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diff --git a/29143.txt b/29143.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8da3698 --- /dev/null +++ b/29143.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14698 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pius IX. And His Time by The Rev. AEneas +MacDonell Dawson + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Pius IX. And His Time + +Author: The Rev. AEneas MacDonell +Dawson + +Release Date: June 17, 2009 [Ebook #29143] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PIUS IX. AND HIS TIME*** + + + + + + Pius IX. + + And His Time + + By + + The Rev. AEneas MacDonell Dawson. + + London: + + Printed by Thos. Coffey, Catholic Record Printing House. + + 1880 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Pius IX. And His Time. +Footnotes + + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The history of Pius IX. will always be read with interest. His Pontificate +was, indeed, eventful. In no preceding age were the annals of the Church +so grandly illustrated. + +The spiritual sovereignty, "with which," to use the words of a British +statesman, "there is nothing on this earth that can at all compare," was +crowned with surpassing glory. Doctrines which, hitherto, had been open to +theological discussion, were ascertained and pronounced to be in +accordance with the belief of all preceding Christian ages. The Church was +enabled, through the labors of her Chief and the zeal of her Priesthood, +to extend vastly the place of her tent. The life of Pius IX. himself was a +marvel and a glory. None of his predecessors, not even Peter, attained to +his length of days. + +On the other hand, the venerable Pontiff, and, together with him, the +Catholic people, were doomed to behold and lament the loss of the +time-honored patrimony of St. Peter. The Papacy, however, unlike all +temporal sovereignties, was able to sustain so great a loss. More ancient +than its temporal power, it still survives; "not a mere antique, but in +undiminished vigor." + + + + + +PIUS IX. AND HIS TIME. + + +John Mary Count Mastai Ferreti was born at Sinigaglia, on the 13th of May, +1792. At the age of twenty-two he came to Rome. Anxious to serve the Holy +Father, and yet not aspiring to the priesthood, he resolved to become a +member of the Noble Guard. This the delicate state of his health forbade. +Repelled by the Prince Commandant, he sought counsel of the Pope. Pius +VII. pronounced that his destiny was the Cross, and advised him to devote +himself to the ecclesiastical state. The words of the Holy Father were, to +the youthful Mastai, as a voice from on high. He decided for the Church, +and, as if in testimony that his decision was ratified in heaven, the +falling-sickness left him. His studies were more than ordinarily +successful, and he already gave proof of those high qualities which were +afterwards so greatly developed. The distinguished Canon Graniare, his +professor, little dreaming of the exalted destiny which awaited him, held +him up as a pattern of excellence to his fellow-students, saying that he +possessed the heart of a Pope. + +Whilst yet a student, Mastai interested himself in an orphanage, which was +founded by John Bonghi, a charitable mason of Rome. He spent in this +institution the first seven years of his priesthood, devoting himself to +the care of the orphans, who were, as yet, his only parishioners. The +income which he derived from family resources was liberally applied in +supplying the wants of these destitute children, and even in ministering +to their recreation. + +It now became his duty to accompany, as a missionary priest, Monsignore +Mazi, who was appointed Vicar-Apostolic for Chili, Peru and Mexico. These +countries had thrown off the yoke of Spain and adopted Republican forms of +government. The Vicar-Apostolic and his companions suffered much in the +course of their voyage to America. They were cast into prison, at the +Island of Majorca, by Spanish officials, who took it amiss that Rome +should hold direct relations with the rebellious subjects of their +government. Their ship was attacked by corsairs, and was afterwards in +danger from a storm. A single circumstance only need be mentioned in order +to show what the faithful ministers of the Church had to endure when +traversing the inhospitable steppes of the Pampas. Once, at night, they +had no other shelter than a wretched cabin built with the bones of +animals, which still emitted a cadaverous odour. + +In those arid deserts, they suffered from thirst as well as from dearth of +provisions. Great results can only be attained by equally great labors. +If, after a period of privation, the travellers enjoyed no more luxurious +refreshment than the waters of the crystal brook, it might well be said, +"de torrente in viabibet propterea exaltabit caput." (They shall be +reduced to quench their thirst in the mountain stream, and therefore shall +be exalted.) The delegates of the Holy Father were received with +enthusiasm by the South American populations. Meanwhile, the narrow +governments that were set over those countries raised so many difficulties +that the mission was only partially successful. + +This mission, however, was not without benefit to the Reverend Count +Mastai. It had been the means of developing the admirable qualities which +he possessed. It had afforded him the opportunity of seeing many cities, +as well as the manners and customs of many people. These lessons of travel +were not addressed to an ordinary mind. His views were enlarged, elevated +and refined by contact with so many rising or fallen civilizations, so +many different nationalities, and by the spectacle of Nature, that +admirable handmaid of the Divinity, with her varied splendors and her +manifold wonders, astonishing no less in the immensity of the ocean than +in the vast forests of the New World. + +The mind appears to grow as the sphere of material life extends. Vast +horizons are adapted to great souls, and prepare them for great things. +The Abbe Mastai had thus received in his youth two most salutary lessons, +which are often wanting to the best-tried virtues of the sacerdotal +state--the lesson of the world, which Mastai had received before the time +of his vocation to Holy Orders, and the lessons of travel, which +disengages the mind from the bondage of local prejudices. Both of these +teachers he admirably understood. He had, indeed, drank of the torrent +which exalts. + +Leo XII. now filled the Apostolic Chair. This Pontiff, highly appreciating +the good sense and penetration of which Mastai had given proof in the +difficult mission to Chili, appointed him Canon of Sancta Maria, Rome, _in +via lata_, and, at the same time, conferred on him the dignity of Prelate. +Never was the Roman purple more adorned by the learning and genuine virtue +of him on whom it was bestowed. + +There is at Rome an institution of charity, the greatest which that city +or even the world possesses, the immense hospital of _St. Michael a Ripa +Grande_. A whole people dwells within its vast precincts. It is at once a +place of retreat for aged and infirm men, a most extensive professional +school for poor girls, and a sort of workshop, on a great scale, for +children that have been forsaken. The greater number learn trades. Some, +who give proof of higher talents, apply, at the expense of the hospital, +to the study of the fine arts. This hospital is, in itself, a world, and +its government requires almost the qualities of a statesman. Pope Leo +XII., anxious to render available the rare abilities of Canon Mastai, +named him President of the commission which governs this great +establishment. There was need, at the time, so low was the state of the +hospital budget, of the nicest management, unremitting care, and the +highest financial capacity. These qualities were all speedily at work, and +in the course of two years all the resources of the institution were in +admirable order. The fear of bankruptcy was removed, deficits of income +made up, and receipts abundant. + +It had not been the custom to allow to apprentice-workmen any share in the +fruits of their labors. Herein Mastai effected a great and certainly not +uncalled-for reform. Far from impoverishing the hospital, this liberal +measure only showed, by its happy results, that justice is in perfect +harmony with economy, and that the best houses are not those which make +the most of the labor of their inmates, but those which encourage industry +by allowing it what is just. The orphans were thus, in two years, enabled +to have a small sum, which secured to them, so far, a mitigation of their +lot. Meanwhile, the proceeds of the hospital were doubled. This was +remarkable success. Count Mastai's reputation for administrative ability +was now of the highest order. + +In the Consistory of May 21st, 1827, Canon Count Mastai was named +Archbishop of Spoleto. Thus did Pope Leo XII. signalize his solicitude and +affection for the city of his birth. The appointment came not too soon. It +required all the influence of a great mind to maintain peace at Spoleto. +Party spirit ran high. One side clamored against abuses: the other, +dreading all change, clung pertinaciously to the past. Wrath was treasured +in every bosom. If civil war had not yet broken out, it raged already in +the breasts of the people. Spoleto resembled two hostile camps, and +vividly recalled the state of these cities of the Middle-Age, where stood +in presence, and armed from head to heel, the undying enmities of the +Ghibellins and the Guelphs. The slightest occasion would have sufficed to +cause the hardly-suppressed embers of deadly strife to burst into a flame. +Through the zeal and diplomacy of the Archbishop, such occasion was +averted. Spoleto may yet remember, and not without emotion, how earnestly +he studied to appease wild passions, with what delicacy and perseverance +he labored to reconcile the terrible feuds that prevailed, to calm the +dire spirit of revenge, to bury the sense of wrong in the oblivion of +forgiveness. At length, in 1831 and 1832, a hopeless rebellion unfurled +its blood-red banner. It was speedily and pitilessly repressed. Such an +occasion only was wanting in order to show what one man can do when +sustained by the power of virtue and the esteem of mankind. The foreign +and Teutonic arm which conquered the insurrection had been always hateful +to the Italian people; nor did its display and exercise of military force, +in restoring tranquillity to the troubled State, conciliate their +friendship. + +Only when vanquished did the rebels appear before the walls of Spoleto. In +their extremity, they came to beg for shelter and for bread. In the +estimation of the benevolent Archbishop, they were as lost sheep whom it +was his duty, if possible, to save. He hastened, accordingly, to meet the +wolf. The Austrian General, although a stern warrior, was, at the same +time, the servant of a Christian Power. He listened to the Archbishop's +remonstrances, and resolved to refrain from further military proceedings, +the Prelate undertaking to disarm the rebels, and thus satisfy the sad +requirements of war without any recourse to useless and hateful cruelties. +Returning to the city, he addressed the insurgents, and, to his +unspeakable satisfaction, they at once came to lay at his feet those arms +which the Austrian soldiers could only have torn from their lifeless +bodies. Thus did the good pastor, by disarming, save the rebellious flock. + +Mastai was now transferred to Imola. This city is less considerable than +Spoleto. The diocese, however, is richer and more populous. Its Episcopal +chair leads directly to the Cardinalate. It has also thrice given to the +Catholic Church its Chief Pastor. The people of Spoleto sent a deputation, +but in vain, to beseech the Holy Father to leave the good pastor to his +affectionate flock. + +He was destined also to reign in the hearts of the good people of Imola. +The numerous institutions there, which owe their existence to his +Episcopal zeal and Christian charity, are monuments of his pastoral care. +The virtue of which Archbishop Mastai was so bright a pattern had no +sourness in it, no outward show of austerity; nor was it forbidding and +intolerant, but sweet and gentle. Words of forgiveness were always on his +lips, and his hand was ever open to distress. He labored assiduously to +reform, wherever reform was needed, but, what rarely happens, without +alienating affection from the reformer. It was his constant study to +elevate the character of the clergy, and he ceased not to encourage among +them learning as well as piety. Into the Diocesan Seminary, which was +always the object of his most anxious care, he introduced some new +branches of study, such as agriculture, practical as well as theoretical, +and a general knowledge of the medical art. There was yet wanting to the +clergy of his diocese a common centre where they could meet for mutual +edification and instruction. To this purpose he devoted his own palace, +and founded there a Biblical Academy. The members of this Academy met once +a month in order to discuss together some subjects connected with the +Sacred Writings. None can be ignorant how powerfully such meetings +contribute to promote the study of the Scriptures, pulpit eloquence, and +the great science of theology. In order, moreover, to obviate the dangers +to which students were exposed, who, whilst they studied at the Seminary, +were not inmates, and enjoyed not the safeguards of its discipline, he +founded an institution called the "Convitto," where the poorer alumni were +boarded without charge. + +Anxious also to provide for the comfort of the lowly poor, and to guard +against all wasting of their humble means, the good Prelate reformed the +hospital of Imola, and set over it the Sisters of Charity--that +incomparable Order which owes its existence to the most benevolent of men, +St. Vincent de Paul. Nor, in his higher state, did he forget his first +care--the orphan. An orphanage at Imola is due to his munificence. There +were no bounds to his liberality. At his own expense alone he repaired the +tomb of St. Cassien, and decorated the Chapel of Our Lady of Dolours in +the Church of the Servites. + +When raised to the dignity of Cardinal, by Pope Gregory XVI., in December, +1840, Archbishop Mastai was already universally popular. The ovations of a +later period may have originated in political motives--may even have been +promoted by a political party; but the honors now spontaneously heaped +upon him were awarded to the man and the Christian pastor. Congratulations +in prose and in verse, illuminations, fireworks, demonstrations of every +kind, announced the joy with which the new Cardinal was welcomed +everywhere. + +Gregory XVI. had the reputation of being highly conservative. In the true +sense of the term, he really was so. Nevertheless, he was not averse to +reform, and he showed that he was not when he elevated Archbishop Mastai, +whose tendencies were well known, to the rank and office of Cardinal. More +than this, in concurrence with the Great Powers of Europe, with whom he +took counsel, he labored to introduce certain salutary reforms in his +States. Such reforms, indeed, were needed; and the aged Pontiff resolved +on them, not only in order to render unnecessary the intervention of +foreign arms in the affairs of his government, but also with a view to +bring his rule into harmony with the spirit and civilization of the age. +If in this most laudable undertaking he did not succeed, he owed his +failure to the Socialist party, those enemies of law and order, of +property, and life even, whose fatal action at a later period marred the +political career of Pius IX. The Roman people, generally, were capable of +appreciating, and surely did appreciate, the enlightened efforts of their +Pontiff Sovereign. They were not, as some writers would have us believe, +in a semi-barbarous condition. Sylvio Pellico, whose testimony cannot be +questioned, speaks of them in the following terms: "The eight months I +have spent at Rome in 1845 and 1846 (time of Gregory XVI.) have abounded +in delightful impressions. It can never be sufficiently told how well this +venerable city deserves to be visited, and not in passing only. How the +good and beautiful abound in it!" A little later, Pellico writes: "I +continue to be quite delighted with Rome, both as regards men and things. +In the small book, _Dei Doceri_, I have shown my inclination to avoid +being absolute in my judgments, a too common error, especially with minds +that dogmatize passionately. By such Rome is often unjustly judged. + +"Several types of social customs must be considered as moderately good; +and we cannot condemn, as decidedly bad, anything but barbarism, +irreligion and a superabundance of knaves and fools. These odious elements +are by no means over-abundant in this country. And in the midst of evils +that are unavoidable everywhere, I observe great intellectual power, much +goodness, cultivated minds, gracious and sincere generosity. Whoever comes +to Rome will be morally well off as regards intelligence. He will be so, +likewise, on account of the sociability of the inhabitants. The Romans are +a jovial people. But even their joviality is as admirably subject to good +order as it is graceful, and does not impair the natural goodness of their +disposition. But perhaps I am wrong; and it were better I should assume a +frowning aspect, and behold only attempts on life, importunate beggary, +useless priests and monks, and reserve my praises for those happy nations +where there are no crimes, no inequality of fortune, no misery. +Impassioned men declaim, exaggerate, lie. For my part, I am neither an +optimist nor a pessimist. It is impossible to speak with certainty of the +moral of a country if we speak of it too soon. I know that here at Rome I +find amiability, science and good sense. It seems to me that everything is +much the same as in other civilized countries." + +Such was the people over whom, on the 16th day of June, 1846, Cardinal +Mastai was called to exercise authority in the twofold capacity of Pontiff +and Prince. On the first day of the Conclave several votes were cast for +the liberal-minded Cardinal Gizzi, and some in favor of the +highly-conservative Lambruschini. The second day all joined for Mastai. +And thus was elected to the Papal Chair, by the unanimous voice of the +Sacred College, one of their body, who, in all the positions which he had +held, as Priest, as Archbishop, as Cardinal, had shown his determination +to promote reform and improvement. No better proof could be required that +the Cardinals perfectly understood the state of the country, its urgent +wants, its relations with the Church and the rest of the world. + +There was much rejoicing in the Papal City. It seemed as if, with the +elevation of a great character to high authority, the days of the +Millennium had at length dawned on the distracted world. There was now +question only of forgiveness for the past. Order and peace only were +possible in time to come. The new Pontiff was resolved that there should +be no element of sorrow to mar the general joy; and so he amnestied the +political offenders who had borne arms against the government of his +predecessor. Only one condition was required, viz.: that, in the future, +they should fulfil the duties of good and order-loving subjects. Thus were +fifteen hundred exiles restored to their families, who had lost all hope +of ever seeing them again. The cases only of a small number of the +ring-leaders of the rebellion were reserved for consideration, and they, +too, were cheered with the hope of pardon. The preamble of the decree of +amnesty, all in the Pope's own handwriting, bore the following words: + +"At the time when the public joy occasioned by our accession to the office +of Sovereign Pontiff caused us to experience in our inmost soul the most +lively emotion, we could not avoid entertaining a feeling of sorrow when +we remembered that a great number of families amongst our people could not +take part in the general rejoicing, deprived, as they were, of domestic +happiness.... On the other hand, we cast a look of compassion on the +numerous and inexperienced youth, which, although carried away by +deceitful flatterers, in the midst of political troubles, appeared to us +guilty rather of allowing itself to be led astray, than of deceiving +others. On this account it was that, from that moment, we cherished the +thought of extending a friendly hand, and offering peace to such of these +dear but misguided children as should come to us, and give proof of their +sincere repentance." + +Night was drawing on when the decree was posted on the walls of Rome. It +was observed, however, amidst the growing darkness; and no sooner was the +word _amnesty_ read than a cry of enthusiasm was heard. People hastened +from their houses in all directions, the passers-by stopped in crowds to +read, by torchlight, the cabalistic words. Among the fast-assembling +masses there was but one feeling. They embraced and even wept for joy. In +the depth of their emotion, and whilst yet, as may be said, intoxicated +with delight, they sought how to express their gratitude. The cry was +raised, "To the Quirinal!" Arrived there, they hailed, with loud and +united voice, the beneficent Pontiff--"Vivat Pius Nonus!" "Long live our +Holy Father!" Crowd after crowd thus approached the person of the Pope. It +was now late, and Pius IX., much fatigued, overwhelmed by his emotions, +had withdrawn to the silence of his Oratory. Meanwhile, fresh crowds of +overjoyed citizens were pressing forward. Ten thousand men, at least, were +now waiting, with respectful anxiety, under the walls of the Quirinal +Palace. The French Ambassador to Rome, Count Rossi, was a witness of these +events. He became also their historian. He wrote thus to M. Guizot: + +"Suddenly the acclamations are redoubled. I had not yet understood on what +account, when some one called my attention to the light which was shining +through the window-blinds at the farthest end of the Pontifical Palace. +The people had observed that the Holy Father was traversing the apartment +in order to reach the balcony. It was speedily thrown open, and the +Sovereign Pontiff, in a white robe and scarlet mantle, made his +appearance, surrounded by torches. If your Excellency (M. Guizot, at that +time Minister of the French King, Louis Philippe) will only figure to +yourself a magnificent place, a summer night, the sky of Rome, an immense +people moved with gratitude, weeping for joy and receiving with love and +reverence the benediction of their Pastor and their Prince, you will not +be astonished, if I add that we have shared the general emotion, and have +placed this spectacle above every thing that Rome had as yet offered to +our contemplation. Just as I had foreseen, as soon as the window was +closed the crowd withdrew peacefully and in perfect silence. You would +have called them a people of mutes; they were satisfied." + +It is not so difficult to grant an amnesty. It is delightful, even, to men +of the character of Pius IX. to dispense forgiveness. This is particularly +the office and the privilege of the Church. Sterner duties devolve upon +the statesman. And, however reconcileable the two courses of conduct in +public affairs may really be, it is difficult often to reconcile them. + +The amnesty, although far from being everything, was, nevertheless, a +beginning, and one of favorable omen. The furrow was opened, to use the +language of M. Rossi, and no doubt the ploughing would proceed. Many +formidable difficulties must, however, be surmounted. On the one hand, +stood the influence of the old feudal Conservative party, which frowned on +the slightest change. On the other, were the Socialists, who aimed at the +destruction of every existing institution--in whose estimation property +even was not sacred, nor life itself. It was necessary, meanwhile, to +improve the condition of the people, and, in doing so, to guard against +anarchy. By wise and well-considered reforms only could the growth and +advance of revolution be discouraged and stayed, whilst a political +system, almost entirely new, came to be firmly established. For this +purpose, it was necessary that there should prevail in the Pontifical +States a sounder state of opinion. This was not the work of a single day. +It was necessary, nevertheless, as the people could not be safely led by +their ever-changing emotions. Based on such quicksands, the government of +the Holy Father could have no stability, and it was his aim so to form it +that it should be able to keep its ground without the aid of foreign arms. +The state of Italy, the peculiar position of the Pontifical States, the +character of modern civilization, the spirit of the age--all conspired to +produce new wants, and, at the same time, made it a matter of the greatest +difficulty to meet them. "This difficulty," writes the Spanish Sage, +Balmes, "it was impossible to surmount by chanting patriotic hymns any +more than by having recourse to Austrian bayonets." + +By none was this better understood than by Pius IX. The study of State +affairs was not new to him. He had considered and lamented the condition +of things which so often brought upon his country foreign invasion, the +horrors of war, and punishments without end, inflicted on his +fellow-citizens. It is related even that he prepared and presented to +Gregory XVI. a programme of reforms, which he believed would bring the +necessary remedy. Now that he was at the head of the State, he believed +that the responsibility devolved on him of introducing such reforms as +were called for by the exigency of the time, and by which alone he was +persuaded the evils which oppressed the country could be brought to an +end. It was not possible, as yet, to inaugurate any general measure of +reform. In the meantime, however, the rule of the Pontiff was +characterized by wise, just, humane and liberal acts, which could not fail +to pave the way for the greater improvements which he meditated. Among +these lesser, but by no means unimportant, reforms may be mentioned the +abolition of an odious law which had long disgraced the legislation of so +many Christian nations. The punishment by imprisonment for petty debts +was, in the estimation of Pius IX., as unjust as it was cruel and hateful. +It answered no better purpose, for the most part, than the gratification +of private spite. By a generous contribution from his own funds, the Pope +threw open the prisons of the Capitol. He set a great example, which could +not fail to promote the cause of virtue whilst it relieved the indigent, +by distributing twelve thousand Roman _ecus_, in the form of dowries, +among the young women of poor families, whose poverty rendered an +honorable settlement extremely difficult. He also encouraged collections +in favor of such of the amnestied parties as were in need. His financial +reforms were more important. And by these he won a title to the gratitude +of the State. The public revenue was alarmingly deficient. Only by some +great change could ruin be averted. First of all, he proposed that his +faithful clergy should make a sacrifice; and every convent engaged to pay +ten _scudi_ yearly, and every parish priest a _scudo_ during three +consecutive years. He himself set the example of the most rigid economy by +reducing the scale of his establishment. He at the same time retrenched +those rich sinecures which were, so to say, engrafted on the temporalities +of the Papacy. What was well worthy of a great statesman, he showed the +most enlightened sympathy for all the sciences which contribute to the +material and intellectual well-being of the populations, such as +physiology, natural history, political economy and mathematics. Nor was he +unwilling that his people should avail themselves of the knowledge of +foreigners. He went so far as to intimate his intention to re-establish +the celebrated Scientific Academy, _Di Lincei_. + +He could not, as yet, by any other than such isolated acts as these, +evince the elevated and liberal tendencies of his mind, in which were +blended boldness with moderation, and views of reform with all that became +his position, and was adapted to the wants of the country and the age. + +Pius IX., although not a constitutional sovereign, and unable so to +constitute himself, was anxious, nevertheless, to give to his people all +the benefits of constitutional government. A first step was to choose a +popular Minister, and Cardinal Gizzi was called to the counsels of the +State. This Cardinal was beloved at Rome, and not undeservedly. When +Legate at Forli, he had opposed the establishment of an arbitrary court, +and thus won for himself the sympathies of all national reformers. His +loyalty, sincerity and patriotism were well known; nor was he wanting in +any other quality of the statesman. Of a patient and enquiring mind, he +was incapable of coming hastily to a decision; but, when once resolved, he +could not be easily diverted from his purpose. The ministry of such a man +was full of promise; but in this lay its weakness. It held out hopes +which, in the state of parties which at that time prevailed, it was unable +to realize. There were two great parties at Rome, with neither of which +the Gizzi ministry was in sympathy. There existed no party with which it +could act harmoniously. There were no reformers. It would have been most +fortunate for Pius IX. if such a party could have been formed, but the +elements were wanting. The true idea of constitutional government was as +little understood in Italy as in the rest of continental Europe. The only +party at Rome who desired change were the Socialists, who identified +reform with subversion, who denied every right, and sought the destruction +of all existing institutions. No wonder if, in presence of such a faction, +the aristocracy, so highly conservative, dreaded and opposed all change. +The Socialists, whilst by the fear which they inspired strengthened the +hands of the conservative party, opposed and prevented the formation of a +body of reformers who, like Gizzi and Pius IX., would have labored +intelligently to forward the cause of reform, never losing sight of the +great principles of humanity and justice, never sacrificing to Utopian +theories inalienable rights, above all the rights of property--the very +groundwork of the social fabric. Without the aid and countenance of a body +of reformers, the able ministry that now surrounded the Pope found it +difficult to proceed. They could not determine for any important +constitutional change. They could not even undertake any considerable +improvement. + +They were, however, not inactive. They studied to educate the people by +improving and extending the public schools, and by what was, indeed, an +advance in continental Europe--establishing a periodical press. + +There were few cities so highly favored as Rome as regards the facilities +for educating youth. Nevertheless, there was room for improvement, and +Pius IX. accordingly established in the city a central school for the +instruction of the youth of the operative classes. This was a school of +arts and manufactures, and, at the same time, a military institution, in +which the pupils were qualified to become either tradesmen or subordinate +officers in the army. Whilst Cardinal Gizzi was Minister many other useful +schemes met the approbation of the Pontiff, and were sanctioned by his +signature. + +Not a few commissions also were appointed--some for the study of railway +communication in the Roman States, others for the improvement of both +criminal and civil procedure, and others for the amelioration of the +municipal system and the repression of vagrancy. + +Rome, so richly endowed in many respects, could scarcely be said, as yet, +to possess a periodical press. To establish such a press was, for the +reforming ministry, a labor of love. Whilst they were preparing a law by +which it should be called into existence and its liberty secured and +regulated, Pius IX., in anticipation of their labors, authorized the +publication of several journals. First, came the "Contemporaneo," which +was followed in due time by the "Bilancia," the "Italico," the "Alba." +These publications were in sympathy, at first, with the Pontiff and his +reforming ministry. They advocated only rational reform, real improvement, +such changes as were both practicable and useful. They had not yet +discovered the excellence of the Socialist utopia. Their enthusiasm and +their _vivats_ were all for the reformer Pope. + +It is far from being matter of surprise to Catholic people, at least, that +the See of Rome should be the first to practice the virtues--the high +morality which it teaches. In regard to their treatment of the Jewish +people, the Christian nations generally stood in need of such an example +as Papal Rome has always shown in her consideration for the race of +Israel. The nations, although professing Christianity, have been anything +but Christian in their conduct towards these people. It was their idea, +one would say, that they were called of heaven to execute justice on an +offending race. The Popes never believed that they or any other Christians +were entrusted with such a mission. Accordingly, the Jews, when cruelly +persecuted in other countries, always found protection and safety at Rome +under the wing of the Pope. Even such restrictions as they were subject +to, contributed to maintain them in security and peace. The Holy Father, +although it was his sublime mission to preach the Gospel, could not always +cause its precepts to be obeyed. If prejudice was against living on terms +of charity with the Jews, was it not kind, as well as wise and politic, to +assign to them a quarter of the city where only they should dwell, free +from all interference on the part of the rest of the inhabitants? Pius IX. +believed that the time had come when a more liberal arrangement might be +advantageously adopted. In pursuance of this conviction, he regulated that +the Jews should enjoy the privilege of establishing their habitations +wherever they should deem it most suitable, that they should be governed +by the same laws as the other citizens, and in no way be treated as a +foreign people. Such of them as stood in need of assistance Pius IX. +admitted to a share in his benefactions, and without occasioning the +slightest murmur on the part of his Christian subjects. + +The Jews, whilst considered as foreigners in Rome, were subject to the +custom of coming yearly to the Capitol to pay tribute. With this custom +the Holy Father generously dispensed. All this liberality and kindness +were highly appreciated. The Jewish people generally beheld in the wise +and Holy Pontiff the looked-for Messiah. The aged Rabbins, more +considerate, affirmed only that the Pope was a great prophet. The chief of +the Synagogue, Moses Kassan, composed in his honor a canticle marked by +poetic inspiration. It extols and blesses the Holy Father for having +gathered together in the same barque all the children whom God had +confided to his care ... for having snatched from the contempt of nations, +and sheltered under his wing, a persecuted people. + +There being many Christians of the United Greek rite throughout the +dominions of the Sultan, it was necessary that the Holy Father should +negotiate, occasionally, with the successor of Mahomet. Pius IX. yielded +not to any of his predecessors in zeal for the welfare of all Catholic +people. Those who lived and often suffered under the Moslem yoke were, +especially, objects of his fatherly solicitude. Policy had not yet brought +the Cross into the same field of strife in union with the Crescent, when, +on the 20th of February, 1847, the portals of the Quirinal were thrown +open to the Ambassador of the Sublime Porte. To the Jews the Rome of Pius +IX. was as a new Jerusalem. Islamism, from its tottering throne at +Constantinople, looked towards it with hope and rapture. + +The armed protection of Christians in the Turkish dominions, by the great +European Powers, was, no doubt, galling to the Sultan's court. It was, +therefore, ardently desired, we can readily believe, to place the +Christians of the Levant under the peaceful guardianship of the Roman +Pontiff. The Embassy may also have had other objects in view. Be this as +it may, it was new and quite extraordinary to behold the representative of +the prophet at the palace of the Sovereign Pontiff. No wonder if all +Europe was moved to admiration. The presentation was very solemn--in the +high ceremonial of Eastern lands. Chekif Effendi, the Turkish Ambassador, +saluted the Holy Father in Oriental style, and addressed to him a +magnificent oration, which was richly interspersed with metaphors--the +pearls and diamonds of his country's eloquence. The Sublime Porte was +compared to the Queen of Sheba, and Pius IX. to King Solomon. Whatever may +be thought of the figures, the sentiments expressed in the speech were +appropriate and affecting. The Pope replied by assuring the Ambassador +that he was anxious to cultivate friendly relations with the Sultan, his +master. Three days later Chekif Effendi took his departure from Rome, +bearing with him on his breast, as a _nishun_ (decoration), the portrait +of the Holy Father. + +This Embassy was more than mere show--more than an interchange of friendly +sentiments. It enabled the Pope to adopt a measure which was calculated to +be highly beneficial to the Christians of the East. The Latin Patriarchate +of Jerusalem was restored. And thus was accomplished a wonderful +revolution in European diplomacy as regarded the Eastern world. At the +request of the Porte, the Latin Patriarch became bound to reside in the +city of Jerusalem. In the confidential position which he held there, he +was the natural protector of the Catholic subjects of the Sultan. In +addition to the duties of his sacred office, he was, as a consul, +appointed by the Holy See to watch over the interests of +religion--interests as important, surely, as those of trade and worldly +policy. The first whom the Pope named to the dignity of Latin Patriarch +was Monsignore Valergo, who had formerly been a missionary at Paris. + +There appears to have been something irresistibly attractive in the +character of Pius IX. That illustrious champion of Ireland and of liberty, +Daniel O'Connell, resolved, towards the close of his days, to visit Rome +and pay the homage of a kindred spirit to the Holy Father. Not only was he +anxious to be enriched with the choicest heavenly benedictions, whilst +kneeling reverently at the shrine of the Apostles, but he desired also, +with a fervor which finds place only in the most nobly-moulded souls, +whose love of liberty and whose patriotism are unfeigned and pure, to hold +communion with one who was, no less than himself, a friend of liberty, and +whose exalted station, and whose high duties towards mankind at large, +hindered him not from laboring, as did Ireland's patriot, to liberate his +country, not, indeed, from such cruel bondage as that under which the land +of O'Connell had for so many ages groaned, but from the no less dangerous +tyranny of abuses which, like weeds that grow most luxuriantly in the +richest soil, it becomes necessary, in due season, to extirpate. + +It was not, however, appointed that Ireland's liberator should ever see +Rome. His illness continued to increase. No sooner had he reached the +shores of Italy than the strength of his once powerful frame declined +rapidly, and he was unable to proceed. Arrived at Genoa, O'Connell +understood that his last hour on earth was near at hand. He now expressed +the wish that his heart should rest in the Holy City. Thither, +accordingly, it was borne by friendly hands to commingle with the +consecrated dust of heroes, saints and martyrs. To Rome it was a relic of +incomparable price. Although cold and inanimate, it was still eloquent in +death, and grandly emblematic of all that he had been to whom it was the +centre of life, and to whose generous impulses it had so long and so +faithfully beat responsive. + +That son of O'Connell who bore his name, together with the Rev. Dr. Miley, +of Dublin, who had accompanied him to Genoa and ministered to him in his +last hours, now proceeded to Rome and sought the presence of the Holy +Father. On their arrival at the Quirinal, the halls and ante-chambers were +already filled with groups of personages in every style of costume, from +the glittering uniform to the cowl. The travellers, therefore, must wait +till all these have had an audience. But no. The name of O'Connell, as if +possessed of talismanic power, caused them to be at once admitted to the +presence of the Holy Father. The reception was most cordial. "Since the +happiness I had so much longed for," said the Pontiff, "was not reserved +for me, to behold and embrace the hero of Christianity, let me, at least, +have the consolation to embrace his son." "As he spoke," writes Dr. Miley, +"he drew the son of O'Connell to his bosom and embraced him, not unmoved, +with the tenderness of a father and a friend. Then, with an emotion which +stirred our hearts within us, this great Father of the faithful poured out +his benign and loving soul in words of comfort, which proved that it was +not new to him to pour the balm of heaven into broken and wounded hearts." +"His death," said the Pontiff, "was blessed. I have read the letter in +which his last moments were described with the greatest consolation." The +Pope then proceeded to eulogize the liberator, as the great champion of +religion and the Church, as the father of his people and the glory of the +whole Christian world. "How else," observed Monsignore Cullen, late +Cardinal Archbishop of Dublin, who was present, "could the Pope have +spoken of him than he has done, even if he had been the bosom friend of +the liberator, as well as the ardent admirer of his career." Nor must we +fail to record the terms in which the venerable Pontiff, on this memorable +occasion, referred to Ireland. The thought of O'Connell was one with that +of his native Erin. Death, even, could not sever them. Whilst the living +image of grief and bereavement stood in his presence, the Holy Father +could not refrain from giving expression to his paternal sympathy. But, at +the same time, the country of O'Connell was not forgotten. Writes Dr. +Miley: "While he spoke of the sufferings of the Irish, of their fidelity, +of his solicitude and his hopes regarding them, it was beautiful and +impressive beyond my power to describe, to observe that countenance, +which, like a mirror, reflects the charity, the compassionate care, the +fortitude, with a hundred other sentiments divine, which are never dormant +within his breast." + +Pius IX., anxious that due honor should be done to the memory of +O'Connell, gave orders for the celebration of a solemn funeral service, +and intimated his will and command that it should be celebrated in his +name. "The achievements also of his wonderful existence I desire to be +commemorated and made known to the world"--not that this is necessary, +"because," said the Pontiff with a sublime look and gesture, "his grand +career was ever in the face of heaven--he always stood up for legality--he +had nothing to hide; and it was this, with his unshaken fidelity and +reverence for religion, that secured his triumph." It is only justice to +the people of Rome to state that they vied with the Sovereign Pontiff, the +magnates of their country and the representatives of European nations at +the Holy City, in doing honor to the memory of O'Connell. "From the Campus +Martius," writes Dr. Miley, "and the Roman Forum, from both sides of the +Tiber, and from all the seven hills and their interjacent valleys, this +people, who grow up from infancy with the trophies of thirty centuries of +greatness around them on every hand, assembled with enthusiasm to +supplicate heaven for the eternal happiness of Ireland's liberator, and to +exult in the wonders he had achieved, as if he had been their own." The +greatest homage paid by Rome on this melancholy occasion, was undoubtedly, +the funeral oration, which was spoken by the Bossuet of Italy, the +celebrated preacher, Father Ventura, the friend and fellow-student of Pius +IX. This most eloquent discourse was listened to with attention and +delight by the vast congregation that had gathered round the cenotaph of +the immortal patriot. Let a passage or two here suffice to give an idea of +the magnificent panegyric: + +"It is, then, because these two loves--the love of religion and the love of +liberty, common to all good Princes, to all great minds, to all truly +learned men, to all elevated souls, to all generous hearts might be said +to be personified in Daniel O'Connell--because in him they manifested +themselves in all the perfection of their nature--in all the energy of +their deeply-felt conviction--in all the potency of their strength--in all +the splendor of their magnificence, and in all the glory of their triumph; +it is because of all this that this singular man--who was born and has +lived at such a distance from Rome--is now admired, is now wept for by you, +as if he had been born in the midst of you. Hence it is that this great +character, this sublime nature, has awakened all your sympathies." + +O'Connell had studied for some time at the College of St. Omer, in France. +What he saw and learned in that country is ably described by the Italian +orator: + +"He saw with his own eyes monarchy compelled to degrade itself, and to +inflict its death-wound with its own hand; he saw the throne that base +courtiers had dragged through the mire defiled by the grip of parricidal +hands, and buried, fathoms deep, beneath a sea of blood; he saw the best +of kings expire upon a scaffold, the victim not less of other men's crimes +than of his own weakness; he saw that vice was hailed, as if it were +virtue, wickedness uplifted, as if it were morality atheism, proclaimed +aloud, as if it were religion; that the 'Goddess of Reason' (or rather a +vile strumpet) was recognized as the only Deity, and honored with +hecatombs of human victims; the people decimated and oppressed by cruel +tyrants, in the name of the people; whilst beneath the shade of the tree +of liberty was instituted universal slavery; and that the most Christian, +as well as the most civilized of all nations, had fallen down to the +lowest limits of impiety and barbarism. + +"Now, God having so disposed that the young O'Connell should be witness of +these events--the most celebrated and the most instructive to be found in +the annals of history--they served to inspire him with the greatest horror +for tumults and rebellion; they persuaded him that there is nothing more +insane, and, at the same time, more pernicious than to proclaim the rights +of man, in trampling upon those of heaven--in establishing liberty on the +ruins of religion--in making laws, under the dictation of passion, or +through the inspiration of sacrilege--and, finally, they convinced him, +that to _regenerate_ a people, religion is omnipotent--philosophy of little +or no avail." + +In alluding to the well-known piety of O'Connell, the preacher said: "What +more moving spectacle than to see the greatest man in the United +Kingdom--to see him, who was the object of Ireland's devotion, of England's +fear, and of the world's admiration, kneeling with the people before the +altar, practicing the piety of the people, with that humble simplicity, +that recollection, that devoutness, and that modesty, which supercilious +science and stolid pride abandon as things fit only to be followed by +those whom they disdain as the people?" + +It is matter of notoriety that the Tory party, whose death-knell was soon +to be tolled, constantly poured on the great Irish Tribune the most +scurrilous abuse. One of the mock titles with which they honored him was +that of "King of the Beggars." Such pitiful ribaldry awakened the highest +powers of the Roman orator. "Poor, miserable, and most pitiful fatuity +which, while intending to mock, actually did him honor. For, what +sovereignty is more beautiful than that whose tribute is not wrung from +unwilling fear, but that is a voluntary, love-inspired offering? What +sovereignty is more glorious than that whose sword is the pen, and whose +only artillery the tongue; whose only couriers are the poor, and its sole +bodyguard the affections of the people? What sovereignty more beneficent +than that which, far from causing tears to flow, dries them; which, far +from shedding blood, stanches it; which, far from immolating life, +preserves it; which, far from pressing down upon the people, elevates +them; which, far from forging chains, breaks them; and which always +maintains order, harmony and peace, without ever inflicting the slightest +aggression on liberty? Where is the monarch who would not esteem himself +happy in reigning thus? Of such a sovereignty, we may with truth say what +was said of Solomon's, that none can equal its grandeur, its glory and its +magnificence." + +So favorable an opportunity for instructing the Italians was not thrown +away. False liberty was already strewing their path with its meretricious +allurements. "As true liberty diffuses around it peace and grace and calm, +so does false liberty disseminate, wherever it is implanted, terror, +dismay and horror. The brows of one are illuminated with the splendid halo +of order, and those of the other are covered with the red cap of anarchy. +One holds in her hand the olive-branch of peace; the other waves the torch +of discord. One is arrayed in robes white as those of innocence, and the +other is enveloped in the dark, blood-stained mantle of guilt. One is the +prop of thrones; the other a yawning abyss beneath them. One is the glory +and the happiness of nations; the other their disgrace and their +punishment. The latter bursts out of hell as if it were a poisonous blast +issuing from the jaws of the devil himself; whilst true liberty descends +sweetly and gently upon the earth, as if the spirit of God had sent it +down to us a holy and blessed thing from heaven. _Ubi spiritus Domini ibi +Libertas._" + +None will be surprised to learn that on hearing these singularly eloquent +words, the immense auditory could no longer control their emotions. A +general murmur of approbation was heard throughout the vast temple and was +breaking out into loud applause, when the preacher, mindful of the +reverence due to the holy place, made haste to repress it. + +This great demonstration may well be considered as the best testimony that +could be given as to the real sentiments of the Italian people. They were +not ignorant of the nature of that liberty for which O'Connell had so long +and successfully contended. Nor were they under any erroneous impression +as to what the gifted preacher meant when he extolled in such glowing +terms that true liberty which is the glory, at once, and the best security +of nations. If, a little later, they pursued the phantom instead of the +reality, it must be considered that, as yet, they had no political +education or experience, and that no high-principled Tribune, like +O'Connell, stood forward to lead them. All who aspired to guide them, and +who won their confidence, were tainted with the doctrines of the Socialist +party, whose ideas of government and liberty were utterly utopian. + +If it could be said that public rejoicings afforded any assistance to the +Pope, in his labors as the head of the Roman State, he was not left +without aid in his great undertakings. Such things, however, rather +hindered than promoted his endeavors. His people had, so to say, +commenced, under his auspices, a long and laborious journey. There was no +time for mere pleasure and amusement. Nevertheless, whenever a new scene +or landscape opened to their view, they stopped to rejoice, and gave +themselves up, without control, to the intoxication of delight. In so +doing they laid themselves open to the snares and attacks of many secret +enemies, who availed themselves of their frequent gatherings to sow the +seeds of discord and corrupt their minds with false political doctrines. +Far better would it have been if they had left to the Sovereign in whom, +at first, they placed unbounded confidence, and the wise Ministers whom he +called to his counsels, the care of forwarding the cause of reform. It had +been most benevolently and successfully begun, and was proceeding, in the +estimation of all but an impatient people, with rapidity which had no +parallel in the history of nations. The people, by assembling tumultuously +on occasion of every popular measure, no doubt meant no more at first than +to show gratitude and affection to their pastor and prince. Such meetings, +however, were not without danger to the cause of reform. The political +enemies of the Pope easily foresaw that, by his wise and popular +improvements in the State, he would certainly secure to himself a +peaceful, strong and glorious reign. So, laying hold of the general +enthusiasm, they trained and disciplined to their will a people who were +naturally good and unsuspecting. These men came at length to give the +watchword, and, according to their wishes and the views which it suited +them to insinuate into the popular mind, the uneducated and fickle +multitude expressed satisfaction or discontent, as they defiled in +imposing masses before the mansion of the Pontiff. Thus was formed a sort +of government out of doors, which, if it did not yet oppose or appear to +oppose at least, powerfully swayed the official authority. Cardinal Gizzi, +whose ministry was so popular, deemed it necessary to require by +proclamation that these noisy demonstrations should cease. It was too +late. The people, defying the Cardinal's mandate, hastened in crowds to +the Quirinal, saluted, as usual, the Pope with enthusiastic _vivats_, +expressing, at the same time, their detestation of his ministry, which +they were wont to applaud so loudly, and which, if it had not by any great +activity done much to acquire, had certainly done nothing to forfeit their +favor. "_Viva Pio Nono! Pio Nono Solo!