-7" + id="linknoteref-7"><small>7</small></a>, but why it is so called I know + not, nor did I ever hear the name before, neither can those who call them + so tell, except it be for their near resemblance of a human creature, + though nothing at all like an Ape. Their bodies, when full grown, are as + big in circumference as a middle-sized man's—their legs much + shorter, and their feet larger; their arms and hands in proportion. The + head is monstrously big, and the face broad and flat, without any other + hair but the eyebrows; the nose very small, the mouth wide, and the lips + thin. The face, which is covered by a white skin, is monstrously ugly, + being all over wrinkled as with old age; the teeth broad and yellow; the + hands have no more hair than the face, but the same white skin, though all + the rest of the body is covered with long black hair, like a bear. They + never go upon all fours, like apes; but cry, when vexed or teased, just + like children...." + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig05.jpg" + alt="Fig. 5.--facsimile of William Smith's Figure Of The 'mandrill,' 1744. " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + "When I was at Sherbro, one Mr. Cummerbus, whom I shall have occasion + hereafter to mention, made me a present of one of these strange animals, + which are called by the natives Boggoe: it was a she-cub, of six months' + age, but even then larger than a Baboon. I gave it in charge to one of the + slaves, who knew how to feed and nurse it, being a very tender sort of + animal; but whenever I went off the deck the sailors began to teaze it—some + loved to see its tears and hear it cry; others hated its snotty nose; one + who hurt it, being checked by the negro that took care of it, told the + slave he was very fond of his country-woman, and asked him if he should + not like her for a wife? To which the slave very readily replied, 'No, + this no my wife; this a white woman—this fit wife for you.' This + unlucky wit of the negro's, I fancy, hastened its death, for next morning + it was found dead under the windlass." + </p> + <p> + William Smith's 'Mandrill,' or 'Boggoe,' as his description and figure + testify, was, without doubt, a Chimpanzee. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig06.jpg" alt="Fig. 6.--the Anthropomorpha of Linnaeus. " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Linnaeus knew nothing, of his own observation, of the man-like Apes of + either Africa or Asia, but a dissertation by his pupil Hoppius in the + 'Amoenitates Academicae' (VI. 'Anthropomorpha') may be regarded as + embodying his views respecting these animals. + </p> + <p> + The dissertation is illustrated by a plate, of which the accompanying + woodcut, Fig, 6, is a reduced copy, The figures are entitled (from left to + right) 1. 'Troglodyta Bontii'; 2. 'Lucifer Aldrovandi'; 3. 'Satyrus + Tulpii'; 4. 'Pygmaeus Edwardi'. The first is a bad copy of Bontius' + fictitious 'Ourang-outang,' in whose existence, however, Linnaeus appears + to have fully believed; for in the standard edition of the 'Systema + Naturae', it is enumerated as a second species of Homo; "H. nocturnus." + 'Lucifer Aldrovandi' is a copy of a figure in Aldrovandus, 'De + Quadrupedibus digitatis viviparis', Lib. 2, p. 249 (1645), entitled + "Cercopithecus formae rarae 'Barbilius' vocatus et originem a china + ducebat." Hoppius is of opinion that this may be one of that cat-tailed + people, of whom Nicolaus Koping affirms that they eat a boat's crew, + "gubernator navis" and all! In the 'Systema Naturae' Linnaeus calls it in + a note, 'Homo caudatus', and seems inclined to regard it as a third + species of man. According to Temminck, 'Satyrus Tulpii' is a copy of the + figure of a Chimpanzee published by Scotin in 1738, which I have not seen. + It is the 'Satyrus indicus' of the 'Systema Naturae', and is regarded by + Linnaeus as possibly a distinct species from 'Satyrus sylvestris'. The + last, named 'Pygmaeus Edwardi', is copied from the figure of a young "Man + of the Woods," or true Orang-Utan, given in Edwards' 'Gleanings of Natural + History' (1758). + </p> + <p> + Buffon was more fortunate than his great rival. Not only had he the rare + opportunity of examining a young Chimpanzee in the living state, but he + became possessed of an adult Asiatic man-like Ape—the first and the + last adult specimen of any of these animals brought to Europe for many + years. With the valuable assistance of Daubenton, Buffon gave an excellent + description of this creature, which, from its singular proportions, he + termed the long-armed Ape, or Gibbon. It is the modern 'Hylobates lar'. + </p> + <p> + Thus when, in 1766, Buffon wrote the fourteenth volume of his great work, + he was personally familiar with the young of one kind of African man-like + Ape, and with the adult of an Asiatic species—while the Orang-Utan + and the Mandrill of Smith were known to him by report. Furthermore, the + Abbe Prevost had translated a good deal of Purchas' Pilgrims into French, + in his 'Histoire generale des Voyages' (1748), and there Buffon found a + version of Andrew Battell's account of the Pongo and the Engeco. All these + data Buffon attempts to weld together into harmony in his chapter entitled + "Les Orang-outangs ou le Pongo et le Jocko." To this title the following + note is appended:— + </p> + <p> + "Orang-outang nom de cet animal aux Indes orientales: Pongo nom de cet + animal a Lowando Province de Congo. + </p> + <p> + "Jocko, Enjocko, nom de cet animal a Congo que nous avons adopte. 'En' est + l'article que nous avons retranche." + </p> + <p> + Thus it was that Andrew Battell's "Engeco" became metamorphosed into + "Jocko," and, in the latter shape, was spread all over the world, in + consequence of the extensive popularity of Buffon's works. The Abbe + Prevost and Buffon between them, however, did a good deal more + disfigurement to Battell's sober account than 'cutting off an article.' + Thus Battell's statement that the Pongos "cannot speake, and have no + understanding more than a beast," is rendered by Buffon "qu'il ne peut + parler 'quoiqu'il ait plus d'entendement que les autres animaux'"; and + again, Purchas' affirmation, "He told me in conference with him, that one + of these Pongos tooke a negro boy of his which lived a moneth with them," + stands in the French version, "un pongo lui enleva un petit negre qui + passa un 'an' entier dans la societe de ces animaux." + </p> + <p> + After quoting the account of the great Pongo, Buffon justly remarks, that + all the 'Jockos' and 'Orangs' hitherto brought to Europe were young; and + he suggests that, in their adult condition, they might be as big as the + Pongo or 'great Orang'; so that, provisionally, he regarded the Jockos, + Orangs, and Pongos as all of one species. And perhaps this was as much as + the state of knowledge at the time warranted. But how it came about that + Buffon failed to perceive the similarity of Smith's 'Mandrill' to his own + 'Jocko,' and confounded the former with so totally different a creature as + the blue-faced Baboon, is not so easily intelligible. + </p> + <p> + Twenty years later Buffon changed his opinion, <a href="#linknote-8" + name="linknoteref-8" id="linknoteref-8"><small>8</small></a> and expressed + his belief that the Orangs constituted a genus with two species,—a + large one, the Pongo of Battell, and a small one, the Jocko: that the + small one (Jocko) is the East Indian Orang; and that the young animals + from Africa, observed by himself and Tulpius, are simply young Pongos. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile, the Dutch naturalist, Vosmaer, gave, in 1778, a very + good account and figure of a young Orang, brought alive to Holland, and + his countryman, the famous anatomist, Peter Camper, published (1779) an + essay on the Orang-Utan of similar value to that of Tyson on the + Chimpanzee. He dissected several females and a male, all of which, from + the state of their skeleton and their dentition, he justly supposes to + have been young. However, judging by the analogy of man, he concludes that + they could not have exceeded four feet in height in the adult condition. + Furthermore, he is very clear as to the specific distinctness of the true + East Indian Orang. + </p> + <p> + "The Orang," says he, "differs not only from the Pigmy of Tyson and from + the Orang of Tulpius by its peculiar colour and its long toes, but also by + its whole external form. Its arms, its hands, and its feet are longer, + while the thumbs, on the contrary, are much shorter, and the great toes + much smaller in proportion." <a href="#linknote-9" name="linknoteref-9" + id="linknoteref-9"><small>9</small></a> And again, "The true Orang, that + is to say, that of Asia, that of Borneo, is consequently not the Pithecus, + or tailless Ape, which the Greeks, and especially Galen, have described. + It is neither the Pongo nor the Jocko, nor the Orang of Tulpius, nor the + Pigmy of Tyson,—'it is an animal of a peculiar species', as I shall + prove in the clearest manner by the organs of voice and the skeleton in + the following chapters" (l. c. p. 64). + </p> + <p> + A few years later, M. Radermacher, who held a high office in the + Government of the Dutch dominions in India, and was an active member of + the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, published, in the second part + of the Transactions of that Society, <a href="#linknote-10" + name="linknoteref-10" id="linknoteref-10"><small>10</small></a> a + Description of the Island of Borneo, which was written between the years + 1779 and 1781, and, among much other interesting matter, contains some + notes upon the Orang. The small sort of Orang-Utan, viz. that of Vosmaer + and of Edwards, he says, is found only in Borneo, and chiefly about + Banjermassing, Mampauwa, and Landak. Of these he had seen some fifty + during his residence in the Indies; but none exceeded 2 1/2 feet in + length. The larger sort, often regarded as a chimaera, continues + Radermacher, would perhaps long have remained so, had it not been for the + exertions of the Resident at Rembang, M. Palm, who, on returning from + Landak towards Pontiana, shot one, and forwarded it to Batavia in spirit, + for transmission to Europe. + </p> + <p> + Palm's letter describing the capture runs thus:—"Herewith I send + your Excellency, contrary to all expectation (since long ago I offered + more than a hundred ducats to the natives for an Orang-Utan of four or + five feet high) an Orang which I heard of this morning about eight + o'clock. For a long time we did our best to take the frightful beast alive + in the dense forest about half way to Landak. We forgot even to eat, so + anxious were we not to let him escape; but it was necessary to take care + that he did not revenge himself, as he kept continually breaking off heavy + pieces of wood and green branches, and dashing them at us. This game + lasted till four o'clock in the afternoon, when we determined to shoot + him; in which I succeeded very well, and indeed better than I ever shot + from a boat before; for the bullet went just into the side of his chest, + so that he was not much damaged. We got him into the prow still living, + and bound him fast, and next morning he died of his wounds. All Pontiana + came on board to see him when we arrived." Palm gives his height from the + head to the heel as 49 inches. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig07.jpg" + alt="Fig. 7.