_" was now their cry. The Pope +himself next came to be considered as intolerably dilatory in preparing +measures of reform. Nor did he escape the accusation, at the same time, of +sacrificing to his zeal, as a temporal ruler, the higher duties which he +owed to religion and the Church. According to one set of revilers, he was +breaking with inviolable tradition. Others insisted that so enthusiastic a +reformer of the State must be a revolutionist in the Church. Such attacks +were met by anticipation in the Encyclical of 9th November, 1846. This +well-known document was received with applause by the civilized world. It +leaves no ground for the charges in question. It would only destroy the +Church to pretend to reform its dogma and revolutionize its discipline and +government. Such an idea could proceed from no other source than the +stratagems of unbelief, or from the snares of the wolf, who, in sheep's +clothing, seeks to insinuate himself into the fold. It is nothing short of +sacrilege to hold that religion is susceptible of progress or improvement, +as if it were a philosophical discovery, which could advance with the +march of science. The Holy Father enumerates also in this Encyclical the +principal grounds of faith, and exhorts all bishops to oppose with all +their zeal and learning those who, alleging progress as their motive, +perversely endeavor to destroy religion by subjecting it to every man's +individual judgment. He condemns indifference as regards religion, +eloquently defends ecclesiastical celibacy, and, mindful that the Church +is the teacher of the great as well as of the humble, he enforces the +obligations of sovereigns towards their subjects, not forgetting the +fulfilment of all the duties which the people owe to their rulers. In a +former Encyclical, Pius IX. had expressed his predilection for the +religious orders. This expression was now renewed. Time may have +interfered, more or less, with their discipline. Anxious to preserve them +and promote their prosperity, he was ever willing to correct such abuses +as may have existed. To some communities he offered the most admirable +suggestions. Others he honored with personal visits, evincing always a +truly pastoral zeal for the well-being of institutions so precious to +religion. + +Pius IX., although deeply occupied with affairs of State that would have +commanded all the attention and energy of any ordinary mind, found time, +nevertheless, for the discharge of duties of a still higher order. He +never forgot that he was the Bishop as well as the Sovereign of Rome. The +Romans, although inhabiting the Holy City, like all other people, stood in +need of the instructions and warnings of religion. The Pope was aware, +besides, that bad habits prevailed, such as profane swearing, luxurious +living, the neglect of parents in the training of their children. The +knowledge of such things grieved him exceedingly. He now resolved to have +recourse to a measure which was as striking as it was unexpected. In the +trying days of the Crusaders, and moved by their zeal for the safety of +Christendom, the Popes of an earlier time had addressed, as the ministers +of God, immense public assemblages. No Pope, however, had appeared in the +pulpit since Gregory VII. The Church of St. Andrew, where the eloquent +Father Ventura was accustomed to preach, was selected, but, lest there +should be too great a crowd, no notice of the Pope's intention was +published. At half-past three o'clock on a Sunday afternoon, just as the +congregation were expecting to see Abbate Ventura enter the church, the +Pope himself made his appearance. The sermon was not a long one; but it +was memorable, and to be long remembered. "In this city," said the Holy +Father, "which is the centre of Catholicity, there are men who insult the +holy name of God by profane and blasphemous language. On all those who now +hear me I lay this charge: publish everywhere that I have no hope for such +men. They cast in the face of Heaven the stone which will, one day, recoil +upon them and crush them. I would also most earnestly exhort you as +regards the duty of fasting. Many fathers and mothers come to me in order +to impart to me the sorrow which they experience in considering the +melancholy fact which cannot escape their observation, that the demon of +uncleanness exercises a destructive empire over the youth of Rome. Our +Lord Himself in the Holy Gospel assures us that, by no other means than +prayer and fasting, is it possible to overcome this demon who poisons the +sources of life and works the ruin of immortal souls." The sermon, +although comparatively short, spoke of the chief obligations of a +Christian life. It was delivered with great unction, and the Holy Father +concluded with a fervent prayer for Rome and the Roman State. "Look down +upon this vine, O Lord, which Thy right hand hath planted! Look upon it in +mercy, and remove from it the hand of iron which weighs so heavily upon +it. Pour into the bosoms of the rising generations those two most precious +attributes of youth,--modesty and a teachable mind. Listen to my prayer, O +Lord, and bestow upon this congregation, on this city and all people, Thy +most precious blessings." + +Appropriate gesticulations added to the power of words. Another influence, +also, came in aid,--an influence peculiar to Pius IX.,--that indescribable +expression of goodness which lighted up his countenance as he spoke. The +people, whose feelings are naturally fine, were moved even to tears and +sighs. The occasion itself was well calculated to move the minds of a +Catholic audience. It was an element, no doubt, which, together with the +eloquence of the preacher, and the power of apostolic preaching, could not +fail to produce a profound impression. And, indeed, the whole congregation +were filled with enthusiasm. + +Whilst thus finding consolation in the exercise of his sublime ministry, +the benevolent Pontiff was destined to encounter formidable attacks on the +part of political opponents. On the one hand, the ultra-Conservatives, who +held in abomination the mere idea of reform, endeavored by every means to +confound in the popular mind the beneficial measures which the Pope was +introducing into the economy of the State, with radical changes in the +most essential points of religion itself. The Socialists, on the other +hand, studied to excite the people and increase their impatience by +misrepresenting all the acts of the ministry, and causing it to be +believed that, by the delay which was unavoidable in labors of such +magnitude and importance, they were only abusing the confidence of the +sovereign and betraying the cause of reform. Some remains of chivalry +might have been expected in the ranks of the high Conservative party. But, +alas! too truly the age of chivalry was gone, and these sticklers for the +usages of a bygone age, only showed by their modes of proceeding that they +clung to an empty and inanimate form of things from which life and +substance had departed. As was related at the time, they stepped down to +the depths of calumny and published a cruel libel, in which the Holy +Father was held up to the scorn of all right-thinking men as an +"intruder," "an enemy of Religion," "the chief of _Young Italy_." In the +estimation of such men discretion is the better part of valor. But whilst +they fought with the coward's weapon--slander--they could not wholly escape +detection. Their libel was seized in the hands of a _colporteur_. This +wretched man offered to disclose the names of the libellers. Pius IX. +declined his offer, generously forgave him the offence, and even bestowed +upon him a sum of money in order to induce him and enable him to give up +his nefarious trade. + +Meanwhile, there was at Rome a still more numerous body who sustained the +policy of the Holy Father. These friends of order, it is most pleasing to +record, made every effort to aid him in carrying out the measures of +reform which he contemplated. This influential body of faithful and +patriotic citizens, who can never be sufficiently praised, organized a +considerable force which kept the populace in check. This party consisted, +chiefly, of the burghers of Rome. They were encouraged and headed by the +higher nobles, such as the Borghese, the Rospigliosi, the Riguano, the +Piombino, and the Aldobrandini. Acting as a noble guard, they were able to +preserve order in the city, when, on occasion of celebrating the memorable +amnesty, it was seriously threatened by the factions. They were, indeed, a +party of reform, order-loving and law-abiding. It can never be +sufficiently regretted that, unaccustomed as they were to political +turmoil, they knew not how to keep their ground in the face of new dangers +which arose so soon. + +The health of Cardinal Gizzi had begun to decline. The toils of office +were not calculated to improve it, and so he relinquished a post which +was, every day, becoming more onerous and difficult. There was another +Cardinal whose high character had endeared him to the Romans. Ability and +learning were not his only qualities. He was energetic and resolute, +faithful, straightforward and self-sacrificing. When the dread scourge of +cholera swept over his episcopal city and impoverished his people, +Cardinal Ferretti gave up for the relief of the sufferers all that he +possessed--money, clothing, plate, furniture, and remained in his empty +Palace, as destitute as a pauper. To this eminent Cardinal Pius IX. +appealed, offering him the high office which Gizzi could no longer hold. +On 26th July, 1847, the new Chief Minister arrived at Rome. He was warmly +received. The citizens gave him an ovation. + +Shortly before his arrival, news had come to Rome that Austrian troops +were marching on Ferrara, a city of the Papal States. They were, indeed, +entitled, by the treaty of 1815, to occupy this fortress, as well as that +of Camachio. They could urge no better excuse for a display of military +power in the Pope's States on occasion of the threatened disturbance of +16th July. This parade was only the prelude to further military +operations. On 13th August, General Count Auesperg occupied all the posts +of Ferrara. Whatever may be said as to treaty rights, this was, +undoubtedly, an insult to the Papal flag. The most energetic remonstrances +were immediately addressed to the Cabinet of Vienna. Austria endeavored to +justify her proceeding by a wide interpretation of the right of +occupation, by alleging the disturbed state of the public mind at Rome, +and by insisting on certain precedents. But to no purpose. The diplomacy +of Ferretti contended successfully with that of Metternich. And Austria, +yielding with the best grace possible to the representations of the Holy +Father, evacuated Ferrara. + +The Pope, far from allowing himself to be disquieted by the presence in +his States of Croat troops, proceeded with the work of reform which he had +undertaken, slowly, indeed, but with energy and perseverance. In these +labors of the statesman, he was ably aided by the Cardinal Minister +Ferretti. A promise was given that before the end of the year two great +political and administrative institutions would be called into existence. +Accordingly, so early as the month of October, two State papers appeared, +the one instituting the municipality of Rome, which was to be called _the +Senate_, the other decreeing an assembly that should be, to a certain +extent, representative, under the name of _Council of State_ (consulta). +The City of Rome had not, for a long time, possessed, like the other +cities of the Pontifical States, municipal institutions. It was now +ordained that there should be a City Council, consisting of the mayor (in +the language of the country, _Senator_), with eight colleagues and a +hundred other members. This is not unlike our own municipal magistracy, +wherein are the mayor, aldermen and common councilmen or councillors. With +us, however, aldermen could hardly be called the colleagues of the mayor. +This functionary stands alone in his worshipful dignity. The first +nomination of the members of this municipal body was reserved to the Pope. +But it was appointed that, ever after, it should be chosen by free popular +election. None will question the wisdom and liberality of the language in +which the Pope expressed himself in the preamble to the new law. "When we +were called by Divine Providence to govern the Church and the State, our +paternal solicitude was at once directed to every portion of the Dominion +subjected to our Government, but especially towards the capital, the chief +of all our cities, to which it is consoling for us to devote our watchings +and our labors. What was, above all, important, and what we think will be +a subject of joy to all, is the restoration to this beloved city of its +ancient glory of communal representation, by granting to it a deliberative +council. The study of this project has been particularly pleasing to us, +and we have not allowed ourselves to be discouraged by any difficulty." +This important decree was published on the 2nd day of October, 1847. On +the following day there was a national festival. The people were in +raptures, and loudly demonstrated their gratitude to the Holy Father for +an institution which recalled the glorious associations of ancient Rome, +and restored it to its place and rank among modern cities. The +Cardinal-prince Altieri was named president. He opened the first session +of the municipal council by a speech which was marked by the homage paid +therein to Pius IX. "He considered not," said the orator, "whether the +work be difficult. He sees its utility and hesitates not." The council +almost unanimously elected to the post of Senator (Mayor) Prince Corsini, +who was, at that time, devoted to the policy of the reforming Pontiff. + +A measure of more general importance now occupied the attention of the +Sovereign Pontiff and his Ministers. The Council of State (consulta) was +established. It was a deliberative assembly. It was not sovereign, but +possessed the right to advise the Sovereign. There were twenty-four +councillors. The President was a Cardinal Legate. Each councillor was +chosen by the Pope from a list of three candidates presented by each +Province of the Pontifical States. The Council was divided into four +sections, whose office it was to prepare laws relating to the Departments +of Finance, Home Affairs, Public Works and Justice. It was the duty also +of these four Committees to hold a general meeting on certain days, in +order to take counsel together on the draughts of proposed laws which they +had separately prepared. On the 25th November, 1847, the National +Representatives met for the first time. Their place of meeting was the +throne-room of the Quirinal Palace. Cardinal Antonelli was the first +President. The proceedings were commenced, and most appropriately, by a +respectful address to the Holy Father. It was well known to Pius IX. that +the creation of this institution had awakened exaggerated and premature +hopes in the minds of a portion of the people, and that some of the +Deputies were not disinclined to encourage them. So he considered it +necessary, in his reply, to define, in a very decided manner, the true +character and functions of the National Representative Body. "It is +chiefly," said he, "in order that I may become better acquainted with the +wants of my people, and that I may better provide for the exigencies of +the State, that I have called you together. I am prepared, in time, to do +everything, without, however, diminishing the Sovereignty of the +Pontificate. That man would be grievously mistaken who should behold in +the functions which devolve on you, or in your institution itself, his own +Utopias, or the commencement of anything incompatible with the Pontifical +Sovereignty." In concluding, he spoke in a still more determined tone, and +reproached his people with the ingratitude which they had already begun to +manifest. "There are some persons who, having nothing to lose, wish for +disorder and insurrection, and go so far as to make a bad use even of our +concessions." + +There was in this Council a commencement of representative government. +Deputies from the Provinces assembled--deliberated. They heard a Speech +from the Throne. They presented an address in reply. In due time this germ +of constitutional monarchy would be developed. But the Sovereign would not +proceed rashly. The full measure of reform, he was well aware, must, like +all great works, be the fruit of time, of much labor and patient +consideration. + +Count Rossi, the French Ambassador, considered that it was already time to +introduce a lay element into the political administration of the Papal +States. The Holy Father, accordingly, after due consideration, appointed +some distinguished laymen to the Ministry. In so doing, no doubt, he +sacrificed time-honored usage; but not so much to the wishes of his +friends and allies, as to the spirit of the age, which, whether right or +wrong, will have men of the world to deal with the world. + +Italy, although divided into several States, looked to Rome as its centre +and its capital. Whatever occurred in the city of the Popes was at once +known throughout the whole peninsula. Such important and unlooked-for +measures of reform as were now carried into effect could not fail, as they +were communicated, to affect deeply the Italian mind. Public opinion was +aroused. The most profound sympathy was everywhere felt and expressed. +Liberty had revived under the auspices of Religion. It had emanated as a +new blessing from the Cross. The Chief of Religion, the Father of the +Faithful, had become its High Priest. His name was held in benediction. +His praises were proclaimed not only by the Italian people, but also by +every civilized nation. It was no longer violence--no longer +insurrection--that contended for liberty. The greatest of all sovereigns +had announced its reign. It was not indebted to any secret society. It +relied upon society at large. It rested secure, so men believed, on the +firm foundation of enlightened public opinion. Philosophy, as represented +by M. Cousin, hailed its advent. The statesmanship of France, headed by M. +Thiers, extolled its champion. Protestantism, forgetting its illiberal +prejudices, re-echoed with enthusiasm the warm _vivats_ of reformed Italy. +Pius IX., meanwhile, enjoyed his reward,--not in the flattering echo of the +thousand voices which sounded his praise, but in the one still voice of +approving conscience. He was consoled, moreover, by a profound conviction +that the cause which he had taken in hand would, one day, prove +triumphant. + +With every new concession came the desire for further change. The people +generally were satisfied, even grateful, and they frequently expressed +their gratitude in the most sincere and enthusiastic manner. They were +not, however, all sincere. There were not wanting those who studied only +to make available for their own ends the tumultuous gatherings and warm +expressions of satisfaction in which the people so often indulged. This +was the Socialist faction. It aimed at nothing less than to establish a +Republic--a _Republic, one and undivided_, or, as it has been called, +because of its cruel and blood-thirsty character, the _Red Republic_. + +With a view to the establishment of such a Republic, the men of this party +took advantage of the numerous assemblages, which could not now either be +regulated or diminished in number, to gain new friends, to increase +popular excitement, and so to discipline it as to bring it, through some +favorite demagogues, under their control. It will shortly be seen with +what a dangerous weapon they were arming themselves. It can scarcely be +doubted that but for the machinations of these factionists and their +influence with the masses, which was every day increasing, Pius IX. would +have succeeded in establishing a system of government as constitutional +and as free as was at all compatible with his own rights as sovereign. +These rights he was not at liberty to abandon. No greater measure of +political freedom could be reasonably desired by any people. From all +history it is manifest that liberty is as fully enjoyed, and established +on a more secure and permanent basis, under the fostering auspices of a +constitutional monarchy, than in the best regulated republics. Such a form +of government may indeed be said to be more republican than monarchical. +But although possessing many properties, and all the popular advantages of +a Republic, it does not cease to be a monarchy. The kingly dignity still +remains with all that appertains to it, and is an essential element of its +constitution. Such was the monarchy that Pius IX. desired to retain, and +which he was bound in conscience, he believed, never to relinquish. That +in this he was sincere his high character bears witness. Never was there a +less selfish sovereign, or a man of more upright mind and sounder +judgment. No prince ever held less to prerogative. Essential rights he was +firmly resolved to maintain, whilst he never would have shrunk from any +legitimate concession. Whatever was adapted to the time and the +circumstances of his country, useful to his people, and conformable to a +well-informed and sound public opinion, he was prepared to introduce into +the economy of the State. But, the complete secularization of public power +in the Pontifical States, in other words, the establishment of a Republic +based on anti-Christian principles,--the _Red Republic_,--could never for a +moment be contemplated. What may be called the consultative Government had +just entered upon the discharge of its duties, when Pius IX. resolved to +render it completely representative. This important resolution was the +subject of frequent conversations with M. Rossi, at the time ambassador at +Rome of the French constitutional monarchy. M. Rossi wrote as follows, to +his government, in January, 1848: + + + "It is a problem which, after much reflection, I consider may be + solved. The divisions of sovereignty in the world have been + numerous and diverse. And as they lasted for ages, we might even + try one more, beginning by separating entirely the temporal from + the spiritual--the Pope from the King. Only it would be necessary + to leave wholly to the spiritual, and the clergy, matters which + with us are mixed." + + +Not many days later, the ambassador imparted to his government this more +decided intelligence: "The Pope will shortly grant the constitution. It is +his serious and constant study." M. Rossi earnestly recommended that there +should be no delay in adopting this important measure. It would, he +conceived, put an end to agitation,--a most desirable result, surely, when +it is considered how fatal to the cause of liberty and reform might any +day become the too frequent tumultuous assemblages which, once +constitutional government was established, would necessarily cease. + +The Pope held the same idea as the eminent diplomatist. The great idea was +as yet, however, far from being realized. A new and most serious +difficulty unexpectedly arose. On the 5th of March, 1848, a courier +arrived, bearing the startling intelligence that the constitutional +monarchy of France had fallen, and that a Republic was established at +Paris. No greater misfortune could have befallen Rome. The public +excitement was increased beyond measure, and exaggerated hopes were +enkindled that could never be fulfilled. The people, at first enthusiastic +only, were now turbulent. The events in France exercised a still more +fatal influence. They caused anarchy to prevail. The extreme or Socialist +Republicans, whom the proclamation of the constitution would have +paralyzed, were now in the ascendant. What had been done at Paris, they +conceived, might be done at Rome. And they induced the inexperienced +multitude to share their conviction. Such belief was only an idle and a +culpable dream. For surely it could not be guiltless to resolve on +sacrificing thousands on thousands of precious lives for an Utopia,--a +system that could never be realized. Events have shown that in France +itself, which was entirely free to make whatever political arrangement it +pleased, a Republic was not possible, even such a Republic as was +established at the downfall of the citizen monarchy, in preference to the +Red Republic. How, then, should it be possible to build up at Rome an +extreme system in opposition to the views and wishes of the whole +Christian world,--in opposition even to the people of Rome themselves, who, +when free from undue excitement, were the loyal supporters of the +sovereign who had already introduced into the economy of the State so many +liberal institutions--institutions that were in perfect harmony with their +ideas, and admirably adapted to the exigencies of the times? There was no +need, as yet, that the Catholic nations should come to the aid of their +Chief. It was necessary only to appeal, in defence of his sovereignty, +_from Rome drunk to Rome sober_,--from Rome intoxicated with unwonted +draughts of liberty to Rome in its normal state--to Rome, cool, and calm, +and intellectual, even as in the days of her ancient glory, when her sages +and grave senators sat by her gates sorrowing but dignified in their +defeat. With the like countenance ought modern Rome to have met the tide +of Socialist invasion, which every successive endeavor to establish the +Red or Communist Republic proves to be more destructive than the war of +mighty legions, which can only cast down material walls. + +A Socialist Republic was impossible at Rome, the city of the Popes. It +never could have held its ground against the sound principle which +universally prevailed throughout the Pontifical States. Nor would it ever +have been able to obtain the countenance, or even the recognition, of the +European governments. Not France and Austria only; every other Catholic +nation as well would have exerted all their influence against it. Nor in +doing so would they have acted unwisely or unjustly. Had not Rome been the +residence of their Chief Pastor, that great historic city would have +ceased long ago to exist, or would be known only as an insignificant +village, scarcely perceptible on the map of Europe. How often has not the +celebrated city been rescued from destruction by the direct agency of the +Popes? How long have they not governed it with wisdom and blessed it with +prosperity? If there be any such thing as prescriptive right, undoubtedly +it is theirs. If there be any right better founded and stronger than that +of conquest, such right belongs unquestionably to the saviors of Rome. +They have saved it for the Christian world, for mankind, for the Church. +It is no man's property. It cannot be let, like a paltry farm, to those +who shall bid the highest, in vain compromises and delusive hopes of +liberty. Should the Roman people, of their own free will, pretend to give +themselves away,--to sell themselves to a faction whose subversive +principles they abhor, their forefathers of all preceding ages would +protest against their base degeneracy; the children of the generations to +come would curse their memory; all reflecting men of the present time +would accuse them of black ingratitude,--ingratitude to the mighty dead +among their Pontiffs, to whom they are indebted for their very name, their +city's fame, its honored State, its very existence in modern times; +ingratitude, above all, to that ruler who offered them, who bestowed upon +them, liberty, and who would have gladly rescued them in his day from +tyranny,--the tyranny of faction,--even as his predecessors, in bygone +times, snatched them from the cruel grasp of barbarism. + +Pius IX. had made up his mind to institute thoroughly representative and +constitutional government. And this was all that the Roman people, as yet, +desired. They were only anxious that the views of the Pontiff should be +speedily carried into effect. Accordingly, Prince Corsini, the Senator +(Mayor), and the eight principal members of the Municipal Council, were +commissioned to make known their wishes to the Pope. His reply was +dignified and candid. In declaring his intention to grant the constitution +which they asked for, he took care to intimate in the most decided manner +that he was not making a concession to the urgency of the moment, but +accomplishing his premeditated purpose. "Events," said he, "abundantly +justify the request which you address to me in the name of the Council and +Magistracy of Rome. All are aware that it is my constant study to give to +the Government the form which appears to me to be most in harmony with the +times. But, none are ignorant, at the same time, of the difficulties to +which he is exposed, who unites in his own person two great dignities, +when endeavouring to trace the line of demarcation between these two +powers. What, in a secular Government, may be done in one day, in the +Pontifical can only be accomplished after mature deliberation. I flatter +myself, nevertheless, that the preliminary labours having been completed, +I shall be able, in a few days, to impart to you the result of my +reflections, and that this result will meet the wishes of all reasonable +people." + +On the 14th of March, accordingly, was published _the fundamental statute +for the temporal government of the Holy See_, and so was inaugurated +constitutional rule in the most complete and straightforward manner which +it is possible to conceive. + +The constitution was framed according to the model of the French Liberal +Monarchy of 1830, so modified as to render it capable of being adapted to +the Pontifical Government. Under its provisions there were a Ministry +which was responsible, and two Houses of Parliament, one of which was +elective, and the other composed of members who should hold their +appointment during their lifetime. To the Council of State belonged the +framing of laws to be afterwards submitted to the votes of the two +Chambers. + +In all constitutional monarchies, the assent of the sovereign is +necessary, in order to give the force of law to measures voted by +Parliament. So, under the constitution promulgated at Rome by Pius IX., +the College of Cardinals were constituted a permanent council, whose +office it was to sanction finally the decisions of the Legislative +Chambers. Such, in substance, was the statute by which the Pontifical +States became undeniably constitutional. A few days later the Ministry was +named. Three-fourths of their number were laymen. Cardinal Antonelli was +appointed President or First Minister. And thus the constitution was no +sooner framed than it came into operation, so anxious was Pius IX. to +advance the interests and meet the wants and wishes of his people. + +Now, one would say, gratitude only could await the Pontiff. But no! at the +moment when, of all others, he was entitled to rely on the devotedness of +his people, a new and great difficulty arose. + +By the diplomacy of 1815, at the close of the great European War, certain +portions of Italy had been left subject to German rule. By war only, some +Italians imagined, could this evil be removed. This was an extravagant +idea. War could only raise up new enemies to the cause of Italy and that +regeneration which appeared to be so near at hand. Diplomacy would have +served them better. What it had done at one time, under pressure of the +most trying circumstances, it would have been ready to achieve when +circumstances were changed, and imperatively demanded a new order of +things. + +In the new emergencies that had arisen, the learning and ability of +statesmen ought, at least, in the first instance, to have been appealed +to. As between individuals, it is reasonable that all peaceful means of +adjusting a quarrel should be employed, so, in the greater affairs of +nations, all the arts of statesmanship ought to be had recourse to before +resort is had to bayonets and blood. How successful such a course would +have proved, and how beneficial to the cause of Italian liberty, is more +than sufficiently shown by the great result which diplomacy obtained, when +Austria, insisting on treaty rights, displayed the flag of war at Ferrara. +In that case, no doubt, the Pope was the chief diplomatist. But would he +not have been so, likewise, when there was question, not of one city only, +but of many of the greatest cities and best provinces of Italy? It is not +to be supposed, that in these more momentous circumstances he would have +found "the Barbarians" more hard to deal with. Austria, indeed, was so +barbarous as to ignore that exquisite refinement of modern times, which +despises religion and its ministers; and so she would have shown, as of +old, her reverence for the Pontiff, by withdrawing, at his request, her +soldiers from Italian soil. + +The Italians, however, did not think so. They would have war, cost what it +would. The people even of the Papal States, whose august Chief could have +conquered without war, were bent on the same fatal purpose. They were +wholly under the influence of the Socialist agitation, and no wiser +counsel could be made to prevail. + +It was decided among the popular leaders that the question of war should +be agitated in the greatest assembly which it was possible to gather +together. The Coliseum was appointed as the place of meeting, and it was +destined to present an unwanted spectacle, a grand but ill-omened scene. +All Rome, it may be said, was congregated in the ancient arena, the +favorite tribunes at their head. These demagogues were determined that the +question of war should be settled by acclamation, hoping thus to influence +the Sovereign Pontiff to induce him to abandon his policy of neutrality by +this imposing display of opinion and excitement, by so much popular +enthusiasm, by such intoxication, so to say, of patriotism. At an early +hour the vast arena was already crowded. All orders of the State were +there--Nobles, Burghers, Soldiers, Princes--everybody. Priests even came in +tolerable numbers to swell the crowd, and monks of every order, +ecclesiastics of every college, members of every congregation. Such was +the immense open air assemblage in which the question of the new crusade +was to be solemnly discussed. It would have been a grand and noteworthy +spectacle, had it not been arranged beforehand by skilful leaders who were +adepts in the art of getting up revolutionary displays. In the great +assembly there may have been sincerity. In the chief actors there was +none. Such a spontaneous expression of public sentiment, if really such, +would, indeed, have been imposing--grand. Viewed only as a theatrical +performance of parts learned to order--and it was nothing more--it was +deserving of nothing but contempt. There was in this display, besides, a +sinister and melancholy feature--a set of actors practising on the popular +mind to-day, in order to discover what they might safely attempt +to-morrow. + +Near the tribune which overlooks the arena were ranged all those agitators +who were destined to become, at a later period, so notorious in the +commotions of the time. Among them was observed Padre Gavazzi, a Barnabite +monk, whose puerile vanity made him aspire to distinction, and whose +career was already marked by pretentious eloquence, a bombastic style, +confused ideas, and a mind still undecided as to the limits of orthodoxy, +which, a little later, he stepped beyond. He was the preacher of _the +crusade_. Next came the shepherd poet, Rosi; Prince Canino's Secretary, +Masi; a young French monk of the order of Conventualists, Dumaine; +Generals Durando and Ferrari; the journalist, Sterbini, afterwards so +fatally popular; and, of course, the demagogue, Cicerruacho, who had been, +at first, enthusiastic in the cause of the Pope, but who now burned for +war, and, ere long, imparted to the revolution a character of fitful +fanaticism and absurd sympathies. The day was spent in magniloquent +addresses, which affected the style of ancient types, urgent exhortations +to war, poetical orations, rounds of applause, rapturous demonstrations. +The result was, lists for the enrolment of volunteers; the establishment +in the different quarters of the city of tables for receiving patriotic +offerings, and a threatening demonstration against the Quirinal Palace, +where it was intended to force the Pope to bless the colours for the +expedition against Austria. + +The movement was now beyond all control. The orders of the Pope were +treated with a sort of respect, but not obeyed. The spirit of rebellion +was abroad, although the people still made a show of reverence. They were +no sooner from the presence of the Pontiff than they transgressed his most +sacred commands. Pius IX. had distinctly specified, when he authorized the +enrolment and the departure of volunteers, that it was his intention and +his will that the expedition should be exclusively defensive; that it +should protect the territory, but avoid passing the frontier. The leaders, +notwithstanding, adding perfidy to rebellion, made use of the Pontiff's +name in order to deceive the people. General Durando had no sooner arrived +at Bologna than he issued a proclamation, in which, falsifying the Pope's +wishes, he adduced his authority in order to encourage the war. +"Radetsky," said he, "fights against the cross of Christ. Pius IX. has +blessed your swords together with those of Charles Albert. This war of +civilization against barbarism is not merely national, it is a Christian +war. With the cross and by the cross, we shall be victorious. God wills +it." + +Nothing could have tended more completely to compromise the character of +the Pontiff. It became necessary, accordingly, to publish the Encyclical +Letter of 29th April, 1848. "Men are endeavouring," said the Holy Father, +in this admirable document, "to disseminate suspicions that are injurious +to the temporal administration of our States. It is our duty to prevent +the scandal that might thus be given to the simple and unreflecting." He +then proceeds to declare that he is resolved to expose clearly and to +proclaim loudly the origin of all the facts of his Government. He refers +to the memorandum of 1831, which contained the collective counsels of the +European Cabinets to the Apostolic See, recommending the necessary +reforms. Some of these reforms were adopted by Gregory XVI. Circumstances +and the danger of the times caused others to be deferred. Pius IX. +considered that it was his duty to complete what his predecessor had +begun. He does not disclaim having taken the initiative on certain other +points. He had pardoned extensively, and he congratulates himself on this +clemency. He repels the calumny which would ascribe to the reforms which +he had inaugurated the general movement of Italy towards its +enfranchisement. This agitation he attributes to events that occurred +elsewhere, and which became facts of overwhelming influence for the whole +of Europe. Finally, he protests that he gave no other order to his +soldiers than that which required that they should defend the Pontifical +territory. He cannot be held responsible for the conduct of those amongst +his subjects who allow themselves to be swayed by the example of other +Italians. He had given his orders distinctly. They had been transgressed. +On the disturbing question of war with Austria, the _Encyclical_ bears the +following words: + + + "They would have us declare war against Austria. We have thought + it our duty to protest formally against such a resolution, + considering that, notwithstanding our unworthiness, we hold on + earth the place of Him who is the Author of peace--the Friend of + charity; and that, faithful to the Divine obligations of our + Apostolate, we embrace all countries, all peoples, all nations, in + a like sentiment of paternal love. Nor can we refrain from + repelling, in the face of all nations, the perfidious assertions + of those who desire that the Roman Pontiff should be the chief of + the government of a new republic, consisting of all the peoples of + Italy. + + "Moreover, we earnestly exhort, on this occasion, these same + Italian peoples to keep particularly on their guard against these + treacherous counsels. We conjure them to remain devotedly attached + to their princes, whose affection they have experienced. To act + otherwise would be not only to fail in their duty, but also to + expose Italy to discord and factions. As regards ourselves, we + declare once more that all the thoughts and all the efforts of the + Roman Pontiff tend only to increase every day the kingdom of Jesus + Christ, which is the Church, and not to extend the limits of the + temporal sovereignty, with which Divine Providence has endowed the + Holy See, for the dignity and the free exercise of the sublime + Apostolate." + + +No better argument could have been offered in reply to those parties who +clamored so unreasonably for war. Nor could the Pontiff have vindicated +more eloquently the pacific character of that religion of which he is the +Chief and Representative on earth. At the same time, he offered wise and +authoritative counsel to the Italian nationalities. It was too late. The +voice of friendly warning remained unheard amidst the din of strife and +revolution. Need it be added--the cause of liberty perished for a time, +victimized by its own excess. + +The Socialist party had succeeded in gaining the populace of Rome, and +they now constituted a power which prevailed in the city, whatever it +might have been in the field. Skilfully managed by its leaders, it gave +law to the Pontifical government. The Pope was not, however, powerless. A +merely secular sovereign would have been crushed. He would have had no +other resource than to abdicate. The Holy Father was not reduced to this +extremity. He was still able to repel the unacceptable measures which the +Socialists endeavoured to thrust upon him. They and their myrmidons +vociferated for war with Austria. The Pope could still say there should be +no war, and his people did not engage in the contest. A few among the +Roman youth took the field. But, as effeminate as they were ardent, their +courage cooled at the first sight of a _barbarian_ camp. They returned to +their hearths, and there talked magniloquently of the tented fields which +they had traversed, the savage hordes which they had encountered, and the +dangers they had escaped. The party succeeded, however, in forcing a +ministry on the reluctant Pontiff. Such a thing, when done through the +representative body, however unreasonable, does not so much shock our idea +of constitutional government. Neither can we approve the conduct of a +faction which, whilst it was anything but constitutional, imposed a +minister who held its principles, on the prince who had, of his own +accord, become a constitutional monarch. Count Mamiani was one of those +whom the clemency of Pius IX. had restored to their country, of all the +parties thus favored, he alone refused to become bound in honor to the +Holy Father never to abuse the favor, but to remain always a good and +faithful subject. He was not without ability; was well informed, cool and +resolute, but without any fixed principle in politics. He would as readily +have set up a Red Republic as a constitutional monarchy. His political +conduct was guided more by events and circumstances than by any +well-conceived idea of what is right and fitting. He was one of those +Italian Liberals who might be compared to the Necker of the French +Revolution, whilst Mazzini and his followers were the ultra-radicals--the +Robespierres of Roman politics. The Mamiani ministry necessarily arose out +of the popular commotions, and was a protest of the excited masses against +the Encyclical of 29th April. Its policy was no secret. In the days of +popular turmoil they immediately preceded his nomination. Mamiani had +declared distinctly in his harangues to the people that no priest should +be appointed to any public office; that although Pius IX. should remain at +the head of the government, they ought to obtain from him the revocation +of his Encyclical of 29th April, and a declaration of war against Austria; +that a new expedition should be speedily organized, and that an official +bulletin of the war should be published daily. The warlike and +revolutionary pronunciamentos, thus pompously made, could not fail to +arouse the enthusiasm of the multitude, whose excitement was already so +great. In matters of this nature, however, it is more easy to make fine +speeches than to act. The popular Tribune was no sooner elevated to the +ministry than he came to experience this difficulty. So it was convenient +to forget the grand lessons which he had labored so vehemently to impress +upon the people. He still, however, insisted, or appeared to insist, on +the Austrian war. It may have been necessary for the new minister, in +order to maintain his influence over the masses, to announce a war policy. +Such policy, nevertheless, was chimerical. It was decidedly opposed by the +legitimately-constituted powers of the State--the Sovereign on the one +hand, who, by his name, his character, his virtues, his office, was still +powerful; and on the other, the representative body. Accordingly, when +this body came together in the beginning of June, there was an end to the +government of the streets. But there arose new difficulties, and these +difficulties the government of the Holy Father diligently studied to +overcome. Cardinal Altieri delivered, on the part of the Sovereign +Pontiff, an energetic and moving exhortation in support of unity and +concord. + +At the same time, he expressed his earnest hope that the newly-elected +deputies would show their good will by concurring with the ministry in +rendering the new adaptation of the constitution compatible with the +Pontifical government. + +This address, however ineffectual, possessed the merit of being thoroughly +constitutional. The same praise cannot be awarded to Count Mamiani's +inaugural oration. Next day, which was the 9th of June, he ascended the +Tribune, and there enunciated ideas which belonged more to the ministry in +their individual capacity, than as the representatives of their Sovereign. +This was supremely unconstitutional, and could only be the result of +inexperience. What knowledge could those men have had of a free and +national constitution? They ought, at least, to have been guided by the +laws of honesty and honor. Who will say that they were so, when they gave +out that the opinion which they expressed in favor of war was also that of +the Pontiff? They endeavored thus to extend the sanction of a venerated +name to designs that were subversive of Pontifical rule. Neither +inexperience nor ignorance of constitutions presents any valid excuse, or +even palliation of such a proceeding. No doubt they called it policy. It +was the basest trickery. + +In the hands of honest and judicious ministers the new constitution might +have proved successful. So thought many persons who were well informed and +competent to form an opinion in regard to so difficult a question. It had +also many well-wishers. But for the war agitation, it would, to all +appearance, have had a different fate. According to the exaggerated idea +of Italian patriotism which prevailed, all true Italians were bound to +fight for their country. On the Mamiani ministry devolved the very arduous +task of reconciling this warlike spirit with the pacific character of the +Pontificate. The Pope, like any other sovereign, had a right, no doubt, to +defend himself. But both the theology which guided him and the traditions +of his sovereignty forbade him to wage war on any people. Such was the +difficulty which it fell to the lot of his ministry to solve. The +arguments to which they had recourse, however well meant, were certainly +very puerile. The Pope, as such, they insisted, might decide for peace, +and condemn the shedding of blood, whilst, as temporal sovereign, he would +authorize his ministers to act as should seem to them proper, and they +would declare for war. This miserable sophistry only showed the weakness +of the government which employed it. The Pontiff could not be expected to +act as if he were two distinct persons. Nor whilst his ministers waged +war, could he, whose representatives they were, be considered as neutral. +For a few months that this ministry remained in office, the Pope continued +to save his States by resisting the war-cry in opposition to their wishes. +They were constantly at variance with him on this one great topic. His +repugnance to war they could neither comprehend nor overcome. Popular +demonstrations of the most threatening kind were often made, but to no +purpose. + + + Justum et tenacem propositi virum, + Non civium ardor prava jubentum mente quatit solida. + + +The Pontiff could not be moved from his firm resolve. The ministry, +however, was shaken. With no better stay than sophistry and inconsistency, +its weakness became apparent, and, as had been for some time clearly +inevitable, it fell. + +Before considering further the statesman-like efforts of Pius IX. in the +cause of reform, it may not be out of place to review briefly the +political opinion of the time. Although all men cannot be expected to +accept, especially in many important matters, all the ideas of those +distinguished writers, Gioberti, Balbo, D'Azeglio, it would be unjust, +nevertheless, to deny them the credit of having imparted new vigor, if not +its first impulse, to the cause of reform in Italy. They were not, like so +many others, rash and inconsiderate. They desired not to hurry on +recklessly to the wished-for goal. They thought it was unwise to aspire, +all at once, to the greatest degree of liberty that might be attained. The +end in view could be best reached, they conceived, by judicious and +well-timed measures of reform, and by such institutions as might be +developed at a later period, when the Italian people, unaccustomed as yet +to a constitutional _regime_, should be capable of a greater degree of +freedom. Nothing more wise can be supposed than this view of educating the +people for liberty before bestowing on them the precious boon. Their idea +of commencing the work of reform by waging war on Austria does not appear +to be so commendable. It was not, surely, the part of prudence, when on +the eve of a great and arduous undertaking, to stir up enemies on every +side. And this was really what they sought to do by provoking Austrian +hostility. The government at Vienna was not inclined to be hostile. It had +joined with other powers in recommending reform to the late Pope. And now +it would rather have been an ally than an enemy. But the "barbarian" +Germans were entirely odious to the Italian people. The power of education +ought to have been brought to bear on this same people, if only in order +to disabuse their minds of this one noxious prejudice. It had become +necessary at length to extend to them the benefits of a political +education. And surely the eradication of illiberal ideas would have formed +a profitable branch of study. + +Pius IX., as has been already shown, was a practical reformer, and he had +zealously undertaken the work of reform. Austria was not inclined to throw +any impediments in the way of his patriotic labors. Only on one occasion +did that powerful empire show a disposition to interfere. It was when Rome +and the Sovereign Pontiff were threatened by popular commotions. Then, +even on the representation of the Holy Father, Austria laid down her arms. +With these constitutional reformers, if we except their insane idea of +waging a needless war, very little fault can be found as politicians. So +lately as the early part of the year 1848, their opinions were generally +accepted throughout Italy. They were, at that time, also the most powerful +party. Their numbers, authority and talent, gave them a decided +superiority, whilst the Republicans were still a weak minority. In a few +months, to all appearance, everything was completely changed. Talent, +respectability, authority, and influence, were still on the side of the +constitutional reformers. But, in the meantime, the Red Republic had +gained the command of numbers. How this came to pass it may be well now to +enquire. + +In every great community there are many people who have no fixed +principles in politics, and others, perhaps, not less numerous, who have +no political principles at all. Both these classes of people depend +entirety on other men for the sentiments and opinions by which, at any +given moment, they shall be guided. Such people were sufficiently numerous +at Rome and the other cities and provinces of Italy. Demagogues, +therefore, who were not without ability and possessed fluency of speech, +found it no very difficult task to fashion as they had a mind, for these +classes of citizens, any amount of political principles and _programmes_. +Those even who were fairly imbued with constitutional ideas, but whose +minds were not wholly decided, the leaders of the Red Republic endeavored, +and not without success, to gain to their side, by persuading them to +compromise, as regarded certain points, to modify their opinions on +others, change their designations, enter into coalitions, and adopt such +ingenious arrangements as were proposed to them. Thus, by degrees, and as +was only to be expected in such circumstances, the ultra-radicals +succeeded but too well in causing the most extravagant political notions +to prevail among the masses. As fate would have it, the revolution in +France of February, 1848, which brought to an end the constitutional +monarchy, afforded no slight aid and encouragement to the Red Republic of +Italy. The men of this party might have understood, on reflection, to what +extreme peril France became exposed, when she preferred brute force to +constitutional proceeding, and tore down by violence a system which was, +in many respects, good; and which, inasmuch as it was a constitution, +could in due time have been extended and improved, receiving, as new wants +arose, and wisdom and experience warranted, new developments, new +adaptations, and daily increasing excellence. The constitutional element +once removed, there was no medium between and safeguard against +absolutism; on the one hand, and on the other anarchy, or the reign of +violence and terror. + +The extremists of Italy, however, beheld only in the too successful action +of the Parisian populace a new step towards liberty. It became the duty of +the Italian people, they declared, to march onward in the wake of +enlightened France, and seize the prize that was at length presented for +their acceptance. By such counsellors were the people abused and led +astray. The moderate reform party were themselves excited by the +enthusiasm which events had inspired, and heeded not the snares which the +radical chiefs were laying for them. They were thus caught in the toils of +those designing men, whilst they imagined that they were only working out +their own idea. They supposed even that they were gaining Mazzini, whilst, +in reality, Mazzini was making proselytes of them. Gioberti and his more +immediate friends, who certainly were not without their faults, were +abandoned by the crowd. + +Reverting to what has been said already concerning Mazzini and his +political doctrines, there need be no hesitation in pronouncing him the +evil genius of modern Italy. In his book, "Italy in its Relations with +Liberty and Moral Civilization," which was published in France, where he +was an exile, in 1847, he formally declared that "Young Italy" (the +extreme Republicans) was the only party that could exercise any decisive +influence on the destiny of Italy. At the same time, he treated with +supreme contempt the ideas and hopes of the Reform party. In his mystic +republic only was to be found, he affirmed, _the principle of unity, the +ideal formula of actual progress_. This theory was the idol at whose +shrine he offered sacrifice. His followers were also his +fellow-worshippers, and he was their high priest. They were fascinated by +his brilliant utopias. He was no longer a legislator, a politician, a +philosopher only. He was a man of inspiration, a prophet, the Mahomet of a +new hegira. His sayings were oracles. His doctrines were enunciated in +sententious and poetical language; and from his place of exile they were +disseminated over the Italian peninsula. It has been shown already how +generously Pius IX. had recalled from banishment many subjects who had +violated the laws of their country. These men were, at one time, no doubt, +sincerely grateful, and showed how highly they appreciated the clemency of +the Pontiff. It is not, however, surprising, if, as is usual in such +circumstances, they began to consider more the severity which punished +than the goodness which forgave them. Mazzini, among others, dissembled +for a time. It may be--it has even been suggested that he was at first +sincere, and had nobly resolved to sacrifice his favorite ideas to the +cause of Italy. This opinion, however, was destined to be soon dispelled. +It was not long till the newspaper _Italia del Popolo_, revealed the fact +that he still held to extreme and revolutionary views. The minds of the +people were poisoned by the ravings of this journal, and filled with +mistrust. It became the instrument by which sects and parties were stirred +up to work the ruin of the country. "_Unita e non unione. Assemblea del +Popolo Italiano e non dieta._" "_Unity; not union. The assembly of the +Italian people; not a federal diet._" Such was the watchword of Mazzini's +paper. And now the masses in the streets, under the guidance of the +revolutionary leader, vociferated, "Live the Constituent Assembly!" with +as much wild enthusiasm as they had formerly shouted for Pius IX. and +reform. They had no distinct idea as to the meaning of the cry, but held +it to be something extreme--a boundless measure of liberty. The populace +wanted nothing better; and so they continued to shout, as they believed, +for unity and Republican Government. Such a system was, from the very +nature and position of the States of Italy, impracticable, and without +pressure from without, foreign war--which the Mazzinians so much +deprecated--could never have been established. How bring under the yoke of +a general popular convention so many diverse peoples? They were all +Italian, no doubt, but of different races, different nationalities, and +each of them had for ages enjoyed its own national laws, customs, manners, +prejudices, predilections, and antipathies. Nor had they common interests. +What would be good and suitable in one State might, by no means, be +adapted to the requirements of another; might even in some cases prove +disastrous. The Grand Dukes had, by their mild and liberal rule, endeared +themselves to the Tuscan people. Piedmont and Naples were alike devoted to +their respective monarchies. The people of the Papal States, with the +exception of the populace of Rome, were loyal to their government. That +populace was greatly increased in 1848 by the influx of strangers--men +holding Republican opinions, who were diligently culled from foreign +nationalities. All but these abnormal masses were attached to the wise and +clement rule of their Pontiff Sovereigns. Of late years many things had +occurred to confirm their devoted loyalty. Above all, proof had been given +that the sacred monarchy itself could, without any diminution of its real +power and dignity, adopt such political reforms as were adapted to the +wants of the time. All these monarchies, already so moderate and popular, +were becoming every day more constitutional. Were they now to be +overthrown? The Mazzinian idea aimed at nothing less. And yet, what would +it not have cost? So many time-honored rights would never have been given +up without a struggle--without bloodshed, if they were at all to be +sacrificed. The torch of civil strife would have blazed from end to end of +the Italian peninsula. And the ruin of the ancient monarchies--if, indeed, +they had been destined at that time to fall--would probably have been +succeeded by more despotic forms of kingly rule. + +If, at the time in question, the people of the different States of Italy +had acted in concert, uniting their influence, they would have assumed an +imposing attitude, and might have obtained not only the forbearance but +the aid even of their powerful neighbors in developing such of their +institutions as already contained germs of liberty, in extending +constitutional rights which had long existed in monarchies that were by no +means absolute. In the place of political wisdom, however, a universal +mania appeared to prevail. In the confusion of popular demonstrations, and +the clamor of party cries, the "still small voice of reason" was unheard. +The revolutionary chiefs harangued anew for war, and Italy, listening to +their ill-omened counsels, took up arms against its sovereigns; and so +gave the death-blow to its political existence. + +The moderate Reform party conceived a plan which, if it had been carried +into effect, would have been attended, no doubt, with great and happy +results. They proposed to unite all the States of Italy by means of a +Federal Parliament. They directed their efforts in the first place to +promote union between the rulers and the people, recommending to the +former moderation, to the latter a wise forbearance. They hoped thus to +postpone the idea of absolute unity, and of the popular convention by +which it was designed to establish and maintain it. The federal diet, an +excellent idea of which was reduced to writing by the reverend and learned +Abbate Rosmini, would have held the place of this assembly. According to +this plan of confederation, the Pope, the King of Sardinia, the Grand Duke +of Tuscany and the other Princes would have been united in an offensive +and defensive league. Based on these principles, and provided that nothing +were admitted in its details which could interfere with the sacred +character and office of the Sovereign Pontiff, the proposed political +arrangement would have found favor generally with all who held +constitutional views. Eminent authors, at least, have written concerning +it approvingly. M. Laboulaye, in his learned work on Count Balbo, says: + + + "It was necessary that the Princes should be induced to take an + interest in the independence which concerned them so much, by + forming a confederation like the _Zolverein_, which has so + powerfully contributed to the union and the greatness of Germany. + A confederation is undoubtedly that organization which is most + suited to the character and the history of Italy, and it is also + the best means of reviving Italian nationality and of checking + Austria." + + +Need it be added, that when there should have been question of restraining +Austria, there would have been at hand an influence which Austria +respected, and to which that mighty empire and its disciplined armies +would have yielded more readily than to all Italy in arms. Without a +confederation, or an arrangement equally good, there could be no better +lot for Italy than civil war and national ruin. + +Events, meanwhile, were hastening on with alarming rapidity. The Red +Republic persisted in maintaining its idea. The danger with which the +country was threatened from without did not, in the least, moderate its +efforts, and they were attended by the only results which they were +calculated to produce. Italy remained divided. The sword of Charles Albert +could not cope alone with the formidable arms of Austria. A united people +might have stayed the tide of battle. The imposing spectacle of their +union might even have influenced the German Cabinet, and the legions of +Radetsky might never have presumed to cross the Mincio. But it was fated +to be otherwise. Excess followed on excess, and the inevitable consequence +was speedy chastisement. "_Perish Italy rather than our idea_," was the +watch-cry of the Socialist leaders. And as if fate had combined with their +phrenzy to destroy a people, Italy was crushed by the invader. What cared +they? What imported it to them that their country was brought low, and its +Princes humbled in the field of Novara? The downfall of the Sardinian +monarch, which at the same time was the defeat of Italy, was to them a +victory. One more impediment to their designs was removed. "_The war of +Kings_," said Mazzini, "_is at an end; that of the people commences_." And +he declared himself a soldier. But Garibaldi did not long command him. His +warlike enthusiasm was soon exhausted. _The war of the people_ also ended +disastrously; and the revolutionary chief, tired of the sword, resumed his +pen and renewed his attacks on the moderate Reformers, who alone had +fought, like brave men, in the Austrian war. The strife of words was more +congenial to the revolutionist; and he set about editing a new +publication. In this journal he raged against the Reformers. They were a +set of traitors, ante-chamber Machiavels, who had muzzled the popular lion +for the benefit of kings and aristocracies. + +These _Machiavels_ were such men as Count Balbo, who had given his five +sons to the war of independence; Signor D'Azeglio, who had been in the +campaign with Durando, and who had a leg broken by a ball at Vicenza, +whilst defending Monte Benico with two thousand men against twelve +thousand Austrians. D'Azeglio, still smarting from his wounds, as well as +from the insults of these reckless politicians, replied in a pamphlet, +which appeared under the title of "Fears and Hopes." He took no pains to +spare those club soldiers, those tavern heroes and intriguers, who could +wage war so cleverly against the men who had stood under the enemy's guns. +"For my part," he wrote, "I do not fear your republic, but despotism. Your +agitation will end with the Croats." And so it fell out. The prediction +was but too speedily and too completely realized. A French author, M. +Mignet, comments on this subject at some length, and with remarkable +eloquence: + + + "A party as extreme in its desires as in its doctrines, and which + believes that it is possessed of nothing so long as it does not + possess everything, and which, when it has everything, knows not + how to make anything of it, imagined the establishing of a + republic in a country which is scarcely capable of attaining to + representative monarchy, and where the only thing to be thought + of, as yet, was territorial independence. This party divided the + thoughts, weakened the efforts of the country, and caused mutual + mistrust to arise between those governments and peoples which were + reconciled under constitutional liberty, and had an understanding + against the common enemy. They thus compromised the deliverance of + the land. The King of Naples, threatened by an insurrection in his + capital, retained his troops that were on the point of marching to + the theatre of war; the Pope ceased to give encouragement; the + King of Piedmont, already in full march, hesitated; and Italy, + agitated, without being free, became once more powerless, because + she was disunited, and beheld the Austrians reappear as + conquerors, and re-establish themselves anew as masters, in the + recovered plains of Lombardy." + + +These eloquent words confirm the view so generally entertained, that the +Red Republicans were all along the cause of Italy's disasters. In +consequence of the national weakness which their baneful operations +produced, Radetski was enabled to reconquer Upper Italy, whilst they +themselves directed their steps towards Rome, spreading terror as they +approached, even as if they had been an army of Goths and Vandals. +Swelling by their presence the numbers of men who held the same opinions, +who, like them, were dissatisfied, and whom nothing could satisfy, they +occasioned an extraordinary agitation of the people, caused fearful +disquietude, and excited inordinate hopes. They imbued the masses with +their subversive principles, and there was an end to all transaction with +the Papal government. They had already done all that lay in their power in +order to destroy monarchy in Piedmont. They now brought into play every +scheme that could be devised, in order to advance the sinister work of +dispossessing the Holy Father. They succeeded in gaining many Reformers, +who, too easily, allowed themselves to become their dupes. + +At first, as has been shown, the popular demonstrations in honor of Pius +IX. were honestly expressive of gratitude to the beneficent Pontiff. The +Socialists now succeeded in gaining possession of this great influence, +and they employed it, certainly, with consummate ability. The masses, when +once under the spell of agitation, are at the disposal of the boldest +demagogues. The Reformers who had allowed themselves to be ensnared, +continued to sing their patriotic hymns, the Roman _Marseillaises_, +without heeding that Socialist radicalism was imperceptibly taking the +crown of the causeway, and that the popular demonstrations had undergone a +complete change. At an earlier date "Young Italy" had only used them as a +threat. They were now an arm in its hands. And so it governed in the +streets, making a tribune of every milestone. + +There was only wanting to them at this moment a common centre or general +headquarters of insurrection, from which should go forth the word of +command, the signal for every rising of the people. This was found in the +celebrated _Roman Circle_. This circle was a kind of convention without +commission--a travelling cohort of two or three hundred agitators, who +carried from town to town the dread and dismal flag of the Red Republic. +This mob-power had, in opposition to the wishes of the Holy Father, +brought into office the Mamiani ministry. This weak and irresolute +minister broke the ranks of his own party, and passed over to "_Young +Italy_". This party now dictated to him on all occasions. They urged on +him with special earnestness war with Austria, knowing full well that the +Pope would never agree to it, and so by his refusal would decline in +popularity. + +The constitution was now in abeyance, the minister being at the orders of +a party out of doors, and no longer the organ of the Sovereign and the +representative body. The Pontifical authority, although still venerated by +many, was no longer obeyed. It was only a name. + +The republic reigned, and only waited for the moment, too surely to come +at last, when it should be openly recognized. In such circumstances the +Mamiani ministry rapidly lost ground. Now in its death agony, and impotent +for good, it persisted, with a degree of perverseness which nothing could +moderate, in reiterating its declarations of war against Austria. This +only added to the confusion which prevailed. The ministers and their more +ardent adherents were ready, as became patriots and heroes, to fight for +their country. Nevertheless, with all this boasting, they made no haste to +be enrolled. Whilst these men were indulging in such idle and +vain-glorious talk, the few who had volunteered and taken the field, +returned from Vicenza, which, during two days, had been bravely but +fruitlessly defended. The forum warriors had only set out in time to meet +their defeated and wounded fellow-countrymen, and give them the honors of +an ovation on their return to the city. The war agitation was evidently +nothing else than a weapon of offence against the Holy See. In its results +it was most unprofitable, every day bringing news of fresh disasters. +Circumstances now rendered the war-cry more inopportune than ever. Charles +Albert, King of Sardinia, had been driven from the Mincio to the Oglio, +thence to the Adda, thence to Milan. He was now recrossing the Piedmontese +frontier, vanquished, despairing and heart-broken. Piedmont, nevertheless, +in the silence of her humiliation, set about preparing for a final effort. + +The various ministers whom Pius IX. had called to his counsels were all +alike unsuccessful. Circumstances of greater difficulty than ever had now +arisen, and not without a sad foreboding of the greater evils that were +yet in store, the Holy Father had recourse to the well-known statesmanship +of Count Rossi, who had formerly been French Ambassador to the Holy See. + +M. Mignet, the able biographer of this eminent statesman, gives a distinct +and interesting account of the difficulties with which, as Chief of the +Pope's Council of State, he was called to contend: + + + "M. Rossi at first hesitated. He knew what formidable problems + there were to solve. To conduct, according to constitutional + principles, a government that had been heretofore absolute; to + administer by the hands of laymen the affairs of a country that + had been hitherto subject to Ecclesiastics; to unite in an Italian + league a state that had been almost always opposed to a political + union of the Peninsula; in a word, to establish all at the same + time, a Constitutional Government, a Civil Administration, a + National Federation, were not the only difficulties that he would + have to overcome. The minister of a Prince, whose confidence + others would dispute with him, a stranger in a country, where he + would exercise public authority, he would be liable to be left + without support notwithstanding his devotedness, and without + approbation notwithstanding his services; to be attacked as a + revolutionist by the blind advocates of abuses, and disavowed as + an enemy of liberty by the impassioned partisans of chimeras. He + continued to decline for a considerable time. The conditions which + he at first proposed to the Sovereign Pontiff not having been + accepted, M. Rossi thought that he had escaped the lot that was in + store for him. But the Pope, after having essayed in vain a new + ministry, pressed him more urgently, in the month of September, + 1848, to come to his aid, offering him at the same time his full + confidence and unlimited authority. M. Rossi accepted." + + +At the time of his accession to office Count Rossi was sixty years of age. +He was no stranger to politics. His life, indeed, had been spent in the +midst of political turmoil. As may be supposed, he suffered much in the +course of his checkered career. He had, at the same time, learned much at +the stern school of experience. He had been several times an exile, and +had thus become the citizen of more than one country. In 1815 he was +banished from the Peninsula, on account of the part which he had borne in +the cause of Italian liberty; and having resided at Geneva and Paris, he +had made for himself, in those cities, a brilliant reputation. He wrote on +the important subjects of political economy and jurisprudence, displaying +intimate knowledge of these sciences, great intellectual power and +superior penetration. Although relying on principles and theory, he did +not ignore facts, nor refuse to accommodate the lofty forms of science to +practical requirements. He was versed in the knowledge of mankind, and was +far from being one of those, who, adhering rigidly to theories, would +force nature itself to yield to their opinion. At a time when the affairs +of Italy were in a most dangerous crisis, and anarchy actually prevailed +at Rome, he was the ablest counsellor and auxiliary that Pius IX. could +have placed at the head of his ministry. Possessing many rare endowments, +Count Rossi was not gifted with those outward graces which tend so much to +win favor for public men. His manner was such that he appeared cold and +reserved; and his keen, searching lynx-like eye, was calculated to cause +embarrassment. Familiarity with the objects of science and habits of +diplomacy had imparted to him a gravity of demeanor which was easily +mistaken for superciliousness and disdain. Withal he cared not to please, +preferring to exercise influence by strength of will and the authority of +superior intellect, rather than by attractive and amiable qualities and +the charm of the affections. He had the mind of a statesman, but owned not +that winning exterior which gains the crowd and disarms hostility. None +but his own family knew how good he really was, and how tender-minded, so +completely was all this excellence concealed by his cold and repulsive +manner. + +The new minister was resolved, above all, to preserve the sovereignty of +the Holy See. "The Papacy," he wrote at the time, "is the last living +glory of Italy." His conduct was in perfect harmony with his language. He +applied with no less ardour than ability to the work that lay before him. +In less than two months he accomplished more than can be well conceived, +and further measures were in course of preparation. Those matters to which +he first devoted his chief attention were the Interior Government of Rome, +the state of the Pontifical finances and the territorial independence of +Italy. He found the public treasury in imminent danger of bankruptcy, and +he saved it by obtaining three millions of _ecus_ from the Roman clergy. +Through this munificent donation the minister was relieved from all +disquietude as regarded finance, and so was enabled to direct his energies +to the more difficult task of adapting the administration to the new +institutions. The constitution was, indeed, legally established. The +object now to be aimed at was to bring its wise provisions into practical +operation; in other words, to create a constitutional Pontificate. + +With a view to this desirable end, M. Rossi prepared such legislative +measures as were calculated nicely to determine the sphere of action that +should be proper to each of the powers. By such means only could the +disorderly force of popular movements be controlled and restrained within +fixed limits. The Civil Government of the Roman States required to be +entirely reorganized. To this task also the minister diligently applied, +impressed with the conviction that good laws are at once the strongest +bulwark of liberty, and the most efficient check to arbitrary power. Count +Rossi was by birth an Italian. He was so in feeling also, and was +naturally led to consider how he should best avail himself in his +political arrangements, of the sound and enlightened doctrines of Gioberti +and Rosmini. With a view to this end he commenced negotiations at Turin, +Naples and Florence, for a confederation of the Italian States. It was his +policy that all these States should unite under a general government, +whilst each State retained the forms, laws and institutions to which it +had been accustomed. Certain relations between them, suitable to the time +of peace, should be established, as well as such regulations as would +facilitate their common action in case of war. Pius IX. saw the wisdom of +this great design, and favored its realization. It redounds to his glory, +as a ruler of mankind, that he decided for this salutary measure from +which, if it had been carried into effect, might have resulted, in time, +the complete emancipation and regeneration of Italy. Time, however, was +not granted, and as we shall presently see, anarchy resumed its dismal +reign. + +Anterior to the accession of Count Rossi's Ministry, the Legislative +Chambers had only wasted their time in unprofitable debates. It was +appointed that they should meet on the 15th of December, 1848, and the +minister prepared a bold and energetic, but conciliatory address. The +representatives of the people, it was designed, should now hear no longer +the ambiguous and factious harangues of a weak-minded demagogue, but the +true and candid utterances of a Constitutional Government. Rossi showed +himself on this occasion, to which melancholy circumstances have added +extraordinary solemnity, a grave and resolute minister, determined to +appear as the counsellor of his Sovereign and the exponent of his views, +not as the slave of the people and the organ of their blind passions. This +discourse was not destined to be delivered. It commenced as follows: + + + "Scarcely had his Holiness ascended the Pontifical throne when the + Catholic world was filled with admiration at his clemency as a + Pontiff and his wisdom as a temporal Sovereign.... The most + important facts have shown to mankind the fallacy of the + groundless predictions of that pretended philosophy which had + declared the Papacy to be, from the nature of its constitutive + principle, the enemy of constitutional liberty. In the course of a + few months, the Holy Father, of his own accord, and without aid, + accomplished a work which would have sufficed for the glory of a + long reign. History, impartially sincere, will repeat--and not + without good reason--as it records the acts of this Pontificate, + that the Church, immovable on her Divine foundations, and + inflexible in the sanctity of her dogmas, always intelligently + considers and encourages with admirable prudence, such changes as + are suitable in the things of the world." + + +The oration was, throughout, a bold and luminous exposition of the ideas +and policy which M. Rossi was charged to carry into effect. It was, at the +same time, an earnest appeal to the representative body in order to obtain +the aid, which was so necessary, of their loyal concurrence, and the +minister held himself bound in honor to abide strictly by the provisions +of the constitution. The constitution, meanwhile, was in presence of very +determined enemies. They had sworn its overthrow. They met, however, with +a formidable opponent in the ministry, which was resolved to sustain the +new order of things, and prepared to defeat all the schemes of the radical +faction. The constitution itself was also a serious impediment to their +contrivances. Both constitution and ministry accordingly became the +objects of violent attacks at street meetings and in the revolutionary +journals. The minister was undaunted. "To reach the Holy Father," said he, +"they must pass by my lifeless body." This noble determination only +rendered him more odious to the revolutionists. The leaders of the Red +Republic party, on their return from a scientific Congress at Turin, where +the name of science was only used as a cloak the better to conceal their +plots, decreed that Rossi should be put to death. Mazzini, in a letter +which was published, declared that his assassination was indispensable. In +one of the clubs of Rome the Socialists selected by lot the assassins who +should bear a hand in the murder of the minister. The wretched man who was +appointed to be the principal actor in the deed of blood actually +practised on a dead body in one of the hospitals. The day on which +Parliament was summoned to meet, 15th November, was to see the full +purpose of the faction carried into effect. As almost always occurs in +such cases, warnings reached the ears of the intended victim. Some of the +conspirators, struck with remorse, had so far revealed the plot. Others +boasted cynically that they would soon be rid of the oppressor. The +Duchess de Rignano conjured the minister to remain at home. Equally solemn +and urgent words of warning came from other quarters, and were alike +unheeded. If, indeed, he believed that there was a plot, he relied on +disarming the hatred of the conspirators by his courageous bearing, and +proceeded from his house to the Quirinal Palace. When there he addressed +comforting words to the Pope, who was in a a state of great anxiety. Pius +IX., in bestowing a parting benediction, earnestly recommended that he +should keep on his guard. + +At the door of the Pope's apartments he met an aged priest, who beseeched +him to remain. "If you proceed," said he, "you will be murdered." M. Rossi +paused a moment and replied: "The cause of the Pope is the cause of God." + +A guard of carabiniers, treacherously disobeying the orders which had been +given them, were absent from the approach to the house where parliament +assembled. The minister had reached the stairs, and was ascending when a +group of conspirators came around him. At first they insulted him. Then +one of the assassins struck him on the shoulder. As he turned indignantly +towards this assassin, his neck was exposed to the poniard of another, +who, availing himself of the opportune moment, dealt the fatal blow. The +minister fell, bedewing with his blood the steps at the very threshold of +the legislative chamber. As the details of the murder were related to the +members, they remained ominously silent. Not one of them uttered a word in +condemnation of this monstrous crime. They proceeded at once to the +business of the day. Although in the open space at the foot of the stairs +which led to the assembly hall the civic guard was stationed in arms, +nobody arrested, or showed the slightest inclination to arrest, the +murderer. On the contrary, the criminal was conducted, not only unpunished +but in triumph, through the streets of the city by his accomplices. A new +hymn was sung--"Blessed be the hand that slew Rossi." The dagger of the +assassin was enwreathed with flowers and exposed for public veneration in +the _cafe_ of the Fine Arts. The populace, in the excess of their phrenzy, +insulted the widow of the murdered minister; and, by an extravagance of +irony, they required that she should illuminate her house. The newspapers +expressed approval of the crime, as it was, they pretended, the necessary +manifestation of the general sentiment. The whole people, by their +silence, although not by actual participation in such demon-like +rejoicings, declared themselves accomplices in the deed of blood. + +Together with the noble Rossi perished, for the time, the cause of Rome, +the cause of Italy. What might not have been the gain to both, if the +devoted minister had been allowed to fulfil his appointed mission? +Constitutional government would have been established on a solid and +permanent basis; the wild agitation of the streets would have been brought +to an end, and the excited passions of the revolution, beholding the +sound, regular and beneficial working of free political institutions, +would have been awed into composure. But, sad reflection! by an act which +history will never cease to stigmatize, the only man who, by the authority +of his reputation, abilities and experience, was equal to the stupendous +labor of building up on sure foundations the social fabric was struck +down, and the nations of Europe, which had looked on hitherto in sympathy, +recoiled with horror. Liberal men throughout the civilized world had long +been deeply interested in the state of Italy. Such was their belief in the +bright future, which they were confident awaited her, that they could +pardon the ill-controlled agitation of her children, and even their +greatest excesses, when they first began to enjoy, before they knew how to +use it, the unwonted boon of liberty. With crime and the evils which +followed in its train they had no sympathy. A system which relied on +assassination could not prosper. Inaugurated by violence, it could exist +only by violence. The better feelings of mankind were shocked. The die was +cast, and Rome was doomed. The fated city had rejoiced in the exercise of +unhallowed force, and through that legitimate force which, in due time, +Divine Providence allowed to be brought against her, she met her +punishment. + +With the death of Rossi ended all hope of liberty. + +The conspirators were resolved that nothing should be allowed to delay the +benefits which they anticipated from their crime. All sense of propriety +was not yet extinguished in the representative body. There was question of +sending a deputation to the Pope, in order to convey to him the condolence +of the Chamber, and express their regret for the sad event. This step, +which good sense and proper feeling so urgently demanded, was opposed, and +only too successfully, by Charles Bonaparte, Prince of Canino. + +(M1) The revolutionists now resolved themselves into a kind of permanent +club. This club set about making a great demonstration, and required that +both the civic guard and the army should join them. When all was ready for +this purpose, a mob which had for some time been in course of organization +marched to the Quirinal Palace, where the Pope resided, and pointed cannon +against the gates. They also caused muskets to be discharged from the +neighboring houses. Monsignore Palma fell, mortally wounded, and +expired(1) at the feet of the Holy Father. They next set fire to one of +the gates. But the Swiss Guards succeeded in extinguishing the flames. The +rebels now threatened to put to death all the inmates of the palace, with +the exception of Pius IX. himself, unless he consented to their +unreasonable demands. Even he would not have been spared, as was but too +well shown by the balls which fell in his apartments. Until this moment +the Holy Father had resolutely refused to accept a ministry, to press +which upon him was an insult. Now, but only in order to save the lives of +the people around him, he submitted to this indignity. Mamiani, with his +former programme, supported by the constituent assembly, which consisted +of the representatives of all Italy, together with Dr. Sterbini, Garetti, +and four other persons equally unacceptable, constituted this Socialist +ministry. + +They desired also to include in the sinister list the celebrated Abbate +Rosmini. But this gifted and eminent divine refused to take part with +them, or lend any countenance to their proceedings. On the 17th November +several members of the representative chamber proposed that a deputation +should be sent to Pius IX., in order to express to him their devotedness +and gratitude. They were not wholly lost to all sense of propriety. But +the Prince de Canino, true to his antecedents, succeeded in preventing so +laudable a purpose from being carried into effect. He declared that such a +step would be imprudent, and that they might have cause to repent it. +"Citizen Bonaparte," such was the appellation he gloried in, further said +that the Italian people were undeniably the masters now, and that they +well understood how to humble all parliaments, ministers and thrones that +should oppose their energetic impulses. + +(M2) Meanwhile the Pope, in such a fearful crisis, was abandoned by all +save a few friends, the officials of his Palace, his faithful Swiss Guards +and the foreign ambassadors. Among those who remained with him were six +Noble Guards, and the Cardinals Soglia and Antonelli. This was all the +court and army that was left to the great Pontiff, who had been so +deservedly the idol of his people and the hope of mankind. In so desperate +a condition he never lost confidence. Throughout all the trying +circumstances he was self-possessed and serene. Nothing pained him so much +as the ingratitude of his people. The new ministry of subversion had +extorted from the Pope his forced and reluctant consent to their +formation. He deemed it his duty to protest, which he did in the most +solemn manner, against them and all their acts, before all the Christian +European nations, as represented by their ambassadors. + +These ambassadors and diplomatists were Martizez Della Rosa, the +ambassador of Spain, with the Secretary of the Embassy, M. Arnao; the Duke +d'Harcourt, ambassador of France; the Count de Spaur, ambassador of +Bavaria; the Baron Venda Cruz, ambassador of Portugal, with the Commandant +Huston; the Count Boutenieff, who represented at that time the Emperor of +Russia and King of Poland; Figuereido, ambassador of Brazil; Liedekerke of +Holland, and several other diplomatists, of whom not one was an Italian. +There was at Rome also on the occasion, although not in the apartments of +the Pope, a British statesman, who was not an ambassador, inasmuch as, +whatever may have been his business at Rome, he had no recognized mission, +if any mission at all, to the Sovereign of Rome. He was rather officious +than official, and whether he had commission or not, he held, as is well +known, serious communications with the enemies of the Pope. Lord Minto was +enthusiastically received by the secret societies of Rome. The people, +forgetting at the time the way to the Quirinal, went to serenade him. Lord +Minto frequented "the popular circle" (a band of three hundred chosen +agitators, whose office it was to carry the torch of discord into all the +cities of the Papal States and of Italy) and the offices of the Socialist +newspaper. He went so far as to receive courteously Cicervacchio, and made +verses for his son Cicervacchietto. + +The Earl of Minto was not, however, a faithful exponent of the opinions of +British statesmen. Few of them, fortunately, held the subversive doctrines +that were countenanced by his lordship when representing at Rome the least +respectable portion of the Whig party. + +The multitude, intoxicated with their delusive success, and the desperate +men who led them, were still celebrating their ill-gained victory, the +frequent discharge of fire-arms and the impassioned vociferations of the +crowd were yet reverberating through the venerable edifices of Rome, when +the Holy Father addressed the following words, giving proof of the deepest +emotion whilst he spoke, to the ambassadors who remained with him: + +"Gentlemen, I am a prisoner here. Now that I am deprived of all support +and of all power, my whole conduct will have only one aim--to prevent any, +even one drop of fraternal blood from being uselessly shed in my cause. I +yield everything to this principle; but at the same time I am anxious that +you, gentlemen, should know, that all Europe should be made aware, that I +take no part, even nominally, in this government, and that I am resolved +to remain an absolute stranger to it. I have forbidden them to abuse my +name; I have ordered that recourse should not be had even to the ordinary +formulas." + +The representatives of the European Powers received respectfully, and with +feelings which found expression in tears, the protestation of Pius IX., +who was now a prisoner in his own mansion, and a hostage of the +revolutionary faction. + +Pius IX. was in imminent danger. A prisoner, and surrounded by implacable +enemies, he had no power to protect his own life or that of any faithful +citizens. Many who were devoted to his cause had been obliged to leave the +city. The Cardinals, indeed, were all true to their illustrious Chief. But +several were driven by threats of assassination to go into exile. The +children of Saint Ignatius withdrew, at the request of the Holy Father, in +order to escape the wrath of the excited multitude. The Pope himself knew +not whither to direct his steps. + +(M3) The revolution was everywhere. It had not yet conquered, but it +disturbed all Europe. The representatives of the Powers remained devotedly +with the Pope. But the countries which would have sustained them were +distracted by political commotions. The King of Naples was threatened on +all hands by revolution. Lombardy and Venice were in a state of +insurrection. Piedmont was making war on Austria, and all Hungary was in +rebellion. The Emperor Ferdinand was compelled twice over by civil +commotion to abandon his capital. Unable to face the revolutionary tide, +he handed over his tottering throne to a youth of eighteen years. The King +of Prussia and other German Sovereigns, who hoped at first to direct the +revolutionary movement as to derive from it new strength, were obliged +either to fly before it or to struggle against it in the streets. France, +who commenced the disturbance which was now so general, was compelled to +fight for her existence against her own children. Her chief city, Paris, +had become a battle-field, where wicked men and equally wicked women slew +the soldiers of the country with poisoned balls. A greater number of the +best officers of France fell in a single fight against Parisian anarchy +than during the whole time of the war with the wild Bedouins of Africa. + +(M4) At Rome the revolutionary faction was gaining strength, and the +position of the Pope was becoming every day more perilous. It was the +opinion of his most devoted friends that he should leave the city. But to +what country should he repair? All Europe was agitated by revolutionary +troubles. The Holy Father was still undecided, when he received from the +Bishop of Valence a letter of wise counsel, together with a precious +gift--the Pyx which the venerable Pius VI. had borne on his person when an +exile and the captive of an earlier revolution. Pius IX., on receiving a +present which was so suggestive, resolved to remain no longer in the power +of his enemies. With the assistance of the Duke d'Harcourt, ambassador of +France, and the Bavarian Ambassador, Count de Spaur, he left the Quirinal +Palace and the city of Rome. He was safely conducted by the latter +personage to Albano, and thence in this ambassador's carriage to Gaeta, in +the kingdom of Naples. As soon as his arrival there was intimated to King +Ferdinand, who was not yet deprived of his royal power, this monarch, +attended by a brilliant suite, embarked for Gaeta, in order to welcome the +Holy Father and assure him of protection. During seventeen months that +Pius IX. resided as a voluntary exile in the kingdom of Naples, Ferdinand +ceased not to afford all the comfort in his power to the Sovereign +Pontiff. His conduct towards him in every respect was beyond all praise. +As a fellow-man, he consoled him in his sorrows; as a prince, he +entertained him with truly royal magnificence, sparing nothing that was +calculated to lessen, even to do away with the pain and tedium of exile, +whilst, as a faithful Christian, he fulfilled every filial duty towards +the Vicar of Christ, expiating, as far as was possible, the crimes +committed against him by so many ruthless enemies. + +(M5) The revolution of another country had for chiefs such men as +Robespierre. That of Rome and Italy gloried in Mazzini, who ordered the +assassination of Count Rossi. There was at Rome another revolutionary +leader, the Advocate Armellini, who pronounced the downfall of the Pope +from his temporal sovereignty. This consistorial advocate had, six times +over, solemnly sworn fidelity to the Pontiff. He had even composed in +honor of the Papacy a sonnet, in which are read these remarkable words: "I +spoke with Time, and asked it what had become of so many empires, of those +kingdoms of Argos and Thebes and Sidon, and so many others which had +preceded or followed them. For only answer, Time strewed its passage with +shreds of purple and kingly mantles, fragments of armor, wrecks of crowns, +and cast at my feet thousands of broken sceptres. I then enquired what +would become of the thrones of to-day. What the first became, was the +reply--and Time waved the direful scythe which levels all things under its +merciless strokes--these also will be. I asked if a like destiny was in +store for the Throne of Peter. Time was silent; Eternity alone could +reply." + +Not long after the departure of the Holy Father, this traitor, Armellini, +gave a banquet to the principal chiefs of the revolution. His wife, who +had often charged him with the violation of his oath, remained on this +occasion in her apartment, lest she should be contaminated by any, even an +apparent association with, such men as Sterbini, Mamiani, Galetti and +others. + +The guests enquired the cause of her absence, when suddenly the door +opened, and Madam Armellini, pale, animated, in a threatening attitude, +and with a roll of paper in her hand, exclaimed: "You are all accursed! +Fear the judgments of God, you, who in contempt of your oaths, although +unable to slay, have banished his minister. Dread the Divine anger. Pius +IX., from his place of exile, appeals to God against you. Listen to his +words." She unrolled slowly, as she spoke, the paper which she held in her +hand, and read in a firm voice, emphasising every word, the decree of the +Holy Father, which contained a threat of excommunication. This reading +came like a lightning stroke on the startled guests. Madam Armellini, +after a moment's silence, resumed: "Sirs, have you understood? The +avenging hand which none can escape is suspended over your heads, ready to +strike. But there is still time. The voice of God has not yet, through +that of his Vicar, fulminated the terrible sentence. For the sake of your +happiness in this world and your salvation in the next, throw yourselves +on his mercy. The cup of your iniquities is filling fast. Dash it from you +before it overflow." Having thus spoken, this courageous woman, whose just +indignation was at its height, approached her husband and threw down +before him, on the table, the decree of the Holy Father. She then +withdrew. + +(M6) About two months and a half after the assassination of the Pope's +minister, Count Rossi, the leading conspirators caused it to be decreed, +in their revolutionary assembly, that the Papacy was fallen, _de facto et +de jure_, from the government of the Roman States. They made a fashion of +providing, at the same time, that the Pontiff should have all necessary +guarantees for his independence in the exercise of his spiritual office. +Above all, they forgot not to declare that the form of government should +be purely democratic, and assume the glorious name of _Roman Republic_. +All this was very little in harmony with the sentiments which were +expressed at the commencement of the popular movements. With regard to +these sentiments, which were so loudly and apparently also so sincerely +proclaimed, new light was dispensed. Mazzini arrived at Rome as a deputy +to the Revolutionary Convention. He had no sooner taken his place there +than he declared that the reiterated _vivats_ in honor of the reforming +Pope were lies, and were had recourse to in order to conceal designs which +it was not yet time to reveal. Is there not reason to believe that the new +watchword, "Live the Roman people!" was equally sincere? It is well known +that they never would admit a fair representation of the people. And had +they not declared that they are incapable of governing themselves, and +must be ruled with a rod of iron? + +(M7) Public opinion at the same time gave the lie to their unwarrantable +pretensions. The revolutionary chiefs gave out in an official +proclamation, "that a republic had arisen at Rome on the ruins of the +Papal Throne, which the unanimous voice of Europe, the malediction of all +civilized people and the spirit of the Gospel, had levelled in the dust." +Not only the nations of Europe, but also the whole civilized world and +people, the most remote, who scarcely yet enjoyed the blessings of +civilization, made haste to deny an assertion which was as false as it was +audacious. All the nations of Christendom were deeply moved when they +heard of the outrages which the Roman populace had heaped upon the common +Father of the faithful. Compassion was universally expressed, together +with professions of duty and obedience, whilst there was only indignation +at the base conduct of the faction which persecuted him. There was +scarcely a Sovereign Prince in Europe who did not send to Pius IX. most +affectionate letters, expressive of reverence and devotedness, whilst they +promised assistance and defence. The four Catholic Powers, and not without +the consent of the other States, united in order to drive the rebels from +Rome and the Roman States, and restore to the Pontiff his temporality. In +the representative assemblies of France and Spain, the most eloquent +orators upheld the rights of the Holy See, the utility and necessity of +the complete independence of the Roman Pontiff, both for the government of +his States and the exercise of his spiritual power. At the same time +numerous associations were formed under the auspices of the civil and +ecclesiastical authorities, for the purpose of collecting offerings in aid +of the Sovereign Pontiff, impoverished as he was by the privation of his +revenues. These associations extended not only throughout Europe, but were +established also in North and South America, India, China and the +Philippine Islands. The poorest even, like the widow of the Gospel, +insisted on contributing their mite. + +Many touching instances are quoted. Some young persons, who were only +humble artisans, managed by great economy to save some thirty-five livres, +and sent them, accompanied with a very feeling address, to the association +of their locality. "If, at this moment," they said, "we were near the Holy +Father, we would say to him, whilst reverently kneeling at his feet: Most +Holy Father, this is the happiest of our days. We are a society of young +persons who consider it our greatest happiness to give proof of our +veneration for your Holiness. We claim to be your most affectionate +children; and notwithstanding the efforts of ill-disposed persons to +separate us from Catholic unity, we declare that we recognize in your +Holiness the successor of St. Peter and the Vicar of Jesus Christ. We are +prepared to sacrifice all that we possess, and even our life, in order to +prove ourselves worthy children of so good a Father." The testimony of +youth and innocence is precious in the sight of heaven. Hence, allusion is +made to this case in preference to so many others. _Ex ore infantium et +lactantium perfecisti laudem._ On occasion of receiving such genuine marks +of filial devotedness Pius IX. was often moved to tears. + +The revival of the offering of "Peter's Pence" recalls to mind the piety +of the early ages. This practice was in vigor when the world had scarcely +yet begun to believe. It is not a little remarkable that it has been +renewed in an age when so many have fallen from belief. The more the +Church was persecuted in the early days the more were her ministers held +in honor. Such, one is compelled to say, is her destiny in all ages. Pius +IX., when an exile at Gaeta, was the object of the most respectful and +devoted attentions of all classes of Christians in every land. Bishops, +ecclesiastical communities, religious congregations, all orders of +Christian people, vied with one another in their zeal to do him honor. As +many as six, eight, eleven thousand signatures were often appended to the +same dutiful address. The memory of such faith and devotedness can never +perish. A selection of letters and addresses to the Holy Father was +published at Naples in two large quarto volumes, under the title: _The +Catholic world to Pius IX., Sovereign Pontiff, an exile at Gaeta from 1848 +to 1850_. + +(M8) When Peter himself was in prison the whole Church was moved, and +prayed for his release. It speedily followed. Prayer, no less earnest, was +made in behalf of his successor. With what success a few words will show. +The deliverers were the Princes and people of Catholic Europe. If there +was still some delay it was only that for which diplomacy is proverbial. +Austria, that had more than once obeyed the voice of the Holy Father, in +withdrawing her troops from the Roman States, and against which he had so +often refused to allow war to be declared, was the first now to propose +that measures should be adopted for his restoration. In a note addressed +by this State to the other Powers we find the following words: "The +Catholic world is entitled to require for the visible Chief of the Church +the plenitude of liberty which is essential for the government of Catholic +society, and the restoration of that ancient monarchy which has subjects +in every part of the world. The Catholic nations will never allow the head +of their Church to be robbed of his independence and reduced to be the +subject of a foreign Prince. They will not suffer him to be degraded by a +faction which, under the cloak of his venerable name, is endeavoring to +undermine and destroy his power. In order that the Bishop of Rome, who is +at the same time the Sovereign Pastor of the Church, may be able to +exercise the duties of his exalted office, it is necessary that he should +be also Sovereign of Rome." + +Spain came next. On the 21st December, 1848, the Spanish ministry +addressed to the other Catholic nations the following circular letter: +"The government of her Majesty has decided on doing whatever shall be +necessary in order to reinstate the Holy Father in a state of independence +and dignity, which will admit of his discharging the duties of his sacred +office. With a view to this end the government of Spain, having been +apprised of the Pope's flight, addressed the French Government, which +declared itself prepared to sustain the liberty of the Pontiff. These +negotiations, nevertheless, may be considered as insufficient when we +glance at the turn which affairs have taken at Rome. There is no question +any longer of protecting the liberty of the Pope, but of re-establishing +his authority on a solid and stable basis, and of securing him against +violence. It is well known to you that the Catholic Powers have always had +it at heart to guarantee the sovereignty of the Pope, and assure to him an +independent position. Such position is so important for the Christian +States that it cannot on any account be subjected to the will and pleasure +of so small a portion of the Catholic world as the Roman States. It is the +belief of Spain that the Catholic Powers cannot commit the liberty of the +Pope to the caprice of the city of Rome. Nor can they permit that, whilst +all the Catholic nations are warmly offering to the Holy Father proofs of +their profound respect, a single town of Italy shall dare to outrage his +dignity, and restrict the Pope to a state of independence which could be +so easily abused at any time as a religious power. These considerations +induce the government of her Majesty to invite the other Catholic Powers +to come to an understanding on the means to be employed for averting the +evils which would arise, if matters remained in their present position. In +furtherance of this object, her Majesty has ordered her government to +address the governments of France, Austria, Bavaria, Sardinia, Tuscany and +Naples, in order to invite them to name Plenipotentiaries, and appoint the +place where they shall meet." + +The Catholic Powers welcomed cordially this admirable note, which +expressed so clearly the idea which they all entertained. Piedmont alone, +as if already casting a covetous eye on Rome and its territory, refused to +concur. Its refusal was expressed by the pen of the once so highly +esteemed Abbate Gioberti, who was President of the Council. It was not +long till Piedmont reaped its reward. The following year, 1849, on the 22d +of March, it had to lament the disastrous battle of Novara. + +Not long after, Cardinal Antonelli, who remained with the Pope, addressed, +on the part of the Holy See, to the governments of France, Austria, Spain +and Naples, a highly important paper. It recapitulated, in a clear and +forcible manner, all that had occurred at Rome from the time of the Pope's +departure till the 18th of February, and then requested, in the most +formal and pressing way possible, the intervention of these four Catholic +Powers. The governments thus appealed to promptly replied by sending +Plenipotentiaries to Gaeta, where the Pope desired that the diplomatic +conference should be opened. The Catholic countries had already +anticipated the intentions of the Sovereign Pontiff--some by acts, others +by energetic resolutions. On the one hand, General Cavaignac, to whom +France had for the time committed her sword, had concentrated, as early as +the month of September, 1848, a body of troops under the command of +General Molliere, whose duty it should be to hold themselves in readiness +to embark for Italy at the first signal. Spain, on the other hand, +prepared her fleet. The King of the Two Sicilies could scarcely restrain +the ardor of his soldiers. Portugal, even, which had not been mentioned in +the document addressed to the four Catholic Powers, considered it a duty +to cause it to be represented to the government of the Pope through its +ambassador, the Baron de Verda Cruz, that the Portuguese people would be +most happy to take up arms in the interest of the Papal cause. Portugal +was among the first, on occasion of the 16th November, 1848, to offer +hospitality to the Sovereign Pontiff, and to invite him to one of the +finest residences in Christendom, the magnificent palace of Mafra. + +(M9) The time of the Holy Father at Gaeta was employed, as it usually is, +in prayer, the giving of audiences and the business of the Church. In one +point, there was an exception to the rules of the Papal Court. The King of +Naples, the Queen and the Princes were admitted every day to the table of +the Pope. King Ferdinand, notwithstanding his friendly relations with Pius +IX., never availed himself of this privilege without a new daily +invitation. In all other respects, likewise, his conduct towards the Holy +Father was all that the most devout Catholic could desire. + +(M10) The internal state of the Catholic Powers caused their action to be +delayed. The political troubles of the Austrian Empire obliged the Emperor +Ferdinand to abdicate in favor of his youthful nephew, Francis Joseph. +France was laboring to consolidate her newly-founded Republic. There was +question of electing a president. And if, on the occasion, Prince Louis +Napoleon Bonaparte secured the greatest number of votes, he owed this +success, if not wholly, in great measure, at least, to his repudiation of +the undutiful conduct of his cousin, the Prince of Canino, at Rome, and +his declaration in favor of the temporal sovereignty of the Pope. On the +eve of the election he wrote as follows to the Papal Nuncio: "My Lord, I +am anxious that the rumors which tend to make me an accomplice of the +conduct of Prince Canino at Rome should not be credited by you. I have +not, for a long time, had any relations with the eldest son of Lucien +Bonaparte; and I am profoundly grieved that he has not understood that the +maintenance of the temporal sovereignty of the venerable Head of the +Church is intimately connected with the glory of Catholicism, no less than +with the liberty and independence of Italy. Accept, my Lord, the +expression of my sentiments of high esteem. + +"LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE." + +(M11) Spain had already despatched a fleet to Gaeta, the Austrians had +advanced in the direction of Ferrara, and the King of Naples at Terracina, +when, on the 25th of April 1849, a French army, under the command of +General Oudinot, disembarked at Civita Vecchia. This military expedition +was, at first, considerably thwarted by diplomacy. The general-in-chief +was assured at the outset that he had only to show himself before the +walls of Rome, and the gates would be opened immediately in consequence of +the reaction which was taking place within. Accordingly, the army +advanced, on the 30th April, to the foot of the ramparts, and was received +with a discharge of fire-arms. Nevertheless, one of the gates was opened +to a French battalion. The Romans came out in crowds, waving white +handkerchiefs, and shouting, "Peace is concluded! Peace for ever! Enemies +in the morning, we are brothers this evening! Long live the French!" The +soldiers, deceived by these demonstrations, were persuaded to enter they +city. They were at once disarmed and declared prisoners of war. It was now +manifest that a regular siege was necessary. An impediment was, however, +thrown in the way of military operations, by a civil or diplomatic agent +who entered Rome, and in the course of a few weeks concluded with the +revolutionists a treaty which was contrary to his instructions, to those +of the commander-in-chief, to the honor of France and the objects of the +expedition. Odillon Barrot was, at that time, President of the French +Ministry--the same Odillon Barrot who, in 1830, was prefect of police, and +allowed the mansion of the Archbishop to be demolished without taking any +measures for its protection. Such conduct, as has been well observed, +showed that this official loved anarchy more than order. Hence, probably, +arose those impediments to the Roman expedition which gave time to (M12) +the revolutionists to organize, under the leadership of a chief of +banditti, Garibaldi, of Genoa. They availed themselves, at the same time, +of the leisure afforded, to massacre many faithful priests, to enable some +renegade monks to profane the solemnities of religion, and to commit, in +the hospitals, outrages which were, until that time, unheard of. +Unfortunate soldiers, sick and at the point of death, beholding persons +dressed like Nuns and Sisters of Charity, expected to hear from them the +language of religion, in order to assist them in preparing for a Christian +death. It can easily be imagined how greatly they were shocked to hear +only lascivious expressions and the most infamous provocations to vice. +These pretended Sisters of Charity were nothing else than professed +prostitutes. Their president, a revolutionary princess, admits, in her +memoirs, this melancholy fact. + +(M13) The King of Naples and General Cordova, commander-in-chief of the +Spanish army, offered to General Oudinot the aid of their arms. He thanked +them, but declined their offer, desiring, for the honor of the French +army, that as it had begun, so it should complete the duty which it had +undertaken. The French general represented, and with reason, to the +Spanish commander, that he would have entered Rome several weeks sooner +but for the diplomatic negotiations already alluded to. The +Plenipotentiary, who conducted these negotiations, having been disavowed, +the general held himself alone responsible, and it was his duty to +simplify matters as much as possible. He urged, moreover, that when an +army is besieging a place no foreign troops can approach it, unless their +assistance is requested either by the besiegers or the besieged. The +latter were far from having any claim to the protection of Spain, and the +French army was in a position to meet every contingency. + +(M14) On the 30th June, 1849, the city surrendered, unconditionally. On +3rd July the French army entered Rome, amidst the joyous acclamations of +the native Roman people. + +(M15) On the same day General Oudinot despatched Colonel Niel to Gaeta, in +order to deliver to the Sovereign Pontiff the keys of his capital. Pius +IX. was overjoyed at the arrival of the French officer. His people were +now free. The war was at an end. Blood no longer flowed. There was nothing +wanting to his satisfaction and happiness. "O! speak to me of my children +of Rome and France," he exclaimed. "How they must have suffered! How +earnestly have I prayed for them!" He then listened with interest, and the +feelings of a father, to the recital of the sufferings of the French army +and their prolonged labors, which were patiently undergone; in order to +save the edifices and monuments of Rome from irreparable destruction. +Unable, at length, to contain his emotion, he spoke thus to Colonel Niel: +"Colonel, I have often said, on other occasions, and I am happy to be able +to repeat the same to-day, after so great a service, that I have always +relied on France. That country had promised me nothing, but I understood +full well, that when opportunity offered she would give to the Church her +treasures, her blood, and what is, perhaps, still more difficult for her +valiant children, that bravery which can restrain itself, that patience +and perseverance to which is due the preservation of Rome, that treasure +of the world, that beloved and sorely-tried city, towards which, during +these days of exile, I have always looked in great anxiety of mind. Say to +the commander-in-chief, to all the generals and all the officers--would it +could also be said to every soldier of France!--that there are no bounds to +my gratitude. My prayers for the prosperity of your country will be more +fervent than ever. My love for the French people has been increased, if, +indeed, anything could make it greater than it was, by the great service +which I now acknowledge." + +(M16) At the same time, Pius IX. addressed an appropriate letter to +General Oudinot. He recognized the well-known valor of the French armies, +which was sustained by the justice of the cause which they came to defend, +and which won for them the meed of victory. In congratulating the general +on the principal share which he bore in the important event, the Holy +Father was careful to say that he rejoiced not over the bloodshed which +had necessarily occurred, but in the triumph of order over anarchy, and +because liberty was restored to honest and Christian people, for whom it +would no longer be a crime to enjoy the property which God had bestowed +upon them, and to adore Him, with becoming pomp of worship, without +incurring the risk of being deprived of life or liberty. In the difficult +circumstances which might arise, the Holy Father would rely on the Divine +protection. As it might prove useful to the French army to be acquainted +with the events of his Pontificate, he sent, along with his letter, a +number of copies of the Allocution, in which these events are related. +This paper, he stated, proved abundantly that the army had won a victory +over the enemies of human society, and that their triumph, consequently, +would awaken sentiments of gratitude in the breasts of all honest men +throughout Europe and the whole civilized world. + +(M17) The President of the French Republic, Louis Napoleon, the French +Minister of War and the National Assembly, all joined in congratulating +General Oudinot and his army. Pius IX. had just appointed (31st July) a +commission of three Cardinals for the government of the Roman States, when +General Oudinot arrived at Gaeta, and urged the Pope to return himself to +his capital. Pius IX. had already stated to M. de Corcelles, the +Plenipotentiary of France, his objections to an immediate return. He now +held the same language to General Oudinot. He could not, he said, so far +forget the purely moral nature of his power as to bind himself in a +positive way, when there was nothing settled as to matters of detail, and +especially when he was called upon to speak in presence of a first-class +Power, whose exigencies were no secret. Ought he to condemn himself to +appear to act under the impulsion of force? If he did anything good, was +it not necessary that his acts should be spontaneous, and should also have +the appearance of being so? Were not his inclinations well known? Were +they not calculated to inspire confidence? Nevertheless, it was his +intention to return, in a few days, to his States, and to remain some time +at Castel-Gandolfo, in the midst of the French army. General Oudinot +returned to Rome fully assured of the speedy return of the Holy Father. + +(M18) About this time it became manifest that the French Republic desired +to restore the Pope as a mere agent of their newly-instituted government. +The French ministry, of which Odillon Barrot was the head, saw, with +impatience, that Pontifical affairs were not proceeding to such a +conclusion as they wished. Accordingly, General Oudinot was recalled and +replaced by General Rostolan, the next in command. Two days later, a +letter signed "Louis Napoleon," and addressed to Colonel Edgar Ney, who +was also the bearer of it, was despatched to Rome. This letter contained +insulting allusions to the Pontifical government; and its requirements +would have annihilated, in the estimation of Europe, the independence of +the Sovereign Pontiff, whilst personally dishonoring him. "I thus +recapitulate," said the president, in this memorable epistle, "the +temporal power of the Pope, _a general amnesty, secularization of the +administration, and liberal government_." It was appointed that General +Rostolan should publish this ill-timed letter, and carry it into effect. +He refused to do so, tendered his resignation, and thus firmly replied: +"Conscience requires that I should sacrifice my position and my +sympathies. My successor, more fortunate than myself, will perhaps enjoy +the signal honor to terminate peacefully the work which we have begun at +the head of the army. As a soldier and a Christian, I will rejoice on +account of the Sovereign Pontiff, who will have been restored to his +people, and because of France, which will have accomplished a noble and +most worthy mission." To the Odillon Barrot ministry, which at one time +disowned the letter, and at another acknowledged it, and ordered its +publication, the general declared that he would never identify himself +with an act which, besides being unjust, would endanger the peace of all +Europe. According to his view, which was the same as that of the French +ambassadors, M. de Rayneval and M. de Corcelles, a general war would +follow the official publication of the letter of 18th August; and such a +war could not but prove fatal to the ideas of order which were beginning +to resume their empire. He loved his country too well to bear part in +incurring for it such fearful risks. Messrs. de Rayneval and de Corcelles +wrote to the same effect, and communicated to the French Government the +resolution of the Sovereign Pontiff to seek the protection of Austria, or +even to repair to America, rather than submit to the constraint with which +he was threatened. + +(M19) It was not, however, ordained that the conditions of the Pope's +restoration should be decided by the President of the French Republic, or +the Odillon Barrot ministry. The National Assembly of France took the +matter in hand, and after a keen debate, which lasted three days--13th, +18th and 19th October--came to a resolution favorable to the Holy See. +There can be no doubt that the Chamber was greatly influenced by the +powerful eloquence of M. de Montalembert. "It has been said," observed +this orator, "that the honor of our flag was compromised by the expedition +undertaken against Rome in order to destroy the Roman Republic and restore +the authority of the Pope. All in this Assembly must feel insulted by this +reproach, and cannot but repel it, as I do at this moment. No! the honor +of our flag was never compromised. No! never did this noble flag cover +with its folds a more noble enterprise. History will tell. I confidently +invoke its testimony and its judgment. History will throw a veil over all +the ambiguity, tergiversation and contestation which have been pointed to +with so much bitterness and so eager a desire to spread discord amongst +us. It will ignore all this, or, rather, it will proclaim it all, in order +that the greatness of the undertaking may become apparent from the number +and nature of the difficulties that have been surmounted. + +"History will say that a thousand years from the time of Charlemagne, and +fifty from that of Napoleon--a thousand years after Charlemagne had won for +himself imperishable glory by restoring the Pontifical State, and fifty +years after Napoleon, in the zenith of power and prestige, had failed in +his endeavor to undo the work of his predecessor; history will say that +France has remained true to her traditions and deaf to odious counsels. +History will say that thirty thousand Frenchmen, under the leadership of +the worthy son of one of the giants of our great imperial glories, left +the shores of their country, in order to re-establish at Rome, in the +person of the Pope, right, equity, European and French interest. History +will further say what Pius IX. himself said, in his letter of thanks to +General Oudinot: '_The victory of the French arms is won over the enemies +of human society_.' Yes! gentlemen, such will be the judgment of impartial +history; and it will be one of the brightest glories of France and the +nineteenth century. You will not attenuate, tarnish, eclipse this glory by +plunging into a mass of contradictions, complications, and inextricable +inconsistency. Know you what would dim for ever the lustre of the French +flag? It would be to set it in opposition to the Cross, to the Tiara, +which it has delivered. It would be to transform the soldiers of France, +the protectors of the Pope, into his oppressors. It would be to exchange +the _role_ and the glory of Charlemagne for a pitiful mimicry of +Garibaldi." + +(M20) A large majority of the legislative assembly agreed with +Montalembert. The news of their decision, which was in accordance with the +general sentiment of the French nation, was speedily conveyed to the +Pontifical Court. It dispelled all the unpleasant (M21) apprehensions +which had hitherto prevailed, and gave great satisfaction to the Holy +Father. The influence which it exercised over his plans for the future may +be learned from the reply which he gave to a deputation from the +municipality of Rome, which now came to pray that he would return to his +States. "It was repugnant to us," said he, "to return to our States, so +long as France made it a question whether we should be independent. But +now that a happy solution has been reached, which appears to put an end to +all doubt on this point, we hope to be able, in a short time, to return to +our city of Rome." Accordingly, on 12th April, 1850, Pius IX. made his +entrance into Rome amidst the dutiful and joyous acclamations of the +French army and the Roman people. On the 18th day of the same month he +formally blessed the arms and colors of France in front of St. Peter's +Church. Thus ended at Rome a political revolution, which nothing less +powerful than Catholic sentiment could have overcome. + +(M22) Whilst the comparatively small Pontifical State was agitated by +revolution, the greater kingdom of the church was steadily pursuing, under +the auspices of its august Chief, its grand career of progress and +development. A new era seemed to have dawned over all those great +countries which the Photian schism had so seriously affected. About the +time of Pius the Ninth's accession, more favorable dispositions had come +to prevail among the Greeks of Constantinople, of Syria, of Palestine, of +Egypt. Among the Armenians and Chaldeans there were numerous conversions, +whilst even the Turks showed a better feeling towards the Catholic people, +among whom their lot was cast. We have already seen how well such +sentiments were