--the Pongo Skull, Sent by Radermacher to Camper, After Camper's Original Sketches, As Reproduced by Lucae. " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + A very intelligent German officer, Baron Von Wurmb, who at this time held + a post in the Dutch East India service, and was Secretary of the Batavian + Society, studied this animal, and his careful description of it, entitled + "Beschrijving van der Groote Borneosche Orang-outang of de Oost-Indische + Pongo," is contained in the same volume of the Batavian Society's + Transactions. After Von Wurmb had drawn up his description he states, in a + letter dated Batavia, Feb. 18, 1781, <a href="#linknote-11" + name="linknoteref-11" id="linknoteref-11"><small>11</small></a> that the + specimen was sent to Europe in brandy to be placed in the collection of + the Prince of Orange; "unfortunately," he continues, "we hear that the + ship has been wrecked." Von Wurmb died in the course of the year 1781, the + letter in which this passage occurs being the last he wrote; but in his + posthumous papers, published in the fourth part of the Transactions of the + Batavian Society, there is a brief description, with measurements, of a + female Pongo four feet high. + </p> + <p> + Did either of these original specimens, on which Von Wurmb's descriptions + are based, ever reach Europe? It is commonly supposed that they did; but I + doubt the fact. For, appended to the memoir 'De l'Ourang-outang,' in the + collected edition of Camper's works, tome i., pp. 64-66, is a note by + Camper himself, referring to Von Wurmb's papers, and continuing thus:—"Heretofore, + this kind of ape had never been known in Europe. Radermacher has had the + kindness to send me the skull of one of these animals, which measured + fifty-three inches, or four feet five inches, in height. I have sent some + sketches of it to M. Soemmering at Mayence, which are better calculated, + however, to give an idea of the form than of the real size of the parts." + </p> + <p> + These sketches have been reproduced by Fischer and by Lucae, and bear date + 1783, Soemmering having received them in 1784. Had either of Von Wurmb's + specimens reached Holland, they would hardly have been unknown at this + time to Camper, who, however, goes on to say—"It appears that since + this, some more of these monsters have been captured, for an entire + skeleton, very badly set up, which had been sent to the Museum of the + Prince of Orange, and which I saw only on the 27th of June, 1784, was more + than four feet high. I examined this skeleton again on the 19th December, + 1785, after it had been excellently put to rights by the ingenious + Onymus." + </p> + <p> + It appears evident, then, that this skeleton, which is doubtless that + which has always gone by the name of Wurmb's Pongo, is not that of the + animal described by him, though unquestionably similar in all essential + points. + </p> + <p> + Camper proceeds to note some of the most important features of this + skeleton; promises to describe it in detail by-and-bye; and is evidently + in doubt as to the relation of this great 'Pongo' to his "petit Orang." + </p> + <p> + The promised further investigations were never carried out; and so it + happened that the Pongo of Von Wurmb took its place by the side of the + Chimpanzee, Gibbon, and Orang as a fourth and colossal species of man-like + Ape. And indeed nothing could look much less like the Chimpanzees or the + Orangs, then known, than the Pongo; for all the specimens of Chimpanzee + and Orang which had been observed were small of stature, singularly human + in aspect, gentle and docile; while Wurmb's Pongo was a monster almost + twice their size, of vast strength and fierceness, and very brutal in + expression; its great projecting muzzle, armed with strong teeth, being + further disfigured by the outgrowth of the cheeks into fleshy lobes. + </p> + <p> + Eventually, in accordance with the usual marauding habits of the + Revolutionary armies, the 'Pongo' skeleton was carried away from Holland + into France, and notices of it, expressly intended to demonstrate its + entire distinctness from the Orang and its affinity with the baboons, were + given, in 1798, by Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Cuvier. + </p> + <p> + Even in Cuvier's 'Tableau Elementaire', and in the first edition of his + great work, the 'Regne Animal', the 'Pongo' is classed as a species of + Baboon. However, so early as 1818, it appears that Cuvier saw reason to + alter this opinion, and to adopt the view suggested several years before + by Blumenbach, <a href="#linknote-12" name="linknoteref-12" + id="linknoteref-12"><small>12</small></a> and after him by Tilesius, that + the Bornean Pongo is simply an adult Orang. In 1824, Rudolphi + demonstrated, by the condition of the dentition, more fully and completely + than had been done by his predecessors, that the Orangs described up to + that time were all young animals, and that the skull and teeth of the + adult would probably be such as those seen in the Pongo of Wurmb. In the + second edition of the 'Regne Animal' (1829), Cuvier infers, from the + 'proportions of all the parts' and 'the arrangements of the foramina and + sutures of the head,' that the Pongo is the adult of the Orang-Utan, 'at + least of a very closely allied species,' and this conclusion was + eventually placed beyond all doubt by Professor Owen's Memoir published in + the 'Zoological Transactions' for 1835, and by Temminck in his + 'Monographies de Mammalogie'. Temminck's memoir is remarkable for the + completeness of the evidence which it affords as to the modification which + the form of the Orang undergoes according to age and sex. Tiedemann first + published an account of the brain of the young Orang, while Sandifort, + Muller and Schlegel, described the muscles and the viscera of the adult, + and gave the earliest detailed and trustworthy history of the habits of + the great Indian Ape in a state of nature; and as important additions have + been made by later observers, we are at this moment better acquainted with + the adult of the Orang-Utan, than with that of any of the other greater + man-like Apes. + </p> + <p> + It is certainly the Pongo of Wurmb; <a href="#linknote-13" + name="linknoteref-13" id="linknoteref-13"><small>13</small></a> and it is + as certainly not the Pongo of Battell, seeing that the Orang-Utan is + entirely confined to the great Asiatic islands of Borneo and Sumatra. + </p> + <p> + And while the progress of discovery thus cleared up the history of the + Orang, it also became established that the only other man-like Apes in the + eastern world were the various species of Gibbon—Apes of smaller + stature, and therefore attracting less attention than the Orangs, though + they are spread over a much wider range of country, and are hence more + accessible to observation. + </p> + <p> + Although the geographical area inhabited by the 'Pongo' and Engeco of + Battell is so much nearer to Europe than that in which the Orang and + Gibbon are found, our acquaintance with the African Apes has been of + slower growth; indeed, it is only within the last few years that the + truthful story of the old English adventurer has been rendered fully + intelligible. It was not until 1835 that the skeleton of the adult + Chimpanzee became known, by the publication of Professor Owen's + above-mentioned very excellent memoir 'On the osteology of the Chimpanzee + and Orang', in the 'Zoological Transactions'—a memoir which, by the + accuracy of its descriptions, the carefulness of its comparisons, and the + excellence of its figures, made an epoch in the history of our knowledge + of the bony framework, not only of the Chimpanzee, but of all the + anthropoid Apes. + </p> + <p> + By the investigations herein detailed, it became evident that the old + Chimpanzee acquired a size and aspect as different from those of the young + known to Tyson, to Buffon, and to Traill, as those of the old Orang from + the young Orang; and the subsequent very important researches of Messrs. + Savage and Wyman, the American missionary and anatomist, have not only + confirmed this conclusion, but have added many new details. <a + href="#linknote-14" name="linknoteref-14" id="linknoteref-14"><small>14</small></a> + </p> + <p> + One of the most interesting among the many valuable discoveries made by + Dr. Thomas Savage is the fact, that the natives in the Gaboon country at + the present day, apply to the Chimpanzee a name—"Enche-eko"—which + is obviously identical with the "Engeko" of Battell; a discovery which has + been confirmed by all later inquirers. Battell's "lesser monster" being + thus proved to be a veritable existence, of course a strong presumption + arose that his "greater monster," the 'Pongo,' would sooner or later be + discovered. And, indeed, a modern traveller, Bowdich, had, in 1819, found + strong evidence, among the natives, of the existence of a second great + Ape, called the 'Ingena,' "five feet high, and four across the shoulders," + the builder of a rude house, on the outside of which it slept. + </p> + <p> + In 1847, Dr. Savage had the good fortune to make another and most + important addition to our knowledge of the man-like Apes; for, being + unexpectedly detained at the Gaboon river, he saw in the house of the Rev. + Mr. Wilson, a missionary resident there, "a skull represented by the + natives to be a monkey-like animal, remarkable for its size, ferocity, and + habits." From the contour of the skull, and the information derived from + several intelligent natives, "I was induced," says Dr. Savage (using the + term Orang in its old general sense) "to believe that it belonged to a new + species of Orang. I expressed this opinion to Mr. Wilson, with a desire + for further investigation; and, if possible, to decide the point by the + inspection of a specimen alive or dead." The result of the combined + exertions of Messrs. Savage and Wilson was not only the obtaining of a + very full account of the habits of this new creature, but a still more + important service to science, the enabling the excellent American + anatomist already mentioned, Professor Wyman, to describe, from ample + materials, the distinctive osteological characters of the new form. This + animal was called by the natives of the Gaboon "Enge-ena," a name + obviously identical with the "Ingena" of Bowdich; and Dr. Savage arrived + at the conviction that this last discovered of all the great Apes was the + long-sought "Pongo" of Battell. + </p> + <p> + The justice of this conclusion, indeed, is beyond doubt—for not only + does the 'Enge-ena' agree with Battell's "greater monster" in its hollow + eyes, its great stature, and its dun or iron-grey colour, but the only + other man-like Ape which inhabits these latitudes—the Chimpanzee—is + at once identified, by its smaller size, as the "lesser monster," and is + excluded from any possibility of being the 'Pongo,' by the fact that it is + black and not dun, to say nothing of the important circumstance already + mentioned that it still retains the name of 'Engeko,' or "Enche-eko," by + which Battell knew it. + </p> + <p> + In seeking for a specific name for the "Enge-ena," however, Dr. Savage + wisely avoided the much misused 'Pongo'; but finding in the ancient + Periplus of Hanno the word "Gorilla" applied to certain hairy savage + people, discovered by the Carthaginian voyager in an island on the African + coast, he attached the specific name "Gorilla" to his new ape, whence + arises its present well-known appellation. But Dr. Savage, more cautious + than some of his successors, by no means identifies his ape with Hanno's + "wild