encouraged by the newly-elected Pontiff. His words of +kindness were repaid by increased affection for the Catholic people, and +the wish, not to say the belief, that when the Turkish Empire fell, the +fragments of its once great inheritance would be gathered up by Catholics. +"Are this belief and friendship," asks the Abbe Etienne, "an indication of +the speedy reunion of the children of Mahomet with the great Christian +family? We have much reason to think so, when we behold Islamism +everywhere dwindling away and giving place to the true faith." Damascus, +so sacred in Mussulman estimation, and so intolerant that no Christian +could pass within its gates except bareheaded, and on paying a capitation +tax, now beholds with pleasure the celebration of Catholic rites. So great +was the change that in a short time all the inhabitants of a village in +the neighborhood embraced the Catholic faith. The Mahometans who are most +capable of appreciating religious questions, study Christianity secretly. +Not long ago, a Turk of Damascus caused a Catholic priest to be called to +his deathbed, and begged to be baptized. Great was the surprise of the +missionary to find him as well acquainted with the truths of religion as +he was anxious to receive the sacrament of regeneration. A few moments +later the good priest beheld his neophyte expire, expressing the most +pious sentiments. + +In Russia, the most powerful seat of the great eastern schism, Catholics +were long subjected to the most trying persecution. It is well known what +influence the venerable Pontiff, Gregory XVI., exercised over the mind of +the late Emperor Nicholas, and that he succeeded in causing him to +mitigate the evils which weighed so heavily on his Catholic subjects. Pius +IX. was still more successful. Having concluded a Concordat with the Czar, +which was signed at Rome on the 3rd August, 1847, by Cardinal +Lambruschini, on the part of the Holy See, and Counts Bloudoff and +Boutenieff, on the part of Russia, Pius IX., in a consistory held on 3rd +July of the same year, instituted bishops for the following Sees of the +Russian Empire: The Metropolitan Church of Mohilow, the united dioceses of +Luccoria and Zitomeritz, in Volhynia, the diocese of Vilna, in Poland, and +a coadjutor, with right of succession, for the archbishopric of Mohilow. +The Concordat contained 31 articles. Article 1st. Seven Roman Catholic +dioceses are established in the Russian Empire--an archbishopric and six +bishoprics, viz.: the archbishopric of Mohilow, which comprises all those +parts of the Empire which are not contained in the undermentioned +dioceses. The Grand Duchy of Finland is also included in this archdiocese. +The diocese of Vilna, comprising the governments of Vilna and Grodno, +according to their present limits; the diocese of Telsca, or Samogitia, +comprising the governments of Courland and Kowno; the diocese of Minsk, +comprising the government of Minsk, as at present limited; the diocese of +Luceoria and Zitomeritz, containing the governments of Kiovia and +Volhynia; the diocese of Kaminiec, comprising the government of Podolia; +the new diocese of Kherson, containing the Province of Bessarabia, the +governments of Khersonesus, Ecatherinaslaw, Taurida, Saratow and Astracan, +together with the regions that are subject to the general government of +the Caucasus. + +In glancing at the articles of the Concordat, the Catholic reader will be +agreeably surprised to observe that in so many important things the wishes +of the Holy Father were acceded to, whilst it is matter for regret that in +regard to others the Plenipotentiaries could not come to an understanding. +It is provided by the 2nd and 3rd articles that apostolic letters under +the leaden seal shall determine the extent and limits of the dioceses, as +indicated in article 1st. The decrees of execution shall express the +number and the names of the parishes of each diocese, and shall be +submitted for the sanction of the Holy See. The number of suffragan +bishoprics, as settled by the apostolic letters of Pius VI. in 1789, is +retained in the six ancient dioceses. In the following articles, from 4 to +10, it is agreed that the suffragan of the new diocese of Kherson shall +reside in the town of Saratow. The annual allowance to the Bishop of +Kherson shall be 4,480 silver roubles. His suffragan shall have the same +income as the other bishops of the Empire, viz.: 2,000 silver roubles. The +chapter of the Cathedral Church of Kherson shall consist of nine members, +viz.: two prelates or dignitaries, the president and archdeacon; four +canons, of whom three shall discharge the duties of theologian, +penitentiary and rector; and three resident priests, or beneficiaries. In +the new bishopric of Kherson there shall be a diocesan seminary, in which +from fifteen to twenty-five students shall be supported at the cost of the +government, the same as those who enjoy a pension in other seminaries. +Until a Catholic bishop of the Armenian rite is named, the spiritual wants +of the Armenian Catholics of the dioceses of Kherson and Kaminiec shall be +provided for by applying the ninth chapter of the Council of Lateran, held +in 1215. The bishops of Kaminiec and Kherson shall determine the number of +Catholic Armenian ecclesiastics who shall be educated in their seminaries +at the expense of the government. In each of these seminaries there shall +reside a Catholic Armenian priest, in order to instruct the students in +the ceremonies of their national rite. As often as the spiritual wants of +the Armenian Roman Catholics of the newly-instituted diocese of Kherson +shall require it, the bishop, besides the means hitherto employed for this +purpose, may send priests as missionaries, and the government will supply +the funds that shall be necessary for their journeys and sustenance. + +Articles 11 and 12 provide that the number of dioceses in the Kingdom of +Poland shall remain the same as ordained by the Apostolical Letters of +Pius VII., of date 30th June, 1818. There is no change as to the number +and designation of the suffragans of these dioceses. The appointment of +bishops for the dioceses and the suffragan bishoprics of the Empire of +Russia and the Kingdom of Poland shall only take effect after each +nomination shall have been agreed upon between the Emperor and the Holy +See. Canonical institution will be given by the Roman Pontiff in the usual +form. + +In articles 13-20 are contained the following regulations: the bishop is +the sole judge and administrator of the ecclesiastical affairs of his +diocese, having due regard to the canonical obedience which he owes to the +Holy Apostolic See. Certain affairs must be, in the first place, submitted +to the deliberations of the diocesan consistory. Such affairs are decided +by the bishop, after having been examined by the consistory, which, +however, is only consultative. The bishop is by no means bound to give the +reasons of his decision, even in case of his opinion being different from +that of the consistory. The other affairs of the diocese, which are called +_administrative_, and among which are included cases of conscience, and, +as has been said above, cases of discipline which are visited only by +light punishments and pastoral admonitions, depend entirely on the +authority and the spontaneous decision of the bishop. All the members of +the consistory are ecclesiastics. Their nomination and their revocation +belong to the bishop. The nominations are so made as not to displease the +government. The officials of the consistorial chancery are confirmed by +the bishop, on the presentation of the secretary of the consistory. The +secretary of the bishop, who is charged with official and private +correspondence, is named directly by the bishop; and an ecclesiastic, as +the bishop thinks proper, may be chosen. The duties of the members of the +consistory cease when the bishop dies or resigns, and also when the +administration of a vacant See comes to an end. + +From articles 21-29 we read as follows: The bishop has the supreme +direction of the teaching of doctrine and discipline in the seminaries of +his diocese, according to the prescriptions of the Council of Trent. The +choice of rectors, inspectors and Professors for the diocesan seminaries +is reserved to the bishop. Before naming them, he must ascertain that, as +regards their civil conduct, they will not give occasion to any objection +on the part of the government. The Archbishop Metropolitan of Mohilow +shall exercise in the ecclesiastical academy of St. Petersburg the same +jurisdiction as does each bishop in his diocesan seminary. He is the sole +chief of this academy--its supreme director. The council or directory of +this academy is only consultative. The choice of the rector, the inspector +and professors of this academy, shall be made by the archbishop, after he +has received the report of the Academical Council. The professors and +assistant-professors of Theological science shall always be chosen among +ecclesiastics. The other masters may be selected among lay persons, +professing the Roman Catholic religion. The confessors of the students of +each seminary and of the academy shall take no part in the disciplinary +government of the establishment. They shall be chosen and nominated by the +bishop or archbishop. When the limits of the dioceses shall have been +fixed according to the new regulation, the archbishop, with the advice of +the ordinaries, shall determine, once for all, the number of students that +each diocese may send to the academy. The programme of studies in the +seminaries shall be regulated by the bishops. The archbishop shall decide +upon that of the academy after having conferred with the Academical +Council. When the rule of the ecclesiastical academy of St. Petersburg +shall have been modified conformably with the principles agreed upon in +the preceding articles, the Archbishop of Mohilow will send to the Holy +See a report on the academy like that which was made by Archbishop +Koromanski when the academy was restored. + +Articles 30 and 31. Wherever the right of patronage does not exist, or has +been discontinued for a certain time, parish priests shall be appointed by +the bishop. They must not offend the government, and must have undergone +examination and competition according to the rules laid down by the +Council of Trent. Roman Catholic churches may be freely repaired at the +expense of communities or individuals who shall please to take charge of +this work. When their own resources are insufficient, they may apply to +the Imperial Government in order to obtain assistance. New churches shall +be constructed, and the number of parishes augmented, when such measures +become necessary from the increase of population, the too great extent of +existing parishes, or the difficulty of communications. + +Such matters as could not be agreed upon and embodied in the Concordat may +be gleaned from the allocution which Pius IX. addressed, at the time, to +the Cardinals. "Many things of the greatest importance still remain, in +regard to which the Plenipotentiaries could not come to an agreement, and +the omission of which awakens our most lively solicitude, and causes us +the utmost pain; for they concern, in the highest degree, the liberty of +the church, its rights, its essential principles, and the salvation of the +faithful in those Russian countries. We allude to that true and complete +liberty, which ought to be secured to the Christian people, of being able, +in regard to the things which relate to religion, to communicate, without +impediment, with this Apostolic See, the centre of Catholic unity and +truth, the Father and Master of all the Faithful. All men may understand +how deeply grieved we are, when they call to mind the multiplied appeals +which this Apostolic See has never ceased to cause to be heard at divers +times, in order to obtain free communication of the faithful, not only in +Russia, but also in other countries, where, in certain affairs of +religion, it is seriously impeded, to the great loss of souls. We would +speak of the property which ought to be restored to the clergy. We would +have removed from the Episcopal Consistories the lay person chosen by the +government, in order that, in these assemblies, the bishops may be able to +act with all liberty. We must advert to the law according to which mixed +marriages are not recognized as valid, until they have been blessed by a +Russo-Greek Catholic priest; and also to the liberty which Catholics ought +to possess of trying and judging their matrimonial causes, in eases of +mixed marriages, by a Catholic ecclesiastical tribunal. Finally, we would +allude to divers laws prevalent in Russia, which fix the age at which +religious professions may be made, which destroy entirely the schools that +are held in the houses of religious orders, which prevent the visits of +provincial superiors, which forbid and interdict conversion to the +Catholic faith." + +In this same allocution the Holy Father deplores the miserable state of +the illustrious Ruthenian nation, which, dispersed throughout the vast +countries of Russia, is, from various causes, exposed to great dangers as +regards salvation. Without bishops, they have none to guide them in the +paths of righteousness, none to administer to them spiritual succour, or +to warn them against the insidious approaches of heresy and schism. The +Holy Father is confident that the Latin priests will bestow all their care +and employ every available resource in affording spiritual aid to these +"most dear children." "From our inmost soul," concludes the venerable +Pontiff, "we exhort, earnestly and lovingly in the Lord, and urge the +Ruthenians themselves to remain faithful and steadfast in the unity of the +Catholic Church, or, if they have been so unfortunate as to abandon it, to +return to the bosom of their most loving mother, to have recourse to us, +who, with God's assistance, will do whatever is best calculated to secure +their salvation." + +As regards some of these highly important matters, the wishes of the Holy +Father were acceded to by the Russian Emperor. The bishop of Kherson was +allowed a second suffragan. It was also regulated that matrimonial and +other ecclesiastical causes, whether in Russia proper or in the kingdom of +Poland, should, on appeal from a sentence pronounced by the ordinary, be +heard before the tribunal of the metropolitan, or before the more +neighboring bishop, in case of judgment having been first given by the +metropolitan. Such causes, in the event of final appeal, should be +referred to Rome--to the tribunal of the Apostolic See. + +In considering, at some length, the Concordat with Russia, and the more +favorable terms by which it was followed, we learn what hopes may be +entertained as regards the spiritual well-being of the more numerous +Catholics, Armenians and others, who will now, in all probability, come +under the sway of Russia.(2) + +(M23) The Society of the Holy Ghost had labored successfully in France, +the Indies, Canada, China, Acadia, or Nova Scotia, the islands, Miquelon +and St. Peter. In the countries referred to, there were bishops, vicars +apostolic, of this society, and several missionary priests. In Cayenne and +French Guiana, they maintained an apostolic prefect and twenty +missionaries apostolic. The troubles of the French revolution all but +extinguished this zealous and influential missionary society. It was +revived in the year 1848, under the auspices of Pius IX., and resumed its +labors under the title of Society of the Holy Ghost and the Immaculate +Heart of Mary. During the negotiations which led to the restoration of +this society, the Vicariate Apostolic of Madagascar became vacant by the +death of Bishop Dalton. Abbe Monnet, Superior of the Society of the Holy +Ghost, was appointed to succeed him, and Rev. Abbe Liebermann, a +distinguished convert from Judaism, was unanimously elected to the post of +superior-general of the two united societies. The labors of Abbe +Liebermann were crowned with complete success. In 1850, the Holy Father, +in order to confirm and perpetuate the fruit of so much apostolic labor, +erected three bishoprics--one in the low country of Guadeloupe, another at +Fort Francis, in Martinica, and a third at St. Denis, of Bourbon Island. +The eminent convert died in 1852, after having had the satisfaction to +behold such great developments of his missionary work. The death of the +first superior-general did not, by any means, retard the increase of the +new society. On the contrary, new blessings seemed to descend upon it. +Under the guidance of the second superior, the Abbe Schwindenhammer, who +had been the friend and confidential counsellor of the first, the society +came to be as an order of three choirs--Fathers, Friars, Sisters. To the +Rev. Fathers, who were missionaries apostolic, the Father of the great +Christian Family, Pius IX., assigned a field of labor, a hundred times +more extensive than the land which was promised of old to the children of +Israel--a territory from eleven to twelve hundred leagues in length, and +broad in proportion. The friars were lay missionaries, whose duty it was +to assist the Rev. Fathers, teach the neophytes the arts of Christian +civilization, and change the deserts, the wild forest lands and dismal +swamps, into smiling fields. A brother, who is a printer, has already +departed for those missions, carrying with him a complete set of types. +The sisters, in order to draw down the mercy of heaven on the negro lands, +devote themselves to prayer, works of charity and self-denial, perpetual +adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, and the continual offering of +themselves in sacrifice for the salvation of the souls that are most +neglected. They would even, if it were the call of heaven, repair to +Africa, and found there religious communities, in order to confirm the +good work commenced by the missionaries. So early as their first year, +1852, they had established two or three houses in France. This great +missionary society came into existence at a singularly opportune moment, +and none can tell what an important part it may bear in carrying the light +of Christianity into that benighted Africa which modern discovery, the +discovery of our age, the age of Pius IX., is now throwing open to the +many blessed influences of civilization. + +In the early days of the Pontificate of Pius IX., the Guinea missions +extended over regions of negro-land nine hundred leagues from east to +west, and seven hundred leagues from north to south, with a coast-line of +eleven hundred leagues. These African countries are very populous; and +there are towns of 20,000, 30,000, and even 60,000 inhabitants. The +greatest barbarism prevails. With the exception of a few Mahometans in +Sanegambia, the people are idolators. They are also cannibals, and human +sacrifices are frequent. Polygamy is one of their vices, and those on the +sea coast of Guinea have learned many others from contact with Europeans, +such as hard drinking and all kinds of excess. Their women are in a +degraded condition, doing all the drudgery, and not being admitted to an +equality with their husbands. Notwithstanding all this, the missionaries +give them a high character. They bear pain with fortitude, and have a +horror of slavery, although so many of them are reduced to servitude by +greedy traders. A sea captain once offered a negro any amount of money, on +condition that he should become his slave. "All the gold your ship could +hold," said the spirited African, "is no price for my liberty." They are +very sensitive, grateful, and even affectionate towards those who befriend +them. To the missionaries they always showed hospitality; and the peaceful +explorer, Livingstone, and his friends generally met with the same +kindness. If it was otherwise with the adventurous discoverer, Stanley, he +owed the hostility with which he was often received by the African tribes +to the armed force by which he was accompanied, and his determination to +traverse their countries, whether they liked it or not. They listened +attentively to the missionaries, and this circumstance induced these +excellent persons to express the belief that, with proper precautions, +they may be induced to embrace the Christian faith. Many things have +occurred, in the course of this favored age, to encourage this hope for +the future welfare of so many millions of the human race. Science has +thrown its light into the hitherto dark regions of Central Africa, where +no European had, as yet, been able to penetrate. The petty and corrupting +traffic on the coasts will speedily expand into wide extended and +improving commerce. The slave trade is gradually diminishing, and must, +ere long, disappear under the blessed influences, more active than ever, +which are now at work; the whole church is moved by the edifying +narratives of zealous missionaries; and the countenance of the Apostolic +See is willingly bestowed on missionary effort. So, it is not too much to +say that, with such auspicious commencements in the age of Pius IX., the +days of some future Pontiff, at no very distant epoch, will be blessed to +behold Africa, so long neglected, happily, at length, brought within the +pale of Christianity and civilization. + +The missionaries speak of a Prince, whose history, if related by less +trustworthy parties, could not fail to be considered fabulous. His +territory is situated on the river Gabon. He speaks English and French +fluently, as well as an African dialect called _Boulou_. He is a man of +gentle and polished manners, and possesses the self-control of the most +accomplished European. In point of sobriety, he is equal to the best of +Europeans. He never drinks intoxicating liquor, and forbids his children +to use it. He is beloved by his subjects, and respected by the neighboring +tribes, who hold with him commercial and friendly relations. He shows +great friendship to the missionaries, and takes great delight in assisting +them. A good bishop is also mentioned, whose horror of the slave trade was +such that he would not allow a negro to serve him. In addition to the +mission-house, which is a solid stone building, there is also a seminary, +where some of the native youth are educated for the duties of the +Christian priesthood. The aboriginal populations receive the bishop and +the heads of the missions with extraordinary honors. The salubrity of the +climate is favorably spoken of, being nowise inferior to that of France. +Everything appeared to favor the Guinea missions in the early years of the +Pontificate of Pius IX. With the aid of continued countenance and +encouragement, they cease not to be developed every day more and more +throughout the vast countries extending from Senegambia to the Equator. At +Joal and St. Mary of Gambia, there were flourishing missions so early as +1852. In 1850 M. L'Abbe Arlabosse founded a mission at Galam, 150 leagues +in the interior of Senegal. Another mission was successfully established +at Grand Bassam, in 1851. The printing press, already referred to, has +contributed powerfully to facilitate missionary work. Seven diverse +languages are now taught, viz.: Wolof, Serer, Saracole, Abule, Mpongue, +Bingue and Balu, or Boulou. + +It is somewhat remarkable that in all the countries connected as colonies +with Great Britain, where Protestantism is so persistently adhered to, +there should prevail the greatest liberty as regards the exercise of the +Catholic religion. Thus, Cape Colony (Cape of Good Hope) was no sooner +transferred from the rule of Holland to that of Britain than the Holy +Father was enabled to extend his care to the Catholics of that remote +land. A bishop was appointed, and missions speedily established. There are +now three bishops, vicars apostolic, at Cape Town, Graham's Town, Natal. +The islands Mauritius and Bourbon, each of which has a population of more +than 100,000 souls, share the solicitude of the church and its august +Head. They are not both equally favored by their civil rulers. The former +was annexed to Great Britain in 1810. The Holy Father provides for its +spiritual welfare, confiding its administration to a bishop and a +sufficient number of priests, all of whom receive salaries from the +government. The bishops hitherto have been members of the illustrious +order of St. Benedict, and some of them have enjoyed a high reputation in +the church, such as the learned and eloquent Bishop Morris, and the pious +and accomplished Bishop Collier. Bourbon Island, until of late, 1850, when +a bishop was appointed, had not been so fortunate. An eminent French +writer rather satirically remarks, that it would have to wait until France +ceded all her colonies to the British. There are, however, some priests +who, together with the bishop, minister to the spiritual wants of the +people. Great efforts have been made to establish missions in the large +and populous Island of Madagascar, which, according to geographers, is +1,000 miles in length. + +The priests of the congregation of St. Vincent of Paul, as zealous now as +in the days of their illustrious founder, have penetrated into Abyssinia, +and are laboring to bring about a complete reconciliation of that once +eminently Christian nation to the church of Pius IX. The AEthiopian may +not, indeed, change his skin. But, according to the reports of the +missionaries, these people are changing their ideas, and giving proofs of +a disposition to return to the centre of Christian unity. Everywhere the +missionaries are received with kindness by princes and people, and favored +with a respectful hearing. + +So great is the reverence of the nations of the Turkish Empire for the +character of the Pope, that one would say that he had a Concordat with +those nations and their chiefs. The legate of the Holy See, Archbishop +Auvergne, of Iconium, was received with the greatest honor by the +Sovereign of AEgypt, on occasion of his legation to that country and Syria. +A Catholic bishop was established at Alexandria, a city so intimately +associated with the memory of Saint Athanasius. His jurisdiction extends +over the AEthiopian countries, and this circumstance, considering their +relations in bygone ages with the Patriarchs of Alexandria, facilitates +their communion with the centre of unity. The Catholic bishop of Cairo, +assisted by thirty priests, so long ago as 1840, governed a flock of +nearly twenty thousand Copts of the ancient race of AEgypt. This body of +faithful Christians is daily increasing, by the adherence of other Copts +who had fallen into the Eutichyan heresy, more from want of instruction +than obstinacy. Nothing could surpass the generosity of the Khedive +towards the church. He presented to the Pope several marble columns, for +the restoration of the Basilica of St. Paul at Rome, and built for the +missionaries and sisters of St. Vincent de Paul a college, schools, and an +hospital in the city of Alexandria. At Tunis and Tripoli there are 7,000 +Catholics, who are ministered to by nine priests of the order of St. +Francis. So early as 1840, Sisters of Charity went from France in order to +establish a community at Tunis, with the full concurrence of the Mussulman +government. + +It is well known that as soon as a French colony was founded at Algiers, a +bishop was appointed. That African Christendom, so happily commenced, +still prospers, and extends its labors under the auspices of the august +Head of the church. It is consoling to observe that there are so many +nascent and even flourishing churches around the vast continent of Africa, +from Senegambia and Sierra Leone, by the Cape of Good Hope, the islands on +the south-east coast, AEthiopia and AEgypt, to the gates of Hercules. They +stand there as sentinels, ready to intimate the moment when the army of +the Cross may penetrate to the central continent, and conquer new kingdoms +to the cause of Christ. This is surely not too much to hope for in an age +when science has done so much, and commerce, that great handmaid of +civilization, is opening a highway to the darkest recesses of the wide and +long-lost heathen land. + +(M24) Some serious-minded Catholics of Germany, dreading lest a national +or schismatical church should come to be established in that country, +conceived the happy idea of organizing, under the auspices of Pius IX., +associations of laymen, who made it their duty to assist the clergy in +everything that could tend to improve morals and education, relieve +suffering, and restore the liberty and rights of the church, whilst they +studied, at the same time, to impart a spirit of faith to the pursuits of +science, the arts, and even the more humble occupations of trade. The +chief founder of these associations, Mr. Francis Joseph Busz, has written +a book, in which he shows what progress they had already made in 1851, and +what it still remained for them to accomplish. They continued to prosper, +and gave birth to associations of a like nature. Thus, at Cologne, Abbe +Kolping, Vicar of the Cathedral, founded a society of _Catholic +Companions_, the object of whose institute was, that they should spend +their leisure hours together in a Christian manner, and increase the +knowledge suited to their state of life, instead of losing their time, +their money and their morals in taverns. By the year 1852, such +associations of workmen had taken root in no fewer than twenty-five cities +in Germany. + +Ever since the Thirty Years' War, Germany had been distracted by religious +divisions. And yet the sectarian spirit does not appear to have been so +bitter as in some other countries. There was at least a desire for +religious peace and union. This is sufficiently expressed in the articles +of the treaty of Westphalia, which seems to have been intended as a +temporary arrangement for the pacification of the country, until peace +should be permanently established "by the agreement of all parties on +points of religion;" "until all controversies should be terminated by an +amicable and universal understanding." "But if, which God forbid! people +cannot come to such amicable agreement on the controverted points of +religion, that this convention shall, nevertheless, be perpetual, and this +peace always continue." Thus was the great treaty only a preliminary of +that lasting peace which can only be finally concluded when all minds and +hearts are united in the bonds of a common faith. + +Whilst many good men labored to bring about this most desirable end, +others, such as Frederic of Prussia, and Joseph II. of Austria, by +ill-advised measures, and the countenance which they gave to unsound and +even irreligious doctrines, sowed the seeds of anarchy and unbelief, which +failed not, in due time, to produce fruit according to their kind, and +well-nigh accomplished the overthrow of society as well as that of the +Christian Church. The Austrian Emperor appears to have understood the +situation, and has generally maintained friendly relations with the Chief +Pastor. Germany, besides, has not been without able and pious men, who +have nobly sustained the cause of Truth and Union. Among these are +particularly deserving of honorable mention the Counts Stolberg, father +and son, whose writings have exercised a salutary influence. Whilst many +other noble laymen contributed, like them, to the regeneration of their +country, others, who were noble only in the ranks of literature and +science, vied in their efforts with the learned of noble birth. The elder +Goerres headed the Catholic movement when Prussia so cruelly persecuted the +Archbishop of Cologne. So good an example was not lost on the son. The +younger Goerres ceased not to emulate his worthy parent until the day of +his death, in 1852. Another distinguished author, who, by his writings, +greatly contributed to inform and encourage the Catholics of Germany, was +Mr. Francis Joseph Busz, already mentioned in connection with the +associations of Pius IX. He was a native of Baden, and an Aulic Counsellor +of the Grand Duke. He had also been a member of the great National +Parliament, which assembled at Frankfort for the purpose of restoring +German unity. The best-known of his works are: _Catholic Association of +Germany, and the necessity of reform in the instruction and education of +the Catholic secular clergy of Germany_. Some of his remarks may be +appropriately quoted, as they throw light on the present (1877-78) state +of Germany, and explain in great measure the extraordinary relations +between Church and State in the New German Empire: "The year 1848 proved +to us Germans that we could not rely on our governments. Both diplomacy +and bureaucracy are, and will remain, incorrigible. Our misery is, indeed, +great. Dissension prevails among our good citizens; the ill-meaning are +united. The Revolutionary War of 1848 and 1849 was a war of principles, +but without results. It was repressed, but not exhausted. It keeps alive +under the appearances by which it is concealed. The inexhaustible volcano +is at work amongst us, not only since 1848, but for three hundred years. +The abjuration of law, and even of all principle of right, is only the +form or expression; the essence of our malady is the denial of God and His +Church. The revolution is apostacy, the disunion of the nation is schism, +its anarchy Atheism. Whoever, like myself, has witnessed the public +negotiations of Germany, knows full well that the political struggle was, +for a long time, and particularly for the last three years, a contest +between the religious confessions. Such evolutions of evil possess a +certain life, although it be only that which leads to dissolution. They +spring one from another, and the new growth is always an improvement on +that by which it was preceded. I say it with sorrow. The strife of +political parties comes at last to be civil war, which, in its turn, +becomes a religious war, and such war soon grows to a war of unbelief +against Faith, of antichrist against Christ. The end is not uncertain. +Christ will be victorious; for it is appointed that the power of hell +shall not prevail." In such a state of things the first duty of German +Catholics is that they be united. It is necessary that the German church +should remain in intimate union with the Holy Apostolic See, relinquishing +all pretension to be a separate National Church. + +The aspiration of our author, so warmly expressed in 1850, that the German +Episcopate should, in mind and action, be one body in the nation, acting +and suffering together, appears, in these later days, to have been +realized. It was also his firm conviction that it behooved them to labor +to obtain complete liberty of action for the church, particularly in +forming an exemplary clergy, both in the lesser and greater seminaries, as +well as in those higher institutions, the German universities. Neither +should the laity fail in the fulfilment of all Christian and charitable +duties. + +(M25) It is well known that, in ancient times, no countries in the world +were more Catholic than Spain and and Portugal. The great wealth and power +and glory to which they attained was, one would say, a mark of Heaven's +approbation. Wealth, however, is a dangerous possession. In the countries +referred to it induced corruption and degeneracy. Principles of anarchy +came to be disseminated, devolution on revolution followed. The authority +of the Chief Pastor was resisted. The ministers of religion and the +religious orders were treated with contempt--were persecuted in lands where +they had been so long cherished and revered. The children of a corrupt +nobility were sent to govern the provinces and churches of the falling +Empire. The result was, it is superfluous to say, the decline of +religion--the overthrow of the once flourishing churches of Spain and +Portugal. And yet were they not destined to perish wholly. A remnant was +left; and it was appointed that this remnant should take root and fructify +in a soil which trials and persecution had prepared for a new growth. It +was reserved for the age of Pius IX. to behold Spain and Portugal renew +their early fervor. They have returned to the centre of Catholic unity; +and in both countries arrangements have been entered into for staying the +spoliation of ecclesiastical property, appointing learned and edifying +bishops to the vacant Sees, restoring seminaries and clerical education. +The clergy, who had been infected more or less by the Jansenist heresy, +now purified in the crucible of persecution, have resumed the sound +doctrines and the heroic virtues of the apostolic men who will ever be the +brightest glory of their land--Thomas of Villa-Nova, Francis Xavier, +Ignatius of Loyola, Peter of Alcantara, Francis Borgia, St. John of the +Cross, and Saint Theresa. The Holy See, with the concurrence of the +Spanish Government, has organized anew the churches of Spain. In the +consistory of 3rd July, 1848, Pope Pius IX. instituted bishops for the +following Sees: Segovia and Calahorra, in Old Castile; Tortosa and Vich, +in Catalonia; Porto Rico, in North America; Cuenca and St. Charles de +Aucud de Chiloe, in South America. This last-named diocese, at the time of +the appointment, was newly erected. + +(M26) From the epoch of the "Reformation," when the ancient Catholic +hierarchy of England, which had been so successfully founded by St. +Augustine and the disciples of St. Columba, was swept away, until the year +1850, the church was missionary, and governed, as missions usually are, by +prefects, who may be arch-priests, or vicars-apostolic, with episcopal +titles. Until the year 1625, the English mission was under the guidance of +an arch-priest. In that year Pope Gregory II. appointed a vicar-apostolic +for all England. Circumstances appearing favorable to the church after the +accession of King James II., Pope Innocent XI. placed the English mission +under the spiritual charge of four vicars-apostolic, who were bishops, +with titles taken from churches, _in partibus infidelium_. The country +was, at the same time, divided into four missionary districts--the London, +the Eastern, the Midland and the Western. The numbers of Catholics having +greatly increased during the early portion of the present century, the +Holy Father, Gregory XVI., took into consideration the new requirements +that had arisen, by letters apostolical, of date 3rd July, 1840, made a +new ecclesiastical division of the English counties, and doubled the +number of vicars-apostolic. There were now eight districts under the +spiritual jurisdiction of these vicars-apostolic, who governed and were +governed by the wise constitutions given to their predecessors by Pope +Benedict XIV. Meanwhile, the state of the Catholics of England was rapidly +improving. Relieved of so many of their disabilities by the gracious Act +of 1829, there were no longer any serious legal impediments to the +legitimate development of their church. It grew accordingly, and by the +year 1840 had become comparatively flourishing. It possessed many stately +churches, eight or ten important colleges, the buildings of which were of +a high order of architecture; numerous charitable institutions, each of +considerable extent; over six hundred public churches or chapels, and +eight hundred clergy. Many of the most ancient families of the land were +among its devoted adherents, and it also claimed a not unequal share of +the intellect and learning, the literary and scientific distinction of the +country. Many of the British colonies had already been favored, and not +without the full concurrence of the Imperial government, with that more +suitable and normal state of church government, which depends on the +institution of bishops in ordinary. Was the Mother Country, the seat of +empire, whose church was so much more developed than that of any of the +colonies, alone to be deprived of so great an advantage? Were the +Catholics of England, who were certainly in no respect behind the rest of +their fellow-countrymen, even in an age of light and improvement, to rest +satisfied with a primitive state of things, when a broader, a more free, +and in every way a more beneficial system of spiritual rule was within +their reach? The Chief Pastor was willing to inaugurate such rule, +provided that he found, on examination, that it was suited to the +spiritual state and religious wants of the Catholic people. There was +nothing, besides, in the legislation of the country that could be called +an impediment to a new and better condition of ecclesiastical government. + +(M27) For some time the Catholics of England had desired that their church +should enjoy the advantage of being governed by bishops in ordinary. So +early as the year 1834, they petitioned the Holy See to this effect. At +that time, however, nothing was concluded. In 1847 the vicars-apostolic +assembled in London, and deputed two of their number to bear a petition to +the Holy Father, earnestly praying for the long-desired boon. It was +craved, not as a mark of triumphant progress, far less as an act of +aggression on the law-established church, but simply in order to afford +greater facility for the administration of the affairs of the church, and +more effectually to promote the edification of the Catholic people. The +existing code of government had been adopted about a hundred years before, +when heavy penal laws, together with endless disabilities, were in force, +and religious liberty was unknown. Part of this code had been repealed by +Pope Gregory XVI. But it still tended to embarrass rather than to aid and +guide. Since Emancipation, in 1829, the Catholic church had greatly +expanded, and the bishops, vicars-apostolic, were in a situation of great +difficulty, as they were most anxious to be guarded against arbitrary +decisions by fixed rules, whilst as yet none were provided for them. No +doubt the system of church government by vicars-apostolic could have been +amended and made more suitable to the altered circumstances of the church. +But it would have been necessarily complicated, and at best could only +have been a temporary arrangement. It was thought expedient, therefore, +that the ordinary mode of church government should be extended to the +Catholic church in England, in as far as was compatible with its social +position. It was, accordingly, necessary that there should be a hierarchy. +The canon law could not be applied under vicars-apostolic, nor could +provincial synods be held, however necessary their action might be, +without a metropolitan and suffragan bishops. The vicars-apostolic +petitioned only with a view to improve the internal organization of the +church. They had no idea of attacking any other body, and surely never +dreamt of rivalry with the established Anglican church. What they did, +besides, was perfectly within the law, and according to the rights of +liberty of conscience. The Holy Father kindly listened to the petition, +and referred it for further consideration to the congregation of +Propaganda. When every point was carefully examined, and objections +satisfactorily replied to, the favor petitioned for was granted. +Difficulties having been started in regard to some matter of detail, the +publication of the new code of church administration was delayed. These +difficulties were removed the following year by Bishop Ullathorne. But the +measure was again retarded by the revolution which broke out at Rome in +1848. The delay was not without its uses. It gave time to the statesmen of +England to become acquainted with and consider the measure of reform which +was proposed for adoption in the internal organization of the Catholic +church in England. It was officially communicated to them when printed, in +1848. They made no objection. And yet, when it was promulgated in 1850, +their chief spoke of it, in his ill-timed letter to the Bishop of Durham, +as "insolent and insidious." For many an age to come, Catholics will read +with astonishment that so inoffensive an act of the Holy See, done at the +request of the Catholic bishops of England, and in the interest of the +Catholic people, at the time some seven millions in number, should have +excited the anger of so great a portion of the English nation. The isle +was literally frighted from its propriety. From the Queen on her throne to +the humblest villager, all were seized with sudden and unaccountable fear, +as if the monarchy had been threatened with immediate overthrow. The +Queen, in terror, called her Council of State around her. But her chief +adviser, a weak-minded old man, had very little comfort to bestow. He +could only help her Majesty's bishops to inflame the public mind. In all +conscience, they had done quite enough in this direction without his +assistance. The spirit of bigotry was enkindled, and the clergy, with +their chiefs, gave proof of their bitter hostility through every newspaper +of the land. This acrimonious opposition was, however, chiefly confined to +the ministers of the church by law established. They believed, or +pretended to believe, that the titles and legal rights of their bishops +were aimed at, whilst, in reality, care had been taken to avoid offending +them, or violating the law, by conferring on the new bishops the titles of +the ancient Sees which were held by the established church. It is +impossible to mention anything connected with the establishment of the +hierarchy which can at all explain the violence of the bishops and clergy +generally of the establishment. The popular commotion arose from +misconception and the absurd falsehoods that were industriously +disseminated. The masses were still raging, when Dr. Wiseman, who had just +been raised to the dignity of Cardinal, published an appeal to the people +of England, in which he showed that the measure which had occasioned so +much disturbance concerned only the internal organization of the Catholic +church, that the Pope had not sought such a measure, but had only acceded +to it at the earnest request of the bishops, vicars-apostolic of England: +that there was nothing connected with it contrary to the laws of the +country, or that could not be reconciled with liberty of conscience, which +was now so completely and generally recognized. It was as ridiculous as it +was illiberal to heap torrents of abuse on the Pope, as if he had sought +to usurp the rights of the Crown, or seize on the territory and revenues +of the established Anglican church. As for himself, he was reviled because +he had received the title of Archbishop of Westminster, whilst, in +reality, as regarded the church of that name, and any territory or +property connected with it, it was only an empty title. He was to be +metropolitan. The title of London was inhibited by law. Southwark was to +be itself a diocese. To have taken the title of a subordinate portion of +the great metropolis, such as Finsbury or Islington, would only have +excited ridicule, and caused the new episcopate to be jeered at. +Westminster was naturally selected, although not by himself, as giving an +honorable and well-known title. He was glad that it was chosen, not +because it was the seat of the courts of law, or of parliament, but +because it brought the real point of the controversy more clearly and +strikingly before the opponents of the hierarchy. "Have we, in anything, +acted contrary to law? And if not, why are we to be blamed?" But he +rejoiced, also, for another reason. The chapter of Westminster had been +the first to protest against the new archiepiscopal title, as though some +practical attempt at jurisdiction within the Abbey had been intended. To +this more than absurd charge, the Cardinal eloquently replied: "The +diocese, indeed, of Westminster, embraces a large district, but +Westminster proper consists of two very different parts. One comprises the +stately Abbey, with its adjacent palaces and its royal parks. To this +portion the duties and occupations of the dean and chapter are mainly +confined, and they shall range there undisturbed. To the venerable old +church I may repair, as I have been wont to do. But perhaps the dean and +chapter are not aware, that were I disposed to claim more than the right +to tread the Catholic pavement of that noble building, and breathe its air +of ancient consecration, another might step in with a prior claim. For +successive generations there has existed ever, in the Benedictine order, +an Abbot of Westminster, the representative in religious dignity of those +who erected and beautified and governed that church and cloister. Have +they ever been disturbed by this titular? Have they heard of any claim or +protest on his part touching their temporalities? Then let them fear no +greater aggression now. Like him, I may visit, as I have said, the old +Abbey, and say my prayer by the shrine of good St. Edward, and meditate on +the olden times, when the church filled without a coronation and +multitudes hourly worshipped without a service. But in their temporal +rights, or their quiet possession of any dignity and title, they will not +suffer. Whenever I go in I will pay my entrance fee, like other liege +subjects, and resign myself meekly to the guidance of the beadle, and +listen without rebuke when he points out to my admiration detestable +monuments, or shows me a hole in the wall for a confessional. Yet this +splendid monument, its treasures of art and its fitting endowments, form +not the parts of Westminster which will concern me; for there is another +part which stands in frightful contrast, though in immediate contact with +this magnificence. In ancient times the existence of an abbey in any spot, +with a large staff of clergy and ample revenues, would have sufficed to +create around it a little paradise of comfort, cheerfulness and ease. +This, however, is not now the case. Close under the Abbey of Westminster +there lie concealed labyrinths of lanes and courts, and alleys and slums, +nests of ignorance, vice, depravity and crime, as well as of squalor, +wretchedness and disease; whose atmosphere is typhus, whose ventilation is +cholera; in which swarms a huge and almost countless population, in great +measure, nominally, at least, Catholic; haunts of filth which no sewerage +committee can reach; dark corners which no lighting board can brighten. +This is the part of Westminster which alone I covet, and which I shall be +glad to claim and to visit, as a blessed pasture in which sheep of Holy +Church are to be tended, in which a bishop's godly work has to be done, of +consoling, converting and preserving. And if, as I humbly trust in God, it +shall be seen that this special culture, arising from the establishment of +our hierarchy, bears fruits of order, peacefulness, decency, religion and +virtue, it may be that the Holy See shall not be thought to have acted +unwisely, when it bound up the very soul and salvation of a Chief Pastor +with those of a city, whereof the name, indeed, is glorious, but the +purlieus infamous--in which the very grandeur of its public edifices is as +a shadow to screen from the public eye sin and misery the most appalling. +If the wealth of the Abbey be stagnant, and not diffusive; if it in no way +rescue the neighboring population from the depths in which it is sunk, let +there be no jealousy of any one who, by whatever name, is ready to make +the latter his care, without interfering with the former." + +In the passage which follows, the established clergy are rather +unceremoniously handled; and not undeservedly, for there can be no doubt +that their reckless diatribes in the pulpit, on the platform, and in the +press, were the chief cause of the unhallowed uproar which attended the +publication of the new and much-needed organization of the Catholic church +in England. It certainly was not their fault if the country was not +disgraced by deeds of violence. In one or two places, indeed, such things +were attempted. At a town in the north of England, where there is a +Catholic mission, a mob of excited people threatened the chapel and +priest's house. The presence of a counter-mob from a neighboring colliery +speedily restored tranquillity. In another town a crowd of the unwashed +were proceeding to burn the Pope and Cardinal in effigy, when these august +persons were wisely seized by order of the magistrates, and, with some of +their unruly escort, secured within the prison walls. Although a few +_hired_ ruffians could attempt such things (it is known that those last +named were hired), the English people were far from contemplating anything +like violence. So it is with no small pleasure that is here recorded the +high compliment paid to them in the following eloquent passage of Cardinal +Wiseman's appeal: "I cannot conclude," he says towards the end, "without +one word on the part which the clergy of the Anglican church have acted in +the late excitement. Catholics have been their principal theological +opponents, and we have carried on our controversies with them temperately, +and with every personal consideration. We have had no recourse to popular +arts to debase them; we have never attempted, even when the current of +public opinion has set against them, to turn it to advantage, by joining +in any outcry. They are not our members who yearly call for returns of +sinecures or episcopal incomes; they are not our people who form +antichurch-and-state associations; it is not our press which sends forth +caricatures of ecclesiastical dignitaries, or throws ridicule on clerical +avocations. With us the cause of truth and of faith has been held too +sacred to be advocated in any but honorable and religious modes. We have +avoided the tumult of public assemblies and farthing appeals to the +ignorance of the multitude. But no sooner has an opportunity been given +for awakening every lurking passion against us than it has been eagerly +seized by the ministers of the Establishment. The pulpit and the platform, +the church and the town hall, have been equally their field of labor; and +speeches have been made and untruths uttered, and calumnies repeated, and +flashing words of disdain and anger and hate and contempt, and of every +unpriestly and unchristian and unholy sentiment, have been spoken, that +could be said against those who almost alone have treated them with +respect. And little care was taken at what time or in what circumstances +these things were done. If the spark had fallen upon the inflammable +materials of a gunpowder-treason mob, and made it explode, or, what was +worse, had ignited it, what cared they? If blood had been inflamed and +arms uplifted, and the torch in their grasp, and flames had been +enkindled, what heeded they? If the persons of those whom consecration +makes holy, even according to their own belief, had been seized, like the +Austrian general, and ill-treated, and perhaps maimed, or worse, what +recked they? These very things were, one and all, pointed at as glorious +signs, should they take place, of high and noble Protestant feeling in the +land, as proofs of the prevalence of an unpersecuting, a free, inquiring, +a tolerant gospel creed! + +"Thanks to you, brave and generous and noble-hearted people of England! +who would not be stirred up by those whose duty it is to teach you, +gentlemen, meekness and forbearance, to support what they call a religious +cause, by irreligious means; and would not hunt down, when bidden, your +unoffending fellow-citizens, to the hollow cry of 'No Popery,' and on the +pretence of a fabled aggression." + +The London _Times_ might well say, referring to this magnificent appeal, +that the Cardinal had at length spoken English. It was easy to mystify the +people in regard to theological utterances. They could be no longer +deceived now that the Chief of the new hierarchy had addressed them in +round Saxon terms, about the meaning of which there could be no mistake. +The _appeal_ first published in the London _Times_ was reproduced in all +the newspapers of the country. The public mind was tranquillized, and very +little was heard, afterwards, of the "Papal aggression." The Prime +Minister, however, was bound, for the sake of consistency, to do +something. What he did was highly in favor of the hierarchy. It proved +that everything had been done according to law, simply by the fact that +parliament was urged to make a new law by which everything that had been +done would be illegal. This was the famous Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. It +was designed to accomplish a great deal--to extinguish for ever the +Cardinal Archbishop, and all the other newly-instituted bishops. It proved +utterly futile--_telum imbelle sine ictu_. The people could not be made to +put down the Catholic institution; and religious liberty was so thoroughly +recognized that even an act of parliament was powerless against it. + +(M28) The new Sees constituted by the Letters Apostolical of 29th +September, 1850, were thirteen in number--Westminster, the Metropolitan +See; Southwark, Hexham, Beverly, Liverpool, Salford, Shrewsbury, Newport, +Clifton, Plymouth, Nottingham, Birmingham and Northampton. + +(M29) At the time of the restoration of the English hierarchy, Dr. Wiseman +was created a Cardinal, not so much in honor of the important act to which +it was his charge to give effect, as because the Holy Father having +resolved on a creation of Cardinals so eminent a man could not be +overlooked. At the accession of Pius IX. there were sixty-one living +Cardinals. Of these only nine were not Italians. When, on his return to +Rome, after his sojourn in the kingdom of Naples, he determined to add +fourteen Cardinals to the Sacred College, only four of the prelates +selected were natives of Italy. The rest were, at the time, the most +distinguished men of the Catholic world. Of this number Archbishop Geissel +of Cologne was one, and the King of Prussia, more liberal than certain +magnates of England, thanked the Holy Father, in an autograph letter, for +the honor thus done to the Catholic church of his country. Since that time +the Prussian monarch appears to have changed his sentiments as well as his +ministry. + +(M30) Notwithstanding the noisy demonstrations in opposition to the +Cardinal Archbishop and his brother bishops, they were allowed to pursue +in peace their labors of Christian zeal. The English grumbled, as is their +wont. But discovering in time that they were neither attacked nor hurt, +the rights of liberty of conscience were respected, and no persecution +followed what it was at first the fashion to call the "Papal aggression." + +(M31) The Emancipation Bill of 1829, by which liberty of conscience, which +was so proudly called the birthright of every Englishman, was extended to +Catholics, tended powerfully, no doubt, to promote the development of the +Catholic church. It grew also by emigration from Catholic Ireland, and +there were some conversions occasionally from the Protestant ranks. It was +not, however, till the decade immediately preceding the restoration of the +hierarchy, that there was a very marked and decided movement of the +educated and learned men of England towards the Catholic church. It is not +recorded anywhere that Catholic missionaries or envoys of the Pope had +penetrated into those sanctuaries of Protestant learning--the celebrated +universities of Oxford and Cambridge. There, at least, there was no "Papal +aggression," and tract upon tract was issued from the press of those seats +of learning, in which it was argued that the doctrines taught by the +Fathers of the first five centuries were the real Christian teaching which +all men were bound to accept. It appeared to have escaped the learned men +of Cambridge and Oxford that these were the very doctrines so +perseveringly adhered to by the long-ignored and down-trodden Catholics of +England. + +This fact, however, flashed upon their minds at last, and they who were +lights in the Anglican establishment, which had been so long surrounded by +a halo of worldly glory, and to be connected with which was a sure title +to respectability, hesitated not to place themselves in communion with +those whose position as a church had been for so many generations like to +that of the early Christians who lurked in the catacombs of Rome. The +clergy of the Catholic church in England, although they did not and could +not have inaugurated the Cambridge and Oxford movement, recognized its +importance, and freely seconded what it was beyond their power to +initiate. Foremost amongst those who were ever ready to afford comfort and +encouragement to the able and inquiring men who sought the one true fold, +was the learned ecclesiastic of world-wide renown who, a little later, +bore so conspicuous a part in the re-establishment of the sacred hierarchy +in England. This highly-gifted divine was a willing worker in the great +Master's field. His labors were beyond even his great powers; and so his +career, though brilliant, was comparatively short. The cause which he so +well sustained is one which cannot suffer an irreparable loss; and great +would be the joy of the pious and devoted Cardinal, so early snatched +away, if it were given him to behold the rapid developments of the church +which, in his day, he so ably and successfully upheld. + +(M32) If the increase of Catholics in England was rapid during the decade +which preceded, it was much more so immediately alter the restoration of +the hierarchy. This event appears to have given a new impetus to the +growth of the church and her