men." He merely says that the latter were "probably one of the + species of the Orang;" and I quite agree with M. Brulle, that there is no + ground for identifying the modern 'Gorilla' with that of the Carthaginian + admiral. + </p> + <p> + Since the memoir of Savage and Wyman was published, the skeleton of the + Gorilla has been investigated by Professor Owen and by the late Professor + Duvernoy, of the Jardin des Plantes, the latter having further supplied a + valuable account of the muscular system and of many of the other soft + parts; while African missionaries and travellers have confirmed and + expanded the account originally given of the habits of this great man-like + Ape, which has had the singular fortune of being the first to be made + known to the general world and the last to be scientifically investigated. + </p> + <p> + Two centuries and a half have passed away since Battell told his stories + about the 'greater' and the 'lesser monsters' to Purchas, and it has taken + nearly that time to arrive at the clear result that there are four + distinct kinds of Anthropoids—in Eastern Asia, the Gibbons and the + Orangs; in Western Africa, the Chimpanzees and the Gorilla. + </p> + <p> + The man-like Apes, the history of whose discovery has just been detailed, + have certain characters of structure and of distribution in common. Thus + they all have the same number of teeth as man—possessing four + incisors, two canines, four false molars, and six true molars in each jaw, + or 32 teeth in all, in the adult condition; while the milk dentition + consists of 20 teeth—or four incisors, two canines, and four molars + in each jaw. They are what are called catarrhine Apes—that is, their + nostrils have a narrow partition and look downwards; and, furthermore, + their arms are always longer than their legs, the difference being + sometimes greater and sometimes less; so that if the four were arranged in + the order of the length of their arms in proportion to that of their legs, + we should have this series—Orang (1 4/9:1), Gibbon (1 1/4:1), + Gorilla (1 1/5:1), Chimpanzee (1 1/16:1). In all, the fore limbs are + terminated by hands, provided with longer or shorter thumbs; while the + great toe of the foot, always smaller than in Man, is far more movable + than in him and can be opposed, like a thumb, to the rest of the foot. + None of these apes have tails, and none of them possess the cheek pouches + common among monkeys. Finally, they are all inhabitants of the old world. + </p> + <p> + The Gibbons are the smallest, slenderest, and longest-limbed of the + man-like apes: their arms are longer in proportion to their bodies than + those of any of the other man-like Apes, so that they can touch the ground + when erect; their hands are longer than their feet, and they are the only + Anthropoids which possess callosities like the lower monkeys. They are + variously coloured. The Orangs have arms which reach to the ankles in the + erect position of the animal; their thumbs and great toes are very short, + and their feet are longer than their hands. They are covered with reddish + brown hair, and the sides of the face, in adult males, are commonly + produced into two crescentic, flexible excrescences, like fatty tumours. + The Chimpanzees have arms which reach below the knees; they have large + thumbs and great toes, their hands are longer than their feet; and their + hair is black, while the skin of the face is pale. The Gorilla, lastly, + has arms which reach to the middle of the leg, large thumbs and great + toes, feet longer than the hands, a black face, and dark-grey or dun hair. + </p> + <p> + For the purpose which I have at present in view, it is unnecessary that I + should enter into any further minutiae respecting the distinctive + characters of the genera and species into which these man-like Apes are + divided by naturalists. Suffice it to say, that the Orangs and the Gibbons + constitute the distinct genera, 'Simia' and 'Hylobates'; while the + Chimpanzees and Gorillas are by some regarded simply as distinct species + of one genus, 'Troglodytes'; by others as distinct genera—'Troglodytes' + being reserved for the Chimpanzees, and 'Gorilla' for the Enge-ena or + Pongo. + </p> + <p> + Sound knowledge respecting the habits and mode of life of the man-like + Apes has been even more difficult of attainment than correct information + regarding their structure. + </p> + <p> + Once in a generation, a Wallace may be found physically, mentally, and + morally qualified to wander unscathed through the tropical wilds of + America and of Asia; to form magnificent collections as he wanders; and + withal to think out sagaciously the conclusions suggested by his + collections: but, to the ordinary explorer or collector, the dense forests + of equatorial Asia and Africa, which constitute the favourite habitation + of the Orang, the Chimpanzee, and the Gorilla, present difficulties of no + ordinary magnitude: and the man who risks his life by even a short visit + to the malarious shores of those regions may well be excused if he shrinks + from facing the dangers of the interior; if he contents himself with + stimulating the industry of the better seasoned natives, and collecting + and collating the more or less mythical reports and traditions with which + they are too ready to supply him. + </p> + <p> + In such a manner most of the earlier accounts of the habits of the + man-like Apes originated; and even now a good deal of what passes current + must be admitted to have no very safe foundation. The best information we + possess is that, based almost wholly on direct European testimony + respecting the Gibbons; the next best evidence relates to the Orangs; + while our knowledge of the habits of the Chimpanzee and the Gorilla stands + much in need of support and enlargement by additional testimony from + instructed European eye-witnesses. + </p> + <p> + It will therefore be convenient in endeavouring to form a notion of what + we are justified in believing about these animals, to commence with the + best known man-like Apes, the Gibbons and Orangs; and to make use of the + perfectly reliable information respecting them as a sort of criterion of + the probable truth or falsehood of assertions respecting the others. + </p> + <p> + Of the GIBBONS, half a dozen species are found scattered over the Asiatic + islands, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and through Malacca, Siam, Arracan, and an + uncertain extent of Hindostan, on the main land of Asia. The largest + attain a few inches above three feet in height, from the crown to the + heel, so that they are shorter than the other man-like Apes; while the + slenderness of their bodies renders their mass far smaller in proportion + even to this diminished height. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Salomon Muller, an accomplished Dutch naturalist, who lived for many + years in the Eastern Archipelago, and to the results of whose personal + experience I shall frequently have occasion to refer, states that the + Gibbons are true mountaineers, loving the slopes and edges of the hills, + though they rarely ascend beyond the limit of the fig-trees. All day long + they haunt the tops of the tall trees; and though, towards evening, they + descend in small troops to the open ground, no sooner do they spy a man + than they dart up the hill-sides, and disappear in the darker valleys. + </p> + <p> + All observers testify to the prodigious volume of voice possessed by these + animals. According to the writer whom I have just cited, in one of them, + the Siamang, "the voice is grave and penetrating, resembling the sounds + goek, goek, goek, goek, goek ha ha ha ha haaaaa, and may easily be heard + at a distance of half a league." While the cry is being uttered, the great + membranous bag under the throat which communicates with the organ of + voice, the so-called "laryngeal sac," becomes greatly distended, + diminishing again when the creature relapses into silence. + </p> + <p> + M. Duvaucel, likewise, affirms that the cry of the Siamang may be heard + for miles—making the woods ring again. So Mr. Martin <a + href="#linknote-15" name="linknoteref-15" id="linknoteref-15"><small>15</small></a> + describes the cry of the agile Gibbon as "overpowering and deafening" in a + room, and "from its strength, well calculated for resounding through the + vast forests." Mr. Waterhouse, an accomplished musician as well as + zoologist, says, "The Gibbon's voice is certainly much more powerful than + that of any singer I have ever heard." And yet it is to be recollected + that this animal is not half the height of, and far less bulky in + proportion than, a man. + </p> + <p> + There is good testimony that various species of Gibbon readily take to the + erect posture. Mr. George Bennett, <a href="#linknote-16" + name="linknoteref-16" id="linknoteref-16"><small>16</small></a> a very + excellent observer, in describing the habits of a male 'Hylobates + syndactylus' which remained for some time in his possession, says: "He + invariably walks in the erect posture when on a level surface; and then + the arms either hang down, enabling him to assist himself with his + knuckles; or what is more usual, he keeps his arms uplifted in nearly an + erect position, with the hands pendent ready to seize a rope, and climb up + on the approach of danger or on the obtrusion of strangers. He walks + rather quick in the erect posture, but with a waddling gait, and is soon + run down if, whilst pursued, he has no opportunity of escaping by + climbing.... When he walks in the erect posture he turns the leg and foot + outwards, which occasions him to have a waddling gait and to seem + bow-legged." + </p> + <p> + Dr. Burrough states of another Gibbon, the Horlack or Hooluk: "They walk + erect; and when placed on the floor, or in an open field, balance + themselves very prettily, by raising their hands over their head and + slightly bending the arm at the wrist and elbow, and then run tolerably + fast, rocking from side to side; and, if urged to greater speed, they let + fall their hands to the ground, and assist themselves forward, rather + jumping than running, still keeping the body, however, nearly erect." + </p> + <p> + Somewhat different evidence, however, is given by Dr. Winslow Lewis: <a + href="#linknote-17" name="linknoteref-17" id="linknoteref-17"><small>17</small></a> + </p> + <p> + "Their only manner of walking was on their posterior or inferior + extremities, the others being raised upwards to preserve their + equilibrium, as rope-dancers are assisted by long poles at fairs. Their + progression was not by placing one foot before the other, but by + simultaneously using both, as in jumping." Dr. Salomon Muller also states + that the Gibbons progress along the ground by a short series of tottering + jumps, effected only by the hind limbs, the body being held altogether + upright. + </p> + <p> + But Mr. Martin (l. c. p. 418), who also speaks from direct observation, + says of the Gibbons generally: + </p> + <p> + "Pre-eminently qualified for arboreal habits, and displaying among the + branches amazing activity, the Gibbons are not so awkward or embarrassed + on a level surface as might be imagined. They walk erect, with a waddling + or unsteady gait, but at a quick pace; the equilibrium of the body + requiring to be kept up, either by touching the ground with the knuckles, + first on one side then on the other, or by uplifting the arms so as to + poise it. As with the Chimpanzee, the whole of the narrow, long sole of + the foot is placed upon the ground at once and raised at once, without any + elasticity of step." + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig08.jpg" + alt="Fig. 8.--gibbon ('h. Pileatus'), After Wolf. " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + After this mass of concurrent and independent testimony, it cannot + reasonably be doubted that the Gibbons commonly and habitually assume the + erect attitude. + </p> + <p> + But level ground is not the place where these animals can display their + very remarkable and peculiar locomotive powers, and that prodigious + activity which almost tempts one to rank them among flying, rather than + among ordinary climbing mammals. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Martin (l.c. p. 430) has given so excellent and graphic an account of + the movements of a 'Hylobates agilis', living in the Zoological Gardens, + in 1840, that I will quote it in full: + </p> + <p> + "It is almost impossible to convey in words an idea of the quickness and + graceful address of her movements: they may indeed be termed aerial, as + she seems merely to touch in her progress the branches among which she + exhibits her evolutions. In these feats her hands and arms are the sole + organs of locomotion; her body hanging as if suspended by a rope, + sustained by one hand (the right for example) she launches herself, by an + energetic movement, to a distant branch, which she catches with the left + hand; but her hold is less than momentary: the impulse for the next launch + is acquired: the branch then aimed at is attained by the right hand again, + and quitted instantaneously, and so on, in alternate succession. In this + manner spaces of twelve and eighteen feet are cleared, with the greatest + ease and uninterruptedly, for hours together, without the slightest + appearance of fatigue being manifested; and it is evident that, if more + space could be allowed, distances very greatly exceeding eighteen feet + would be as easily cleared; so that Duvaucel's assertion that he has seen + these animals launch themselves from one branch to another, forty feet + asunder, startling as it is, may be well credited. Sometimes, on seizing a + branch in her progress, she will throw herself, by the power of one arm + only, completely round it, making a revolution with such rapidity as + almost to deceive the eye, and continue her progress with undiminished + velocity. It is singular to observe how suddenly this Gibbon can stop, + when the impetus given by the rapidity and distance of her swinging leaps + would seem to require a gradual abatement of her movements. In the very + midst of her flight a branch is seized, the body raised, and she is seen, + as if by magic, quietly seated on it, grasping it with her feet. As + suddenly she again throws herself into action. + </p> + <p> + "The following facts will convey some notion of her dexterity and + quickness. A live bird was let loose in her apartment; she marked its + flight, made a long swing to a distant branch, caught the bird with one + hand in her passage, and attained the branch with her other hand; her aim, + both at the bird and at the branch, being as successful as if one object + only had engaged her attention. It may be added that she instantly bit off + the head of the bird, picked its feathers, and then threw it down without + attempting to eat it. + </p> + <p> + "On another occasion this animal swung herself from a perch, across a + passage at least twelve feet wide, against a window which it was thought + would be immediately broken: but not so; to the surprise of all, she + caught the narrow framework between the panes with her hand, in an instant + attained the proper impetus, and sprang back again to the cage she had + left—a feat requiring not only great strength, but the nicest + precision." + </p> + <p> + The Gibbons appear to be naturally very gentle, but there is very good + evidence that they will bite severely when irritated—a female + 'Hylobates agilis' having so severely lacerated one man with her long + canines, that he died; while she had injured others so much that, by way + of precaution, these formidable teeth had been filed down; but, if + threatened, she would still turn on her keeper. The Gibbons eat insects, + but appear generally to avoid animal food. A Siamang, however, was seen by + Mr. Bennett to seize and devour greedily a live lizard. They commonly + drink by dipping their fingers in the liquid and then licking them. It is + asserted that they sleep in a sitting posture. + </p> + <p> + Duvaucel affirms that he has seen the females carry their young to the + waterside and there wash their faces, in spite of resistance and cries. + They are gentle and affectionate in captivity—full of tricks and + pettishness, like spoiled children, and yet not devoid of a certain + conscience, as an anecdote, told by Mr. Bennett (l. c. p. 156), will show. + It would appear that his Gibbon had a peculiar inclination for + disarranging things in the cabin. Among these articles, a piece of soap + would especially attract his notice, and for the removal of this he had + been once or twice scolded. "One morning," says Mr. Bennett, "I was + writing, the ape being present in the cabin, when casting my eyes towards + him, I saw the little fellow taking the soap. I watched him without his + perceiving that I did so: and he occasionally would cast a furtive glance + towards the place where I sat. I pretended to write; he, seeing me busily + occupied, took the soap, and moved away with it in his paw. When he had + walked half the length of the cabin, I spoke quietly, without frightening + him. The instant he found I saw him, he walked back again, and deposited + the soap nearly in the same place from whence he had taken it. There was + certainly something more than instinct in that action: he evidently + betrayed a consciousness of having done wrong both by his first and last + actions—and what is reason if that is not an exercise of it?" + </p> + <p> + The most elaborate account of the natural history of the ORANG-UTAN + extant, is that given in the "Verhandelingen over de Natuurlijke + Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen (1839-45)," by Dr. + Salomon Muller and Dr. Schlegel, and I shall base what I have to say, upon + this subject almost entirely on their statements, adding, here and there, + particulars of interest from the writings of Brooke, Wallace, and others. + </p> + <p> + The Orang-Utan would rarely seem to exceed four feet in height, but the + body is very bulky, measuring two-thirds of the height in circumference. + <a href="#linknote-18" name="linknoteref-18" id="linknoteref-18"><small>18</small></a> + </p> + <p> + The Orang-Utan is found only in Sumatra and Borneo, and is common in + neither of these islands—in both of which it occurs always in low, + flat plains, never in the mountains. It loves the densest and most sombre + of the forests, which extend from the sea-shore inland, and thus is found + only in the eastern half of Sumatra, where alone such forests occur, + though, occasionally, it strays over to the western side. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, it is generally distributed through Borneo, except in + the mountains, or where the population is dense. In favourable places, the + hunter may, by good fortune, see three or four in a day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig09.jpg" + alt="Fig. 9. An Adult Male Orang-utan, After Muller And Schlegel. " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Except in the pairing time, the old males usually live by themselves. The + old females, and the immature males, on the other hand, are often met with + in twos and threes; and the former occasionally have young with them, + though the pregnant females usually separate themselves, and sometimes + remain apart after they have given birth to their offspring. The young + Orangs seem to remain unusually long under their mother's protection, + probably in consequence of their slow growth. While climbing, the mother + always carries her young against her bosom, the young holding on by his + mother's hair. <a href="#linknote-19" name="linknoteref-19" + id="linknoteref-19"><small>19</small></a> At what time of life the + Orang-Utan becomes capable of propagation, and how long the females go + with young, is unknown, but it is probable that they are not adult until + they arrive at ten or fifteen years of age. A female which lived for five + years at Batavia, had not attained one-third the height of the wild + females. It is probable that, after reaching adult years, they go on + growing, though slowly, and that they live to forty or fifty years. The + Dyaks tell of old Orangs, which have not only lost all their teeth, but + which find it so troublesome to climb, that they maintain themselves on + windfalls and juicy herbage. + </p> + <p> + The Orang is sluggish, exhibiting none of that marvellous activity + characteristic of the Gibbons. Hunger alone seems to stir him to exertion, + and when it is stilled, he relapses into repose. When the animal sits, it + curves its back and bows its head, so as to look straight down on the + ground; sometimes it holds on with its hands by a higher branch, sometimes + lets them hang phlegmatically down by its side—and in these + positions the Orang will remain, for hours together, in the same spot, + almost without stirring, and only now and then giving utterance to its + deep, growling voice. By day, he usually climbs from one tree-top to + another, and only at night descends to the ground, and if then threatened + with danger, he seeks refuge among the underwood. When not hunted, he + remains a long time in the same locality, and sometimes stops for many + days on the same tree—a firm place among its branches serving him + for a bed. It is rare for the Orang to pass the night in the summit of a + large tree, probably because it is too windy and cold there for him; but, + as soon as night draws on, he descends from the height and seeks out a fit + bed in the lower and darker part, or in the leafy top of a small tree, + among which he prefers Nibong Palms, Pandani, or one of those parasitic + Orchids which give the primeval forests of Borneo so characteristic and + striking an appearance. But wherever he determines to sleep, there he + prepares himself a sort of nest: little boughs and leaves are drawn + together round the selected spot, and bent crosswise over one another; + while to make the bed soft, great leaves of Ferns, of Orchids, of + 'Pandanus fascicularis', 'Nipa fruticans', etc., are laid over them. Those + which Muller saw, many of them being very fresh, were situated at a height + of ten to twenty-five feet above the ground, and had a circumference, on + the average, of two or three feet. Some were packed many inches thick with + 'Pandanus' leaves; others were remarkable only for the cracked twigs, + which, united in a common centre, formed a regular platform. "The rude + 'hut'," says Sir James Brooke, "which they are stated to build in the + trees, would be more properly called a seat or nest, for it has no roof or + cover of any sort. The facility with which they form this nest is curious, + and I had an opportunity of seeing a wounded female weave the branches + together and seat herself, within a minute." + </p> + <p> + According to the Dyaks the Orang rarely leaves his bed before the sun is + well above the horizon and has dissipated the mists. He gets up about + nine, and goes to bed again about five; but sometimes not till late in the + twilight. He lies sometimes on his back; or, by way of change, turns on + one side or the other, drawing his limbs up to his body, and resting his + head on his hand. When the night is cold, windy, or rainy, he usually + covers his body with a heap of 'Pandanus', 'Nipa', or Fern leaves, like + those of which his bed is made, and he is especially careful to wrap up + his head in them. It is this habit of covering himself up which has + probably led to the fable that the Orang builds huts in the trees. + </p> + <p> + Although the Orang resides mostly amid the boughs of great trees, during + the daytime, he is very rarely seen squatting on a thick branch, as other + apes, and particularly the Gibbons, do. The Orang, on the contrary, + confines himself to the slender leafy branches, so that he is seen right + at the top of the trees, a mode of life which is closely related to the + constitution of his hinder limbs, and especially to that of his seat. For + this is provided with no callosities, such as are possessed by many of the + lower apes, and even by the Gibbons; and those bones of the pelvis, which + are termed the ischia, and which form the solid framework of the surface + on which the body rests in the sitting posture, are not expanded like + those of the apes which possess callosities, but are more like those of + man. + </p> + <p> + An Orang climbs so slowly and cautiously, <a href="#linknote-20" + name="linknoteref-20" id="linknoteref-20"><small>20</small></a> as, in + this act, to resemble a man more than an ape, taking great care of his + feet, so that injury of them seems to affect him far more than it does + other apes. Unlike the Gibbons, whose forearms do the greater part of the + work, as they swing from branch to branch, the Orang never makes even the + smallest jump. In climbing, he moves alternately one hand and one foot, + or, after having laid fast hold with the hands, he draws up both feet + together. In passing from one tree to another, he always seeks out a place + where the twigs of both come close together, or interlace. Even when + closely pursued, his circumspection is amazing: he shakes the branches to + see if they will bear him, and then bending an overhanging bough down by + throwing his weight gradually along it, he makes a bridge from the tree he + wishes to quit to the next. <a href="#linknote-21" name="linknoteref-21" + id="linknoteref-21"><small>21</small></a> + </p> + <p> + On the ground the Orang always goes laboriously and shakily, on all fours. + At starting he will run faster than a man, though he may soon be + overtaken. The very long arms which, when he runs, are but little bent, + raise the body of the Orang remarkably, so that he assumes much the + posture of a very old man bent down by age, and making his way along by + the help of a stick. In walking, the body is usually directed straight + forward, unlike the other apes, which run more or less obliquely; except + the Gibbons, who in these, as in so many other respects, depart remarkably + from their fellows. + </p> + <p> + The Orang cannot put its feet flat on the ground, but is supported upon + their outer edges, the heel resting more on the ground, while the curved + toes partly rest upon the ground by the upper side of their first joint, + the two outermost toes of each foot completely resting on this surface. + The hands are held in the opposite manner, their inner edges serving as + the chief support. The fingers are then bent out in such a manner that + their foremost joints, especially those of the two innermost fingers, rest + upon the ground by their upper sides, while the point of the free and + straight thumb serves as an additional fulcrum. + </p> + <p> + The Orang never stands on its hind legs, and all the pictures, + representing it as so doing, are as false as the assertion that it defends + itself with sticks, and the like. + </p> + <p> + The long arms are of especial use, not only in climbing, but in the + gathering of food from boughs to which the animal could not trust his + weight. Figs, blossoms, and young leaves of various kinds, constitute the + chief nutriment of the Orang; but strips of bamboo two or three feet long + were found in the stomach of a male. They are not known to eat living + animals. + </p> + <p> + Although, when taken young, the Orang-Utan soon becomes domesticated, and + indeed seems to court human society, it is naturally a very wild and shy + animal, though apparently sluggish and melancholy. The Dyaks affirm, that + when the old males are wounded with arrows only, they will occasionally + leave the trees and rush raging upon their enemies, whose sole safety lies + in instant flight, as they are sure to be killed if caught. <a + href="#linknote-22" name="linknoteref-22" id="linknoteref-22"><small>22</small></a> + </p> + <p> + But, though possessed of immense strength, it is rare for the Orang to + attempt to defend itself, especially when attacked with fire-arms. On such + occasions he endeavours to hide himself, or to escape along the topmost + branches of the trees, breaking off and throwing down the boughs as he + goes. When wounded he betakes himself to the highest attainable point of + the tree, and emits a singular cry, consisting at first of high notes, + which at length deepen into a low roar, not unlike that of a panther. + While giving out the high notes the Orang thrusts out his lips into a + funnel shape; but in uttering the low notes he holds his mouth wide open, + and at the same time the great throat bag, or laryngeal sac, becomes + distended. + </p> + <p> + According to the Dyaks, the only animal the Orang measures his strength + with is the crocodile, who occasionally seizes him on his visits to the + water side. But they say that the Orang is more than a match for his + enemy, and beats him to death, or rips up his throat by pulling the jaws + asunder! + </p> + <p> + Much of what has been here stated was probably derived by Dr. Muller from + the reports of his Dyak hunters; but a large male, four feet high, lived + in captivity, under his observation, for a month, and receives a very bad + character. + </p> + <p> + "He was a very wild beast," says Muller, "of prodigious strength, and + false and wicked to the last degree. If any one approached he rose up + slowly with a low growl, fixed his eyes in the direction in which he meant + to make his attack, slowly passed his hand between the bars of his cage, + and then extending his long arm, gave a sudden grip—usually at the + face." He never tried to bite (though Orangs will bite one another), his + great weapons of offence and defence being his hands. + </p> + <p> + His intelligence was very great; and Muller remarks, that though the + faculties of the Orang have been estimated too highly, yet Cuvier, had he + seen this specimen, would not have considered its intelligence to be only + a little higher than that of the dog. + </p> + <p> + His hearing was very acute, but the sense of vision seemed to be less + perfect. The under lip was the great organ of touch, and played a very + important part in drinking, being thrust out like a trough, so as either + to catch the falling rain, or to receive the contents of the half + cocoa-nut shell full of water with which the Orang was supplied, and + which, in drinking, he poured into the trough thus formed. + </p> + <p> + In Borneo the Orang-Utan of the Malays goes by the name of "Mias" among + the Dyaks, who distinguish several kinds as 'Mias Pappan', or 'Zimo', + 'Mias Kassu', and 'Mias Rambi'. Whether these are distinct species, + however, or whether they are mere races, and how far any of them are + identical with the Sumatran Orang, as Mr. Wallace thinks the Mias Pappan + to be, are problems which are at present undecided; and the variability of + these great apes is so extensive, that the settlement of the question is a + matter of great difficulty. Of the form called "Mias Pappan," Mr. Wallace + <a href="#linknote-23" name="linknoteref-23" id="linknoteref-23"><small>23</small></a> + observes, "It is known by its large size, and by the lateral expansion of + the face into fatty protuberances, or ridges, over the temporal muscles, + which has been mis-termed 'callosities', as they are perfectly soft, + smooth, and flexible. Five of this form, measured by me, varied only from + 4 feet 1 inch to 4 feet 2 inches in height, from the heel to the crown of + the head, the girth of the body from 3 feet to 3 feet 7 1/2 inches, and + the extent of the outstretched arms from 7 feet 2 inches to 7 feet 6 + inches; the width of the face from 10 to 13 1/4 inches. The colour and + length of the hair varied in different individuals, and in different parts + of the same individual; some possessed a rudimentary nail on the great + toe, others none at all; but they otherwise present no external + differences on which to establish even varieties of a species. + </p> + <p> + "Yet, when we examine the crania of these individuals, we find remarkable + differences of form, proportion, and dimension, no two being exactly + alike. The slope of the profile, and the projection of the muzzle, + together with the size of the cranium, offer differences as decided as + those existing between the most strongly marked forms of the Caucasian and + African crania in the human species. The orbits vary in width and height, + the cranial ridge is either single or double, either much or little + developed, and the zygomatic aperture varies considerably in size. This + variation in the proportions of the crania enables us satisfactorily to + explain the marked difference presented by the single-crested and + double-crested skulls, which have been thought to prove the existence of + two large species of Orang. The external surface of the skull varies + considerably in size, as do also the zygomatic aperture and the temporal + muscle; but they bear no necessary relation to each other, a small muscle + often existing with a large cranial surface, and 'vice versa'. Now, those + skulls which have the largest and strongest jaws and the widest zygomatic + aperture, have the muscles so large that they meet on the crown of the + skull, and deposit the bony ridge which supports them, and which is the + highest in that which has the smallest cranial surface. In those which + combine a large surface with comparatively weak jaws, and small zygomatic + aperture, the muscles, on each side, do not extend to the crown, a space + of from l to 2 inches remaining between them, and along their margins + small ridges are formed. Intermediate forms are found, in which the ridges + meet only in the hinder part of the skull. The form and size of the ridges + are therefore independent of age, being sometimes more strongly developed + in the less aged animal. Professor Temminck states that the series of + skulls in the Leyden Museum shows the same result." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wallace observed two male adult Orangs (Mias Kassu of the Dyaks), + however, so very different from any of these that he concludes them to be + specifically distinct; they were respectively 3 feet 8 1/2 inches and 3 + feet 9 1/2 inches high, and possessed no sign of the cheek excrescences, + but otherwise resembled the larger kinds. The skull has no crest, but two + bony ridges, 1 3/4 inches to 2 inches apart, as in the 'Simia morio' of + Professor Owen. The teeth, however; are immense, equalling or surpassing + those of the other species. The females of both these kinds, according to + Mr. Wallace, are devoid of excrescences, and resemble the smaller males, + but are shorter by 1 1/2 to 3 inches, and their canine teeth are + comparatively small, subtruncated and dilated at the base, as in the + so-called 'Simia morio', which is, in all probability, the skull of a + female of the same species as the smaller males. Both males and females of + this smaller species are distinguishable, according to Mr. Wallace, by the + comparatively large size of the middle incisors of the upper jaw. + </p> + <p> + So far as I am aware, no one has attempted to dispute the accuracy of the + statements which I have just quoted regarding the habits of the two + Asiatic man-like Apes; and if true, they must be admitted as evidence, + that such an Ape— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Firstly, May readily move along the ground in the erect, or + semi-erect, position, and without direct support from its arms. + + Secondly, That it may possess an extremely loud voice, so loud as to + be readily heard one or two miles. + + Thirdly, That it may be capable of great viciousness and violence + when irritated: and this is especially true of adult males. + + Fourthly, That it may build a nest to sleep in. +</pre> + <p> + Such being well established facts respecting the Asiatic Anthropoids, + analogy alone might justify us in expecting the African species to offer + similar peculiarities, separately or combined; or, at any rate, would + destroy the force of any attempted 'a priori' argument against such direct + testimony as might be adduced in favour of their existence. And, if the + organization of any of the African Apes could be demonstrated to fit it + better than either of its Asiatic allies for the erect position and for + efficient attack, there would be still less reason for doubting its + occasional adoption of the upright attitude or of aggressive proceedings. + </p> + <p> + From the time of Tyson and Tulpius downwards, the habits of the young + CHIMPANZEE in a state of captivity have been abundantly reported and + commented upon. But trustworthy evidence as to the manners and customs of + adult anthropoids of this species, in their native woods, was almost + wanting up to the time of the publication of the paper by Dr. Savage, to + which I have already referred; containing notes of the observations which + he made, and of the information which he collected from sources which he + considered trustworthy, while resident at Cape Palmas, at the + north-western limit of the Bight of Benin. + </p> + <p> + The adult Chimpanzees measured by Dr. Savage, never exceeded, though the + males may almost attain, five feet in height. + </p> + <p> + "When at rest, the sitting posture is that generally assumed. They are + sometimes seen standing and walking, but when thus detected, they + immediately take to all fours, and flee from the presence of the observer. + Such is their organization that they cannot stand erect, but lean forward. + Hence they are seen, when standing, with the hands clasped over the + occiput, or the lumbar region, which would seem necessary to balance or + ease of posture. + </p> + <p> + "The toes of the adult are strongly flexed and turned inwards, and cannot + be perfectly straightened. In the attempt the skin gathers into thick + folds on the back, shewing that the full expansion of the foot, as is + necessary in walking, is unnatural. The natural position is on all fours, + the body anteriorly resting upon the knuckles. These are greatly enlarged, + with the skin protuberant and thickened like the sole of the foot. + </p> + <p> + "They are expert climbers, as one would suppose from their organization. + In their gambols they swing from limb to limb to a great distance, and + leap with astonishing agility. It is not unusual to see the 'old folks' + (in the language of an observer) sitting under a tree regaling themselves + with fruit and friendly chat, while their 'children' are leaping around + them, and swinging from tree to tree with boisterous merriment. + </p> + <p> + "As seen here, they cannot be called 'gregarious', seldom more than five, + or ten at most, being found together. It has been said, on good authority, + that they occasionally assemble in large numbers, in gambols. My informant + asserts that he saw once not less than fifty so engaged; hooting, + screaming, and drumming with sticks upon old logs, which is done in the + latter case with equal facility by the four extremities. They do not + appear ever to act on the offensive, and seldom, if ever really, on the + defensive. When about to be captured, they resist by throwing their arms + about their opponent, and attempting to draw him into contact with their + teeth." (Savage, l. c. p. 384.) + </p> + <p> + With respect to this last point Dr. Savage is very explicit in another + place: "Biting" is their principal art of defence. I have seen one man who + had been thus severely wounded in the feet. + </p> + <p> + "The strong development of the canine teeth in the adult would seem to + indicate a carnivorous propensity; but in no state save that of + domestication do they manifest it. At first they reject flesh, but easily + acquire a fondness for it. The canines are early developed, and evidently + designed to act the important part of weapons of defence. When in contact + with man almost the first effort of the animal is—'to bite'. + </p> + <p> + "They avoid the abodes of men, and build their habitations in trees. Their + construction is more that of 'nests' than 'huts', as they have been + erroneously termed by some naturalists. They generally build not far above + the ground. Branches or twigs are bent, or partly broken, and crossed, and + the whole supported by the body of a limb or a crotch. Sometimes a nest + will be found near the 'end' of a 'strong leafy branch' twenty or thirty + feet from the ground. One I have lately seen that could not be less than + forty feet, and more probably it was fifty. But this is an unusual height. + </p> + <p> + "Their dwelling-place is not permanent, but changed in pursuit of food and + solitude, according to the force of circumstances. We more often see them + in elevated places; but this arises from the fact that the low grounds, + being more favourable for the natives' rice-farms, are the oftener + cleared, and hence are almost always wanting in suitable trees for their + nests.... It is seldom that more than one or two nests are seen upon the + same tree, or in the same neighbourhood: five have been found, but it was + an unusual circumstance."... + </p> + <p> + "They are very filthy in their habits.... It is a tradition with the + natives generally here, that they were once members of their own tribe; + that for their depraved habits they were expelled from all human society, + and, that through an obstinate indulgence of their vile propensities, they + have degenerated into their present state and organization. They are, + however, eaten by them, and when cooked with the oil and pulp of the + palm-nut considered a highly palatable morsel. + </p> + <p> + "They exhibit a remarkable degree of intelligence in their habits, and, on + the part of the mother, much affection for their young. The second female + described was upon a tree when first discovered, with her mate and two + young ones (a male and a female). Her first impulse was to descend with + great rapidity, and make off into the thicket, with her mate and female + offspring. The young male remaining behind, she soon returned to the + rescue. She ascended and took him in her arms, at which moment she was + shot, the ball passing through the forearm of the young one, on its way to + the heart of the mother.... + </p> + <p> + "In a recent case, the mother, when discovered, remained upon the tree + with her offspring, watching intently the movements of the hunter. As he + took aim, she motioned with her hand, precisely in the manner of a human + being, to have him desist and go away. When the wound has not proved + instantly fatal, they have been known to stop the flow of blood by + pressing with the hand upon the part, and when this did not succeed, to + apply leaves and grass.... When shot, they give a sudden screech, not + unlike that of a human being in sudden and acute distress." + </p> + <p> + The ordinary voice of the Chimpanzee, however, is affirmed to be hoarse, + guttural, and not very loud, somewhat like "whoo-whoo." (l. c. p. 365). + </p> + <p> + The analogy of the Chimpanzee to the Orang, in its nest-building habit and + in the mode of forming its nest, is exceedingly interesting; while, on the + other hand, the activity of this ape, and its tendency to bite, are + particulars in which it rather resembles the Gibbons. In extent of + geographical range, again, the Chimpanzees—which are found from + Sierra Leone to Congo—remind one of the Gibbons, rather than of + either of the other man-like apes; and it seems not unlikely that, as is + the case with the Gibbons, there may be several species spread over the + geographical area of the genus. + </p> + <p> + The same excellent observer, from whom I have borrowed the preceding + account of the habits of the adult Chimpanzee, published fifteen years + ago, <a href="#linknote-24" name="linknoteref-24" id="linknoteref-24"><small>24</small></a> + an account of the GORILLA, which has, in its most essential points, been + confirmed by subsequent observers, and to which so very little has really + been added, that in justice to Dr. Savage I give it almost in full. + </p> + <p> + "It should be borne in mind that my account is based upon the statements + of the aborigines of that region (the Gaboon). In this connection, it may + also be proper for me to remark, that having been a missionary resident + for several years, studying, from habitual intercourse, the African mind + and character, I felt myself prepared to discriminate and decide upon the + probability of their statements. Besides, being familiar with the history + and habits of its interesting congener ('Trog. niger', Geoff.), I was able + to separate their accounts of the two animals, which, having the same + locality and a similarity of habit, are confounded in the minds of the + mass, especially as but few—such as traders to the interior and + huntsmen—have ever seen the animal in question. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="Fig. 10.--the Gorilla (after Wolff). " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + "The tribe from which our knowledge of the animal is derived, and whose + territory forms its habitat, is the 'Mpongwe', occupying both banks of the + River Gaboon, from its mouth to some fifty or sixty miles upward.... + </p> + <p> + "If the word 'Pongo' be of African origin, it is probably a corruption of + the word 'Mpongwe', the name of the tribe on the banks of the Gaboon, and + hence applied to the region they inhabit. Their local name for the + Chimpanzee is 'Enche-eko', as near as it can be Anglicized, from which the + common term 'Jocko' probably comes. The Mpongwe appellation for its new + congener is 'Enge-ena', prolonging the sound of the first vowel, and + slightly sounding the second. + </p> + <p> + "The habitat of the 'Enge-ena' is the interior of lower Guinea, whilst + that of the 'Enche-eko' is nearer the sea-board. + </p> + <p> + "Its height is about five feet; it is disproportionately broad across the + shoulders, thickly covered with coarse black hair, which is said to be + similar in its arrangement to that of the 'Enche-eko'; with age it becomes + grey, which fact has given rise to the report that both animals are seen + of different colours. + </p> + <p> + "'Head'.