salutary institutions. Religious communities +multiplied under the fostering care of the Cardinal Archbishop, and the +encouragement which the Holy Father never ceased to afford. From 80, at +the accession of Pius IX., they rose to 367; and schools and colleges +increased from 500 to 1,300. The number of priests in Great Britain was +more than trebled. It grew from 820 to 1,968, whilst churches and chapels +rose in proportion--from 626 to 1,268. The number of dignitaries and other +ministers of the Church of England, by law established, who, within the +same period, embraced the Catholic faith, is estimated at over one +thousand. There were, at the same time, numerous conversions among the +laity. All this, together with the natural growth of population and +immigration from Ireland, accounts for the increase of Catholics +throughout the British isles in the days of Pius IX., as well as for the +great additions to the number of their clergy, churches, religious and +educational institutions. Monsignore Capel ascribes these extraordinary +developments in great measure to the action of that section of the Church +of England which is known as the High Church or Ritualist division of the +Establishment. This is true, no doubt, as regards any augmentation of the +church through conversions from Protestantism, and the impetus given by +the movement towards Catholic union. "It is scarcely possible," says the +Rev. Monsignore Capel, "to find a family in England that will not own that +one of its members, or, at least, some acquaintance, has relations with +the Catholic church, or observes some of the practices of that church, +whether it be adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, auricular confession, +devotion to the Blessed Virgin, or veneration of the saints. This movement +is of such powerful proportions, and possesses such vitality of action, +that no power on earth, no persecution on the part of Protestantism, the +government or the press, is able to suppress it. Catholics would never +have been able, themselves alone, to realize what is now accomplished by a +section of the established Anglican church. The members of this party, by +their discourses in the pulpit, have familiarized the public mind with +expressions which Catholics never could have spread among the English +people to the same extent, such as altar and sacrifice, priest and +priesthood, high mass, sacrament, penance, confession, &c. The movement +has produced this result. Many persons have become seriously religious, +who had been in the habit of considering that the service of God was only +a fitting employment for Sunday. In fine, the spirit of God which breathed +on the waters at the commencement is now passing over the British nation +and impelling it towards Catholic truth." + +Not a few of those who were once distinguished ministers of the Anglican +church are now officiating, with great acceptance, as Catholic priests. Of +the 264 priests of the diocese of Westminster, there are 40 who were +members of the official or law church. There passed not a week, M. Capel +assures us, that he did not receive four or five Ritualists into the +communion of the Catholic church. This was no fruit of his labor and +ability, he modestly as well as truly declares. They were persons with +whom he had no relations whatsoever, until they came to him, their minds +made up, and expressed that serious determination which is so +characteristic of them. + +The publications of the celebrated statesman, Mr. Gladstone, although they +have not won for him reputation as a theologian, have, nevertheless, +promoted the cause of Catholic theology. The opinions of so eminent a man +were naturally subjects of general discussion; and thus, whilst he opposed +Pius IX. and his decisions, he caused many, who would never probably have +thought seriously of anything a Pope could say, to give their attention to +matters spiritual of the highest import. As regards his own theology, it +is partly sound, partly the reverse. Whilst entirely misapprehending the +doctrine of infallibility, and denying what he conceives it to be, he +vigorously maintains the indefectibility of the Catholic church, and +acknowledges the claim of her pastors to "descent in an unbroken line from +Christ and His apostles." Such is one of the powerful agents in the great +movement of the age. The most influential of all, however, was Pope Pius +IX. himself. English people and Americans often sought his presence. And +who shall tell how many, after having conversed with him or his +representatives, have been disabused of their erroneous notions, or have +even embraced the Catholic faith? + +One chief cause of the remarkable development of the Catholic church in +the British isles, is the complete religious liberty which Catholics +enjoy. This important fact was thoroughly recognized on occasion of the +celebration of the anniversary of O'Connell in August, 1875, when a solemn +_Te Deum_ was ordered in all the churches by the Cardinal Archbishop, in +thanksgiving for the liberty of conscience which was so gloriously won for +the United Kingdom as well as Ireland and all the colonies. Pius IX. and +the whole Catholic world joined on the same occasion in acts of +thanksgiving with the spiritual heirs of Sts. Patrick, Augustine, Columba +and St. Thomas of Canterbury. It is a noteworthy fact that the number of +archiepiscopal and episcopal sees, together with vicariates-apostolic, +&c., created by Pius IX. throughout the British Empire, is not less than +one hundred and twenty-five. + +(M33) For three hundred years the Catholics of Holland were sorely tried +by persecution. Until the time of the Concordat of 1827, they were +governed by archpriests, whose superior or prefect resided at the Hague. +When Holland was separated from Belgium, the king of the former country +wisely resolved to act as a constitutional monarch. He was considerate as +regarded his Catholic subjects. His successor, William II., to whom in +1840 he resigned the crown, treated them with still greater benevolence. +He sought an understanding with the Holy See, and gave effect to the +Concordat of 1827. Vicars-apostolic, invested with the episcopal +character, were now the chief pastors of the church of Holland. The king +also sanctioned the establishment of several religious communities, among +the rest the Society of Jesuits and the Liguorians. These arrangements +were joyfully accepted by the Catholics of Holland, and paved the way for +greater developments. These worthy people were, for a long time, believed +to be few in number, and scarcely more than nominally Catholics. Relieved, +at length, from the pressure of persecution, they astonished the world, +not only by their numbers, but also, and even more, by their zeal in the +cause of religion. According to the census of 1840, they were nearly +one-half of the entire population of Holland. Total population, 2,860,450; +Protestants, 1,700,275; Catholics, 1,100,616. The remainder was made up of +Jews and other dissenters. Thus were the Catholics of Holland as eleven to +seventeen. Since that time they have not ceased to increase. Nor have they +lost the high character which induced Pius IX., in 1853, to restore, the +king concurring, their long-lost hierarchy. An archbishopric, Utrecht, and +four episcopal sees were established--Harlem, Herzogenbosch, or Bois le +Due, Breda and Roermonde. This wise and necessary measure was followed by +an outburst of wrath on the side of the anti-Catholic party. But in +Holland, as in England, it soon subsided, and left only the impression +that Protestants and other non-Catholic people claim an exclusive right to +religious liberty. Pius IX. never ceased to entertain a high opinion of +the good Catholics of Holland. "Ah!" said he to visitors from that +country, "could we ever forget that these single-minded, loyal, patient +Hollanders formed the majority of our soldiers, who were not native +Italians, at Castelfidardo and Mentana." + +(M34) Whilst in the old world, wherever really free political institutions +existed, the spirit of persecution quailed before the recognized principle +of religious liberty, in certain portions of the new it appeared to gain +strength, and to increase in the violence of its opposition to the liberty +of the church. This was particularly the case in New Granada, where +politicians, without statesmanship or experience, imagined that they had +made their people free, when they succeeded in separating them from Spain +and establishing a republic, in which the first principles of liberty were +ignored. It is not recorded that the clergy of New Granada sought to do +violence to any man's conscience, or ever thought of forcing any one to +accept the Catholic creed. To say the least, they were too wise to +attempt, thus to fill the church with hypocrites and secret enemies. Of +such there were already too many in those societies which shun the light, +and in the new world as actively as in the old intrigue and manoeuvre in +order to overthrow every regular and legitimately established government. +Even the republic of New Granada, which had been fashioned so much +according to their will, was far from perfect in their estimation, so long +as the church was not completely subject to the state. So early as 1847, +Pius IX. addressed a fatherly remonstrance to the President of the New +Republic. It was of no avail. The evil continued. Anti-Catholic +legislation was coolly proceeded with. In 1850 the seminary of Bogota was +confiscated. The following year bishops were forbidden the visitation of +convents. Laws were enacted requiring that lay parishioners should elect +their parish priests, and that canons should be appointed by the +provincial councils. The clergy were robbed of their proper incomes, and +the congress or parliament of the republic arrogated the right to +determine what salaries they should enjoy as well as what duties they +should fulfil. This surely was nothing less than to reduce the church to +be nothing more than a department of the civil government. The church +could not so exist. Its principle and organization were from a higher +source. The Socialists and secret plotters fully understood that they were +so, and that in this lay the secret of the church's power to promote +virtue and check the course of evil. It consisted, it appears, with their +ideas of justice and liberty, that the church should, if possible, be +deprived of this great and salutary moral power. So, whilst neither its +members, generally, nor its clergy desired radical and subversive changes +in the essential constitution of the church, the republican leaders +determined that it should be completely revolutionized. The bishops and +priests protested, with one voice, against such fundamental innovations. +The republicans, no less resolute, and, bent on their wicked purpose, +imprisoned and banished the clergy. One dignitary alone showed weakness. +He was no other than the Vicar-Caputular of Antioquia. Pius IX. charitably +rebuked him, and exhorted him to suffer courageously, like his brethren. +The persecution, meanwhile, was very sweeping. The Archbishop of Bogota, +Senor Mosquera, and almost all the suffragan bishops, were driven from the +country, so that there was scarcely a bishop left in the republic. It was +now speedily seen that the godless radicals had overdone their ungracious +work. The country was roused. The tide of popular indignation set in +against the short-sighted politicians who persecuted the church, and they, +dreading an insurrection, withdrew, with the best grace they could +command, from the false position which they had so unwisely assumed. + +(M35) Whilst the spirit of persecution brooded gloomily over many +countries of the new world, its influence began to decline in those lands +where for centuries the idea of liberty of conscience was unknown, where +even the slightest toleration existed not. Those northern lights, those +champions in their day of Protestantism and "_religious liberty_" Gustavus +Wasa and Gustavus Adolphus, were not mistaken when they bequeathed to +their country laws which were intended to be as unchangeable as those of +the Medes and Persians, and which forbade all Scandinavians, whether +Swedes, Danes or Norwegians, under pain of death, to embrace the Catholic +faith. Those princes were wise in their generation. They understood the +power of Truth; they knew that half measures were of no avail against it; +and that in order to stifle it, even for a time, all the terrors of +worldly tyranny must be brought into play. Their laws, more terrible than +the code of Draco, remained in force and without mitigation until a great +revolution had swept over Europe, and sent a military adventurer to fill +the regal seat of the formidable Wasas. In the time of Bernadotte (the +Doct Baron), the infamous penal laws were relaxed. To become a Catholic +now only led to imprisonment or exile. Six ladies of Sweden, in defiance +of this _milder_ law, came to profess the Catholic faith. They were tried, +condemned and sentenced to be banished from the country. The execution of +this barbarous sentence roused all Europe, and caused the abrogation of +the Swedish penal laws against religion. (M36) Thus was a new field laid +open to missionary zeal, and Pius IX., availing himself of so favorable a +change of circumstances, appointed a Catholic pastor missionary apostolic +at Stockholm. This devoted priest labors assiduously and in the midst of +difficulties, but not without fruit. He contends, with all the success +that can be as yet expected, against prejudices hostile to the religion +which brought civilization to the Scandinavian nations, and which have +been accumulating for three centuries and a half. + +(M37) Denmark followed in the wake of Sweden. Within the first two years +after the abrogation of the cruel Danish penal code, there were six +hundred conversions to the Catholic faith. + +(M38) The Catholic church in the recently-erected kingdom of Greece was +governed by vicars-apostolic. It grieved King Otho, who, as is well known, +was of the Catholic royal family of Bavaria, to see his country treated as +if it were a heathen land. It was not, however, till the time of his +successor, who is a son of the King of Denmark, that Pius the Ninth was +able to establish a hierarchy in Greece. There is now an archbishop of +Athens as well as an archbishop of Corfu. + +(M39) At a time when crime abounded, the governments of certain petty +States of Germany, instead of directing their energies towards its +repression, and so fulfilling one of the chief duties incumbent on the +State, employed all the authority with which they were invested to +disorganize the church and destroy its salutary influence. As is usual, +when States, forgetting the great objects for which they are entrusted +with the sword of justice, follow such a course, they attacked the +ministers of the church, banishing, imprisoning, thwarting and molesting +them in every possible way. In the Grand Duchy of Baden the civil +authorities arrogated the right to appoint parish priests and other +members of the sacred ministry. They went so far as to endeavor to poison +religious instruction at its source, and declared that the students in +Catholic seminaries must undergo, before ordination, an examination by +civil officials. This tyrannical law was courageously opposed by the +venerable archbishop, Vicary, of Friburg. (M40) Although eighty years of +age, he was dragged before the courts, and placed like a criminal under +charge of the police. The faithful clergy were banished, imprisoned and +fined. The Holy Father, with his usual zeal, remonstrated. It was to no +purpose. At length the Catholics of Germany were roused. They could no +longer be indifferent. The day was come when the church, in her utmost +need, could not dispense with their assistance. All must now be for her or +against her. The great majority flocked around her standard. Meanwhile, +the public offices in the churches were suspended. The bells and organs +were heard no more. Silence and death-like gloom overspread the land. +Baden gave way. Wurtemberg, Hesse Cassel and Nassau, which had done their +best to follow in the wake of Baden, paused in their mad career. Thus, +throughout those lesser States peace reigned once more, and continued to +reign in Germany until a greater State, Prussia, unwisely disturbed the +religious harmony which so happily prevailed. The chiefs of States, +alarmed by the revolutionary spirit which spread, like contagion, +throughout Germany as well as the rest of Europe, adopted a more rational +policy. They encouraged the clergy to hold missions everywhere. They +invited the Liguorians and Jesuits, as well as the secular clergy, to +assemble the people in the towns and throughout the country, knowing full +well that they would preach peace and concord no less than respect for +property and life. These pastoral labors were attended with extraordinary +success. Faith, piety, and every virtue flourished among the Catholic +people. All honest Protestants were filled with admiration. Among the +latter there was also a remarkable movement. Some striking conversions +took place, especially in the higher and better educated classes of +society. The Countess de Hahn, so renowned in the literary world for her +wit, abilities, and fine writings, joined the Catholic church, and +published her reasons for so doing. Not satisfied with this step, she came +to the town of Angers, in France, and placed herself as a novice under the +direction of the devout sisters of the Good Shepherd. It is on record +also, that a Protestant journalist of Mecklenburgh, in view of the +commotions which prevailed, and the anti-social doctrines which pervaded +society, went so far as to declare that there was no other remedy for +Protestant Germany than a return to the Catholic church. His remarks +conclude with the following words, extraordinary words, indeed, when it is +considered whence they proceed: "Forward, then, to Rome!" + +(M41) In countries nearer the Holy City, and professing to be Catholic, +the venerable Pontiff found not such a source of consolation. Sardinia had +banished the archbishop of Turin. It not only refused to recall him, but +added to its list of exiles the archbishop of Cagliari. Many more bishops +were, at the same time, threatened with banishment. A professor in the +Royal University of Turin, encouraged by the government, attacked the +doctrine of the church, and was so bold as to deny, in public, that +matrimony is a sacrament. Pius IX. issued a condemnation of his +anti-Catholic writings. The sentence did not move him. Nor did it stay the +hand of the Sardinian government which was raised against the church and +her institutions. It continued the preparation of its anti-marriage law. +In addition, accusations were laid against the clergy. The king himself, +evading the real question at issue, accused them of disloyalty, and +declared that they were warring against the monarchy. The Holy Father, in +the following letter to the king, distinctly set forth the real state of +the case: + + + "If by words provoking insubordination are meant the writings of + the clergy against the proposed marriage law, we declare, without + endorsing the language which some may have adopted, that in + opposing it the clergy simply did their duty. We write to your + Majesty that the law is not Catholic. Now, if the law is not + Catholic, the clergy are bound to warn the faithful, even though + by doing so they incur the greatest dangers. It is in the name of + Jesus Christ, whose Vicar, though unworthy, we are, that we speak, + and we tell your Majesty, in His sacred name, not to sanction this + law, which will be the source of a thousand disorders. We also beg + your Majesty to put a check to the press which is constantly + vomiting forth blasphemy and immorality. Your Majesty complains of + the clergy. But these last years the clergy have been persistently + outraged, mocked, calumniated, reviled and derided by almost all + the papers published in Piedmont." + + +That country, unfortunately, appears to have been entirely at the mercy of +the party of unbelief. It was ever ready to inflict new wrongs on the +church, and occasion anxiety and sorrow to the Holy Father. + +(M42) There are few readers of ecclesiastical history who are not deeply +interested in that portion of India which was the first field of the +extraordinary apostolic labors of Saint Francis Xavier. The blessing of +the Saint appears to have rested on the land of Goa; for after many years +of trial and difficulty and schism, this Portuguese settlement, once so +great and important, still remains a province of the church. The +Portuguese government, by unjustly claiming right of patronage, originated +the schism which, unfortunately, was of such long continuance. It was +reserved for Pius IX. to restore harmony to the Colonial church of Goa. +Happily, in 1851, the schism was brought to an end. + +(M43) Pius IX. was still an exile at Gaeta when, observing the increasing +piety of the Catholic world towards the Blessed Virgin, and moved by the +representations of many bishops that were in harmony with his own +conviction, he issued the Encyclical of the 2nd February, 1849, addressed +to the Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops and Bishops of the whole world, +in order to obtain from them the universal tradition concerning the +Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Mother of God. In this Encyclical the +Holy Father recognizes the fact that there was a universal movement among +Christians in favor of the belief in question, so that the complete +acknowledgment of it appeared to be sufficiently prepared both by the +liturgy and the formal requisitions of numerous bishops, no less than by +the studies of the most learned theologians. He further states that this +general disposition was in full accordance with his own thought, and that +it would afford him great consolation, at a time when so many evils +assailed the church, to add a flower to the crown of the most holy Virgin, +and so acquire a title to her special protection. He declares, moreover, +that with this end in view he had appointed a commission of Cardinals in +order to study the question. He concludes by inviting all his venerable +brethren of the Episcopate to make known to him their sentiments and join +their prayers with his in order to obtain light from on high. + +As the cross itself was folly in the estimation of the early unbelieving +world, so were such theological occupations, at a time when the Sovereign +Pontiff had not an inch of ground whereon he could freely tread, a subject +for jesting and sarcasm to the worldly-wise of the nineteenth century. It +was some time before they came to understand that a Pope is a theologian +more than a king, that, as such, he is sure of the future, and that the +solemn proceeding in regard to the Immaculate Conception was a triumphant +reply to all the errors of modern thought. This dogma brings to naught all +the rationalist systems which refuse to acknowledge in human nature either +fall or supernatural redemption. The means, besides, which were adopted in +order to prepare its promulgation, tended to bring the various churches +throughout the world into closer relation with their common Head and +Centre. They who had hitherto laughed, now raged when they saw this great +result, and attacked with the utmost fury what they called the "new +dogma." Both sectarianism and the schools of sophistry descanted loudly, +although certainly not learnedly, on the ignorance and ineptitude of the +institution which so powerfully opposed them. All this was only idle +clamoring. It never hindered the Holy Pontiff from prosecuting calmly the +important work which heaven had inspired him to begin. + +The Encyclical was warmly responded to by the Episcopate. Six hundred and +three replies were duly forwarded to the Holy Father. Five hundred and +forty-six urgently insisted on a doctrinal definition. A few only, and +among these was Mgr. Sibour, Archbishop of Paris, doubted whether the time +were opportune. But there was no doubt as to the sentiments of the +Catholic world. Only in our time, when the facilities of communication are +so much greater than in any former age, could the plan of consulting so +many bishops in all parts of the world have been successfully adopted. +Pius IX. was now at Rome, and invited around him all bishops who could +travel to the Holy City. No fewer than one hundred and ninety-two from +every country except Russia sought the presence of the Chief Pastor. The +absence of the Russian bishops was all the more surprising, as the +Russo-Greek church vies with Rome in the honor which it pays to the +Blessed Mary. The bishops, however, were not to blame. Their good purposes +were frustrated by the jealous policy of the Emperor Nicholas. The bishops +assembled at Rome, in obedience to the wishes of Pius IX., did not +constitute a formal council. They were, nevertheless, a very complete +representation of the universal church. There were of their number some +highly distinguished cardinals, archbishops and bishops, such as Cardinals +Wiseman and Patrizzi, Archbishops Fransoni of Turin, Reisach of Munich, +Sibour of Paris, Bedini of Thebes, Hughes of New York, Kenrick of +Baltimore, and Dixon of Armagh, together with Bishops Mazenod of +Marseilles, Bouvier of Mans, Malon of Bruges, Dupanloup of Orleans, and +Ketteler of Mayence. Who will say that the learning of the Catholic world +was not at hand to aid with sound counsel the commission of cardinals and +theologians whom the Holy Father had appointed to prepare the Bull of +definition? There had never been so many eminent bishops together at Rome, +since the OEcumenial Council of 1215. On so great an occasion Pius IX. had +requested the prayers of the faithful, and throughout the Catholic world +supplication was made to heaven, in order to obtain, through the light of +the Holy Ghost, such a decision as could tend only to promote the glory of +God, the honor due to the Blessed Virgin Mary and the salvation of +mankind. The bishops at one of their sessions gave a very practical +utterance as regards the infallible authority of the Pope. The question +having arisen whether the bishops were to assist him as judges in coming +to a decision, and pronounce simultaneously with him, or leave the final +judgment solely to the word of the Sovereign Pontiff, the debate, as if by +inspiration from on high, came suddenly to a close. It was the Angelus +hour. The prelates had scarcely resumed their places after the short +prayer, and exchanged a few words, when they made a unanimous declaration +in favor of the supremacy of St. Peter's chair: _Petre, doce nos; confirma +fratres tuos_--"Peter, teach us; confirm thy brethren." The teaching which +the Reverend Fathers sought from the lips of the Supreme Pastor was the +definition of the Immaculate Conception. + +(M44) The 8th December, 1854, was the great triumphal day which, according +to the fine language of Bishop Dupanloup, "crowned the expectation of past +ages, blessed the present time, claimed the gratitude of the centuries to +come, and left an imperishable memory--the day on which was pronounced the +first definition of an article of Faith which no dissentient voice +preceded, and which no heresy followed." All Rome rejoiced. An immense +multitude of people of all tongues crowded the approaches to the vast +Basilica of St. Peter, which was by far too small to contain the imposing +host. Then were seen advancing the bishops, in solemn procession, placed +according to seniority, and followed by the cardinals. The Sovereign +Pontiff, surrounded by a brilliant cortege, closed the procession. +Meanwhile was heard the grave chant of the Litanies of the Saints, +inviting the heavenly court to join with the Church militant in doing +honor to her who was Queen alike of angels and of men. Pius IX. ascended +his throne; and as soon as he had received the obedience of the cardinals +and bishops, the Pontifical Mass began. When the Gospel had been chanted +in Greek and in Latin, Cardinal Macchi, Dean of the Sacred College, +accompanied by the deans of the archbishops and bishops, by an archbishop +of the Greek rite, also, and an Armenian archbishop, advanced to the foot +of the throne, and begged of the Holy Father, in the name of the whole +church, "to raise his apostolic voice and pronounce the dogmatic decree of +the _Immaculate Conception_." The Pope, bowing his head, gladly welcomed +the petition; but wished once more to invoke the aid of the Holy Ghost. +Then rising from his throne, he intoned in a clear and firm voice, which +rang through the grand Basilica, the _veni creator spiritus_. All who were +present, cardinals, bishops, priests and people, mingled their voices with +that of the Father of the Faithful, and the sonorous tones of the heavenly +hymn resounded through the spacious edifice. Silence came. All eyes were +rivetted on the venerable Pontiff. His countenance appeared to be +transfigured by the solemnity of the act in which he was engaged. And now, +in that firm and grave, but mild and majestic, tone of voice, the charm of +which was known to so many millions, he began to read the Bull, which +announced the sublime dogma of the Immaculate Conception. It established, +in the first place, the theological reasons for the belief in the +privilege of Mary. It then appealed to the ancient and universal +traditions of both the Eastern and the Western churches, the testimony of +the religious orders, and of the schools of theology, that of the Holy +Fathers and the Councils, as well as the witness borne by Pontifical acts, +both ancient and more recent. The countenance of the Holy Father showed +that he was deeply moved, as he unfolded these magnificent documents. He +was obliged, several times, so great was his emotion, to stop. +"Consequently," he continued, "after having offered without ceasing, in +humility and with fasting, our own prayers and the public prayers of the +church to God the Father through His Son, that He would deign to guide and +confirm our mind by the power of the Holy Ghost, after we had implored the +aid of the whole host of heaven, to the glory of the Holy and Undivided +Trinity, for the honor of the Virgin Mother of God, for the exaltation of +the Catholic faith and the increase of the Christian religion; by the +authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the blessed apostles Peter and +Paul, and by our own"--at these words the Holy Father's voice appeared to +fail him, and he paused to wipe away his tears. The audience was, at the +same time, deeply moved; but, dumb from respect and admiration, they +waited in deepest silence. The venerable Pontiff resumed in a strong +voice, which shortly rose to a tone of enthusiasm: "We declare, pronounce +and define, that the doctrine which affirms that the Blessed Virgin Mary +was preserved and exempt from all stain of original sin from the first +moment of her conception, in consideration of the merits of Jesus Christ, +the Saviour of mankind, is a doctrine revealed by God, and which, for this +cause, the faithful must firmly and constantly believe. Wherefore, if any +one should be so presumptuous, which, God forbid! as to admit a belief +contrary to our definition, let him know that he has suffered shipwreck of +his faith, and that he is separated from the unity of the church." As the +Pontiff concluded, a glad responsive "Amen" resounded through the crowded +temple. + +The Cardinal-dean once more reverently approached, and petitioned that +order be given for the publication of the apostolic letters containing the +definition; the promoter of the Faith, accompanied by the Apostolic +Protonotaries, also came to ask that a formal record of the great act +should be drawn up. At the same time the cannon of the castle of Saint +Angelo, and all the bells of Rome, proclaimed to the world that the +ever-blessed Mary was gloriously declared immaculate. Throughout the +evening the holy city echoed and re-echoed to the sounds of joyous music, +was ablaze with fire-works, and decorated with innumerable inscriptions +and emblematic transparencies. + +The example of Rome was immediately followed by thousands of towns and +villages over the whole surface of the globe. It would require libraries +rather than volumes to reproduce the expressions of pious concurrence +which everywhere took place. The replies of the bishops to the Pope before +the definition, were printed in nine volumes; the Bull itself, translated +into all the tongues and dialects of the universe, by the labors of a +learned French sulpician, the Abbe Sire, appeared in ten volumes; the +pastoral instructions, publishing and explaining the Bull, together with +the articles of religious journals, would certainly make several hundred +volumes, especially if to these were added the many books by the most +learned men, and the singularly beautiful hymns and poems which flowed +from the pens of Catholic poets, no less than the eloquent discourses of +the most gifted orators. Descriptions of monuments and celebrations would +also immensely swell the list. Sanctuaries, altars, statues, monuments of +every kind, as well as pious associations rose everywhere in honor of the +Immaculate Conception. The ever-increasing devotion to Mary had become +greater than ever. It was to the unbelieving a phenomenon in the moral +world of the nineteenth century, which they could neither comprehend nor +account for. They could only see that it was as a source of new life to +the church. + +(M45) The education law of France, enacted in 1850, had given rise to +differences of opinion among earnest Catholics. These only increased after +the celebrated _coup d'etat_ of 2nd December. M. de Montalembert, who had +become hostile to Prince Louis Napoleon, on occasion of the iniquitous +confiscation of the Orleans property, M. de Falloux, and their friends of +the _Correspondant_, and the _Ami de la Religion_, insisted that they +ought not to accept the protection of Caesar in place of the general +guarantees which were so profitable to the liberty of the church. They +were right, as was but too well shown in the sequel. M. Louis Veuillot and +the writers of the _Univers_ opposed their views, and so they accused +these gentlemen of servility. But this was too much, as the event also +showed. + +The congregation of the "Index" had condemned several French works, some +absolutely, and others only until they should be corrected. Among these +last were books generally used, notwithstanding their faults, in the +public schools, such as the _Manual of Canon Law_, by M. Lequeux, +vicar-general of the Archbishop of Paris, and the theology, so long in +use, of Bailly. The authors of these works at once submitted. One of the +sentences, however, that which affected the Dictionary of M. Bouillet, +greatly offended the Archbishop of Paris--Mgr. Sibour, who had signified +his approval of this publication. He blamed the _Univers_ and the lay +religious press in general. He formulated his complaints in a charge of +15th January, 1851, and by a still more vigorous one in 1853, which was +written at the instigation of a Canon of Orleans, M. L'Abbe Gaduel, who +had accused Donoso Cortes, in the _Ami de la Religion_, of several +heresies, and who complained of having been refuted in the _Univers_ with +a warmth that was far from respectful. Mgr. Sibour forbade the priests of +his diocese to read the _Univers_, and threatened with excommunication the +editors of this journal, if they presumed to discuss the sentence which he +had pronounced against them. A similar sentence came to be uttered by Mgr. +Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, against the same writers, condemning the +opinions which they held concerning the study of the classics. M. +Veuillot, following in the wake of M. L'Abbe Gaume, maintained that one of +the principal causes of the weakening of faith since the time of the +_renaissance_, was the obligation imposed on youth of studying, almost +exclusively, Pagan authors. Mgr. Dupanloup contended rather against +exaggerations of this opinion than against the idea itself. But having +developed his views in an episcopal letter to the professors of his lesser +seminaries, he would not allow them to be opposed; and so, like Mgr. +Sibour, interdicted the _Univers_ to his clergy. M. Louis Veuillot +appealed to the supreme bishop. + +The French episcopate was _greatly_ divided on the subject of these +untoward controversies. The Bishops of Chartres, Moulins and others, had +publicly defended the _Univers_ in opposition to the Archbishop of Paris. +Cardinal Gousset, Archbishop of Rheims, patronized the opinions of M. +Veuillot in regard to the use of heathen classics. An anonymous paper on +_the right of custom_, addressed to the episcopate, now added to all these +subjects of controversy the recriminations of Gallicanism, which was +almost extinct. The author denying that the customs of the church of +France were abrogated by the Concordat, maintained that the disciplinary +sentences of the Popes could not be applied in any diocese until they were +first promulgated therein. He disputed the authority of the decrees of the +"Index," blamed the liturgical movement, reproached the religious +journalists with seeking, above all, to please the Court of Rome, and +concluded by advising the bishops to come to an understanding among +themselves, in order to obtain from the Pope a modification of his +decisions. Pius IX. could be silent no longer. Accordingly, he addressed +to all the French bishops an Encyclical, which is known in history as the +Encyclical _inter multiplices_. He commenced by acknowledging the subjects +of joy and consolation afforded him by the progress of religion in France, +and especially by the zeal and devotedness of the bishops of that country. +He gave special praise to these prelates, because they availed themselves +of the liberty which had been restored to them in order to hold Provincial +Councils, and expressed his satisfaction, "that in a great many dioceses, +where no particular circumstance opposed an impediment, the Roman Liturgy +was re-established." He could not, however, dissemble the sorrow which was +caused him by existing dissensions, and for which he blamed, although +indirectly, political opposition and party spirit. "If ever," said the +Holy Father, "it behooved you to maintain among yourselves agreement of +mind and will, it is, above all, now, when, through the disposition of our +very dear son in Christ, Napoleon, Emperor of the French, the Catholic +church amongst you enjoys complete peace, liberty and protection." In +speaking of the good education of youth, which he earnestly recommended as +being of the highest importance, he gave a practical solution of the vexed +question of the classics. "It is necessary," he insisted, "that young +ecclesiastics should, without being exposed to any danger of error, learn +true elegance of language and style, together with real eloquence, whether +in the very pious and learned works of the Holy Fathers, or in the most +celebrated Pagan authors, when thoroughly expurgated." In this same +Encyclical also, the venerable Pontiff, speaking of the Catholic press, +declared it to be indispensible. "Encourage, we most anxiously ask of you, +with the utmost benevolence, those men who, filled with a truly Catholic +spirit, and thoroughly acquainted with literature and science, devote +their time in writing books and journals for the propagation and defence +of Truth." + +Catholic writers, in return, it is added, ought to acknowledge the +authority of bishops to guide, admonish and rebuke them. The anonymous +paper is then severely censured, and the Pope concludes by a new and +pressing appeal in favor of concord. As soon as this Encyclical of 21st +March, 1853, was published, M. Louis Veuillot and his fellow-laborers +addressed to Mgr. Sibour a letter expressive of respect and deference, in +which they promised to avoid everything that could render them unworthy of +the encouragement of their archbishop. This prelate immediately withdrew +the sentence which he had issued against them, and thus was peace +restored, once more, by the authority of the Supreme Pastor. + +(M46) On the 12th of April, 1855, the fifth anniversary of his return from +Gaeta, Pius IX. drove by the via Nomentana, the beautiful Church of St. +Agnes and the Porta Pia, to a spot five miles from the city, where, on +grounds belonging to the congregation of Propaganda, catacombs had been +recently discovered. In these subterranean recesses were found, among +other venerated tombs, that which contained the relics of St. Alexander +I., Pope and Martyr, and those of the companions who shared his +sufferings. The professors and students of Propaganda had assembled at the +place in honor of the Pope's visit. They descended with him to the Crypt, +where the Holy Father, as soon as he entered, knelt in prayer beside the +remains of his sainted predecessor, who, more than seventeen centuries +ago, had sealed his faith with his blood. After examining the long +corridors of the catacomb, the Holy Father took his seat on the ancient +throne of the chapel, which, no doubt, in the dark days of heathen +persecution, several of his predecessors had filled. So placed, he +delivered to the pupils of Propaganda a feeling allocution on the high +career which lay before them as preachers of the true Faith. He then +addressed a few words to the eminent persons who surrounded him, and +proceeded back to the Church of St. Agnes. Having adored the Blessed +Sacrament, and venerated the relics of the Virgin Martyr, he entered the +neighboring convent of canons regular of St. John Lateran, where a +suitable repast awaited the august visitor. This was followed by a +conversazione in the parlor, in which the distinguished parties who had +accompanied the Pope took part. Almost every Catholic country was +represented there; and, among the rest, were Archbishop Cullen of Dublin +(long since a Cardinal), and Bishop de Goesbriand of Burlington. The Pope +was on the point of departing, when the Superiors of Propaganda prayed him +to grant an audience to the students. Pius IX. graciously complied, and +resumed his seat in the chair of state which was appropriately canopied. A +hundred young ecclesiastics now rapidly entered the room. All of a sudden +the floor gave way with a loud crash, and the whole assembly disappeared +in a confused mass of furniture, stones, plaster, and a blinding cloud of +dust. The joists had given way, and the whole flooring fell to a depth of +nearly twenty feet. The voice of the Pope was first heard, intimating that +he was safe and uninjured. As a few inmates of the convent had remained +outside, assistance speedily came, and the Holy Father was promptly +extricated from the ruins. Solicitous only for the safety of the company, +he urgently ordered that they should all be withdrawn as rapidly as +possible from their perilous position; and he waited in the garden till +every one of them was rescued. Not so much as one was dangerously injured. + +"It is a miracle," said the Pope, who was greatly rejoiced. "Let us go and +thank God." Followed by the whole company, as well as those who had come +to rescue them, he entered the church, where, deeply affected, he intoned +the _Te Deum_, and concluded with the solemn benediction of the most Holy +Sacrament. + +The news of the accident spread rapidly through the city. The people +flocked to the churches. At St. Agnes the wonderful deliverance was +commemorated by a special service. The interior of this church has been +since restored at great cost by Pius IX. A fresco in the open space in +front represents the scene at the convent. The 12th of April is now a +holiday at Rome, and it is observed every year with piety and gratitude. +Twenty years later--12th of April, 1875--the Romans held a magnificent +celebration of the anniversary of the accident at St. Agnes. It was also +the day of the Pope's return from Gaeta, in 1850. In reply to the address, +expressive of duty and devotedness, which was presented to him on that +occasion, the Holy Father alluded, in the language of an apostle, to the +mysterious ways of Providence. "Our fall at St. Agnes," said he, "appeared +at first to be a catastrophe. It struck us all with fear. Its only result, +however, was to cause the works by which the ancient Basilica was renewed +and embellished to be more vigorously prosecuted. The same will be the +case in regard to the moral ruins which the powers of darkness are +constantly heaping up against us and around us. The church will emerge +from the confused mass more vigorous and more beautiful than ever." + +(M47) Piedmont, surely, had little to do at the Congress of Paris, the +object of which was to make the best arrangements possible for the +Christians, and especially the Catholics, of the East. Count Cavour, its +representative, nevertheless, found a pretext for being present, and +introduced as he was by the Minister of France, Count Walewski, and +sustained by the British Plenipotentiary, Lord Clarendon, he became more +important than the power of his country, or the share it had in the +Crimean War, would alone have warranted. He availed himself of his +position to attack and undermine two of the minor sovereigns--the Pope and +the King of Naples. + +"The States of the Holy See," he insisted, "never knew prosperity, except +under the rule of Napoleon I., when they formed part of the French empire +and the kingdom of Italy. Later, the Emperor Napoleon III., _with that +precision and firmness of view by which he is characterized_, understood +and clearly pointed out in his letter to Colonel Ney the solution of the +problem: _Secularization and the Code Napoleon_; but it is evident that +the Court of Rome will struggle to the last moment, and by every possible +means, against the realization of this twofold combination. It is easily +understood that it may appear to accept civil and even political reforms, +taking care always to render them illusory. But it knows too well that +secularization and the code Napoleon, once introduced into the edifice of +the temporal power, would undermine it and cause it to fall, simply by +removing its principal supports--clerical privileges and canon law. +Clerical organization opposes insurmountable impediments to all kinds of +innovations." + +Cavour urged, in conclusion, that "the legations" must be separated +politically, and a viceroy set over those provinces. Walewski and +Clarendon supported these views, but cautiously using the enigmatic +language of diplomacy. The Plenipotentiaries of the other Powers were +silent, or refused to give an opinion, on the ground that they had no +instructions. M. de Mauteuffel alone, the Prussian representative, sternly +observed that such recriminations as M. de Cavour had brought forward were +very like an appeal to the revolutionary movements in Italy. Prussia did +not, at that time, foresee what advantage it was destined to reap from the +alliance of the Italian revolution with Napoleon III. France, however, had +reason to dread lest the chief of her choice should return to the dark +practices of his youth. Her too well-founded apprehensions were confirmed +and aggravated when it came to the public ear, through the newspapers of +the time, that the Emperor had held a too intimate interview with M. de +Cavour at the waters of Plombieres. All this, notwithstanding an alliance +of France with Piedmont, for the destruction of the Pope's temporal +sovereignty, appeared as yet to be so completely out of the question, that +the French ambassador at Rome refuted publicly the calumnies which M. de +Cavour had so selfishly promulgated. Count de Rayneval had been a long +time at Rome, first as Secretary of the Embassy of King Louis Philippe, +and afterwards as Plenipotentiary of the Republic, before he was appointed +to represent the Emperor Napoleon. None could be better qualified to give +a luminous report of the state of matters at Rome. The revolutionary +press, however, never noticed it, and the government refused to publish it +in the _Moniteur_, preferring the wretched pamphlet of M. About on the +_Roman Question_. The French, who wished to be well informed, sought the +words of M. de Rayneval's report in the columns of the London _Daily +News_: + +COUNT RAYNEVAL's REPORT TO THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT. + +"Pius IX. shows himself full of ardor for reforms. He himself puts his +hand to the work. From the very day Pius IX. mounted the throne he has +made continuous efforts to sweep away every legitimate cause of complaint +against the public administration of affairs. + +"Already have civil and criminal cases, as well as a code relating to +commerce, all founded on our own, enriched by lessons derived from +experience, been promulgated. I have studied these carefully--they are +above criticism. The Code des Hypotheques has been examined by French +_juris consults_, and has been cited by them as a model document. Abroad +(says this distinguished and able writer), those essential changes that +are introduced into the order of things, those incessant efforts of the +Pontifical government to ameliorate the lot of the populations, have +passed unnoticed. People have had ears only for the declamation of the +discontented, and for the permanent calumnies of the bad portion of the +Piedmontese and Italian press. This is the source from which public +opinion has derived its inspiration. And in spite of well established +facts, it is believed in most places, but particularly in England, that +the Pontifical government has done nothing for its subjects, and has +restricted itself to the perpetuation of the errors of another age. I have +only yet indicated the ameliorations introduced into the organization of +the administration. Above all, let us remember that never has a more +exalted spirit of clemency been seen to preside over a restoration. No +vengeance has been exercised on those who caused the overthrow of the +Pontifical government--no measures of rigor have been adopted against +them--the Pope has contented himself with depriving them of the power of +doing harm by banishing them from the land." + +ECONOMY OF THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT--MODERATE TAXATION. + +"In spite of considerable burdens which were occasioned by the revolution, +and left as a legacy to the present government--in spite of extraordinary +expenses caused by the reorganization of the army--in spite of numerous +contributions towards the encouragement of public works, the state budget, +which, at the commencement, exhibited a tolerably large _deficit_, has +been gradually tending towards equilibrium. I have had the honor recently +of pointing out to your Excellency, that the deficit of 1857 has been +reduced to an insignificant sum, consisting for the most part of +unexpected expenses, and of money reserved for the extinction of the debt. +The taxes remain still much below the mean rate of the different European +States. A Roman pays the state 22 francs annually, 68,000,000 being levied +on a population of 3,000,000. A Frenchman pays the French government 45 +francs, 1,600,000,000 being levied on a population of 35,000,000. These +figures show, demonstratively, that the Pontifical States, with regard to +so important a point, must be reckoned amongst the most favored nations. +The expenses are regulated on principles of the greatest economy. One fact +is sufficient. The civil list, the expenses of the cardinals, of the +diplomatic corps abroad, the maintenance of Pontifical palaces and the +museum, cost the state no more than 600,000 crowns (3,200,000). This small +sum is the only share of the public revenue taken by the Papacy for the +support of the Pontifical dignity, and for keeping up the principal +establishments of the superior ecclesiastical administration. We might ask +those persons, so zealous in hunting down abuses, whether the +appropriation of 4,000 crowns to the wants of the princes of the church +seems to them to bear the impress of a proper economy exercised with +respect to the public revenue? + +AGRICULTURE--DRAINING THE CAMPAGNA--PRISON DISCIPLINE--ADMINISTRATION OF +CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS--ABUSES--JUDICIAL SYSTEM, ETC. + +"Agriculture has been equally the object of encouragement, and also +gardening and the raising of stock. Lastly, a commission, composed of the +principal landed proprietors, is now studying the hitherto insoluble +question of draining the Campagna of Rome, and filling it with +inhabitants. There is, in truth, misery here as elsewhere, but it is +infinitely less heavy than in less favored climates. Mere necessaries are +obtained cheaply. Private charities are numerous and effective. Here also +the action of the government is perceptible. Important ameliorations have +been introduced into the administration of hospitals and prisons. Some of +these prisons should be visited, that the visitor may admire--the term is +not too strong--the persevering charity of the Holy Father. I will not +extend this enumeration. What I have said ought to be sufficient to prove +that all the measures adopted by the Pontifical administration bear marks +of wisdom, reason and progress; that they have already produced happy +results; in short, that there is not a single detail of interest to the +well-being, either moral or material, of the population, which has escaped +the attention of the government, or which has not been treated in a +favorable manner. In truth, when certain persons say to the Pontifical +government, 'form an administration which may have for its aim the good of +the people,' the government might reply, 'look at our acts, and condemn us +if you dare.' The government might ask, 'not only which of its acts is a +subject of legitimate blame, but in which of its duties it has failed?' +Are we, then, to be told that the Pontifical government is a model--that it +has no weakness or imperfections? Certainly not; but its weakness and +imperfections are of the same kind as are met with in all governments, and +even in all men, with very few exceptions. I am perpetually interrogating +those who come to me to denounce what they call the abuses of the Papal +government. The expression, it must be remembered, is now consecrated, and +is above criticism or objection. It is held as Gospel. Now, in what do the +abuses consist? I have never yet been able to discover. At least, the +facts which go by that name are such as are elsewhere traceable to the +imperfection of human nature, and we need not load the government with the +direct responsibility of the irregularities committed by some of its +subordinate agents. The imperfections of the judiciary system are often +cited. I have examined it closely, and have found it impossible to +discover any serious cause of complaint. Those who lose their causes +complain more loudly and more continuously than is the custom in other +places, but without any more reason. Most of the important civil cases are +decided in the tribunal of the Rota. Now, in spite of the habitual license +of Italian criticism, no one has dared to express a doubt of the profound +knowledge and the exalted integrity of the tribunal of the Rota. If the +lawyers are incredibly fertile in raising objections and exceptions--if +they lengthen out lawsuits--to what is this fault to be attributed if not +to the peculiarity of the national genius? Lastly, civil law is well +administered. I do not know a single sentence the justice of which would +not be recognized by the best tribunal in Europe. Criminal justice is +administered in a manner equally unassailable. I have watched some trials +throughout their whole details; I was obliged to confess that necessary +precautions for the verification of facts--all possible guarantees for the +free defence of the accused, including the publication of the +proceedings--were taken." + +BRIGANDS--BANDS OF ROBBERS DISPERSED BY THE GOVERNMENT. + +"Much is said of the brigands who, we are told, lay the country desolate. +It has fallen to our lot to pass through the country, in all directions, +without seeing even the shadow of a robber. It cannot be denied that, from +time to time, we hear of a diligence stopped, of a traveller plundered. +Even one accident of this kind is too much, but we must remember that the +administration has employed all the means in its power to repress these +disorders. Thanks to energetic measures, the brigands have been arrested +at all points and punished. When in France a diligence is stopped; when in +going from London to Windsor a lady of the Queen's palace is robbed of her +luggage and jewels, such incidents passed unnoticed; but when, on an +isolated road in the Roman States, the least fact of this nature takes +place, the passenger, for a pretext, prints the news in large characters, +and cries for vengeance on the government. On the side of Rome the attacks +which have taken place at distant intervals have never assumed an +appearance calculated to excite anxiety. + +"In the Romagna, organized bands have been formed, which, taking advantage +of the Tuscan frontier, easily escaped pursuit, and were for a time to be +dreaded. The government declared unceasing war against them, and after +several engagements, in which a certain number of _gens d'armes_ were +either killed or wounded, these bands have been in a great measure +dispersed. The Italians always depend for the completion of their projects +on foreign support. If this support were to fail, then they would adopt a +proper course much more readily than would be necessary. Meanwhile, in +England and Sardinia, the organs of the press should cease to excite the +passions, and Catholic Powers should continue to give the Holy See evident +marks of sympathy. But how can we hope that enemies, animated with such a +spirit as influences the opponents of the Holy See, should put a stop to +their attacks when they have been made in so remarkable a manner?" + +EXTRAORDINARILY SMALL NUMBER OF ECCLESIASTICS EMPLOYED BY THE PAPAL +GOVERNMENT. + +Those who are generally mentioned as _ecclesiastics_, are not necessarily +priests or in holy orders. + +"Count Rayneval took occasion to show, with proofs in his hands, that the +half of these supposed priests were not in orders.... The Roman prelates +are not all bound to enter into holy orders. For the most part they +dispense with them. Can we then call by the name of priests those who have +nothing of the priest but the uniform? Is Count Spada a more zealous or a +more skilful administrator now than when, in the costume of a priest, he +officiated as Minister of War? Do Monsignor Matteuci (Minister of Police), +Monsignor Mertel (Minister of the Interior), Monsignor Berardi (substitute +of the Secretary of State), and so many others, who have liberty to marry +to-morrow, constitute a religious caste, sacrificing its own interests to +the interests of the country, and would they become, all of a sudden, +irreproachable if they were dressed differently? If we examine the share +given the prelates, both priests and non-priests, in the Roman +administration, we shall arrive at some results which it is important to +notice. Out of Rome, that is, throughout the whole extent of the +Pontifical States, with the exception of the capital--in the Legations, the +Marshes, Umbria, and all the Provinces, to the number of eighteen, how +many ecclesiastics do you think are employed? Their number does not exceed +fifteen--one for each Province except three, where there is not one at all. +They are delegates, or, as we should say, prefects. The councils, the +tribunals, and offices of all sorts, are filled with laymen. So that for +one ecclesiastic in office, we have in the Roman Provinces one hundred and +ninety-five laymen." + +The following table, which appeared in the London _Weekly Register_ (_The +Weekly Register, June_, 1859.), shows at a glance what a small proportion +the clerical bore to the lay element in the government of the Papal +States: + +Ministries. Eccles. Lay Places. Eccles. Lay Salary + Places. Salary +Secretariate of State 14 18 $100,500 $8,340 +Justice and Police 277 3,271 110,205 637,602 +Public Instruction 3 9 1,320 1,824 +Finance 7 3,084 10,320 730,268 +Commerce, P. Work 1 347 2,400 69,808 +Arms 125 51,885 +Total 303 6,854 $224,755 $1,490,747 + +M. De Rayneval admits that the people are not enterprising. If they do not +show much industrial activity, this is to be ascribed not to the +government, but to the climate, the facility with which everything +necessary for comfort is obtained, and the long-established habits of the +natives of the South of Europe. "The condition of the population, +nevertheless," adds the ambassador, "is comparatively good. They readily +take part in public amusements, when pleasure may be read on every +countenance. Are these the misgoverned people '_whose miseries excite the +commiseration of all Europe?_' There is misery, no doubt, as there is +everywhere. But it is less than in lands that are not so highly favored. +The necessaries of life are so cheap as to be easily procured. Private +charity never fails; and there are numerous and efficient public +benevolent establishments." + +(M48) It may be said, by way of supplement to M. De Rayneval's report, +that Pius IX. did all in his power to encourage both science and the fine +arts. His many foundations for their promotion are his witness. Among the +rest are the College of Sinigaglia, and the _Seminario Pio_ at Rome, +together with the educational establishments, endowed from his private +resources, at Perugia, Civita Vecchia, Ancona and Pesaro. To him also are +due the high renown to which rose the studies of the Roman university, the +restoration of the Appian way, and the many archaeological works which have +won for their august promoter the glorious surname of _Vindex +Antiquitatis_. His day would be memorable if it had been illustrated only +by the names of Vico, Secchi, Rossi and Visconti. + +It is impossible to overrate the importance of Count de Rayneval's report, +or the influence which it exercised over the public mind of Europe, when, +at length, through the agency of the British and Belgian press, it +obtained publicity. A refutation of Cavour's interested calumnies, so +able, distinct and straightforward, powerfully impressed the minds of +British statesmen, and caused them to see the grievous error into which +they had been betrayed at the Congress of Paris, by Count Cavour and the +Emperor Louis Napoleon, in the interest of their fellow-conspirators +against the sovereignty of the Pope. + +(M49) Lord Clarendon was the first who had knowledge of the now celebrated +state paper. He was also the first who, for the sake of truth and justice, +made it public, committing it to the English press, whence it found its +way to continental Europe. This eminent British statesman promptly +communicated with Count Cavour, and took him to task severely for his +double dealing at the congress, and for having induced him, as British +Plenipotentiary, by false statements, to sanction his views. + +(M50) The calumnies and misrepresentations of the Cavour-Napoleon party +had, indeed, been met by anticipation in the decree, known as _motu +proprio_, which Pius IX. issued from Portici, shortly before his return to +Rome. This decree indicated the reforms which, as we learn from Count de +Rayneval's report, were afterwards carried out. It even granted a +constitution as complete as was consistent with the existence of the Papal +Sovereignty. More could not be looked for. The much-vaunted constitution +of England itself does not abrogate or nullify the monarchy. But neither +this nor any other measure of reform, however well adapted to +circumstances and the character of the people, could ever have satisfied +the _Italianissimi_, whose hatred of every existing institution was +boundless as it was incomprehensible. The Holy Father solemnly declared +that he decreed the measures in question for the good of his people, and +under the eye of heaven. "They are such," he adds, at the conclusion of +the document, _motu proprio_, "as to be compatible with our dignity, and, +if faithfully carried out, we are convinced that they will produce results +which must command the approval of all wise minds. The good sense of all +among you who aspire to what is best, with a fervor proportionate to the +ills which you have endured, shall be our judge in this matter. Above all, +let us place our trust in God, who, even in fulfilling the decrees of His +justice, is never unmindful of His mercy." It could not be expected, and +it was not expected, that the Pope should resign his sovereignty. The +words of Donoso Cortez, spoken in the Spanish parliament, in defence of +the temporal sovereignty, were received at the time with universal +acceptance. + +(M51) "Civilized Europe," said this distinguished author and statesman, +"will not consent to see enthroned in that mad city of Rome a new and +strange dynasty begotten of crime. And let no one here say, that in this +matter there are two separate questions--one a temporal question, the other +entirely spiritual--that the difficulty lies between the temporal sovereign +and his subjects; that the Pontiff has been respected and still subsists." +Two words on this point--just two words--shall suffice to make us understand +the whole matter. + +"It is perfectly true that the spiritual power of the Papacy is its +principal power; the temporal is only an accessory, but that accessory is +one that is indispensible. The Catholic world has a right to insist upon +it, that the infallible organ of its belief shall be free and independent. +The Catholic world cannot know with certainty, as it needs must know, +whether that organ is really free and independent, unless it be sovereign. +For he alone who is sovereign, depends on no other power. Hence it is that +the question of sovereignty, which everywhere else is a political +question, is in Rome a religious question." + +"Constituent assemblies may exist rightfully elsewhere; at Rome they +cannot; at Rome there can be no constituent power outside of and apart +from the constituted power. Neither Rome herself nor the Pontifical States +belong to Rome or belong to the Pope--they belong to the Catholic world. +The Catholic world has recognized, in the Pope, the lawful possessor +thereof, in order to his being free and independent; and the Pope may not +strip himself of this sovereignty, this independence." + +The greatest statesmen of the age, such as Guizot, Thiers, and +Montalembert, in France; Normanby, Lansdowne, Disraeli, and even +Palmerston, in England; the statesmen of Prussia, and even those of the +Russian Empire; the Emperor of Austria and his advisers; Spain, Portugal +and Naples, all shared the opinion of the illustrious Spanish statesman, +Donoso Cortes. All alike favored the restoration of the Holy Father, and +the securing of his government against the accidents of revolution in the +future by placing it under the protection of the Great Powers. "The +affairs Rome," wrote the Russian Chancellor in a circular, "cause to the +government of his Majesty the Emperor great concern; and it were a serious +error to think that we take a less lively interest than the other Catholic +governments in the situation to which his Holiness Pope Pius IX. has been +brought by the events of the time. There can be no room for doubting that +the Holy Father shall receive from the Emperor a loyal support towards the +restoration of his temporal and spiritual power, and that the Russian +government shall co-operate cheerfully in all the measures necessary to +this result; for it cherishes against the court of Rome no sentiment of +religious animosity or rivalry." + +(M52) Sardinia alone held aloof. Its minister did not, like the other +European ambassadors, seek the presence of the Pope when he was pressed by +the revolutionists. Nor did he repair, as they did, to Gaeta, but remained +in Rome, and, to the great surprise and scandal of all the European +Courts, transacted business with the governments which reigned there in +the absence of the legitimate sovereign. The absorption of all the states +of Italy, not excepting that of the Pope, by Piedmont, was the ruling idea +of Piedmontese statesmen. They were guided by a selfish view to what they +considered their own interest, not by principles that were universally +recognized. Such were continental liberals. The English liberals, the +party of reform, thought differently. One of their chiefs, Lord Lansdowne, +whose high character as a statesman gives weight to his words, declared, +in the British House of Peers, when the French expedition to Rome was +discussed there, that "the condition of the Pope's sovereignty is +especially remarkable in this, that so far as his temporal power is +concerned, he is only a sovereign of the fourth or fifth order. In his +spiritual power he enjoys a sovereignty without its equal on earth. Every +country which has Roman Catholic subjects has an interest in the condition +of the Roman States, and should see to it that the Pope be able to +exercise his authority independently of any temporal influence that could +affect his spiritual power." Thus did all Christendom--all the states which +owned the Christian name--true to immemorial tradition, consider that they +lay under the obligation to watch over the freedom and independence of the +great central power whence proceeded their early civilization. + +The French government, in restoring Pius IX., only obeyed the will so +often and so clearly expressed of the European nations. Now that he was +once more firmly seated on the Pontifical throne, it was time, thought the +Cavour-Napoleon-Mazzini party, that he should introduce into his states +what they called true reform--_the Code Napoleon and the secularization of +his government_. This, as has been seen, he could not do. It was +tantamount to the abdication of his sovereignty. That he did reform, +however, wisely and efficiently, Count de Rayneval has abundantly shown. +His measures of reform were large and liberal, and, in the judgment of +eminent statesmen, left little room for improvement. It is necessary to +bestow a few words in making this fact still more apparent; for it was +long the fashion to say and insist that the policy of Pius IX., after his +restoration, was reactionary, and that the once-reforming Pope had, with +inconceivable inconsistency, ceased to be a reformer. + +In the _motu proprio_, published by the Pope on occasion of reorganizing +his states in 1849, '50, there was inaugurated as full a measure of +liberty as was compatible with the circumstances of the country and the +character of the people. Two political bodies, a council of state and a +council of finance were instituted. These were designed as temporary +institutions, whose object it should be to remedy the fearful evils caused +by the revolution--in plain terms, to bring order out of anarchy and chaos. +M. de Rayneval has shown that in this they were successful, and that they +also put an end to the disorder and difficulty caused by the issue of +forty millions of worthless paper which the _Republic_ had bequeathed to +them. The _Moniteur_, as well as the ambassador, admitted that by the end +of the first seven years the finances had nearly reached an _equilibrium_, +the deficit at that time being only half a million of dollars. This +temporary state of things was destined, once its objects were +accomplished, to give place to a more ample constitution, which certainly +would have been granted in due time but for the hostile intrigues of those +who blamed the most free and complete constitutional system. It will not +be without interest to consider what was thought among distinguished +foreigners in regard to the Pope's early measures--measures which, it is +well known, were intended as a preparation for more advanced +constitutional government. The French Republic appointed a commission, +consisting of fifteen of its best statesmen, to examine and report upon +the political wisdom and practical value of the institutions which Pius +IX. had granted to his states. M. Thiers, to whom none will give credit +for being over friendly to the Holy See, drew up, signed and presented +this report: + +"Your commission," the report states, "has maturely examined this act, +_motu proprio_, in order to see whether the counsels which France believed +herself authorized to offer had borne such fruits as to prevent her +regretting having interfered in Roman affairs. Well, by a large majority, +twelve in fifteen, your commission declares that it sees in the _motu +proprio_ a first boon of such real value, that nothing but unjust +pretensions could overlook its importance. We shall discuss this act in +its every detail. But limiting ourselves, at present, to consider the +principle on which is based the Pontifical concession, we say that it +grants all desirable provincial and municipal liberties. As to political +liberties, consisting in the power of deciding on the public business of a +country in one of the two assemblies, and in union with the executive--as +in England, for instance--it is very true that the _motu proprio_ does not +grant this sort of political liberty, or only grants it in the rudimentary +form of a council without deliberative voice. This is a question of +immense gravity, which the Holy Father alone can solve, and which he and +the Christian world are interested in not leaving to chance. That on this +point he should have chosen to be prudent; that after his recent +experience he should have preferred not to reopen a career of agitation +among a people who have shown themselves so unprepared for parliamentary +liberty, is what we do not know that we have either the right or the cause +to deem blameworthy." + +A well-known British statesman expressed similar views. "We all know," +said Lord Palmerston, "that the Pope, on his restoration to his states in +1849, published an ordinance called _motu proprio_, by which he declared +his intention to bestow institutions, not indeed on the large proportions +of a constitutional government, but based, nevertheless, on popular +election, and which, if they had only been carried out, must have given +his subjects such satisfaction as to render unnecessary the intervention +of a foreign army." These words were uttered in 1856, when Lord Palmerston +ought to have known, if indeed he did not actually know, that the proposed +reforms of the Pope had been faithfully and successfully carried out. The +report of Count de Rayneval was before the world, and so important a state +paper could not have been unknown to a statesman who interested himself so +much in European affairs generally, and those of Rome in particular. The +Rayneval report, besides, which showed how completely Pius IX. had +fulfilled his promises--how assiduously and effectually he had labored in +the cause of reform--had been specially communicated, as has been seen, to +an eminent member of the British Cabinet, Lord Clarendon. It is not so +clear that the Pope's subjects were not satisfied. None knew better than +Lord Palmerston, that there was always a foreign influence at Rome which +never ceased to cause discontent, and was ready, on occasion, to raise +disturbance. This alien and sinister influence was only too powerfully +seconded, both by some members of the British ministry and the intriguing +head of the French government. + +Baron Sauzet, who was President of the French Chamber of Deputies in the +reign of Louis Philippe, and who was, by no means, over partial to Rome, +wrote in 1860 on the system of legislation which obtained in the States of +the Church, and gave utterance to the opinion that it was a solid basis on +which Pius IX. was endeavoring to raise such a superstructure of +improvement as was adapted to the wants of modern society. Criminal law +was regulated according to the wise codes of Gregory XVI., which were a +real progress. Civil legislation had for its groundwork the old Roman law, +which the Popes, at various times, had wisely adapted to their age and the +circumstances of their people. There are certain points of great delicacy, +with regard to which, in Christian communities, religious authority only +can legislate. These excepted, the Justinian code, with some necessary +modifications, prevailed. Few changes have been made since Gregory the +Sixteenth's time, and they are codified with such perfect scientific +lucidity as to be available to practitioners. This is one of the special +labors of the Council of State, which is aided by a commission consisting +of the most eminent and learned jurists of Rome. The distinguished +statesman (Baron Sauzet), moreover, repels the idea of thrusting on the +Romans the Code Napoleon, as was intended by the Emperor Louis Napoleon. + +Galeotti, who was Minister of Justice in the Mazzini ministry, and who +cannot be suspected of much favor to the Holy See, declares that, "in the +Pontifical government there are many parts deserving of praise; it +contains many ancient institutions which are of unquestioned excellence, +and there are others of more modern date which the other provinces of +Italy might well enjoy. One may confidently say that there is no other +government in Italy in which the principle of discussion and deliberation +has been so long established and so generally practised." + +Galeotti further says, speaking of the Judicature: "The tribunal of the +Rota is the best and the most respected of the ancient institutions of +Rome. Some slight changes would make it the best in all Europe. The mode +of procedure followed in it is excellent, and might serve as a model in +every country where people would not have the administration of justice +reduced to the art of simply terminating lawsuits." + +Another author, whose remarks are deserving of attention, Monsignor Fevre, +says that law expenses are very moderate, the proceedings very rapid, and +the rules of the Judiciary among the very best of the kind. Besides, the +poor are never taxed by the courts, while they are always supplied with +counsel. In Rome itself the pious confraternity of St. Yeo (the patron +saint of lawyers) takes on itself, gratuitously, the cases of all poor +people, when they appear to have right on their side. The +arch-confraternity of San Girolamo Della Carita, also undertakes the +defence of prisoners and poor persons, especially widows. "It has the +administration of a legacy left by Felice Amadori, a noble Florentine, who +died in the year 1639. The principal objects of their solicitude are +persons confined in prison. These they visit, comfort, clothe, and +frequently liberate, either by paying the fine imposed on them as the +penalty of their offence, or by arranging matters with their creditors. +With a wise charity they endeavor to simplify and shorten causes; and they +employ a solicitor, who assists in settling disputes, and thus putting an +end to litigation. This confraternity embraces the flower of the Roman +prelacy, the patrician order and the priesthood." + +One is naturally inclined to ask how it came to pass that a people, +possessing such wise institutions, such an admirable system of +legislation, and a sovereign who constantly studied to enlarge and improve +their inherited benefits, were never satisfied? It would be hard to say +that the Romans, the real subjects of the Pope, were not satisfied. But +there were not wanting those who succeeded in making it appear that they +were not, and who also contrived to induce many of the Romans themselves +to believe that they had cause to be discontented. It was the fashion in +Piedmont to rail against everything clerical, and to such an extent did +this mania proceed, that they began to persecute the clergy. Through the +agency of the secret societies, whose chief was Mazzini, this +anti-clerical prejudice spread through all Italy, and even extended to +Rome, the government of which, as a matter of course, was bad, for no +other reason than that, being conducted by the Chief of the clergy, it was +reputed to be clerical. Thus did Count Cavour and the Piedmontese +government use the Mazzinian faction for the furtherance of their own +ambitious ends, whilst the Mazzinians believed that they were using them +as they intended to use them, and their king and all kings, as long as +there should be kings, for their subversive purposes, in the first +instance, and for the establishment, finally, of their Utopian republic on +the ruins of all thrones and regular governments whatsoever. As will be +seen, most recent history shows the first act of the drama has been +played, apparently to the profit of a king. Time will prove to whom, in +the end, victory shall belong. One institution at least will remain, for +no power, not even that of hell, can prevail against it. As in the early +days, when society had fallen to a state of chaos, and orderly government +had become impossible, it may, once more, raise the standard of order and +reconstitute the broken and scattered elements. + +(M53) Rome and the Catholic world were yet rejoicing on occasion of the +happy restoration of Pius IX. to his states, and pilgrims still flocked +from every region of the universe to the holy city, when two remarkable +events came to add new glory to the flourishing church of America. +Hitherto America could reverence and invoke only one native saint. On 16th +July, 1850, took place the beatification of the venerable Peter Claver, of +the Society of Jesus, the apostle of New Granada; and in October, Mariana +de Paredes, of Flores, "the lily of Quito," was beatified. The latter was +first cousin and contemporary of Saint Rose of Lima. This circumstance +vividly awakens the idea, that already saints, although there were few as +yet who could claim the honors of canonization, were not uncommon in +America. Whatever may have been the measure and excellence of her +children's sanctity, the church was rapidly extending. So great was her +growth that, in the year 1850, Pius IX. considered it opportune to erect +four metropolitan sees in the United States--New York, Cincinnati, St. +Louis and New Orleans. Baltimore, the primatial see, was already +metropolitan. + +(M54) The Holy Father showed no less solicitude for the welfare of the +church in France, Spain, and other European countries. Napoleon III., +anxious to gain the good-will of Catholic France, prayed the Holy See to +erect a new diocese at Laval, to raise the see of Rennes to metropolitan +dignity, to reorganize the grand chaplaincy, and restore the chapter of +St. Denis. All this was done by a brief of 31st March, 1857, and there was +now a thoroughly good understanding between the Pope and the Emperor, +between the latter and the people over whom he ruled. (M55) It was even +said that Napoleon III. desired, like his uncle, to be anointed Emperor by +a Pope; that with a view to this end, he made many advances to Pius IX., +and went so far even as to propose in confidence the abolition of the +organic articles, and a modification of the Code Napoleon, in so far as +that parties who marry before the church should be exempted from the civil +ceremony. A still less doubtful pledge of the continuance of amicable +relations between Rome and Paris was the baptism of the Prince Imperial. +The Emperor had asked the Pope to do him the favor to act as sponsor for +the child that Providence had deigned to give him, and Pius IX. readily +consented. As he could not be present in person at the ceremony, he caused +himself to be represented by his legate, _a latere_, Cardinal Patrizzi. +This cardinal, at the same time, presented to the Empress the golden rose, +which is blessed every year on the fourth Sunday of Lent, in order to be +sent to the princes, cities and churches on which the Pope desires to +confer special honor. The blessed rose was a small rose-tree in gold, +covered with rose-flowers. The vessel which contained it was of massive +gold. It stood on a pedestal of lapis lazzuli, which bore in Mosaic the +arms of the Pope and the Emperor. On the vase itself were sculptured the +birth of the Blessed Virgin, and the Presentation in the Temple. + +It would have been well if all this friendship had been as sincere as it +was warmly expressed. It cannot, however, be forgotten that the government +of the Emperor Napoleon had suppressed the Rayneval report, and Pius IX. +must have thought, although prudence forbade him to say, that there was +reason to doubt the fidelity of his apparently devoted ally. "_Timeo +Danaos et dona ferentes._" + +(M56) It may be said that, at this time, the Powers of the world vied with +one another in seeking the favor of the Pope. Isabella II., Queen of +Spain, like Napoleon of France, was anxious that Pius IX. should, through +a representative, stand godfather to her son, who afterwards became +Alphonso XII. Other princes sought the like consideration, and among the +rest, Victor Emmanuel, whose daughter, the Princess Pia, thus became the +godchild of Pius the Pope. This princess is now the Queen of Portugal. + +(M57) Another bond of friendship with the world's Powers was secured, +apparently, by the conclusion of a Concordat with the great Austrian +Empire. The negotiations which led to this Concordat had lasted several +years. It was abundantly liberal in the true acceptation of this term. +Nevertheless, it awakened the hatred and contempt of the professed +liberals, who enjoy this appellation, one would say, simply because they +are not liberal, just as in Latin a grove is called by a word expressive +of light, because it is not light (_lucus a non lucendo_). How can they be +called truly liberal, who have no liberality for any but themselves, who +know no other liberty than that which enables them to tyrannize over the +church, and trample under foot her most sacred and beneficial +institutions? The Concordat with Austria provides that the Catholic, +Apostolic and Roman religion shall be preserved in its integrity +throughout the whole extent of the Austrian monarchy, together with all +the rights and prerogatives which it ought to enjoy in virtue of the order +which God has established and the canon law. + +The Roman Pontiff having, by divine right, in the whole church the primacy +of honor and jurisdiction, mutual communication, as regards all spiritual +things, and the ecclesiastical relations of the bishops, the clergy and +the people with the Holy See, shall not be subject to the necessity of +obtaining the royal _placet_, but shall be wholly free. + +In a consistorial allocution of 5th November, 1855, Pius IX. gave +expression to the joy which it afforded him to have obtained, after so +much tedious negotiation, such happy results. The following year, on the +17th of March, he addressed a brief to the bishops of the Austrian Empire, +exhorting them to avail themselves of the spiritual independence which +they had once more won, in order to guard their dioceses against the +ravages of rationalism and indifference. + +(M58) Meanwhile, new difficulties arose in Spain and Spanish America. The +government of Isabella II., regretting the good to which it had so +recently been a party, commenced a new war against the church. +Notwithstanding the Concordat, it exposed for sale such ecclesiastical +property as was not yet sold, forbade religious communities of women to +receive novices, and forcibly removed several bishops from their dioceses. +The excesses were such that Pius IX. was obliged to recall his +representative from Madrid. There were similar persecutions in the South +American Republics and in Mexico. The congress of Mexico forbade monastic +vows, banished the Archbishop of Mexico, and imprisoned the Bishop of +Michoacan. Germany, at the same time, was not without its troubles. A +learned theologian of the diocese of Cologne, Dr. Anthony Gunther, had +allowed himself to drift from the sure ways of tradition, imperceptibly +gliding into rationalism, and confounding reason and faith. His ideas had +partisans in several countries of Germany. The vigilant eye of Pius IX. +discovered in them germs of heresy, which it was important to check before +they attained development. Gunther, on being condemned, accepted humbly +the judgment of the Holy See. But there was a long contest with some of +his partisans who were less pious than himself. + +(M59) The record of Pius the Ninth's progress through his States, in 1857, +is alone a sufficient reply to the calumnies of those enemies who never +ceased to assert that ever since his return to Rome he had pursued a +retrograde policy. Reform was always an object of his solicitude. It was +with a view to improve the condition of his people that he undertook, when +almost a septuagenarian, a four months' journey through the States of the +Church. He travelled slowly, and sometimes on foot, in order the better to +observe and ascertain the state of the provinces. All could approach him +and address him freely. He visited churches, hospitals and workshops. He +examined the works of the ports and the public ways. Many addresses and +petitions were presented. Far, however, from asking the abolition of +priestly rule, the petitioners prayed for a return to the former state of +things, when cardinals and prelates only were set over the provinces. The +progress of the Holy Father was a series of joyous ovations from the time +that he left Rome--4th May--till his return on the 5th September. His +journey was at first in the direction of Ancona, Ravenna and Bologna. He +returned by way of Florence and Modena. His progress would have been +crowned with success if it had only served to show the loyalty and +devotedness of his people. But it was attended with still greater results. +The Holy Father bestowed much time at every place in seeking, personally +and through his ministers, information which became the basis of reform +and improvement. Thus, as is known by the authentic accounts which have +been published, many localities derived very material benefit from the +Papal visit. The port of Pesaro was to be almost entirely reconstructed, +the Holy Father bestowing $80,000 from his own resources. The port of +Sinigaglia was also considerably improved, and a new sanitary office +built. The cities of Ancona and Civita Vecchia were to be enlarged. At +Bologna the High street was widened and beautified; the fine facade of the +cathedral was to be completed, the Pope contributing $5,000 for fifteen +years. At Perugia new prisons were to be constructed, and the condition of +the prisoners was to be in every way improved; a liberal annual +contribution was given towards preserving the splendid native collections +of art. Ravenna, although long neglected and in decay, was not forgotten. +Pius IX. wished to revive, as far as possible, the ancient commercial +prosperity of this city, and promised $4,000 annually for ten years +towards improving the port. At Ferrara many improvements were ordered, and +$9,000 contributed for the completing of the Pamfilio canal. The Holy +Father also appointed a commission of engineers, in order to devise a plan +by which the river Reno should be turned into the Po, and an extensive +tract of fertile land thus saved from periodical inundations. Funds were +provided for the relief of poor sailors. Liberal grants were allotted for +artesian wells, where required, and for bridges and public roads. +Especially were large allowances devoted for the improvement of the +highways at Pesaro, Macerata, Imola, Camerino, &c. Telegraphic +communication was widely established. Prisons, hospitals and schools were +special objects of the Holy Father's care. It was the duty of Monsignor de +Merode, who accompanied the Pope, on arriving in any city or town, to +visit the prison, enquire into everything connected with it, and report +accordingly. Monsignor Talbot had commission to look to the state of +charitable, industrial and educational institutions, in all of which he +aided in promoting valuable reforms. + +It is impossible to consider, without emotion, the reception which greeted +the Holy Father in his former diocese of Spoleto. At every step proof upon +proof was given of reverence and affection, which time had not diminished. +Etiquette and state ceremony were laid aside. The youthful and the aged +alike would see their good shepherd, and he was anxious to salute his +people, and converse with them all. Many a face, familiar to him of old, +was recognized with pleasure, and even names were not forgotten. + +As has been seen, the days of the Holy Father's journey were not all spent +in pleasurable greetings or official receptions. He never forgot or +neglected the work of reform and improvement. Nor were such care and labor +new to him. It had often been said that the Popes were hostile to all +modern improvements. Why did they not favor railways? Why did they not +drain the Pontine Marshes, and cause the _Campagna_ to be cultivated? Let +the labors of Pius IX. reply. A railway through the States of the Church +was one of his favorite ideas, and he beheld it realized. It must have +afforded him no ordinary satisfaction to see the railway which his +princely care had provided now winding along the valley of the Tiber, now +climbing the heights and stretching its arms across the Apennines, +reaching down to the seaboard at Ancona, now passing beyond the limits of +the Papal territory, and extending away to the Tuscan capital. + +The uneducated or half-educated traveller, who surveys the uncultivated +and malarious plains around the city of the Popes, at once discovers, in +this desolation which prevails, an argument against priestly rule. With a +little more information, however, he would see the ruins and the vestiges +of a mighty empire, the works of which, like its conquests, were the +wonder of the world. How such works came to be so successfully executed is +easily understood, when it is remembered that heathen Rome commanded the +wealth, the intellect, and the strong arms of many subject nations. The +Popes, on the other hand, though they often tried, as did Pius IX. among +the rest, to cultivate the Campagna and drain the Pontine Marshes, had so +little means at their disposal, that they could never accomplish anything +important. Among other difficulties that the Roman Pontiffs had to contend +with, was that of obtaining an outlet towards the sea, whilst ancient Rome +commanded all the seas and lands of the known world. Surely it does not +require a Solomon to understand that without access to the Mediterranean, +it is physically impossible to drain and cultivate such low-lying lands as +the Pontine Marshes. + +At Perugia the Holy Father received the kindly visit of the Archduke +Charles, who came, on the part of his father Leopold, to compliment the +Sovereign Pontiff. Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, who, at the time, +little thought of a Mexican Empire, came to salute the Pope at Pesaro. +Neither he nor Pius IX. had been, as yet, betrayed and abandoned by +Napoleon III. The Grand Duke of Tuscany and all his family, together with +the Dukes of Parma and Modena, came to pay their homage at Bologna. The +Holy Father accepted their pressing invitation to visit Tuscany and +Modena, the sovereigns showing publicly, in presence of their people, such +reverence and devotedness as recalled the faith and loyalty of the Middle +Ages. The Pope himself bears witness to the truly noble and chivalrous +conduct of these provinces. "He introduced us himself into Florence," says +Pius IX., in speaking of the Grand Duke Leopold, "walking by our side, and +accompanied us to every Tuscan city which we visited. All the archbishops +and bishops of his States, all the clergy, the corporate bodies, the +magistrates and the nobles showed their delight by testifying their +devotion to us in a thousand ways. Not only at Florence, but wherever we +went in Tuscany, the people from town and country, far and near, came +forth to greet us, acclaiming the Chief Pontiff of the church with such +ardent affection, showing such an intense desire to see him, to do him +reverence, to receive his benediction, that our fatherly heart was moved +to its inmost depths." On the Holy Father's return to Rome there was high +jubilee among all classes of the people a fact which the traducers of Pius +IX. would do well to note, as it proves beyond a doubt how idle and +ill-founded was all their clamor, to the effect that in the holy city his +popularity had departed. + +(M60) A case in itself comparatively unimportant now became a _cause +celebre_, and agitated all Europe. One Mortara, a Jew of Bologna, had, in +violation of the laws of the country, taken into his service a Christian +maid. Meantime, one of his children, a boy about seven years of age, +became dangerously ill. The Christian girl, unadvisedly, and also in +opposition to the law, baptized him. Her act could not be undone, and the +law required that every baptized person should be educated as a Christian. +Pius IX. refused to interfere with the action of this law. Hence the +torrents of abuse that were poured upon him by the infidel _liberal_ press +of Europe, as well as by the ultra-Protestant organs of England. He had +ignored liberty of conscience, abused his authority, &c. Now, let us +suppose that he had acted otherwise, and prevented the execution of a +well-known law, what would have been the result? He would have been +denounced as a despot, whose arbitrary decision was the only law. But +might not he, who was so great a reformer, have contrived to cause the law +to be altered? Such alteration could not have affected the Mortara case. A +change, besides, would have been quite unnecessary, as it was not probable +that after such a storm, and the lesson which it taught, either Jews or +Christians would expose themselves to the consequences of a violation of +their country's laws. And were not those laws a sufficient protection to +the Jewish people? + +(M61) From the first days of his Pontificate, America engaged the +solicitude of Pius IX. So rapid was the growth of the church on that +continent that it became necessary to give bishops to several countries +where the Catholic faith had been scarcely known. So early as 1846 Oregon +was constituted an Archiepiscopal See. In 1850 Episcopal Sees were erected +at Monterey and Santa Fe, in the Spanish American territory, which was +recently annexed to the United States, and in Savannah, Wheeling, St. Paul +and Nesqualy. The Indian territory became a Vicariate Apostolic, under the +jurisdiction of a bishop. Three years afterwards six more sees were +established--San Francisco, Brooklyn, Burlington, Covington, Erie and +Natchitoches. Later still, 1857, Pius IX. gave bishops to Illinois; Fort +Wayne, in Indiana; and Marquette, in Michigan. This last city derived its +name from the celebrated missionary who first explored the river +Mississippi. It was now more important than ever, having become a centre +of Catholic life and action. + +(M62) In 1852, Pius IX. beatified John de Britto, a martyr in India, John +Grande and the renowned Paul of the Cross, who founded the zealous and +austere order of Passionists. In 1853, the like honor was conferred on the +pious French shepherdess, Germaine Cousin, and the Jesuit father, Andrew +Bobola, who was martyred by the Cossacks. In 1861, John Leonardi was +beatified. + +(M63) It is now time to record events of a less pleasing nature. In 1853, +several attempts had been made on the life of the Emperor Napoleon III. In +1855, Pianori made a similar attempt. In 1858, Count Felix Orsini almost +succeeded in assassinating him. This Orsini was an accomplice of Louis +Napoleon in raising an insurrection in Romagna in 1831. He was condemned +for conspiracy in 1845, and was amnestied by Pius IX. In 1849, he was a +member of the Roman Constituent Assembly. In his political testament, +dated at the Mazas prison, and read before the jury by Jules Favre, his +counsel, he coolly declared that the object of his crime was to remind the +Emperor of his former secret engagements in favor of Italian independence; +that he was only one of the conspirators who had charge so to remind him; +and that, although he had failed in his aim, others would come after him +who would not fail. "Sire," he wrote, "let your Majesty remember--so long +as Italy is not independent, the tranquillity of Europe and that of your +Majesty are mere chimeras." French authors remark that it is painful to +enquire what measure of influence these threats may have exercised on the +subsequent resolutions of the man to whom they were addressed, and still +more painful to be compelled to recognize the unworthy motive of fear at +the first link of the fatal chain which inevitably led to Sedan, where +this same man had not the courage to seek a manly death. God only could +see his secret mind. But it is impossible not to observe very sad +coincidences. Immediately after Orsini had penned his memorable testament, +the imperial policy was completely changed. The declaration of Orsini is +as the dividing point between the two portions of the Emperor's reign, the +former openly, reasonably conservative and glorious, the latter sometimes +decidedly revolutionary, sometimes vacillating, contradictory, or +unwillingly conservative, and finally terminated by a catastrophe +unexampled in the annals of France. + +(M64) All who take an interest in public affairs cannot fail to remember +the startling words which the Emperor Napoleon III. addressed to the +representative of Austria, on occasion of the diplomatic reception at the +Tuileries, on New Year's day, 1859: "I regret that my relations with your +government are not so good as in the past." This language of Napoleon +astonished all Europe. It was as a sudden clap of thunder on the calmest +summer day. Ten days later, Victor Emmanuel gave the interpretation of +this mysterious speech, at the opening of the Piedmontese parliament, when +he declared that "he was not unmoved by the cries of pain which reached +him from so many parts of Italy." Finally, the marriage of Prince +Napoleon, the Emperor's cousin, with a daughter of the Sardinian King, +removed all doubt. France was made to adopt, without being consulted, the +enmities and the ambition of the Cabinet of Turin. + +On the 4th of February appeared a pamphlet which increased the alarm of +the friends of peace and order. It may not have been written by Napoleon, +but it was according to his ideas and dictation. Its title was, "_Napoleon +III. and Italy_;" and it set forth a programme of the political +reconstituting of Italy. It exonerated Pius IX. of all the things laid to +his charge by the revolution, but only in order to lay them at the door of +the Papacy itself. "The Pope," it alleged, "being placed between two +classes of duty, is constrained to sacrifice the one to the other. He +necessarily makes political give way to spiritual duty. This is +condemnation, not of Pius IX. but of the system; not of the man, but of +the situation; since the latter imposes on the former the formidable +alternative of immolating the Prince to the Pontiff, or the Pontiff to the +Prince." The pamphlet further taught: "The absolutely clerical character +of the Roman government is opposed to common sense, and is a fertile +source of discontent. The canon law does not suffice for the protection +and development of modern society." The document concluded by proposing +the secularization of the Roman government, and the establishment of an +Italian confederation, of which the Pope should have the honorary +presidency, whilst Piedmont should have the real control. The pamphlet +urged, in support of its arguments, the "abnormal position" of the Papacy, +which was obliged, in order to sustain itself, to rely on foreign armies +of occupation. Such a reproach on the part of one of those who lent succor +to the Pope was anything but generous. Pius IX. hastened to remove this +cause of complaint. On the 27th of February Cardinal Antonelli notified +France and Austria that the Holy Father was grateful to them for their +good services, but that he thought he could himself maintain order in his +States, and so would beg of them to withdraw their troops. This would not +have suited Piedmont, which was interested in maintaining the grievance, +as well as in rendering it possible to involve the Roman States in the war +which was so rapidly approaching. The troops were not removed. Pius IX. +was too clear-sighted not to foresee what was so soon to happen. In an +Encyclical of 27th April, he asked prayers for peace of all the +patriarchs, primates, archbishops and bishops. "_Pax vobis! pax vobis!_" +he painfully repeated. But it was already too late. The young and rash +Emperor of Austria, driven to extremity, thought himself sufficiently +strong to contend at once against France and the revolution. He summoned +Piedmont to disband such of her regiments as were composed of Lombards and +Venetians, who were Austrian subjects. As this was refused, he declared +war. He fell into a second error. He assumed the offensive tardily, and +did not push forward rapidly to the point where the French army must +concentrate, before its concentration could be accomplished. He made a +third and more serious mistake, which proved ruinous. He withdrew from the +war after his first defeats when his army was beat, indeed, but neither +broken nor disorganized, when he still held the unconquered quadrilateral, +and when Prussia and Germany were arming to support him. In 1866 he was +equally imprudent in the war against Prussia, when a continuation of the +contest would have obliged France, whether willingly or otherwise, to +intervene, and would probably have saved both Austria and France. + +Meanwhile, Napoleon felt that it was necessary to reassure the Catholics +of France. "We do not go to Italy," said he, boldly, but untruly, in his +proclamation of 3rd May, "in order to encourage disorder, nor to shake the +power of the Holy Father, whom we have replaced on his throne, but in +order to liberate him from the foreign pressure which weighs upon the +whole peninsula, and assist in founding order on legitimate interests that +will be satisfied." M. Rouland, the Minister of Public Worship, wrote to +the bishops, in order to inspire them with confidence as to the +consequences of the contest. "The Emperor," he said, hypocritically, "has +weighed the matter in the presence of God, and his well-known wisdom, +energy and loyalty will not be wanting, either to religion or the country. +The prince who has given to religion so many proofs of deference and +attachment, who, after the evil days of 1848, brought back the Holy Father +to the Vatican, is the firmest support of Catholic unity, and he desires +that the Chief of the Church shall be respected in all his rights as a +temporal sovereign. The prince, who saved France from the invasion of the +democracy, cannot accept either its doctrines or its domination in Italy." +These declarations, which promised so much, were joyfully accepted by the +Catholics. Events, however, soon made it appear how hollow they were. The +grand conspiracy, whilst it amused the friends of order and legality with +fine words and lying protestations, acted in such a way as to favor the +revolution and meet all its wishes. On the 27th of April, the Grand Duke +of Tuscany, uncle of Victor Emmanuel, was overthrown in consequence of +intrigues and plots at the house of Signor Buoncompagni, ambassador of the +Piedmontese King, a fact to which Mr. Scarlett, the British +representative, bears witness in an official despatch. The same blow was +struck, and with the like success, against the excellent and popular +Duchess of Parma. But this princess was immediately recalled by the +people, who had been taken by surprise, and remained until Piedmont took +military possession of the Duchies, which it never gave up. Prince +Napoleon, who commanded the 5th French Army Corps, looking out for the +enemy by a devious route, in the direction of Romagna, reached the +battle-field of Solferino too late to take part in the fight, but quite in +time to make it available to the revolution. The Austrian troops who +occupied Bologna, being threatened by the movement, made haste to recross +the Po, without waiting to be replaced by a Pontifical garrison, and +without even advising the Holy See. M. de Cavour's emissaries immediately +availed themselves of so good an opportunity, took possession of the city, +where there was not a soldier left, and offered its government to Victor +Emmanuel. + +They were preparing at Rome to celebrate the thirteenth anniversary of the +coronation of Pius IX., when the news of these sad events reached the +city. The addresses of the Pope, on this occasion, therefore, were +necessarily full of melancholy feeling. "In whatever direction I look," +said he, in his reply to the cardinals, "I behold only subjects of sorrow; +but, '_vae homini illi per quem scandalum venit!_' Woe to that man by whom +scandal cometh! For my part, personally, I am not shaken; I place my trust +in God." Three days later, the 18th June, he announced, in a consistorial +allocution, that Cardinal Antonelli had been commissioned to protest at +the courts of all the Powers against the events in Romagna. But his +position as sovereign required of him something more than words, and he +did not shrink from any of his duties. Perugia had followed the example of +Bologna, and to the former city he despatched troops, who retook it +without any difficulty. In the contest some twelve men were either killed +or wounded, and the clamors of the revolutionary press rung throughout +Europe, denouncing the massacres and the "sack of Perugia." + + + Letter of the Honorable Mrs. Ross from Perugia, _vide Weekly + Register_, February 11th, 1860. + + THE TRUTH ABOUT PERUGIA.--We have received from Rome an original + English copy of the letter of Mrs. Ross of Bladensburgh, written + from Perugia on the 23rd of June last, and an Italian version of + which we announced last week to our readers as having appeared in + the _Giornale di Roma_ of 23rd ult., and which is referred to in + our special correspondence from Rome this week. We really never + expected that our former Perugino antagonist, Mr. Perkins, of + Boston, should have turned out to be such a very _unfortunate_ + man. We have now a fair sample of the authorities consulted by + travellers of his class to procure evidence against the Pontifical + government. + + ------------------------------------- + + Extract from a letter written by the Hon. Mrs. Ross of + Bladensburgh, to her husband, from Villa Monti, at Perugia, dated + Perugia, June 21st, 1859. + + "To David Ross, of Bladensburgh, Hautes Pyrenees, France. + + "I wrote to you last Wednesday, 15th inst., to announce a + revolution which occurred here on the previous day; now I write to + relieve your mind of anxiety in case an exaggerated account of + what has occurred here be given in the public papers. I have to + tell you of the re-entrance of the Papal troops, which took place + yesterday after a stubborn resistance of four hours on the part of + the revolutionists. + + "When the revolt at Perugia was known at Rome, orders were given + to a body of Swiss troops to replace the little garrison which had + been driven out. The revolutionary junta was well informed of what + had been decided on at Rome, and immediately prepared to oppose + the re-establishment of social order in the town. Victor Emmanuel, + to whom they had offered the town, returned no official answer, + but, instead, reports were industriously circulated among the + citizens of sympathy and support from Piedmont. An honest refusal + on the part of Victor Emmanuel, or an open acceptance, would have + prevented subsequent events, which his calculated silence brought + about. On Saturday last, the 18th inst., we heard that the Pope's + troops were close to ---- and on Sunday that they had actually + arrived there. In the ---- Buoncompagni sent from Tuscany, I am + told, 300 muskets in aid and wagons were despatched to Arezzo for + arms and ammunition; barricades were commenced. The monks were + turned out of their convent at St. Peter's Gate (one of them came + down to us); and 500 armed men instead were put in to defend the + gate and first barricade. After two o'clock p.m., the gates were + closed, and no one could go in or out of the town without an + order. It was then I wrote a note to Mr. Perkins, warning and + requesting him and his family to accept a shake-down with us; and + with difficulty I got the note conveyed up to town by a woman who + happened to have a pass. Nothing could induce any of the peasants + about us to go near the town, as the revolutionary party were + making forced levies of the youth of the place, and arming them to + resist the coming troops. Next morning (Monday the 20th) a body of + shepherds coming up from the place, told us that they had just + seen the Swiss troops at Santa Maria degli Angioli, where they + stopped and had mass,(3) having heard that the citizens + contemplated resistance. About ten o'clock that same morning I got + Mr. Perkins' answer to my note; it was to this effect--that he had + gone to the president (of the Junta), who assured him that the + Swiss had not yet even reached ---- and that certainly they would + not arrive before the next day at sunset. And the inn-keeper (the + notorious Storti), he added, said that they were not coming here + at all, but going to Ancona! I cannot imagine how he could trust + such people, who were all implicated in the business. His + messenger, who was one of the servants of the hotel, said, as he + gave the note, 'Don't delay me, or I shall not be in time to kill + my three or four Swiss,' showing how well informed and prepared + the hotel was. I should have written again to the poor Perkins' to + undeceive them; but it was too late, for almost immediately the + columns of the Swiss appeared in the plain below, which you know + we see from our villa, and the president (revolutionary Junta) and + other heads of the rebellion had their carriages and horses ready + waiting. They fled at the first gun, leaving the people to act for + themselves after having inflamed, deceived and armed them, and + gathered into the town all the _canaille_ they could get from the + neighboring country. From the moment the troops appeared, all the + peasants belonging to the villa flocked around us. Anxiety was + depicted on every face. The countenance of one old man in + particular was very striking--'bad times,' he murmured. 'We have + fallen on evil days--respect and awe are gone, and the people are + blinded.' The parish priest was also with us, and the monk I + mentioned before. We watched with great anxiety the slow ascent of + the troops up the long five miles to the city gate. There the + colonel and his men halted, and he parleyed with the people. We + could see him stop and address them, and then we saw a volley + fired down on them by the armed men in the convent windows. The + first fire was from the people on the troops. We could see all + from our villa windows like a scene on the stage; while the + distance was sufficient to veil the horrors of war. Then we saw + some troops separate from the main body and advance to the foot of + the wall, and in the twinkling of an eye they scaled it, amid a + hot fire from the insurgents, whom we heard shouting out, + 'Coraggio! coraggio!' from behind the walls. Then we saw one + soldier rush up and tear down the revolutionary flag, and carry it + in triumph back to the main body of the troops, and then we saw + the Pontifical flag float where the revolutionary one had been. In + the meantime the rest of the troops had planted their cannon + opposite to the city gate. Boom! boom! they went at the + barricades, and in an hour after the firing of the first gun, they + had driven out the 500 armed men from the convent of St. Peter's, + and entered the first enclosure of the town. We then saw no more, + but sat all that afternoon in the window, listening to the + incessant firing in deep anxiety. As the soldiers fought their way + up to their barracks, and as the report of the arms became more + and more distant, we could judge pretty well of the advance of the + troops, knowing as we did the chief points of resistance within. + The first gun fired was at three o'clock p.m. precisely, and at + seven p.m. all was silent again; the soldiers had reached their + barracks. I hear that ---- have fled out towards Arezzo; all the + _canaille_ of the villages of the place were enlisted to defend + the city, and it was the talk of the country that had the Swiss + been beaten, the city was to have been pillaged by that armed mob. + They say that had they not had promises of succor from Victor + Emmanuel (the 'Re Galantuomo'), and of encouragement from Princess + Valentini (nee Buonaparte, who resides here), they would not have + resisted as they did: thus were they deceived! There is more in it + all than one sees at first; and clearly it was an affair got up to + make out a case against the Pope. Piedmontese money was circulated + there just before the revolution. N---- got it in change in the + shops. + + "June 22.--P.S.--Our servant has been to town to-day; he brings me a + letter from the Perkins', and such news as is the general talk of + the _cafes_. Our poor friends in the Hotel de France (Locanda + Storti) suffered much. Deceived to the last, they had not even + been told of the actual arrival of the troops, and had just sat + quietly to dinner when the roar of the guns startled them. They + strove to go to another hotel, but alas! the gates of their inn + were fastened; they could not stir. The letter I got from them + said that the troops were _irritated on account of the firing from + the roof_. We knew beforehand how it would be _there_; and in fact + they did shoot an officer and two men while passing the door. It + was on this that the soldiers, infuriated, rushed and assailed the + house.... I hear every one blames the imprudence of these people. + They could not afford to be hostile; for the hotel, if you + remember, commands the street from the base up the hill. No + troops, therefore, could risk going up that hill with a hostile + house in that position ready to take them in the rear. The escape + of the poor Perkins' is a perfect miracle; they, I hear, lost + everything. The innkeeper, waiter and stableman, they say, were + killed in the fray. The number of deaths among the Swiss were 10, + and 33 of the Perugians. Several prisoners were made. I went up on + this same afternoon (June 22) with the two little boys to see the + colonel of the regiment. The town is wonderfully little injured, + only broken windows ... after a mob riot, with the exception of a + few houses in the suburbs, between the outer and inner gates. One + was burned by the accident of the falling of a bomb-shell. The + other was cannonaded as being a resort of the rebels. There is + great talk of how the heads of the revolution scampered off, + betraying thus the tools and dupes of their faction." + + ------------------------------------- + + Extract from another letter to David Ross of Bladensburgh: + + "There is great terror here among all the country people, who + dread, sooner or later, vengeance being taken upon them by the + revolutionary party, because they would have nothing to say to the + movement." + + +(M65) It is well known how rapidly events succeeded one another, when +Napoleon's friendly relations with Austria came to an end. On May 3rd he +declared war. On the 12th he arrived at Genoa, commanded in person, on the +4th of June, at the battle of Magenta, where, but for the superior +generalship of Marshal McMahon, he would have lost his life, together with +his army, and on the 24th of the same month won the great victory of +Solferino. He now gave out that he had enough of glory and would fight no +more, whilst in reality he was constrained to yield to powerful pressure +from without. Prussia, foreseeing that, if Austria experienced a few more +defeats, she herself would suffer, deemed it wise to interfere. Prussia +had, indeed, concerted matters beforehand with the Emperor of the French, +and had undertaken to isolate Austria, her hereditary rival in Germany. + +But at the first rumor of the Franco-Piedmontese aggression, the German +States were moved. The Diet of Francfort insisted that the confederate +nations should proceed to assist the Emperor, who was President of the +German Confederation. It fell to Prussia to head the movement. But, as may +be conceived, she was not hearty in the cause. Her statesmen hesitated, +argued, equivocated, and made a show of preparing, but slowly, for war. +Meanwhile, the news of the successive defeats of Austria roused still more +the patriotism of the Germans. The Prussian monarch, finding that he was +on the point of being overwhelmed, addressed to his Imperial accomplice, +the day after the battle of Solferino, a most pressing telegram, informing +him that he must make peace, cost what it would. Napoleon, it need hardly +be said, obeyed, and so _the peace of Villafranca was concluded_. By this +treaty was established an Italian Confederation, under the honorary +presidency of the Pope, Lombardy given to Piedmont, Venice left to +Austria, the rights of the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the other sovereigns, +who were for the moment dispossessed, expressly reserved. Thus appeared to +end the intrigues of the revolution. Pius IX. promptly invited the +faithful of Rome to join with him in offering thanksgiving to God. His +letter thus concludes: "What do we pray for? That all the enemies of +Christ, of His Church and of the Holy See, may be converted and live." + +(M66) So clear, apparently, was now the political atmosphere, that men +could not avoid accusing themselves of having judged rashly the mighty +conqueror, who, by a word, could restore serenity as easily as he had +disturbed it. It was not yet known by what power he was restrained. In +compliance with the requirements of the treaty of Villafranca, Piedmont, +indeed, withdrew her commissioners from Central Italy. The public, +however, soon learned, to its great astonishment, what, at first, it could +not believe, that provisional governments took the place of the +Piedmontese Commissioners, and that Baron Ricasoli, at Florence, Signor +Farini, at Modena and Parma, and Cipriani, at Bologna, all agents of Count +de Cavour and the revolution, dismissed everywhere such officials as were +suspected of looking seriously to the return of the legitimate sovereigns, +and had recourse to popular suffrage. This, it is no exaggeration to say, +was a mere mockery. The voting directed, expurgated by these parties, +never extended to the landward districts, but, confined entirely to the +towns, was necessarily calculated to produce the result at which they +aimed--a _plebiscitum_ in favor of annexation to Piedmont. In Romagna, for +instance, where there were about two hundred thousand electors, only +18,000 were registered, and of these only one-third presented their votes. +By such means was a national assembly constituted. This assembly met at +Bologna on the 6th of September, and at its first sitting voted the +abolition of the Pontifical government, and invited Victor Emmanuel. This +potentate dared not, at first, to accept, but appointed Signor +Buoncompagni, governor-general of the league of Central Italy. It did not +appear from the state of the polls, if, indeed, the polling of votes was +even made a fashion of, that the people of the Papal States were at all +anxious to do away with the government under which they and their +forefathers had enjoyed so many blessings, together with the surpassing +honor of possessing, as their capital, the metropolis of the Christian +world. They were too happy in being ruled over by the elective monarch +whom they themselves had chosen, to desire, in preference to him, the mere +shadow of a king--the satrap of an Imperial despot. It was not they who, in +a pretended _patriotic_ endeavor to shake off the Pontifical yoke, raised +the standard of rebellion in so many cities and provinces of the Papal +States. This was wholly the work of foreigners. A Bonaparte, attended by a +numerous and well-disciplined army, invaded Italy. His arms were, to a +certain extent, successful; and so rebellion was encouraged. Another +Bonaparte excited to revolt the city of Perugia. The disturbance was +speedily settled by a handful of troops whom the sovereign had despatched +from Rome, to the great satisfaction of the citizens of Perugia. In other +cities, by the like instrumentalities, were like movements occasioned. +They were invariably suppressed by the loyal and devoted people. So much +was this the case that the Pontifical government warmly thanked the mayors +and municipalities of no fewer than seven or eight cities for their good +services in putting down the nascent revolution. At Bologna, the capital +of the Romagnol or AEmilian provinces, a cousin of the Bonapartes, the +Marquis Pepoli, whom the benevolence of Pius IX. had restored to his +country, stirred up rebellion, and caused the Pontifical government to +give place to revolutionary misrule. The abettors of Pepoli, in this most +base and ungrateful proceeding, were his associates of the secret +societies; others who were foreigners at Bologna, and a few malcontents of +that city itself. But all these were far from being the citizens of +Bologna, far from being the people of the Bolognese provinces. Whilst such +things were done, where was the peace of Villafranca? It had become, or +rather, never was anything better than, waste paper. The head of the +Bonapartes was the offender, and he contrived to make France the partner +of his guilt. + +"It is France," the illustrious M. de Montalembert affirms, "that has +allowed the temporal power of the Pope to be shaken. This is the fact, +which blind men only can deny. France is not engaged alone in this path, +but her overwhelming ascendancy places her at the head of the movement, +and throws the great and supreme responsibility of it upon her. We know +all the legitimate and crushing reproaches that are due to England and +Piedmont; but if France had so willed it, Piedmont would not have dared to +undertake anything against the Holy See, and England would have been +condemned to her impotent hatred.... The Congress of Paris, in 1856--having +solemnly declared, 'that none of the contracting powers had the right of +interfering, either collectively or individually, between a sovereign and +his subjects'(4)--after having proclaimed the principle of the absolute +independence of sovereigns in favor of the Turkish Sultan against his +Christian subjects, thought itself justified by its protocol of April 8th, +and in the absence of any representative of the august accused, in +proclaiming that the situation of the Papal States was _abnormal_ and +_irregular_. This accusation, developed, aggravated and exaggerated in +parliament and elsewhere, by Lord Palmerston and Count Cavour, was, +nevertheless, formally put forward under the presidency and on the +_initiative_ of the French minister for foreign affairs. Consequently, +France must be held accountable for it to the Church, and to the rest of +Europe." The war which "the skilful but guilty perseverance of Piedmontese +policy" succeeded in occasioning between France and Austria facilitated +not a little the work of revolution in the States of the Church. In order +to dispel the fears that prevailed, the following words were addressed to +the Bishops of France by the minister of the Emperor: "The prince who +restored the Holy Father to his throne in the Vatican wills that the Head +of the Church should be respected in all his rights as a temporal +sovereign." A little later, the Emperor of the French, elated with his +military success, issued a proclamation which renewed the apprehensions +that had been so happily allayed. "Italians!