—The prominent features of the head are, the great width and + elongation of the face, the depth of the molar region, the branches of the + lower jaw being very deep and extending far backward, and the comparative + smallness of the cranial portion; the eyes are very large, and said to be + like those of the Enche-eko, a bright hazel; nose broad and flat, slightly + elevated towards the root; the muzzle broad, and prominent lips and chin, + with scattered gray hairs; the under lip highly mobile, and capable of + great elongation when the animal is enraged, then hanging over the chin; + skin of the face and ears naked, and of a dark brown, approaching to + black. + </p> + <p> + "The most remarkable feature of the head is a high ridge, or crest of + hair, in the course of the sagittal suture, which meets posteriorily with + a transverse ridge of the same, but less prominent, running round from the + back of one ear to the other. The animal has the power of moving the scalp + freely forward and back, and when enraged is said to contract it strongly + over the brow, thus bringing down the hairy ridge and pointing the hair + forward, so as to present an indescribably ferocious aspect. + </p> + <p> + "Neck short, thick, and hairy; chest and shoulders very broad, said to be + fully double the size of the Enche-ekos; arms very long, reaching some way + below the knee—the fore-arm much the shortest; hands very large, the + thumbs much larger than the fingers.... + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:60%"> + <img alt="fig11 gorilla Walking (after Wolff(71K)" src="images/fig11.jpg" + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + "The gait is shuffling; the motion of the body, which is never upright as + in man, but bent forward, is somewhat rolling, or from side to side. The + arms being longer than the Chimpanzee, it does not stoop as much in + walking; like that animal, it makes progression by thrusting its arms + forward, resting the hands on the ground, and then giving the body a half + jumping half swinging motion between them. In this act it is said not to + flex the fingers, as does the Chimpanzee, resting on its knuckles, but to + extend them, making a fulcrum of the hand. When it assumes the walking + posture, to which it is said to be much inclined, it balances its huge + body by flexing its arms upward. + </p> + <p> + "They live in bands, but are not so numerous as the Chimpanzees: the + females generally exceed the other sex in number. My informants all agree + in the assertion that but one adult male is seen in a band; that when the + young males grow up, a contest takes place for mastery, and the strongest, + by killing and driving out the others, establishes himself as the head of + the community." + </p> + <p> + Dr. Savage repudiates the stories about the Gorillas carrying off women + and vanquishing elephants and then adds: + </p> + <p> + "Their dwellings, if they may be so called, are similar to those of the + Chimpanzee, consisting simply of a few sticks and leafy branches, + supported by the crotches and limbs of trees: they afford no shelter, and + are occupied only at night. + </p> + <p> + "They are exceedingly ferocious, and always offensive in their habits, + never running from man, as does the Chimpanzee. They are objects of terror + to the natives, and are never encountered by them except on the defensive. + The few that have been captured were killed by elephant hunters and native + traders, as they came suddenly upon them while passing through the + forests. + </p> + <p> + "It is said that when the male is first seen he gives a terrific yell, + that resounds far and wide through the forest, something like kh-ah! + kh-ah! prolonged and shrill. His enormous jaws are widely opened at each + expiration, his under lip hangs over the chin, and the hairy ridge and + scalp are contracted upon the brow, presenting an aspect of indescribable + ferocity. + </p> + <p> + "The females and young, at the first cry, quickly disappear. He then + approaches the enemy in great fury, pouring out his horrid cries in quick + succession. The hunter awaits his approach with his gun extended: if his + aim is not sure, he permits the animal to grasp the barrel, and as he + carries it to his mouth (which is his habit) he fires. Should the gun fail + to go off, the barrel (that of the ordinary musket, which is thin) is + crushed between his teeth, and the encounter soon proves fatal to the + hunter. + </p> + <p> + "In the wild state, their habits are in general like those of the + 'Troglodytes niger', building their nests loosely in trees, living on + similar fruits, and changing their place of resort from force of + circumstances." + </p> + <p> + Dr. Savage's observations were confirmed and supplemented by those of Mr. + Ford, who communicated an interesting paper on the Gorilla to the + Philadelphian Academy of Sciences, in 1852. With respect to the + geographical distribution of this greatest of all the man-like Apes, Mr. + Ford remarks: + </p> + <p> + "This animal inhabits the range of mountains that traverse the interior of + Guinea, from the Cameroon in the north, to Angola in the south, and about + 100 miles inland, and called by the geographers Crystal Mountains. The + limit to which this animal extends, either north or south, I am unable to + define. But that limit is doubtless some distance north of this river + [Gaboon]. I was able to certify myself of this fact in a late excursion to + the head-waters of the Mooney (Danger) River, which comes into the sea + some sixty miles from this place. I was informed (credibly, I think) that + they were numerous among the mountains in which that river rises, and far + north of that. + </p> + <p> + "In the south, this species extends to the Congo River, as I am told by + native traders who have visited the coast between the Gaboon and that + river. Beyond that, I am not informed. This animal is only found at a + distance from the coast in most cases, and, according to my best + information, approaches it nowhere so nearly as on the south side of this + river, where they have been found within ten miles of the sea. This, + however, is only of late occurrence. I am informed by some of the oldest + Mpongwe men that formerly he was only found on the sources of the river, + but that at present he may be found within half-a-day's walk of its mouth. + Formerly he inhabited the mountainous ridge where Bushmen alone inhabited, + but now he boldly approaches the Mpongwe plantations. This is doubtless + the reason of the scarcity of information in years past, as the + opportunities for receiving a knowledge of the animal have not been + wanting; traders having for one hundred years frequented this river, and + specimens, such as have been brought here within a year, could not have + been exhibited without having attracted the attention of the most stupid." + </p> + <p> + One specimen Mr. Ford examined weighed 170 lbs., without the thoracic, or + pelvic, viscera, and measured four feet four inches round the chest. This + writer describes so minutely and graphically the onslaught of the Gorilla—though + he does not for a moment pretend to have witnessed the scene—that I + am tempted to give this part of his paper in full, for comparison with + other narratives: + </p> + <p> + "He always rises to his feet when making an attack, though he approaches + his antagonist in a stooping posture. + </p> + <p> + "Though he never lies in wait, yet, when he hears, sees, or scents a man, + he immediately utters his characteristic cry, prepares for an attack, and + always acts on the offensive. The cry he utters resembles a grunt more + than a growl, and is similar to the cry of the Chimpanzee, when irritated, + but vastly louder. It is said to be audible at a great distance. His + preparation consists in attending the females and young ones, by whom he + is usually accompanied, to a little distance. He, however, soon returns, + with his crest erect and projecting forward, his nostrils dilated, and his + under-lip thrown down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell, + designed, it would seem, to terrify his antagonist. Instantly, unless he + is disabled by a well directed shot, he makes an onset, and, striking his + antagonist with the palm of his hands, or seizing him with a grasp from + which there is no escape, he dashes him upon the ground, and lacerates him + with his tusks. + </p> + <p> + "He is said to seize a musket, and instantly crush the barrel between his + teeth.... This animal's savage nature is very well shown by the implacable + desperation of a young one that was brought here. It was taken very young, + and kept four months, and many means were used to tame it; but it was + incorrigible, so that it bit me an hour before it died." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Ford discredits the house-building and elephant-driving stories, and + says that no well-informed natives believe them. They are tales told to + children. + </p> + <p> + I might quote other testimony to a similar effect, but, as it appears to + me, less carefully weighed and sifted, from the letters of MM. Franquet + and Gautier Laboullay, appended to the memoir of M. I. G. St. Hilaire, + which I have already cited. + </p> + <p> + Bearing in mind what is known regarding the Orang and the Gibbon, the + statements of Dr. Savage and Mr. Ford do not appear to me to be justly + open to criticism on 'a priori' grounds. The Gibbons, as we have seen, + readily assume the erect posture, but the Gorilla is far better fitted by + its organization for that attitude than are the Gibbons: if the laryngeal + pouches of the Gibbons, as is very likely, are important in giving volume + to a voice which can be heard for half a league, the Gorilla, which has + similar sacs, more largely developed, and whose bulk is fivefold that of a + Gibbon, may well be audible for twice that distance. If the Orang fights + with its hands, the Gibbons and Chimpanzees with their teeth, the Gorilla + may, probably enough, do either or both; nor is there anything to be said + against either Chimpanzee or Gorilla building a nest, when it is proved + that the Orang-Utan habitually performs that feat. + </p> + <p> + With all this evidence, now ten to fifteen years old, before the world it + is not a little surprising that the assertions of a recent traveller, who, + so far as the Gorilla is concerned, really does very little more than + repeat, on his own authority, the statements of Savage and of Ford, should + have met with so much and such bitter opposition. If subtraction be made + of what was known before, the sum and substance of what M. Du Chaillu has + affirmed as a matter of his own observation respecting the Gorilla, is, + that, in advancing to the attack, the great brute beats his chest with his + fists. I confess I see nothing very improbable, or very much worth + disputing about, in this statement. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the other man-like Apes of Africa, M. Du Chaillu tells us + absolutely nothing, of his own knowledge, regarding the common Chimpanzee; + but he informs us of a bald-headed species or variety, the 'nschiego + mbouve', which builds itself a shelter, and of another rare kind with a + comparatively small face, large facial angle, and peculiar note, + resembling "Kooloo." + </p> + <p> + As the Orang shelters itself with a rough coverlet of leaves, and the + common Chimpanzee, according to that eminently trustworthy observer Dr. + Savage, makes a sound like "Whoo-whoo,"—the grounds of the summary + repudiation with which M. Du Chaillu's statements on these matters have + been met are not obvious. + </p> + <p> + If I have abstained from quoting M. Du Chaillu's work, then, it is not + because I discern any inherent improbability in his assertions respecting + the man-like Apes; nor from any wish to throw suspicion on his veracity; + but because, in my opinion, so long as his narrative remains in its + present state of unexplained and apparently inexplicable confusion, it has + no claim to original authority respecting any subject whatsoever. + </p> + <p> + It may be truth, but it is not evidence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_FOOT" id="link2H_FOOT"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FOOTNOTES: + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br /> [ REGNUM CONGO: hoc est VERA + DESCRIPTIO REGNI AFRICANI QUOD TAM AB INCOLIS QUAM LUSITANIS CONGUS + APPELLATUR, per Philippum Pigafettam, olim ex Edoardo Lopez acroamatis + lingua Italica excerpta, num Latio sermone donata ab August. Cassiod. + Reinio. Iconibus et imaginibus rerum memorabilium quasi vivis, opera et + industria Joan. Theodori et Joan. Israelis de Bry, fratrum exornata. + Francofurti, MDXCVIII.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br /> [ "Except this that their + legges had no calves."—(Ed. 1626.) And in a marginal note, "These + great apes are called Pongo's."] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3" id="linknote-3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3">return</a>)<br /> [ 'Purchas' note'.—Cape + Negro is in 16 degrees south of the line.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4" id="linknote-4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4">return</a>)<br /> [ Purchas' marginal note, p. + 982:—"The Pongo a giant ape. He told me in conference with him, that + one of these pongoes tooke a negro boy of his which lived a moneth with + them. For they hurt not those which they surprise at unawares, except they + look on them; which he avoyded. He said their highth was like a man's, but + their bignesse twice as great. I saw the negro boy. What the other monster + should be he hath forgotten to relate; and these papers came to my hand + since his death, which, otherwise, in my often conferences, I might have + learned. Perhaps he meaneth the Pigmy Pongo killers mentioned."] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5" id="linknote-5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-5">return</a>)<br /> [ 'Archives du Museum', tome + x.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6" id="linknote-6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-6">return</a>)<br /> [ I am indebted to Dr. + Wright, of Cheltenham, whose paleontological labours are so well known, + for bringing this interesting relic to my knowledge. Tyson's + granddaughter, it appears, married Dr. Allardyce, a physician of repute in + Cheltenham, and brought, as part of her dowry, the skeleton of the + 'Pygmie.' Dr. Allardyce presented it to the Cheltenham Museum, and, + through the good offices of my friend Dr. Wright, the authorities of the + Museum have permitted me to borrow, what is, perhaps its most remarkable + ornament.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7" id="linknote-7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-7">return</a>)<br /> [ "Mandrill" seems to signify + a "man-like ape," the word "Drill" or "Dril" having been anciently + employed in England to denote an Ape or Baboon. Thus in the fifth edition + of Blount's "Glossographia, or a Dictionary interpreting the hard words of + whatsoever language now used in our refined English tongue...very useful + for all such as desire to understand what they read," published in 1681, I + find, "Dril—a stone-cutter's tool wherewith he bores little holes in + marble, etc. Also a large overgrown Ape and Baboon, so called." "Drill" is + used in the same sense in Charleton's "Onomasticon Zoicon," 1668. The + singular etymology of the word given by Buffon seems hardly a probable + one.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8" id="linknote-8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-8">return</a>)<br /> [ 'Histoire Naturelle', + Suppl. tome 7eme, 1789.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9" id="linknote-9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-9">return</a>)<br /> [ Camper, 'Oeuvres', i. p. + 56.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10" id="linknote-10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10">return</a>)<br /> [ Verhandelingen van het + Bataviaasch Genootschap. Tweede Deel. Derde Druk. 1826.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11" id="linknote-11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-11">return</a>)<br /> [ "Briefe des Herrn v. + Wurmb und des H. Baron von Wollzogen. Gotha, 1794."] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12" id="linknote-12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-12">return</a>)<br /> [ See Blumenbach, + 'Abbildungen Naturhistorichen Gegenstande, No. 12, 1810; and Tilesius, + Naturhistoriche Fruchte der ersten Kaiserlich-Russischen Erdumsegelung', + p. 115, 1813.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13" id="linknote-13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-13">return</a>)<br /> [ Speaking broadly and + without prejudice to the question, whether there be more than one species + of Orang.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14" id="linknote-14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-14">return</a>)<br /> [ See "Observations on the + external characters and habits of the Troglodytes niger, by Thomas N. + Savage, M.D., and on its organization by Jeffries Wyman, M.D.," 'Boston + Journal of Natural History', vol. iv., 1843-4; and "External characters, + habits, and osteology of Troglodytes Gorilla," by the same authors, + 'ibid'., vol. v., 1847.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15" id="linknote-15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-15">return</a>)<br /> [ Man and Monkies', p. + 423.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16" id="linknote-16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-16">return</a>)<br /> ['Wanderings in New South + Wales', vol. ii. chap. viii., 1834.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17" id="linknote-17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-17">return</a>)<br /> [ 'Boston Journal of + Natural History', vol. i., 1834.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18" id="linknote-18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-18">return</a>)<br /> [ The largest Orang-Utan, + cited by Temminck, measured, when standing upright, 4 ft.; but he mentions + having just received news of the capture of an Orang 5 ft. 3 in. high. + Schlegel and Juller say that their largest old male measured, upright, + 1.25 Netherlands "el"; and from the crown to the end of the toes, 1.5 el; + the circumference of the body being about 1 el. The largest old female was + 1.09 el high, when standing. The adult skeleton in the College of + Surgeons' Museum, if set upright, would stand 3 ft. 6-8 in. from crown to + sole. Dr. Humphry gives 3 ft. 8 in. as the mean height of two Orangs. Of + seventeen Orangs examined by Mr. Wallace, the largest was 4 ft. 2 in. + high, from the heel to the crown of the head. Mr. Spencer St. John, + however, in his 'Life in the Forests of the Far East', tells us of an + Orang of "5 ft. 2 in., measuring fairly from the head to the heel," 15 in. + across the face, and 12 in. round the wrist. It does not appear, however, + that Mr. St. John measured this Orang himself.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19" id="linknote-19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-19">return</a>)<br /> [ See Mr. Wallace's account + of an infant "Orang-utan," in the 'Annals of Natural History' for 1856. + Mr. Wallace provided his interesting charge with an artificial mother of + buffalo-skin, but the cheat was too successful. The infant's entire + experience led it to associate teats with hair, and feeling the latter, it + spent its existence in vain endeavours to discover the former.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-20" id="linknote-20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-20">return</a>)<br /> [ "They are the slowest and + least active of all the monkey tribe, and their motions are surprisingly + awkward and uncouth."—Sir James Brooke, in the 'Proceedings of the + Zoological Society', 1841.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21" id="linknote-21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-21">return</a>)<br /> [ Mr. Wallace's account of + the progression of the Orang almost exactly corresponds with this.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22" id="linknote-22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-22">return</a>)<br /> [ Sir James Brooke, in a + letter to Mr. Waterhouse, published in the proceedings of the Zoological + Society for 1841, says:—"On the habits of the Orangs, as far as I + have been able to observe them, I may remark that they are as dull and + slothful as can well be conceived, and on no occasion, when pursuing them, + did they move so fast as to preclude my keeping pace with them easily + through a moderately clear forest; and even when obstructions below (such + as wading up to the neck) allowed them to get away some distance, they + were sure to stop and allow me to come up. I never observed the slightest + attempt at defence, and the wood which sometimes rattled about our ears + was broken by their weight, and not thrown, as some persons represent. If + pushed to extremity, however, the 'Pappan' could not be otherwise than + formidable, and one unfortunate man, who, with a party, was trying to + catch a large one alive, lost two of his fingers, besides being severely + bitten on the face, whilst the animal finally beat off his pursuers and + escaped." Mr. Wallace, on the other hand, affirms that he has several + times observed them throwing down branches when pursued. "It is true he + does not throw them 'at' a person, but casts them down vertically; for it + is evident that a bough cannot be thrown to any distance from the top of a + lofty tree. In one case a female Mias, on a durian tree, kept up for at + least ten minutes a continuous shower of branches and of the heavy, spined + fruits, as large as 32-pounders, which most effectually kept us clear of + the tree she was on. She could be seen breaking them off and throwing them + down with every appearance of rage, uttering at intervals a loud pumping + grunt, and evidently meaning mischief."—"On the Habits of the + Orang-Utan," 'Annals of Nat. History, 1856. This statement, it will be + observed, is quite in accordance with that contained in the letter of the + Resident Palm quoted above (p. 210).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23" id="linknote-23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-23">return</a>)<br /> [ On the Orang-Utan, or + Mias of Borneo, 'Annals of Natural History', 1856.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24" id="linknote-24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-24">return</a>)<br /> [ Notice of the external + characters and habits of Troglodytes Gorilla. 'Boston Journal of Natural + History', 1847.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature, by +Thomas H. 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