--Providence sometimes favors +nations and individuals by giving them the opportunity of suddenly +springing into their full growth. Avail yourselves, then, of the fortune +that is offered you! Your desire of independence, so long expressed, so +often deceived, will be realized, if you show yourselves worthy of it. +Unite then for one sole object, the liberation of your country. Fly to the +standards of King Victor Emmanuel, who has already so nobly shown you the +way to honor. Remember that without discipline there can be no army, and +animated with the sacred fire of patriotism, be soldiers only to-day, and +you will be to-morrow free citizens of a great country." + +"The Romagnese," continues Montalembert, "took the speaker at his word. +Four days after the appearance of this proclamation, they rose against the +Papal authority, created a provisional government, convoked a sovereign +assembly, voted the deposition of the Pope, and the annexation to +Piedmont. Finally, seeing their audacity remained unpunished, they +organized an armed league, officered by Piedmontese, and commanded by +Garibaldi--that Garibaldi, who, having been vanquished by French troops ten +years ago, now avails himself of our recent hard-won victories, to boast +that he will 'soon make an end of clerical despotism.' " + +Three months after the revolution had been established in the Romagna, M. +de Montalembert wrote: "The revolution, triumphant, is still asking Europe +to sanction its work. France has to impute to herself all the scandals and +all the calamities that will follow. Great nations are responsible not +only for what they do, but for what they permit to be done under the +shadow of their flag, and by the incitement of their influence. The war +which France waged in Italy has cost the Pope the loss of the third part +of his dominions, and the irreparable weakening of his hold on what +remains. The eldest daughter of the church will remain accountable for it +before contemporaries, before history, before Europe, and before God. She +will not be allowed to wipe her mouth like the adultress in Scripture, +_quae tergens os suum dicit, non sum operata malum_." + +Another power which was, in the full sense of the term, _foreign_ in the +Roman States, still more directly aided the revolution. This power was the +army of Garibaldi. It will be seen, when it is considered what troops this +army was composed of, that it was wholly alien in the States of the +Church. In this motley corps there were: + +6,750 Piedmontese volunteers. +3,240 Lombards volunteers +1,200 Venetians. +2,150 Neapolitans and Sicilians. +500 Romans. +1,200 Hungarians. +200 French. +30 English. +150 Maltese and Ionians. +260 Greeks. +450 Poles. +370 Swiss. +160 Spaniards, Belgians and Americans. +800 Austrian deserters and liberated convicts. + +Could such an army as this be held to be a representation of the people of +the Papal States? One-third of it was supplied by two hostile nations, one +of which, Piedmont, had actually, by the intrigues of its government and +in pursuance of a policy which an able statesman, a most candid writer and +an honorable man, Count Montalembert, has stigmatized as _criminal_, +caused the rebellion in Romagna, and has since earnestly labored to avail +itself of the state of things, by annexing Central Italy to the +territories of the Piedmontese King. It were superfluous to direct +attention to the numbers of foreigners from various states. It is, +however, deserving of remark that the whole population of the Papal +States, amounting to 3,000,000, should have shown its alleged sympathy +with the "cause of Italy," by sending only 500 men to fight its battles. +They did not want courage, as was shown in 1848, when neither the +considerate advice and paternal remonstrances of the Holy Father, nor the +wise counsel of grave statesmen and learned cardinals, could moderate the +ardor of the Roman youth, believing, as they had been persuaded, that +patriotism and duty called them to follow the standard of King Charles +Albert. Then they took up arms, as they conceived, in the cause of Italian +liberty. But now that honorable cause was manifestly in abeyance; and they +would not leave their homes and endanger their lives for the phantom of +national independence offered them by the revolution. + +The French were equally wary. They sympathized with Italy. They fought for +their Emperor. But they had no admiration for Piedmontese ambition, or +that of Murats, and Pepolis, and Bonapartes. + +England was more cautious still. However much her demagogues may have +exerted their oratorical powers at home, they carefully avoided perilling +either life or limb in the cause of the revolution. A more numerous band +of fighting men of English origin, in Garibaldi's ranks, would have shown +more sympathy with rebellion in some Italian States than the proposal made +by a right honorable member of the richest peerage in the world to raise a +penny subscription in order to supply the rebels with bayonets and +fire-arms. When we call to mind that this suggestion was made by that very +lordly peer who was once Governor-General of India, we have little +difficulty in understanding why his superiors, the members of the East +India Company, dismissed him from the high and responsible office with +which he had been entrusted. + +It cannot be pretended that the army of Garibaldi was, in any degree, a +national representation. No nation or community can be fairly represented +by a number of its people, insignificantly small, unless, indeed, these +few individuals hold commission from their fellow-countrymen. We have not +read anywhere that the Garibaldian army was thus honored. Social status, +character and respectability, may, on occasions, give to individuals the +privilege of representing their country. But on these grounds the motley +troop of the revolutionary leader possessed no claim. They were men for +whom peace and order have no charms. The powerful corrective of military +discipline was applied to them in vain. Their insubordination was +notorious. To Garibaldi even it was intolerable. And this man, daring as +he was, withdrew from the command in disgust. He had scarcely retired when +many of his men deserted. These the people refused to recognize, and would +not afford them assistance on their journey. Some fifty of them arrived at +Placentia, after having been reduced to mendicancy before they could reach +their homes. The revolutionary governor, Doctor Fanti, issued an order of +the day, requiring that these men, on account of their insubordination and +bad conduct, should not be admitted anew into the army of the League. The +general-in-chief also published an order, under date of 26th November, +1859, absolutely forbidding to accept any person who had belonged to +Garibaldi's force. An army so composed could, by no means, claim to +represent the highly refined, intellectual, and moral populations of +Italy. Far less did it afford any proof that the people of the Papal +States were anxious to forward the work of the revolution. + +The inhabitants of Rome and the Roman States, far from showing any +inclination to side with the revolutionary party, were wont never to let +pass an opportunity of manifesting their satisfaction with the government +of the Pope. His Holiness walked abroad without guards. And although he +sought the most retired places, for the enjoyment of that pedestrian +exercise which his health required, numbers of the people often contrived +to throw themselves in his way, in order to testify to him their reverence +and affection, as well as to receive his paternal benediction. When taking +his walk, one day, on Monte Pincio, many thousands came around him, +declaring loudly their unfeigned loyalty. The following day, still greater +crowds repaired to the same place. But the Holy Father, with a view to be +more retired, had gone in another direction. It ought not to be forgotten, +that when returning, in the autumn of 1859, from his villa at Castel +Gandolpho, the road was thronged on both sides to the distance of four +miles from Rome with citizens who had no other object in view than to give +a cordial and loyal welcome to their Bishop and Prince. This was an +ovation--a triumph which the greatest conqueror might well have envied. It +has already been recorded that, on occasion of the progress which the Holy +Father made through his States, he was everywhere received with the most +lively demonstrations of enthusiastic loyalty, reverence and affection. On +the 18th of January, 1860, the municipal body, or, as it is called, "the +Senate," of Rome, presented to the Sovereign Pontiff, as well in their own +name as on behalf of all the people, an address expressive of their filial +duty and loyal sentiments. On the following day, January 19th, one hundred +and thirty-four of the nobility of Rome, who are, in all, one hundred and +sixty, approached the person of the Pontiff in order to present an equally +loyal and dutiful address. The sentiments of this address will be best +conveyed in its own plain and energetic language--language which does honor +to the patricians of modern Rome: + +"We, the undersigned, deeply grieved by the publication of various libels +which, emanating from the revolutionary press, tend to make the world +believe that the people subject to the authority of your Holiness are +wishing to shake off the yoke which, as it is reported, has become +insufferable, feel necessitated to show fidelity and loyalty to your +Holiness, and to make known to the rest of Europe, which, at the present +moment, doubts the sincerity of our words, the fidelity of our persons +towards your Holiness, by a manifestation of attachment and fidelity +towards your person, proceeding from our duty as Catholics, and from our +lawful submission as your subjects. + +"It is not, however, our intention to vie with the miserable cunning of +your enemies--enemies of the faith--of that very faith which they profess to +venerate. But placed, as it is our fortune, by your side, and seeing the +malignity of those who attack you, and the disloyal character of their +attacks, we feel bound to gather ourselves at the foot of your twofold +throne, with vows for the integrity of your independent sovereignty; and +once more offering you our whole selves, too happy if this manifestation +of our fidelity may sweeten the bitterness with which your Holiness is +afflicted, and if you are pleased to accept our offerings. Thus may +Europe, deceived by so many perverse writings, be thoroughly convinced +that if the nobility have hitherto been restrained from the expression of +their desires by respect and the fear of throwing any obstacle in the way +of a happy solution, so anxiously desired, they have not the less retained +them, and expressed them as individuals; and that they, this day, unite to +declare them, heartily and sincerely pledging to them before all the world +their honor and their faith. + +"Accept, Holy Father, Pontiff and King, this energetic protest and the +unlimited devotedness which the nobles of Rome offer in reverence to your +Sceptre, no less than to your Pastoral staff."--(_In the Weekly Register of +January 28, 1860, from the Giornale di Roma._) + +The like loyal and patriotic feeling was manifested throughout all the +cities and provinces of the Papal States. One of the most eminent of +liberal British statesmen, the Marquis of Normanby, bears witness to the +fact that very few of the citizens of Bologna could be compelled, even at +the point of the sword, to express adherence to the revolution. A portion +of the periodical press labored to keep such facts as these out of view. +But they would have required better evidence than they were ever able to +produce in order to convince reasonable and reflecting men that people, +blessed with so great a degree of material prosperity as the subjects of +the Pope and the other Princes of Italy, were anxious to see radical +changes introduced into the governments under which they were so favored. +That they were highly prosperous and but slightly taxed, many +distinguished travellers, members of both houses of the British +parliament, and others bear witness. None will question the evidence of +these facts which are known on the authority of such men as the Marquis of +Normanby and his Excellency the Earl of Carlisle. The Hon. Mr. Pope +Hennessey stated in the House of Commons: "That the national prosperity of +the States of the Church and of Austria had become greater, year after +year, than that of Sardinia (where a sort of revolutionary constitution +had been established), and that documents existed in the Foreign Office, +in the shape of reports from our own consuls, which proved it, with +respect to commercial interests in Sardinia. Mr. Erskine, our minister at +Turin, in a despatch of January 7, 1856, gave a very unfavorable view of +the manufacturing, mining and agricultural progress of Sardinia. But from +Venetia, Mr. Elliott gave a perfectly opposite view, showing that great +progress was being made there. The shipping trade of Sardinia with England +had declined 2,000 tons. But the British trade with Ancona had increased +21,000 tons, and with Venice 25,000 tons, in the course of the last two +years. He attributed these results to the increase of taxation in +Sardinia, through the introduction of the constitutional (the _Sardinian_ +institutional) system of government, and to the comparatively easy +taxation of Venetia. The increased taxation of Sardinia from 1847 to 1857 +was no less than 50,000,000 francs. With respect to education in the Papal +States, he contended that it was more diffused than it was in this +country--Great Britain." + +In countries that were so prosperous, every man literally "sitting under +his own vine and his own fig-tree," it is difficult to believe that there +was wide-spread discontent and a general desire for radical changes. To +prove that there was, it would have required evidence of no ordinary +weight. All testimony that can be relied on shows a very different state +of feeling. Lord John Russell, in his too memorable Aberdeen speech, gave +expression to an opinion which, through the labors of the newspaper press, +had become very prevalent in England, that "under their provisional +revolutionary governments the people of Central Italy had conducted +themselves with perfect order, just as if they had been the citizens of a +country that had long enjoyed free institutions." + +The Marquis of Normanby, in his place in the British House of Peers, made +reply to this allegation:(5) + +"I should like to know where the noble Lord found that information. There +is not in Central Italy a single government that has resulted from popular +election. They were all named by Piedmont--which had, as it were, packed +the cards. Liberty of speech there was none, nor liberty of the press, nor +personal liberty.... The Grand Duchess of Parma was expelled by a +Piedmontese army, and restored by the spontaneous call of her people. She +left the country, declaring that she would suffer everything sooner than +expose her subjects to the horrors of civil war.... Numberless atrocities +have been committed under the rule of these governments which, according +to my noble friend, are so wise and orderly. I read to you the first day +of this session the letter of a Tuscan, whose character is irreproachable. +Since that time I have received from him another letter, in which he says: +'You will not be surprised to learn that my letter to you has been the +occasion of the coarsest invectives. For what reason I cannot tell, if it +was not because it spoke the truth.' + +"Here is a second letter, which I received a few days ago from an English +merchant of the highest standing at Leghorn: 'No intervention is allowed +in Tuscany; and nevertheless, my Lord, intervention appears everywhere; +even armed and foreign intervention. The governor-general is a +Piedmontese; the minister of war is a Piedmontese; the commander of the +armed police is a Piedmontese; the military governor of Leghorn is a +Piedmontese; the captain of the port is a Piedmontese; without reckoning a +great number of other functionaries of the same nation. This is what I +call armed and foreign intervention. Let us be disembarrassed of all this; +let us be free from the despotic pressure of this government, and the +great majority of the country would vote the restoration of the House of +Lorraine. Almost all the army would be for the Grand Duke, and on this +account it is kept at a distance from Tuscany. I can say the same of +two-thirds of the national guard. All the Great Powers have observed +strict neutrality here, inasmuch as they have not been present at any +ceremony which could be looked upon as a recognition of the existing +government. But since the peace of Villafranca, the English agents have +taken part in all the ceremonies, in all the balls.' Assuredly, thus to +recognize such a government is far from being faithful to the assurance +given last session by the noble Lord at the head of the foreign department +(cheers)." + +Lord Normanby's trustworthy correspondent says, moreover, in the letter +referred to, that the Tuscan troops being kept at a distance from Tuscany, +the people dreaded making any demonstration, being well aware that an +imprudent word would be punished with imprisonment. "At Leghorn, however, +some private meetings were held, at which influential persons were +present. Public meetings are impossible. Twenty-three members of the +assembly asked that it should be convened. This was refused them. At the +private meetings, however, it was decided that Ferdinand IV. should be +recalled, on condition of granting a constitution and an amnesty. The +people have been dreadfully deceived. All promises have been violated, the +price of provisions has risen, the national debt has been enormously +increased." + +Lord Normanby also laid before the House of Peers the testimony of a +distinguished Italian writer, Signor Amperi, whom he described as a man of +high character. This gentleman addressed the governments of Central Italy +in the following terms: + +"The false position in which you have placed yourselves has reduced you to +the necessity, in times of liberty, as you pretend, but of false liberty, +as I conceive, to make falsehood a system of government. Of the promises +of Victor Emmanuel that he would sustain before the Great Powers the vote +of the Tuscan Assembly, you have made a formal accepting for himself of +this vote, and, in order to deceive the ignorant multitude, you ordered +public rejoicings in honor of a fact which you knew to be false. You +declared yourselves the ministers of a king who had not appointed you. You +administer the government in his name; you give judgments in his name; you +pledge the public faith of a sovereign who has given you no commission to +do any such thing; and although you forced the Tuscans to acknowledge him +for king, you despise his authority to such an extent as to impose upon +him the choice of a regent. What right have you to do this, if he be +really king, and if he be not, is your right any better founded?" + +The Marquis of Normanby laughs to scorn the various attempts that were +made to establish a government in Central Italy against the will of the +people. First of all, a certain Signor Buoncompagni was appointed +governor-general by the King of Sardinia. The Emperor of the French judged +that the ambitious satrap had exceeded his powers, and Buoncompagni was +immediately recalled. The Prince de Carignan was then offered the regency +of Central Italy. He thought it prudent to decline; but, unwilling wholly +to relinquish a cherished object of ambition, he named in his place the +above-mentioned Signor Buoncompagni. It would be hard to say in virtue of +what right he so acted. The appointment, it is well known, caused the +greatest indignation at Florence, and elicited a protest from the liberal +representatives themselves. Will it be believed, in after times, that the +British ministry, at that time in power, actually recognized this spurious +government, ordering the Queen's representative to pay an official visit +to Signor Buoncompagni? Whilst all Europe held aloof, anxious to avoid +wrong and insult to the Italian people, whence this zeal and haste on the +part of the British cabinet? At first they had resolved to be neutral. But +there occurred to them the chimerical idea of a great kingdom of Central +Italy; and, as Lord Normanby stated, they hastened in their ignorance to +carry this idea into effect. "Yes," continued the illustrious Peer, when +assailed by the laughter of the more ignorant portion of his hearers, +"yes, in complete ignorance of the aspirations and the prejudices of the +Italian people." + +"It is a painful duty," said the illustrious statesman, in concluding his +eloquent appeal to the common sense and honorable feeling of the British +peerage, "to have to dispel the illusions of public opinion in regard to +Italy. I have endeavored to fulfil this duty by laying before you +information that can be relied on; and I have the pleasure to observe that +light is now beginning to penetrate the darkness which has hitherto +enveloped this question. There is already a greater chance that Italian +independence will be established on a more legitimate basis, free from all +foreign intervention, and in such a way as to favor the cause of fidelity, +of truth, of honor and general order (cheers)." + +If there were no foreign intervention, it was long the fashion with +certain parties to say, we should soon see the end of Papal rule, as well +as that of all the other sovereignties of Italy. Such, however, were not +the views of the great majority of the Italian people. It has been +satisfactorily proved, those people themselves being the witnesses, that +such of them as were subjects of the Pope, far from being discontented and +anxious to do away with the government which was set over them, and +substitute for it either a republic or a foreign monarchy, highly +appreciated and were steadfastly devoted to the wise and paternal rule of +their Pontiff Sovereign. The subjects of the other Italian Princes, as +well as the inhabitants of the revolutionized portion of the Papal States, +were only prevented by the armed intervention of foreign Powers from +declaring in favor of their rightful sovereigns. There is no pretension to +deny that there were reformers and constitutionalists in those States. Of +their number the Pope himself was one. But the well-informed and +intellectual Italians were not ignorant that all reforms must be the fruit +of time and of opinion, and that under the sway of enlightened and +benevolent sovereigns, aided by the learning and wise counsel of able and +conscientious statesmen, such changes, in matters of civil polity, as were +adapted to the wants of the people would not have been delayed beyond the +time when circumstances called for and justified their adoption. + +(M67) All eyes were turned towards the victor of Solferino, who was the +absolute master of the situation. What would he do? Would he allow to be +violated the definitive treaty which his Plenipotentiaries were actually +completing at Zurich? Napoleon III. did positively nothing. He repeated in +the treaty the stipulations in favor of the dispossessed sovereigns, just +as if the pretended plebiscitums were null, and he had no knowledge of +them. He quietly permitted these plebiscitums to take effect with all +their consequences, quite the same as if the treaty had never existed. +Austria saw the treaty executed, as regarded every sacrifice to which she +had consented, and not without pain, that it was set aside in all the +points which set a limit to those sacrifices. But Austria was not the +strongest Power. Piedmont, meanwhile, adhibited her signature without +wincing under those of France and Austria. Thus, as Mgr. Pie of Poitiers +declared, the church was deprived of all human stay. Such a state of +things was not witnessed without emotion. Even in the frivolous society of +France a change had taken place since the days of the great revolution. +Catholic sentiment had gained among the lettered classes. The dethronement +of Pius VI. had passed unnoticed, like that of an ordinary sovereign. That +of Pius VII. had excited only some isolated animadversions. That of Pius +IX. raised storms of protestation on the one hand, and on the other +thunders of applause. One party so hated the Papacy as to become traitors +to their country, and bind themselves with a sort of wild enthusiasm, +first to the car of Italian unity, afterwards to that of Germany. They who +thought otherwise carried their love of the imperilled institution to such +an extent as to forget all their calculations, all their political +alliances, and to incur freely the displeasure of men in power, even to +sacrifice the favor of the multitude, favor which was not less valuable in +times of universal suffrage than that of power. The Roman question became +the inexhaustible subject of public discussions and private conversations. +It sometimes even occasioned family quarrels, and was a trying ordeal for +long-established friendships. Such extraordinary emotion on account of an +idea--an abstraction, as it was called by the indifferent, who took part +with neither one side nor the other--showed that society was not yet +corroded to the core by selfishness and purely material interests. It was +sick, indeed, but far from dead. The French government ought, surely, at +the outset, to have taken warning. It ought to have learned something from +the unanimity with which all the enemies of order, who were also its +enemies, supported its new policy, and the unanimity, not less remarkable, +with which religious people who, generally, had been its friends, combated +that policy. Both liberal and ultramontane Catholics, Protestants even, +such, at least, as were earnest Christians, and practised what they +believed, forgot their divisions. The bishops were the first who spoke +out. Mgr. de Parisis, who had so nobly contended for the liberties of the +church in the reign of Louis Philippe, gave the keynote, and all took part +with him and their venerable colleagues of Italy and Germany, of Ireland +and Spain, of England and America. To say all in a word, the note of alarm +was sounded throughout the whole extent of Christendom. + +In this magnificent concert was heard the courageous language of Mgr. +Dupanloup, the learned and illustrious Bishop of Orleans. On the 30th of +September, 1859, this prelate wrote, no less boldly than eloquently: + +"People say that to touch the sovereign is not to touch the Pontiff. +Certainly his temporal power is not a divine institution; who does not +know this? But it is a providential institution, and who is ignorant of +the fact? Doubtless, during three centuries, the Popes only possessed +independence enough to die martyrs; but they assuredly had a right to +another sort of independence; and providence, which does not always use +miracles for its purpose, ended by founding on the most lawful sovereignty +in Europe the freedom and the independence necessary to the church. +History proves it beyond the possibility of doubt; all eminent intellects +have confessed it; all true statesmen know it. Yes, that the church may be +free, the Pope must be free and independent. That independence must be +sovereign. The Pope must be free, and he must be evidently so. The Pope +must be free in his own interior as well as in his exterior government. +This must be so, for the sake of his own dignity in the government of the +church as well as for the security of our own consciences. This must be +so, in order to secure to the common parent of all the faithful that +neutrality which is indispensable to him amid the frequent wars between +Christian Powers. The Pope must not only be free in his own conscience, in +his own interior, but it must be evident to all that he is so; he must +show himself to be so, in order that all may know and believe it, and that +no doubt or suspicion be possible on this subject. But, say the Italian +revolutionists, we do not propose to do away with the Papal sovereignty; +we merely wish to limit and restrain it. And why so, I ask you in my turn, +if thereby you also diminish and debase the honor of the Catholic +religion, its dignity and independence? Why do so, if thereby you lower +and degrade the most Italian sovereignty of the whole peninsula? Why, more +especially, do so now, in presence of all these unchained evil passions, +and thereby give against the Holy See a sentence of incapacity, and thus, +in the eyes of Christendom, insult that unarmed and oppressed Majesty? You +say he will only lose the Romagna and the Legations. But allow me to ask +you by what right you take them? And why not take all the rest, if you +please? Why, in your dreams of Italian unity, should other Italian cities +fare otherwise than Bologna and Ferrara? Why have you not made up your +minds to take everything outside of Rome, with the garden of the Vatican? +You have said this, you know. But why leave him, even in Rome? Why should +not Dioclesian and the catacombs be the best of all governments for the +church? Where are you going? How far will your detestable principles lead +you? At least, tell us clearly? Is this a clever calculation of yours? +and, not daring to do more at present, or unable to do more, are you +waiting for time and the violence of events to accomplish the rest? But +who, think you, is to be deceived by you? Must we say, with the highest +organ of the English press, that in the present business France is +aggressive and insidious? I do not admit that our country is willing to +play the part designed for her. Such calculations are not suited to French +generosity. For my part, I protest, with my whole soul, against the +perfidious intentions that we are supposed to entertain. But, in +concluding, I must protest, still more solemnly, as a devoted son of the +Holy Roman Church, the mother and teacher of all others--I protest against +the revolutionary impiety which ignores her rights and would fain steal +her patrimony. I protest, in the name of good sense and honor, indignant +at beholding an Italian Sovereign Power become the accomplice of +insurrection and revolt, and at the conspiracy of so many blind and +unreasoning passions against the principles proclaimed and professed +throughout the world by all great statesmen and politicians. I protest, in +the name of common decency and European law, against this profanation of +all that is most august, against the brutal passions which have inspired +acts of inconceivable cowardice. And if I must speak out, I protest, in +the name of good faith, against this restless and ill-disguised ambition, +those evasive answers, that disloyal policy, of which we have the +saddening spectacle before our eyes." + +These burning words of the eminent and patriotic French bishop must have +pierced the soul of Napoleon III. To any other man, at least, an Orsini +shell would have been less terrible. But, "_Perversi difficillime +corriguntur_." No reproaches, however severe and well deserved, no +remonstrance, however well founded, could move the French Emperor. A +greater power than that of words had impelled him towards the evil courses +which the great majority of the French nation, together with the whole +Catholic world, condemned. The bishops, meanwhile, continued to protest. +The Archbishop of Sens, Mellon-Jolly, dared to say, in accents of sorrow: +"Events, alas! are far beyond all that we feared." De Prilly, Bishop of +Chalons, Dean of the French Episcopate, thus wrote a few days before his +death: "Ah! who deserved less than Pius IX. to be attacked by so many +enemies! If the tears which he sheds are so bitter for himself, they are +terrible to those who cause them! A poor bishop, at the point of death, so +assures him and craves his benediction." The expiring prelate, one would +say, had foreseen the humiliation of Sedan. The courageous language of the +bishops was so much feared that it was thought necessary to silence them. +Napoleon, having endeavored in vain to remove their disquietude by +renewing his hollow protestations, denounced them as violent agitators, +abandoned them to the jeers of the infidel press, for which alone there +was liberty in those days, and finally forbade all journals whatsoever to +publish episcopal writings that bore any relation to the Roman question. +Thus did he think to escape the danger with which he was threatened by +silencing the tongues which warned him. + +The learned Cardinal Donnet, so celebrated as a theologian, now showed the +abilities of a diplomatist. When Napoleon III. was at Bordeaux, on the +11th October, 1859, the cardinal, whose duty it was to compliment the +Emperor as his sovereign, failed not at the same time to remonstrate +against his tortuous policy. "We pray," said the pious cardinal, "we pray +confidently, persistently, and with hope which neither deplorable events +nor sacrilegious acts of violence extinguished. Our hopes, the realization +of which appears to be so remote, are founded on yourself, sire, next to +God. You were and you still desire to be the oldest son of the church, and +it cannot be forgotten that you spoke the memorable words: 'The temporal +sovereignty of the venerable head of the church is intimately connected +with the lustre of Catholicism, as also with the liberty and independence +of Italy.' Grand idea! perfectly in harmony with that of the august Chief +of your dynasty, who said in regard to the temporal power of the Popes: +'_The centuries made it, and they did well._' " The only reply of the +all-powerful Emperor was a refusal to reply. "I cannot here," he said, +"discuss all the weighty matters, the development of which would be +required by the serious question to which you have alluded. So I confine +myself to reminding you that the government which restored the Holy Father +to his throne can only give him counsel inspired by sincere and respectful +devotedness to his interests. But he is anxious, and not without cause, as +to the time, which cannot be far distant, when our troops must evacuate +Rome. For Europe cannot allow the occupation, which has already lasted ten +years, to be prolonged for an indefinite period. But when our army shall +be withdrawn, what will be left behind? These are questions of the +importance of which none are ignorant. But, believe me, in order to solve +them, we must, considering the age in which we live, avoid appealing to +ardent passions, calmly seek truth, and pray Divine Providence to +enlighten both peoples and kings, in order that they may wisely use their +rights and fully discharge their duties." From these last words the +Emperor appeared to have forgot that when there are duties to be fulfilled +prayer alone will not suffice. His speech at the opening of the +legislative session, 7th March, 1860, showed that either irresistible +illusion or a foregone conclusion of complicity guided his Italian policy. +He accused the Catholics of becoming excited without grounds, and of +ingratitude towards him. The logic of events, so plain to all besides, was +a dead letter to the imperial mind, blinded as it was by the habit of dark +manoeuvres. + +"I cannot pass unnoticed," said he, "the excitement of a portion of the +Catholic world. It has accepted, without reflection, erroneous +impressions, allowed itself to become passionately alarmed. The past which +ought to have been a guarantee for the future has been so ignored, and +services rendered so forgotten, that profound conviction, absolute +confidence in the public good sense, was necessary for me, in order to +preserve, amid the agitation which was industriously occasioned, that +serenity of mind which alone maintains us in the way of truth." + +(M68) Meanwhile, a Congress for settling the difficulties of Italy was +announced. This Congress was to be composed of all the great European +Powers--of France, whose government had no good will; of Austria, which had +not the power to cause the treaty of Zurich to be put in execution; of +schismatical Russia; of Protestant Prussia, and of Protestant England, +which favored revolution so long as it kept at a distance from its own +doors. Pius IX. beheld in it many causes of disquietude. Nevertheless, he +accepted the congress. The public were discussing, and not without +impatience, the names of the presumed negotiators, when there appeared on +the 22d of December, 1859, a new pamphlet which, like the former, was +anonymous, and was ascribed as it also had been, to an author who was in +too high a position to append his signature. Its title was, "_The Pope and +the Congress_." It abounded in high sounding words, and was full of +contradictions from beginning to end. It demonstrated, indeed, that the +temporal power of the Pope was an essential guarantee of his spiritual +independence, but that this power could only be exercised within +territorial limits of very small extent, which could not enable him to +sustain himself, whilst, nevertheless, his dignity and the general +interest forbade him to seek foreign intervention. The pamphlet concluded +by insisting that the Pope ought to begin by giving up all claim to +Romagna, and so prepare for ceding, a little later, the rest of his +states, when he would be satisfied to hold the Vatican with a garden +around it, and receive a magnificent salary provided by all the Catholic +Powers. Hundreds of pamphlets and articles in the Catholic journals +appeared in reply to this anonymous writing. They proved that the proposed +arrangement would subject the Head of the Church to the caprice of the +Powers, and then enquired what security he would have against those who +were his securities, especially at a time like the present, when the +ancient law of nations, which was founded on respect for the weak and +sworn faith, is suppressed by the revolution, and the reason of the +strongest is the only one attended to; when the most solemn treaties are +violated with impunity by those who have signed them, and as soon as they +have signed them. The bishops raised their voice anew. They stated with +sorrow that the pamphlet decided in favor of the revolution. But the +boldest condemnation proceeded from Rome itself. The Popes, it is well +known, hesitate not to use the proper terms when there is question of +stigmatizing iniquity. No matter though they be at the mercy of those whom +they brand, they define each error and each act of injustice with the same +precision as in writing a theological thesis. Pius IX., who was mildness +itself, more than once startles the delicate ear by the liberty of his +language, so different from the minced and often ambiguous style of +diplomacy. On the 30th of December, the official journal of Rome published +the following note: "There appeared lately at Paris an anonymous pamphlet, +entitled, '_The Pope and the Congress_.' This pamphlet is nothing else +than homage paid to the revolution--an insidious thesis addressed to those +weak minds who have no sure _criterium_ by which they can detect the +poison which it holds concealed, and a subject of sorrow to all good +Catholics. The arguments contained in this writing are only a reproduction +of the errors and outrages so often hurled against the Holy See, and so +often victoriously refuted. If it was the object of the author, perchance, +to intimidate him whom he threatens with such great disasters, he can rest +assured that he who has right on his side, who seeks no other support than +the solid and immovable foundations of justice, and who is sustained +especially by the protection of the King of kings, has certainly nothing +to fear from the snares of men." + +On 1st January, 1860, Pius IX., in his reply to the complimentary address +of General Goyon, who commanded the French military at Rome, characterized +the pamphlet as "a signal monument of hypocrisy, and an unworthy tissue of +contradictions." The Holy Father further observed, before expressing his +good wishes for the Emperor, the Empress, the Prince Imperial, and all +France, that the principles enunciated in the pamphlet were condemned by +several papers which his Imperial Majesty had some time before been so +good as to send to him. A few days later the _Moniteur_ published a letter +of the Emperor to the Pope, dated 31st December, 1859, in which the former +renews his hypocritical expressions of devotedness, but admits, at the +same time, that "notwithstanding the presence of his troops at Rome, and +his dutiful affection to the Holy See, he could not avoid a certain +partnership in the effects of the national movement provoked in Italy by +the war against Austria." In this same letter Napoleon III. reminds the +Pontiff, that at the conclusion of the war he had recommended, as the best +means of maintaining tranquillity, the secularization of his government, +and he still believes that, "if, at that time, his Holiness had consented +to an administrative separation of the Romagna, and the nomination of a +lay governor, the provinces would have come, once more, under his +authority." What, then, could the people have meant when they petitioned, +on occasion of the Pope's progress, to have a cardinal for governor, as +formerly, and not lay prefects, as was then the case, under the regime +inaugurated by Pius IX.? The Pope having neglected his advice, Napoleon, +of course, was powerless to stay the tide of revolution. "My efforts were +only successful in preventing the insurrection from spreading, and the +resignation of Garibaldi preserved the marches of Ancona from certain +invasion." No doubt it did. But, as will soon be seen, this modern +crusader was let loose in order that he might follow his calling more +vigorously, _i.e._, rob and slay on a more extensive scale. The Emperor +now approaches the subjects of the Congress. In his letter he recognizes +the indisputable right of the Holy See to the legations. But he does not +think it probable that the Powers would think it proper to have recourse +to force, in order to restore them. If the restoration were effected by +means of foreign troops, it would be necessary, for a long time, to hold +military occupation of these provinces; and this would only feed the +enmities and hatred of the Italian people. This state of uncertainty +cannot always last. What then is to be done? The Imperial revolutionist +concludes, expressing the most sincere regret, and the pain which such a +solution gives him, that the way most in harmony with the interests of the +Holy See is that it should sacrifice the revolted provinces. For the last +fifty years they have only caused embarrassment to the government of the +Holy Father. If he asked of the Powers to guarantee to him, in exchange +for them, the possession of what remained, order, he had no doubt, would +be immediately restored. This letter left no room to doubt that the policy +of the pamphlet, "_The Pope and the Congress_," was that of Napoleon III. +As soon as this was known the Congress became impossible. The Pope could +not agree to deliberations based upon the principle of his dispossession. +Austria could not be a party to combinations which removed the bases of +the treaty of Zurich. This opinion was expressed by Count de Rechberg, +first Minister of Austria, in a note of 17th February, 1860, and by Lord +John Russell, in a despatch to Lord Cowley, the British Ambassador at +Paris. "The pamphlets are important," said the latter statesman; "the +result of the one entitled, '_The Pope and the Congress_,' is to prevent a +Congress, and to cause the Pope to be deprived of one-half of his +dominions." + +It was not without significance that M. Thouvenel was French Minister of +Foreign Affairs from the 4th of January. Piedmont understood this fact. It +caused its troops to cross the Romagnese frontier, whilst M. de Cavour, +triumphant, affirmed, in the Piedmontese Senate, that the letter of +Napoleon III., declaring that the temporal sovereignty was not sacred, was +a fact as important in the Italian question as the battle of Solferino. + +The Pope's reply to Napoleon's letter of 31st December is of some length. +Elegant in expression, forcible in reasoning, it can only be briefly +reviewed. "I am under the necessity of declaring to your majesty that I +cannot cede the legations without violating the oaths by which I am bound, +without causing misfortune and disturbance in the other provinces, without +doing wrong and giving scandal to all Catholics, without weakening the +rights of the sovereigns of Italy, unjustly despoiled of their dominions, +but also the sovereigns of the whole Christian world, who could not see +with indifference great principles trampled under foot." The Emperor had +insisted that the cession of the legations by the Pope was necessary, in +order to put an end to the disturbances, which, according to him, although +he knew that such disturbances proceeded wholly from foreigners, had, for +the last fifty years, caused embarrassment to the Pontifical government. +"Who," said the Pope, "could count the revolutions that have occurred in +France during the last seventy years? And yet, who would dare maintain +that the great French nation is under the necessity, in order to secure +the peace of Europe, to narrow the limits of the Empire? Your argument +proves too much. So I must discard it. Your majesty is not ignorant by +what parties, with what money, and with what support, were committed the +spoliations of Bologna, Ravenna, and other cities." + +The Imperial letter was communicated to all the newspapers. The reply of +the Pope was carefully withheld from them. It only became known in France, +some time later, through a German translation in the Austrian _Gazette_. +Pius IX. was anxious, meantime, that the public should hear both sides of +the question. He therefore brought to the knowledge of the Catholic world +the principal points of his answer to Napoleon in the Encyclical, _nullis +certe verbis_, of date 19th January, in which he declared that he was +prepared to suffer the last extremities rather than betray the cause of +the church and of justice. He also invited all the bishops to join with +him in praying _that God would arise and vindicate his cause_. + +The government having information that there was a copy of this document +in the hands of the distinguished Catholic journalist, M. Louis Veuillot, +the Minister of the Interior, M. Billaut, sent for this courageous writer, +and gave him to understand that if he published the Encyclical it would be +the death-warrant of his journal. But M. Veuillot was not to be +intimidated. Next morning, 29th January, there appeared in his paper, +_l'Univers_, the Latin text of the Pontifical document, together with a +French translation. The same day, without trial or sentence, was signed a +decree suppressing _l'Univers_. Yet was not this paper destined wholly to +perish. Ten years later it reappeared, when the tyranny of Napoleon III. +was crushed for ever at Sedan. Several other Catholic journals shared the +fate of _l'Univers_, such as the _Bretagne_, of Saint Brieue, and the +_Gazette_, of Lyons. The government of the Emperor thus showed by what +spirit its counsels were guided. All the Catholic journals of France were +already under the ban of two warnings, so that they had only a precarious +existence, a third warning, according to the legislation of the time +constituting their death-warrant. + +So early as 3rd December, 1859, whilst yet a Congress was believed to be +possible, Pius IX. had written with his own hand to Victor Emmanuel, in +order to remind him of his duties, and induce him to defend at the meeting +of the Powers the rights of the Holy See. The latter had answered, 6th +February, 1860, "that he certainly would not have failed in this duty if +the Congress had met." For, "devoted son as he was of the church, and the +descendant of a most pious family, it never was his intention to neglect +his duties as a Catholic Prince." He protested, therefore, that he had +done nothing to provoke the insurrection, and that when the war was ended +he had renounced all interference in the legations. But he added, "it is +an acknowledged fact, and which I have personally verified, that in those +provinces which, lately, were so unmanageable and dissatisfied with the +court of Rome, the ministers of worship are actually respected and +protected, and the temples of God more frequented than ever." Victor +Emmanuel surely now thought that the Pope would never think of disturbing +this happiness and self-satisfaction. "The interests of religion required +it not." He even hoped that the Holy Father, not satisfied with refraining +from a renewal of his claim on Romagna, would also hand over to him the +marches and Umbria, in order that they might enjoy the same prosperity. +And so he discoursed anew to Pius IX., about his "frank and loyal +concurrence, his sincere and devoted heart," and ended by craving the Holy +Father's apostolic blessing. + +The King of Piedmont must have been sadly blinded by revolutionary +teachings not to see--if, indeed, he did not see--that such professions of +loyalty and devotedness were positively derisive. Pius IX. so viewed them, +and gave the intriguing monarch to understand that he did so. The +moderation of his language is but slightly indicative of the sorrow and +indignation which he must have experienced. "The idea which your majesty +has thought fit to lay before me is highly imprudent, unworthy, most +assuredly, of a king who is a Catholic and a member of the house of Savoy. +You may read my reply in an Encyclical which will soon appear. I am deeply +affected, not on my own account, but by the deplorable state of your +majesty's soul. You are already under the ban of censures, which, alas! +will be aggravated when the sacrilegious act which you and your +accomplices are meditating shall have been consummated. May the Lord +enlighten you and give you grace to understand and to bewail the scandals +which have occurred, and the fearful evils with which unfortunate Italy +has been visited through your co-operation." + +(M69) About this time diplomatists discovered the convenient political +doctrine of non-intervention. It was, like most diplomatic devices, a +fallacy. But it served its purpose. The Catholic Powers, however friendly +to the Holy See, were unable to intervene. The greatest of them all, +Austria, was put _hors de combat_ at Solferino. Prussia had intervened, as +far as its policy required, when it forbade further hostilities after the +great battle which made France the mistress of the destinies of Italy. +England, which, as a Protestant Power, had no great friendship for the +Holy See, found it suitable to preach non-intervention, as an excuse for +not being able or for not daring to aid her ancient and faithful ally, the +Pope, in opposition to her new friend, the Emperor of the French. England, +at least, was consistent, for, while she proclaimed and practised +non-intervention in favor of the French Emperor's subversive intervention +in Italy, she adhered most devoutly to the doctrine when there was +question, a little later, of aiding France against the crushing power of +Prussia. + +(M70) Whilst the European Powers lay dormant under the spell of the new +doctrine of non-intervention, the King of Piedmont vigorously pursued his +career of spoliation. Having accepted a sham plebiscitum, he annexed, by a +formal decree of 18th March, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchies of +Parma and Modena, and that portion of the Papal States known as the +Legations, to his ancient kingdom of Sardinia and Piedmont. This was done +with the full consent of his Imperial patron, Napoleon III. For, at this +time, Victor Emmanuel ceded to France, as compensation for Central Italy, +Nice and Savoy. This boded ill for France. Some French writers consider +that this transaction would have been less disgraceful if these provinces +had been exchanged for Lombardy, which had been won from Austria with +French blood and treasure. But, as evil destiny, which was hastening to +its accomplishment, would have it, they were given as payment for the +spoils of the widow and orphan of Parma and the aged man of the Vatican. +Thus for once was non-intervention dearly purchased. + +The usurping monarch having now accomplished a long-cherished purpose, +ought, one would suppose, to have obeyed the dictates of prudence, and +held his peace. But no. He must write to the Pope, in order to justify his +nefarious proceeding. Piedmontese bayonets and four millions of +Piedmontese gold had won for him the plebiscitum of which he was so proud. +Nevertheless, he declared, addressing the Holy Father, that, "as a +Catholic Prince, he believed he was not wanting to the unchangeable +principles of the religion which it was his glory to profess with +unalterable devotedness and fidelity." Notwithstanding, "for the sake of +peace, he offered to acknowledge the Pope as his Suzerain, would always +diminish his charges and contribute towards his independence and +security." He ended his letter by most humbly soliciting, once more, the +apostolic benediction. There is more plain speaking in the reply of Pius +IX. than could have been to the liking of the _Re galantuomo_. "I could +say that the pretended universal suffrage was imposed, not voluntary. I +could say that the Pontifical troops were hindered by other troops, and +you know well what troops, from restoring the legitimate government in the +provinces." The Holy Father then bewails the increasing immorality +occasioned by the usurping government and the insults constantly offered +to the ministers of religion. Even if he were not bound by solemn oaths to +preserve intact the patrimony of the church, he would, nevertheless, be +obliged to repel everything that tended in this direction, lest his +conscience should be stained by even an indirect sanctioning of, and +participating in, such disorders, and justifying, by concurrence, unjust +and violent spoliation. The Pope concludes by saying, emphatically, that +he cannot extend a friendly welcome to the projects of his majesty, but +that, on the contrary, he protests against the usurpation, and leaves on +the conscience of his majesty and all who co-operate with him in such +iniquity the fatal consequences which flow therefrom. Finally, he hopes +that the king, in reperusing his own letter, will find grounds for +repentance. The Pope, far from being actuated by feelings of resentment, +prays God to give his majesty the grace he stands so much in need of in +such difficult circumstances. The letter is dated at the Vatican, 2nd +April, 1860. + +It is related that Victor Emmanuel bedewed with tears this letter, which +so gently and tenderly rebuked him. It must have reached him at one of +those moments of remorse which, more than once, interrupted his scandalous +career. It hindered him not, however, from fulfilling the promise which he +had given to the revolution, when, at the beginning of the war of 1859, +placing his hand on his sword and looking towards Rome, he said: "_Andremo +al fondo_" ("we shall go on to the end"). + +On the 26th of March of the same year, Pius IX. issued a Bull, +excommunicating all who took part in wrenching from him so great a portion +of the patrimony of the church. Some parties received the intimation of +this sentence with such noisy demonstrations of delight as to cause their +sincerity to be doubted. Others, and of the number was King Victor +Emmanuel, were struck with indescribable fear. Napoleon III. insisted that +the organic article of the Concordat, forbidding the publication in France +of Bulls, Briefs, &c., should be enforced. But he could not, any more than +his uncle, forbid the excommunication to take effect. The first Napoleon +was at the height of his greatness when struck with excommunication. He +received the sentence with jeers. Would it make the arms fall from the +hands of his soldiers? How literally this question was answered, let the +snows of Russia tell. There are other ministers of the wrath of heaven +besides the frosts of a Northern winter. Napoleon III. was in the zenith +of his power when he heard the sentence which he vainly tried to stifle. +His great political wisdom, and the wonderful success of all he undertook +had hitherto astonished the world. There was now a manifest change. But it +need not here be said with what unspeakable humiliation his star went +down. + +The revolutionary party could not have more effectually shown their dread +of the Papal sentence, than by their endeavors to suppress it. They went +so far as to publish in its place a forged document, as odious as it was +extravagant, appended there to the signature of Pius IX., and exposed it +to the jeers of the ignorant multitude. The bishops did their best in +order to make known the truth; with what difficulty it will be easily +understood, when it is remembered that an Imperial decree forbade the +newspapers to publish a word in their interest. + +(M71) Had there been question only of forming a united Italy, and of +introducing such reforms as the time demanded into the States of the +Church, and those of the Italian grand dukes, such a cause would have had +no better friends and supporters than the Pope and the native princes. But +the revolutionary party aimed at more than this, and they hastened to show +their hand as soon as they obtained any power. As has been seen, the Holy +Father himself complained bitterly of the increase of irreligion and +immorality under their ill-omened auspices in Romagna. It was not their +policy to reconstitute, but to subvert. No existing institution, however +excellent, was sacred in their eyes. Thus speak the archbishops and +bishops of the Marches in a remonstrance addressed to the Piedmontese +Governor on 21st November, 1860: "We scarcely believe our own eyes, or the +testimony of our own ears, when we see and hear the excesses, the +abominations, the disorders witnessed in the chief cities of our +respective dioceses, to the shame and horror of the beholders, to the +great detriment of religion, of decency and public morality, since the +ordinances against which we protest deprive us of all power to protect +religion and morality, or to repress the prevailing crimes and +licentiousness. The public sale, at nominal prices, of mutilated +translations of the Bible, of pamphlets of every description, saturated +with poisonous errors or infamous obscenities, is permitted in the cities +which, a few months ago, had never heard the names of these scandalous +productions; the impunity with which the most horrible blasphemies are +uttered in public, and the worse utterance of expressions and sentiments +that breathe a hellish wickedness; the exposition, the public sale and the +diffusion of statuettes, pictures and engravings, which brutally outrage +piety, purity, the commonest decency; the representation in our theatres +of pieces and scenes in which are turned into ridicule the Church--Christ's +immaculate spouse--the Vicar of Christ, the ministers of religion, and +everything held dear to piety and faith; in fine, the fearful +licentiousness of public manners, the odious devices resorted to for +perverting the innocent and the young, the evident wish and aim to make +immorality, obscenity, uncleanness triumph among all classes; such are, +your Excellency, the rapid and faint outlines of the scandalous state of +things created in the Marches by the legislation and discipline so +precipitately introduced by the Piedmontese government. We appeal to your +Excellency. Could we remain silent and indifferent spectators of this +immense calamity without violating our most sacred duty?" If anything +under the government of subversion has saved Italy from utter ruin, it is +nothing less than the zeal and devotedness of its pastors. In the +remonstrance referred to, they declare that notwithstanding all the +contradictions, the trials, the obstacles they have had to encounter, "not +one spark of charity, of zeal, of pastoral and fatherly solicitude has +been quenched in our souls. We solemnly affirm it, with our anointed hands +on our hearts, and with the help of God's grace, these sentiments shall +never depart from us through fault of ours." + +(M72) This mode of reforming, so dear to the revolutionists, is further +illustrated by the proceedings of Garibaldi in Sicily and at Naples. It +will be remembered that this hero of the revolution was eclipsed for a +time by the splendors of Solferino. Immediately after that battle he +retired into private life, and the motley troop which he commanded +disappeared. Whilst, however, there remained any revolutionary work to be +done, such a man could not be idle. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies was, +as yet, unshaken. This was too much for Count de Cavour, and so he +encouraged the ever-willing Garibaldi to fit out an armament against that +kingdom. The hero sailed for Sicily, and there, assured of +_non-intervention_ by the presence of the flags of France, England and +Sardinia, he made an easy conquest of the defenceless island. As soon as +he got possession of Palermo, and had assumed the title and powers of +dictator, he commenced, like a true revolutionist, the work of subversion. +Garibaldi, no doubt, was a man of the age, and the great diplomatic +discovery which the age had fallen upon was never wanting to him. It +served him at Naples as it had done in Sicily; and so, a mere diplomatic +idea--_non-intervention_--drove the king to Gaeta, and established the power +of the revolutionist. + +(M73) As soon as Garibaldi was master in Sicily, the work of revolutionary +reform commenced. It was always the first aim of the revolutionists to +strike at civilization and civilizing influences. Churches were +desecrated, the ministers of religion insulted, religious orders +suppressed. "The Society of Jesus alone," said the venerable superior, +Father Beckx, in his solemn protestation of 24th October, 1860, to the +King of Sardinia, "was robbed of three residences and colleges in +Lombardy; of six in the Duchy of Modena; of eleven in the Pontifical +States; nineteen in the kingdom of Naples; and fifteen in Sicily." +"Everywhere," adds Father Beckx, "the Society has been literally stripped +of all its property, movable and immovable. Its members, to the number of +1,500, were driven forth from their houses and the cities. They were led +by an armed force, like so many malefactors, from province to province, +cast into the public prisons, ill-treated and outraged in the most +horrible manner. They were even prevented from finding a refuge in pious +families, while in several places no consideration was had for the extreme +old age of many among them, nor for the infirmity and weakness of others. + +"All these acts were perpetrated against men who were not accused of one +illegal or criminal act, without any judicial process, without allowing +any justification to be recorded. In one word, all this was consummated in +the most despotic and savage manner. If such acts had been accomplished in +a popular riot, by men blinded by passion, we might perhaps bear them in +silence. But, as all such acts have been done in the name of the Sardinian +laws; as the provisional governments established in Modena and the +Pontifical States, as well as the dictator of Sicily himself, have claimed +to be supported by the Sardinian government; and as your majesty's name is +still invoked to sanction these iniquitous measures, I can no longer +remain a silent spectator of such enormous injustice, but in my quality of +supreme head of the order, I feel myself strictly bound to ask for justice +and satisfaction, and to protest before God and man, lest the resignation +inspired by religious meekness and forbearance should appear to be a +weakness which might be construed into an acknowledgment of guilt, or a +relinquishment of our rights. I protest solemnly, and in the best form I +can think of, against the suppression of our houses and colleges, against +the proscriptions, banishments and imprisonments, against the acts of +violence and outrage committed against the brethren bound to me by +religious ties. I protest before all Catholics, in the name of the rights +of the church sacrilegiously violated. I protest, in the name of the +benefactors and founders of our houses and colleges, whose will and +expressed intentions in founding these good works, for the interest alike +of the living and the dead, are thus nullified. I protest, in the name of +the sacred rights of property, contemned and trampled under foot by brutal +force. I protest, in the name of citizenship and the inviolability of +individual persons, of whose rights no man may be deprived without being +accused in form, arraigned and judged. I protest, in the name of humanity, +whose rights have been so shamefully outraged in the persons of so many +aged men, sick, infirm and helpless, driven from their peaceful seclusion, +left without any assistance, cast on the highways without any means of +subsistence." Such was the revolution which Victor Emmanuel and Napoleon +III. were driven by fear, or even worse motives, to patronize and foster. +It had, in the days of its power, made France a desolation. It was now +sweeping like devouring flames over Italy, and fast approaching the city +of the Popes. + +(M74) Pius IX., although not unaware of the fearful calamities with which +he was threatened, was far from allowing his mind to be shaken. He trusted +in that Providence which watches over the church. "We are as yet," said he +on 16th February, 1860, to the lenten preachers of the time, "at the +beginning of the evils which must soon overtake us. At the same time, we +are consoled by the cheering prospect that, as calamity succeeds calamity, +the spirit of faith and of sacrifice will be proportionately developed." + +There was nothing now to be hoped for from the powers which nominally +ruled the world, but which were, in reality, under the control of the +revolution. Deprived of so great a portion of his states, and the revenue +which accrued to him therefrom, the Holy Father resolved to sustain his +failing finances by relying on the spontaneous offerings of the faithful +throughout the world. His appeal was not made in vain. The piety and zeal +of the early ages appeared to have revived. The word of the common Father +was received with reverence in the remotest lands. Offerings of "_Peter's +pence_," as in days of apostolic fervor, were poured into the Papal +treasury. In Europe, especially, the movement was so general as to show +that the people everywhere were resolved to act independently of their +governments, which had so shamefully become subservient to the will of the +revolution. It was scarcely necessary that the bishops should speak a word +of encouragement. In France, indeed, under a jealous and revolutionary +government, there could be no associations for the collection of Peter's +pence. But the government could not, so far, place itself in opposition to +the religion of the country as to forbid collections in the churches; nor +could it reach such subscriptions as were offered in private dwellings. In +Belgium, although the party of unbelief, of Freemasonry and revolution, +held the reins of power, the constitution protected all citizens alike, +and so the new work which the circumstances of the church required was +accomplished by association, pretty much in the same way as the work of +the propagation of the faith. By the end of three months, there were in +Flanders no fewer than four hundred thousand associates for the collection +of Peter's pence. In Italy, a Catholic journal, _Armonia_, collected +considerable sums of money, and caskets filled with jewels and other +precious objects. Poland, in her sorrow, was magnificently generous. And +Ireland, renewing her strength after centuries of misgovernment, +persecution and poverty, emulated the richest countries, America, Germany, +Holland and England. One of the collections at Dublin amounted to L10,000. +All these rich donations, together with thousands of addresses which bore +millions of signatures, were humbly laid at the feet of the Holy Father. + +(M75) Now that it is well known that France was not less hostile than +Sardinia and the revolution, to the cause of the Pope, it appears more a +loss of labor than a wise precaution, that the Holy Father should have +assembled an army for maintaining order in his states, and repelling any +attack on the part of the revolutionary faction. This was all that he +contemplated. Deceived by the professions of his French ally, he was far +from suspecting that the small force which he was collecting for the +maintenance of order would be no sooner organized than it would be +attacked by the military power of Piedmont, supported by the Emperor of +the French. On the contrary, Pius IX. had every reason to believe that the +formation of a Pontifical army, destined for the duties which devolved on +the French soldiers, then at Rome, would be acceptable to Napoleon III. +The latter had, more than once, said to his Holiness: "Place yourself in a +position to be independent of my army of occupation." This recommendation +is repeated in a despatch of Messrs. Thouvenel and Gramont, so late as the +14th of April, 1860. As soon as it was known that the Pope desired to have +an army for maintaining internal peace, and finally, in order to replace +the foreign troops which occupied Rome, the youth of many countries freely +offered their services. France, Belgium, Ireland, Spain, Holland, and even +distant Canada sent numerous volunteers. The noble youth of France, whose +education, for the most part, was eminently Christian, were only too happy +to tear themselves from the luxurious life of Paris. Their joy was equal +to their ardor, when they found that they could bear arms without serving +a Bonaparte. Gontants and Larochefoucauld Doudeauvilles, Noes and +Pimodans, Tournous and Bourbon Chalus, came to range themselves, as +private soldiers, when necessary, under the banner of the Pope. Nor were +they attracted by any hope of gain. A goodly number, on the contrary, +sustained by their ample means the government to which they offered their +lives. The revolution signified its displeasure by branding these devoted +youths with the ignominious title of "Mercenaries of the Pope." This +ungracious word proceeded from the palace of Jerome Napoleon, on whom +merciless history bestows a more opprobrious epithet. As a matter of +course, it was repeated in all the revolutionary journals. + +The command of the new force was offered to the brave and experienced +General Lamoriciere. At first he hesitated, the cause of the Pope, as +regarded his temporal power, was already so much compromised. Finally, on +the representation of the Reverend Count de Merode, he gave his consent. +It was pure sacrifice. No success could add to his military renown. And +success was impossible. The general distributed his soldiers, from 20,000 +to 25,000 in number, in small bodies, throughout the towns of that portion +of the Papal States which still remained. This was a judicious +arrangement, as far as internal peace and order were concerned. Neither +Lamoriciere nor the Pope had any idea, so firmly did they rely on the +hollow professions of France, that a foreign army would have to be met. +The general spoke words of encouragement to his willing soldiers. "The +revolution," said he, in an order of the day, "like Islamism of old, +threatens Europe. To-day, as in ancient times, the cause of the Papacy is +the cause of civilization and of the liberty of mankind." The infidel +press was excited to fury, and showed, by the violence of its writing, +that the comparison of the revolution to Islamism was but too well +founded. Were not both alike ferocious? Did not both spread terror and +desolation in their track? Weigh them together--Islamism has the advantage. +In addition to all its other barbarities, the revolution violated the +temples of God and the abodes of prayer. The followers of the prophet were +commanded to respect every place where God was worshipped, and every house +where dwelt the ministers of His worship. + +The organization of Lamoriciere's army was now so complete that a friendly +convention was entered into with the Cabinet of the Tuilleries, and that +the evacuation of Rome by the French garrison should commence on the 11th +of May. + +This was not at all to the liking of the revolutionists. M. de Cavour, who +had complained so loudly at the Congress of Paris that the Pope had not an +army sufficiently strong to render unnecessary the protection of France +and Austria, protested against the formation of such an army as soon as he +saw that it was seriously contemplated. He denounced it to all Europe as a +gathering of adventurers from every country, and feigned the greatest +disquietude for the new frontiers of Piedmont. + +On the 4th September, 1860, Napoleon III. was at Chambery, receiving the +homage and congratulations of his Savoyard subjects. A public banquet was +held in his honor, and whilst the guests were yet at table, two +Piedmontese envoys, Messrs. Farini and Cialdini, sought a private +interview with the Emperor. Napoleon left the festive board and remained +closeted with the envoys the remainder of the evening. The result of this +conference was the immediate invasion of the Papal States by Sardinian +troops, under the command of General Cialdini. This officer reports that +he was fully authorized by Napoleon. It is even related that the Emperor, +strongly encouraging him used the words of our blessed Lord to Judas: +"_Quod facis, fac citius_." Napoleon, indeed, denied having uttered these +words. It matters not. All his acts, at the time, expressed their meaning. +Whilst conferring with the envoys at Chambery, there lay on a table a map +of Central Italy, on which he traced in pencil and effaced several lines. +The map having been left on the table, was afterwards found to contain one +line in crayon, which was not effaced. It showed exactly the route which +Cialdini followed in marching to the destruction of the Papal army. +Between the conference of Chambery and the arrival of Cialdini on the +Pontifical territory, there elapsed precisely the time necessary for the +journey by post-carriage and railway. Seventy thousand men were waiting +for him on the frontier, ready to march as soon as he brought them the +required authorization. General Fanti, who also had an army corps +concentrated on the borders of the Marches, had already intimated to +General Lamoriciere, that if the Papal troops had recourse to force, "in +order to suppress any insurrection in the Papal State," he would, at once, +occupy the Marches and Umbria, "in order to secure to the inhabitants full +liberty to express their wishes." The Sardinian generals evidently wished +to raise an insurrection, but as no insurrection occurred, they managed to +do without one. In the meantime, it was thought expedient to perform a +piece of mock diplomacy. Count Delia Minerva was despatched from Turin to +Rome, charged with an _ultimatum_ to the Pope. Without diplomatic +negotiations or shadow of pretext, purely by virtue of the right of the +strongest and most audacious, the Holy Father was suddenly summoned to +dismiss his volunteers as foreigners, and was allowed four-and-twenty +hours to give his answer. But the party did not wait so long. The +_ultimatum_, of a piece with their other proceedings, was a mockery. On +10th September, before the reply of the Pope could have been known, even +before Delia Minerva had reached Rome, Generals Cialdini and Fanti, +without any previous declaration of war, passed the Pontifical frontier. +It was the barbarians once more at the gates of Rome. The orders of the +day, which the Piedmontese commanders addressed to their troops, were +inexpressibly savage. Pitiless history fails not to record them. +"Soldiers," said Cialdini, "I lead you against a band of adventurers, whom +the thirst for gold and pillage has brought to our country. Fight, +disperse without mercy, these wretched cut-throats. Let them feel, by the +weight of our arm, the power and the anger of a people who strive to be +independent soldiers. Perugia seeks vengeance. And, although late, it +shall have it." The language of King Victor Emmanuel, although somewhat +more politely diplomatic, was not less false and savage. His proclamation +is a master-piece of Count de Cavour's hypocritical style. "Soldiers, you +are entering the Marches and Umbria, in order to restore civil order in +the desolated cities and to secure to the inhabitants the liberty to +express their wishes. You have not to meet powerful armies, but only to +deliver the unfortunate Italian provinces from companies of foreign +adventurers. You are not going to avenge the injuries done to Italy or to +me, but to hinder the popular hatred from wreaking vengeance on the +oppressor. You will teach by your example pardon of offences and Christian +toleration to those who compare Italian patriotism to Islamism. At peace +with all the Great Powers, and without provocation, I mean to banish from +Central Italy a constant cause of trouble and discord. I wish to respect +the seat of the Chief of the Church, &c." Whatever this king may have +wished to do, he was compelled to obey the will of the revolution, and to +justify by his acts the comparison of the party which he patronized with +Islamism,--a comparison disparaging only to the followers of the prophet. +The ferocious sentiments to which Cialdini gave utterance were not mere +bravado. When Colonel Zappi, of the Pontifical service, dared to hold out +with 800 men at Pesaro, and check for two-and-twenty hours the whole +Piedmontese army before this village, Cialdini, instead of admiring such +bravery, refused to cease firing, when Zappi, crushed by numbers, was at +last obliged to capitulate. For two hours longer he took pleasure in +discharging grape shot at the little town which had ceased to reply +otherwise than by exhibiting a white flag and sending messengers of peace. +Nor did this vandalic soldier show any consideration for the wishes of the +people whom he professed to have come to protect. This contempt for the +popular will was sufficiently well shown the following month, in his +despatch to the Garibaldian Commander of Molise: "Publish that I cause to +be shot all peasants taken with arms in their hands. I have this day +commenced such executions." + +(M76) Lamoriciere was far from expecting to be attacked by the armies of +Piedmont. The most he could contemplate was an attack by the Garibaldians, +and the probability of some partial insurrections in the interior. He +distributed his troops accordingly in the towns and along the Neapolitan +frontier. The insolent message of General Fanti contributed to confirm him +in this idea. He had only 1,500 men with him when the message reached him. +He held himself in readiness, but without concentrating his force, which +appeared to him dangerous and premature. He learned, unexpectedly, that +the frontier on the side of Piedmont was violated at every point of attack +at the same time; that an army corps, commanded by General de Sonnaz, was +marching on Perugia; another, led by Brignone, on Spoleto; another, under +the Garibaldian Mazi, on Orvieto; finally, that Cialdini was advancing on +Sinigaglia, thence on Torrede Jesi, Castelfidardo and Loretto, and that +his object was Ancona, the only city except Rome which was capable of +making any resistance. Lamoriciere, unable to face so many enemies at +once, saw, with pain, that his scattered garrisons were lost. He was far, +however, from being discouraged. Recalling, hastily, all that were within +reach, and unfortunately they were not the most considerable, he changed +all the arrangements which he had made for another kind of contest; he +gave up all idea of opposing Brignone, De Sonnaz and Fanti, who, +nevertheless, were in a position to cut off his retreat towards Rome, and +rushed boldly to the point of greatest danger between these generals and +Cialdini, with the design of piercing the lines of the latter and reaching +Ancona before him. There he thought he would be able to hold out a week or +two, more than sufficient time for France and the other civilized nations +to come to his assistance. He, a French general, relied on France, so +completely were Frenchmen deceived. He also trusted, and with better +grounds, to Austria. This confidence emboldened him to reply defiantly to +the insolent message of General Fanti: "We are only a handful of men. But +a Frenchman counts not his enemies, and France will support us." + +Before the invasion took place, the Ambassador of France, the Duke of +Gramont, whose word was corroborated by the presence of a French army at +Rome and in the neighborhood, had, several times, reassured Cardinal +Antonelli, who was much disquieted, affirming that the concentration of +Piedmontese troops was intended to check the banditti, and protect the +Pontifical frontier, but would not attack it. Lamoriciere testifies to +this fact in the report of his operations. When there was no longer any +doubt as regarded the violation of Papal territory, the Ambassador, +Gramont, communicated to Cardinal Antonelli, and telegraphed, in clear and +distinct language, to the Vice-Consul of France, at Ancona, the following +despatch: "The Emperor has written from Marseilles to the King of +Sardinia, that if the Piedmontese troops advance on the Pontifical +territory he will be compelled to oppose them. Orders are already given +for the embarkation of troops at Toulon; and these re-inforcements will +forthwith arrive. The government of the Emperor will not tolerate the +criminal attack of the Sardinians. As Vice-Consul of France, you will +govern yourself accordingly." M. de Courcy, the Vice-Consul, to whom the +despatch was addressed, took it immediately to M. de Quatrebarbes, the +civil governor of Ancona. His great age would not admit of his carrying it +in person to Cialdini, but he lost no time in sending it by an employee of +the Consulate, making no doubt that a despatch which bore the signature of +France would prevent bloodshed. He was mistaken. Cialdini read the paper, +and coolly put it in his pocket, saying: "I know more about these matters +than you. I have just had an interview with the Emperor." When the clerk +asked for a receipt, he signed one, remarking that "it would make a good +addition to other diplomatic papers." He then continued to advance. The +general was no less explicit, a few days later, at Loretto, when +conversing with Count Bourbon Busset and other prisoners taken at +Castelfidardo. "You astonish me, gentlemen," said he; "how could you for a +moment entertain the idea that we would have occupied the Pontifical State +without the full consent of the government of your country!" As one of the +bystanders, in reply to Cialdini, alluded to the fact which was announced, +of the disembarkation of a new French division at Civita Vecchia, "And to +what purpose?" answered one of the higher officers of Cialdini's staff. +"France has no need to re-inforce her army of occupation. See these wires, +gentlemen (pointing to the telegraph), if they chose to speak they would +suffice to stop us at once." It would have been impossible to express more +plainly the omnipotence at that moment of the conqueror of Solferino, and +the fearful stigma which he was preparing for his memory. Not only did he +disorganize the defence, the responsibility, &c., of which he was +understood to have assumed, not only did he deceive the Court of Rome, and +inspire it with a false security, as if it had been his purpose more +surely to throw Lamoriciere into the snares of Cialdini; but, at the same +time, he paralyzed the good intention of the Powers that were sincerely +devoted to the Holy See. + +Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, had dreaded, a month before it +occurred, an invasion of the Pontifical State. His army divisions of the +Mincio were on a war footing. It was only necessary that they should pass +the river and march against Piedmont. An order to this effect was signed. +But before despatching the order, and taking on himself such great +responsibility, the youthful Emperor, who had been none the better for +giving way to his chivalrous impulses in 1859, resolved to call a meeting +of his ministers and chief generals. Addressing this grave assembly, he +stated distinctly the new situation in which Austria was placed by the +violation of recent treaties, and the obligation under which he lay of +opposing such proceedings by arms. His duty as a Catholic was concerned as +well as his honor and interest as a sovereign. It appeared, besides, that +God had blinded the revolution, and the invasion was so odious that +Piedmont would not find a single ally. "I have signed," he added, "an +order to pass to-morrow into Lombardy. Together with this, I have +addressed a manifesto to Europe, in which I declare that I will respect +and cause to be respected the treaty of Zurich. Lombardy does not now +belong to me. I have ceded it, and I do not recall my word; but I require +that the clauses which are burdensome to Austria shall not alone be +executed. I claim, at the same time, the incontestible rights of my +cousins of Florence, Parma and Modena, so unworthily robbed by one of +those who signed and guaranteed the treaty. Finally, I require that the +neutrality of the Pope and the integrity of his territory be respected; +for the Pope is my ally, as a sovereign, and as the Chief of the Church, +my Father. The fleet of Trieste will, at the same time, cruise before +Ancona." This noble address was followed by profound silence. The attitude +of several of the bystanders was expressive of doubt when the Emperor +affirmed that the brutality of the Piedmontese aggression would alone +suffice to prevent any one from making common cause with it. The Count de +Thun at length rose. He acknowledged the manifestly just grievances of +Austria, and admired the manly resolution of the Emperor. He then set +forth the dangers of every kind which this resolution would cause to +arise. The army had not yet repaired its losses; the wounds of Magenta and +Solferino were still bleeding. The French would, once more, pass the Alps, +and the revolution, far from being stifled, would be more threatening than +ever. + +"If my crown must be broken," interposed the Emperor, "I prefer losing it +at the gates of the Vatican, in defence of justice and religion, than +under the walls of Vienna or Presburgh by the hands of the +revolutionists." "Sire," replied Count de Thun, "whether at Presburgh or +the Vatican, you will always find us by your side, ready to conquer or +perish honorably with you. But allow me to repeat that there is not +question only of commencing a struggle against the two-fold revolution of +the King of Sardinia. If France once more comes to his support, who will +be our auxiliaries? What alliances have we, so necessary in case of +reverse? Our cruel experience of last year only shows too plainly that we +have none; and that Prussia has an understanding with France. And if the +war continues any time, if the revolution throws into the arms of Russia +Hungary, and our Sclav provinces, and gives to Prussia our German +countries, what will become of the great Catholic Empire of Germany? Will +not your majesty have hastened, without intending it, the satisfaction of +that cupidity which is everywhere aiming at our ruin, and the triumph +either of Protestantism or the Greek schism?" Francis Joseph replied by +describing the not less serious dangers which the triumph of the Italian +revolution would occasion to the tranquillity and integrity of the Empire. +He could not but foresee how precarious Austrian rule would become at +Venice, and how impossible it would be to preserve, for any length of +time, the last remains of the Pontifical State, once the King of Piedmont +was master of the rest of the peninsula. The struggle, by being delayed, +could not be avoided. We should only have to undertake it later against a +usurper consolidated by time, and with less manifest evidence of right on +our side. But the embarrassments of the moment engaged the thoughts of his +ministers more than those of the future. All the ministers dissenting from +his opinion, the Emperor made up his mind, after two hours' discussion, to +recall the order which he had signed. The Austrian fleet continued at +anchor in the harbor of Trieste, and the army of the Mincio remained +inactive, although, as may be supposed, indignant, in its quadrilateral, +until Italian unity became a reality, and coalesced with Prussia in order +to expel it. + +There must now be recorded another proof of the Emperor Napoleon's double +dealing. On 13th September, M. Thouvenel wrote to Baron de Talleyrand, the +Ambassador of France at Turin: "The Emperor has decided that you must +leave Turin immediately, in order to show his firm determination to +decline all partnership in acts which his counsels, that were given in the +interests of Italy, have not been able to prevent." Vain pretence! +inexorable history accepts not such apologies. + +With the exception of the Piedmontese, and perhaps also the Austrian +ministers, there were none in Europe having knowledge of this document, +and the despatch of M. de Gramont to the Consul of Ancona, who did not +believe that a rupture was imminent, if it had not already taken place, +between the Emperor Napoleon and King Victor Emmanuel. General Lamoriciere +was too upright and loyal-minded not to fall into the snare. He wrote +promptly to Mgr. de Merode, asking him to send provisions to Ancona, where +he purposed establishing his quarters, not having had time to prepare for +battle in the open country. He had no disquietude as regarded Umbria. He +left it to be defended by France. He hoped also that General de Goyon +would not confine himself to guarding the walls of Rome, and that he +would, at least, prevent invasion from the direction of Naples, and by way +of the valley of Orvieto. He was confident that France would finally +intervene. And it would be highly advantageous if, in the meantime, French +troops garrisoned Viterbo, Velletri and Orvieto. + +The declarations of Napoleon were like the despatches of Messrs. Thouvenel +and Gramont, nothing better than empty words--"diplomatic papers," as +Cialdini contemptuously called them. His only object was to lull public +opinion, and let the Piedmontese have the advantage of a _fait accompli_. +Of this there was no room to doubt, when, a little later, he took +officially under his protection the fruit of that criminal aggression +against which he had so loudly protested. Either from weakness or +treachery he was an accomplice, and played a preconcerted game. At first +he may have been sincere in threatening, in the hope of intimidating the +revolution. But when there was question of acting, and he knew that it +defied him, he recoiled. French historians remark, with pain, that this +was a sad alternative, as regards the memory of a man who had the honor to +govern France--the nation, more than all others, renowned for chivalry. It +was also a rebuke to that nation which was so weak as to submit, for +twenty years, to his rule. His friends are brought to the extremity of +demonstrating that he was a coward, if they wish to hinder mankind from +believing that he was a traitor. + +Meanwhile, Lamoriciere, by forced marches, on the 16th September, reached +Loretto, from which the enemy withdrew at his approach. His inconsiderable +force counted scarcely 3,000 combatants, viz.: 2,000 infantry, 800 +troopers, and 200 artillerymen. But he had given rendezvous at the spot to +the general, Marquis of Pimodan, who brought to him from Terai 2,000 +infantry, and arrived a little before night, on the 17th. Thus did it fall +to his lot, with 5,000 men at most, and some old artillery which had not +been sufficiently exercised, to face Cialdini, who had, at the moment, +45,000 men, and was provided with rifled cannon. An engagement on the 18th +was inevitable. The Piedmontese were echeloned along the hills which fill +the declivity from Castelfidardo towards the plain, and extend to within +500 metres of the small river Musone. Their artillery swept the +declivities in all directions. They occupied, in strength, two farms which +were situated, the one 600 metres behind the other, towards the principal +hill. By delaying longer, Lamoriciere would only have exposed himself to +be surrounded and compelled to lay down his arms. At four o'clock in the +morning, the soldiers of the Pope, with the two generals at their head, +prepared for death, by devoutly participating in the most holy sacrament +of the Eucharist. At eight, Pimodan rushed upon the two farms already +mentioned. His watchword was to carry them and hold them as long as +possible, as they commanded the pass of Musone, where the bulk of the +army, with the baggage, must defile, and there was no other way than this +pass by which the route of Ancona could be gained. The first farm, +although warmly defended, was carried, and a hundred prisoners were taken. +Six six-pounders were immediately brought up, in order to protect the +position against a fresh attack of the enemy. Captain Richter, who +commanded them, under the orders of Colonel Blumenstihl, was pierced in +the thigh by a ball; he would not, however, leave the field, but remained +in the midst of the fire. Two howitzers, commanded by Lieutenant Dandier, +with the aid of a hundred Irishmen, who had arrived the night before from +Spoleto, were placed in the open space in front of the farm, exposed to +the grape shot of the Piedmontese, to which they replied as if they had +been in force. Unfortunately, all parties did not do their duty so well. +Pimodan was obliged to dismiss, on the battle-field, the commander of the +First Battalion of _Chasseurs_. "The moment had come," says Lamoriciere in +his report, "to attack the second farm. General Pimodan formed a small +column, under the orders of Commandant Becdelievre, composed of the +Battalion of Belgian Fusiliers, of a detachment of Carabiniers, and of the +First Battalion of _Chasseurs_. This column boldly advanced, +notwithstanding a most active fusilade from the farm and the wood. There +were 500 metres to march over thus exposed. But when about a hundred and +fifty feet from the summit of the hill it was received by the fire of two +ranks of a strong line of battle, which put so great a number of the men +_hors de combat_ that it was obliged to fall back. The enemy pursued. But +when he had nearly reached our troops, the column faced round, waited for +him at fifteen paces distance, received him with a well-directed fire, and +rushed on him with the bayonet. Astonished at so much daring and coolness, +the enemy, although superior in number, fell back in his turn, and thus +allowed our soldiers to regain the position which they had left. The fire +of our artillery, which was well supplied and well directed, protected +these movements. The enemy had lost more men; but, relatively, our losses +were more felt than his. Pimodan had been wounded in the face; but, +nevertheless, he retained his command. I observed that his two battalions +and a half were not sufficiently strong to carry the second position; so I +sent for the two reserve battalions, and ordered the cavalry to pass the +river, and follow on our right flank the march of our columns. During this +time the enemy had endeavored to overwhelm us on both sides. Major +Becdelievre brought together what remained of his battalion, rushed upon +the fusileers and forced them back into the wood whence they had come." +These were splendid feats of arms. But the excessive inferiority of +Lamoriciere's artillery and numbers made victory impossible. The +revolution had its emissaries enrolled as soldiers in the Pontifical army. +One of these, by a traitorous blow from behind, slew the brave Pimodan in +the height of the battle. These traitors also caused a panic at the +decisive moment by spreading false alarms. The youthful soldiers of the +reserve, who had never seen fire, became demoralized, and fled in +confusion, without hearing the sound of a single ball. Others followed. +The artillery, now no longer supported, and, fearing to be taken, sought +safety in flight. But instead of gaining the road to Ancona, it fell back +on Loretto, where it could not fail to fall into the hands of the enemy. +Lamoriciere, always calm in such terrible discomfiture, made unheard-of +exertions, as did also his aids-de-camp, Messrs. de Maistre, de Lorgeril, +de Robiano, de France and Montmarin, in endeavoring to guide the +precipitate retreat. His orders either were not conveyed or were not +executed. Then, as was his custom in Africa, he hurried alone on horseback +to within a hundred feet of the lines, in order to ascertain the +situation, rejoined his staff, labored to stay the flight, and when all +was lost, he executed, with five-and-forty horse and a hundred infantry, a +movement which with the army was impossible. He took the route of Ancona, +which a Piedmontese squadron was preparing to bombard, and reached that +place by five o'clock in the evening. The brave Franco-Belgians sacrificed +themselves in order to save the rest of the army. They held out in the +farm which they had occupied as long as their ammunition lasted. The +neighboring fields and hedges were covered with dead and wounded +Piedmontese; but they themselves were all either killed or taken. Among +the slain and wounded were many of the best nobility of Europe--Paul de +Percevaux, Edme de Montagnac, Arthur de Chalus, Hyacinth de Lanascol, +Alfege du Baudier, Joseph Guerin, Georges de Haliand, Felix de Montravel, +Alfred de la Barre de Nanteuil, Thierry du Fougeray, Leopold de Lippe, +Gaston du Plessis de Grenedan, Raoul Dumanoir, Lanfranc de Beccary, +Alphonse Menard, Guelton, Rogatien Picon, Anseline de Puisage, George +Myonnet. Such are a few of those noble youths who fell victims to their +zeal and bravery when engaged with General Lamoriciere in his hopeless +attempt to stem the overwhelming tide of revolution which, at the time, +successfully defied all the Powers of Europe to move an arm in opposition +to it. + +Lamoriciere succeeded in reaching Ancona, but only to prolong, for a few +days more, a desperate contest. The available force in the place amounted +only to 4,200 effective men, a number quite insufficient to man all the +posts of such extensive fortifications. The general did not yet despair of +aid from the French at Rome, and he flattered himself with the idea that +if he only held out a few days, Austria and the other Catholic States +would be shamed into activity. They, however, knew too well the intentions +of France, and France had won the battle of Solferino. The brave +Lamoriciere was assailed in his last retreat, both by sea and land. The +bombardment lasted ten days, and was heard at Venice, the islands of +Dalmatia, and even at Trieste. But not a friendly sail appeared in support +of the besieged. The prolonged struggle did not even attract such vessels +of neutral Powers as are commonly sent for the protection of their consuls +and others of their respective nations, as well as to offer their good +services to women, children and other non-combatants. Such disgraceful +conduct was condemned alike by the Protestant and Catholic press of +Europe. The London _Times_ reproached M. de Cavour with not having +understood that "candid and honorable conduct is not incompatible with +patriotism." The same paper quoted, in this connection, the words of +Manin, which are a condemnation of the whole conduct of the Piedmontese +under Victor Emmanuel: "Means which the moral sense repels, even when they +are materially profitable, deal a mortal blow to a cause. No victory can +be put in comparison with the absence of self-respect." Ancona was yet +undergoing bombardment, when the three sovereigns of the North, who alone +could have undertaken efficaciously the defence of the violated law of +nations, met at Warsaw; and Napoleon III. presented to them a memorandum +by which he engaged to abandon Piedmont in the event of her attacking +Venice. But "he presupposed that the German Powers would also confine +themselves to an attitude of abstention, and would avoid furnishing a +pretext for an Italian attack of Austria." At length, the Piedmontese +fleet, under Admiral Persano, succeeded in demolishing the more important +portion of the fortifications of Ancona. A white flag was now displayed on +the citadel and all the lesser forts; and Major Mauri was sent on board +the admiral's ship to negotiate a capitulation. The firing ceased on both +sides. But now occurred a circumstance which stigmatizes to all time the +character of the Piedmontese generals, Fanti and Cialdini. M. de +Quatrebarbes relates, "that whilst the conditions of capitulation were +under discussion, the land army, furious at having been repelled, and at +having done nothing that could contribute towards the taking of the city, +recommenced firing along the whole line. The bombardment and cannonade +continued from nine o'clock in the evening of the 28th until nine in the +morning of the 29th, and that, although negotiators had been sent, and +bells had been rung, announcing the cessation of hostilities, in defiance +even of a very pressing letter of the admiral, who would not participate +in such an infamous proceeding. He also recalled on board his ships the +marine who served a land battery. All this time not a single cannon was +fired from the city. Thus the Piedmontese army bombarded incessantly for +twelve hours a defenceless town, in violation of the law of nations, and +all sentiments of honor and humanity. Admiral Persano himself reported at +Turin the refusal of the land army to cease firing. Such a fact must +excite the indignation of all right-thinking people." The revolution was +highly offended when compared to Islamism. Are the regular troops of Islam +accused of such barbarities? The Bashi-Bazouks could not have done worse. + +When the capitulation was signed at two o'clock in the afternoon of the +29th, the small Pontifical army had ceased to exist, and the Piedmontese, +now free to follow out their plans, could go to join the bands of +Garibaldi, under the walls of Gaeta, and, together with him, complete "the +extirpation of the Papal cancer," or, as one of their school, Pinelli, +said, "Crush the sacerdotal vampire." But although right had been trampled +down, it knew how to do battle and to die. "For the first time," observed +a Protestant journal, the new Gazette of Prussia, "a general of the party +of legality has dared to lead his troops against the enemy. For the first +time the revolution has been met in the field of battle. The effort has +not been successful. We know it. And as we repeatedly said beforehand, we +had no hope that it would. But the defeat of Lamoriciere raises the mind +by contrast. For a long time we had been accustomed to the triumphs of +cowardice, treachery and corruption, of all which the victories of +Garibaldi presented such a disgusting spectacle. We are assured that the +Pontifical troops did their duty unto death. This is enough. It is easily +understood how the adversaries of the revolution had become humble. For +years they could only record the victories of their enemies. But if, at +Castelfidardo, a few individuals were defeated, the principle of legality +was at last asserted. Now, if men contend in battle for a principle its +final triumph is assured." + +It was to be expected that Pius the Ninth would avenge the memory of the +brave men who had been branded by the name of _Mercenaries_, the greater +number of whom served without pay. No wonder if he did justice on the +pretended moral order which Piedmont said it had come to restore in the +States of the Church. Not only did he honor their noble efforts, he also +founded at his own cost, and for their benefit, the chaplaincy of +Castelfidardo in the sanctuary of the Scala Santa. He ordered the funeral +obsequies of General Pimodan to be celebrated with becoming magnificence, +and composed himself an inscription for his tomb in the French Church of +St. Louis. He wished to confer on Lamoriciere the title of Roman Count. +But the defeated hero declined the honor, saying that he desired always to +be called Leon de la Moriciere. Pius IX. then addressed him a few words, +which recall the piety of early times: "I send you what, at least, you +cannot refuse, the order of Christ, for whom you have combated, and who +will, I trust, be your reward as well as mine." + +In France the government showed its revolutionary leaning by forbidding a +subscription which was undertaken for the purpose of presenting a sword of +honor to Lamoriciere. It did even worse than this. It meanly persecuted +the vanquished soldiers of the Holy See, as well as those who had hastened +to fill their places. This was pure revenge. And now that the success of +Piedmont was no longer doubtful, it could serve no other purpose than to +establish the fact of the Emperor's complicity. Such of the soldiers of +the Pope as were natives of France were deprived of their rights of +citizenship. Thus were noble youths, the flower of France, on their return +from Castelfidardo and Ancona, deprived of the electoral franchise, and +stripped of their right to serve on juries and in the army. Some even were +interdicted from inheriting property on the pretext that, as strangers, +their signatures required to be legalized. These men were, nevertheless, +the actual defenders of a sovereign whom the government pretended to +defend officially. The revolutionary papers audaciously said that the same +law was not applicable to such French subjects as joined the bands of +Garibaldi, on the ground that these bands were neither a government nor a +military corporation. This odd interpretation completely met the views of +ministerial jurisprudence; and so was presented the extraordinary +spectacle of a country outlawing such of her children as served the same +cause as her army, and in nowise molesting those who supported the +opposite side. All political allusions in the pulpit were now repressed +with increased severity. The bishops, however, could not be intimidated. +Besides, as they could not be displaced, they were not so easily reached. +Mgr. Pie, the eminent Bishop of Poitiers, ascended the pulpit the Sunday +after the battle. "My brethren," said he, "you all expected of me that I +would speak to-day in my cathedral. It is according to the customs of the +church to know how to honor her defenders, and to mourn for them when +dead. And because, having taken upon myself a responsibility which I +decline not, and having encouraged and blessed the departure of several of +those youthful volunteers, I would be ashamed of myself if now, restrained +by the fears arising from a pusillanimous prudence, I did not offer them +the homage of my admiration together with that of my prayers. Your +sympathies are already with my words. If they gave offence to any hearers, +I would, indeed, be afflicted. But, by the grace of God, the country which +we inhabit is called France, which warrants, or rather commands, that I +should be candid." In the absence of that fame which victory confers, the +vanquished were consoled by that immortality which eloquence bestows on +those whom it celebrates. So long as the great art of oratory shall be +appreciated in the countries of Fenelon and Bossuet, the funeral orations +on Lamoriciere, by Bishops Pie and Dupanloup, together with the fine pages +on the heroes of Castelfidardo, by Bishop Gerbet of Perpignan, Mgr. +Plantier of Nismes, and other writers, will not cease to be read. + +"They died in order to defend us," said, as if prophetically, Archbishop +Manning, who succeeded Cardinal Wiseman in the new See of Westminster, +already so illustrious; "the cause for which they fell is our cause. They +are blind, indeed, who cannot see that what has been begun by the head +will soon be undertaken against all the members; that the attacks will +extend rapidly from the centre to the extremities; that revolutionary +tyranny and the despotism of civil power will strive to establish +everywhere, in detail, the domination which they are endeavoring to +exercise over the will and the person of the Holy Father. We are at the +commencement of a new era of penal laws against the liberty of the church. +It is for us, therefore, that they have given their life. They died whilst +the profane world loaded them with its curses, as died the martyrs in the +Flavian amphitheatre, whilst the cry resounded, 'The Christians to the +lions!' (_Christianas ad leones_), and in presence of thousands of +spectators of the Imperial and Patrician families of Rome, and for the +gratification of the multitude which thirsted for blood, and such blood as +was most noble and innocent. Thus died He who is greater than the martyrs, +assailed by the insults of the Pharisees and the jeers of the ignorant +masses. It is, therefore, glorious to die for a cause which the world will +not and cannot understand. If they had died to defend commercial +establishments against the indigenous inhabitants of some distant country, +or to repel the attacks of a neighbor, or to maintain the integrity of the +Ottoman Empire, the world would have understood and honored them, as it +did in regard to the combatants of Alma and Inkerman. But, to fall in +battle for the independence of the Sovereign Pontificate, to sacrifice +themselves for the liberty of Christian consciences, and that of the +generations to come--this the world understands not, and for this we +proclaim them great and glorious among departed heroes." + +Four months later, Mgr. Pie was obliged to refute a new pamphlet, +entitled, "_France, Rome and Italy_," and so endeavor to prevent new +iniquities. He feared not to formulate the following terrible rebuke, +which was denounced as seditious, but which history has already confirmed +as a sentence: + +"Pilate had it in his power to save Christ, and without Pilate He could +not be put to death. The death-warrant could only come from him; _nobis +non licet interficere_, said the Jews. Wash thy hands, O Pilate! declare +thyself guiltless of the death of Christ. Our only answer every day will +be, and the latest posterity will repeat the same: I believe in Jesus +Christ, the only Son of the Father, who was conceived of the Holy Ghost, +who was born of the Virgin Mary, who suffered death and passion under +Pontius Pilate; _Quipassus est sub Pontio Pilato_." + +It was no secret when these words were spoken, as it was to Lamoriciere +and his brave army, that the government of the French Emperor encouraged +and patronized the iniquitous aggressions of Piedmont, whilst it +pretended, in the face of Europe, to support the Holy See. + +(M77) "It was not Garibaldi and his volunteers," said the Revue des deux +Mondes, "that General Lamoriciere had to fight; the odds in that case +would not have been so unequal. But he had the regular army of Piedmont +before him--an army six times more numerous than his own. Nor was it the +attack merely of a revolutionary party which was now directed against the +temporal power of the Papacy. It was a government incomparably more +powerful than the Pope's, which decreed arbitrarily itself alone, and in +the face of the other nations of the world, the suppression of this power, +and which accomplished that suppression by the irresistible force of its +arms, and under the eyes of our garrison in Rome." Whilst Austria, not +from any want of sympathy with the Holy See, but from the dread her +cautious ministry, who had penetrated the designs of France, entertained +of a new French invasion, looked tamely on from the heights of her +quadrilateral, the French Emperor secretly expressed his approval of the +Piedmontese attack on the Papal States, and at the same time publicly +withdrew his ambassador at Turin, as a protest in the face of mankind +against this unprovoked and unjustifiable attack. England, which could not +be supposed to have much sympathy with the Holy See, notwithstanding the +declarations of her best statesmen in support of the temporal sovereignty, +openly pronounced in favor of the Piedmontese aggression on the Pope, who, +in trying times, had been her most faithful ally. But the days of the +elder Bonaparte were forgotten, and too much could not be done to +conciliate the new ally whom the English had found in the second +Bonaparte. So their representative, Sir John Hudson, remained at Turin, +and was the confidential adviser there of Count de Cavour, while Sir Henry +Elliot continued to reside at Naples after that city had become the +headquarters of Garibaldi. The great Northern Powers, Russia and Prussia, +acted a more honorable part. Even before the fall of Ancona was known, +they both withdrew their ambassadors from Turin. Von Schleinitz, the +Prussian Prime Minister, protested energetically against the unwarrantable +aggression of Piedmont. M. de Cavour, who understood the tendencies of the +time, replied to Von Schleinitz, as if uttering a prophecy: "I regret that +the Court of Berlin should judge so severely the conduct of the king and +his government. I am conscious of acting in the interests of my sovereign +and my country. I might reply successfully to what M. Von Schleinitz says. +But, be that as it may, I console myself with the thought that, on the +present occasion, I am setting an example which Prussia, within a short +time probably, will be happy to follow." + +The cannonade had scarcely ceased to be heard at Ancona, when the Holy +Father raised his voice in a consistorial allocution of 28th September, +which, although addressed to the cardinals, is intended for the whole +civilized world. The allocution briefly enumerates the several acts of +aggression successively committed by the Piedmontese. It then alludes to +Cavour's audacious letter, which was intended as a justification +beforehand of the violation of territory, and the fearful bloodshed which +followed. It expresses the false accusations, the repeated calumnies and +insults which were put forward as a pretext for the invasion. It also +rebukes "the singular malignity with which the Piedmontese government +dared to call the Pontifical soldiers _mercenaries_, when so many of them, +both Italians and foreigners, were of noble lineage, bearing illustrious +names, and had resolved to serve in our troops without pay, and for the +sole love of our holy religion." The fact is established, to the disgrace +of Piedmont, that the Papal government "could have had no intimation of +the enemy's purpose. The general-in-chief commanding our forces could not +have entertained the thought of having to contend with the soldiers of +Piedmont." The meed of praise is awarded to the fallen warriors, together +with the expression of unfeigned sorrow for their loss: "Whilst we must +bestow merited praise on the general, his officers and his men, we can +scarcely restrain our tears as we remember all those brave soldiers, those +noble young men especially, who had been impelled by faith and their own +generous hearts to fly to the defence of the temporal power of the Roman +Church, and who have met with their death in this cruel and unjust +invasion. We are deeply moved by the grief of their families; and would to +God it were in our power, by any word of ours, to dry up the source of +their tears!" If anything could be worse than the savage and murderous +attack of Piedmont, it was the hypocritical pretence under which it was +undertaken. The invaders came as "the restorers of moral order and as the +preachers of tolerance and charity." The allocution concludes by +denouncing this hypocrisy, together with the diplomatic principle of +non-intervention, of which France and Piedmont set such brilliant +examples. + +(M78) The King of Sardinia having violently seized Umbria and the Marches +of Ancona, must also have a mock plebiscitum, in order, no doubt, to make +it appear that these provinces were spontaneously annexed to his kingdom. +The fall of Gaeta and the conquest of Naples by Garibaldi encouraged the +ambitious monarch in these unjustifiable annexations, and although +generally condemned by the European press, he most audaciously issued a +proclamation in reply to the Papal allocution. All these nefarious acts, +together with the outrages everywhere perpetrated against all who remained +loyal to the Holy See and faithful to the sacred laws of the church, +induced the Holy Father to publish the now celebrated allocution of March +18th, 1861. This allocution is perhaps the greatest doctrinal utterance of +the Pontificate of Pius IX. But it must be considered in connection with +the _syllabus_, which will now shortly be noticed. + +The Emperor Napoleon had, indeed, suspended public diplomatic relations +with the court of Turin. This was intended merely as a blind, for he +continued to negotiate secretly, through Prince Jerome Napoleon, +concerning Rome, and what yet remained to the Pope of his states. He +appeared to bind Piedmont to respect the sovereignty and independence of +the Holy See, and had no objections that the Pope should raise an army +designed only for defensive purposes. On such conditions the Emperor would +acknowledge the new kingdom of Italy. In all this there was a want of +sincerity. Count Cavour, Prince Napoleon and the Emperor, were perfectly +agreed that the Holy Father was, in due course of time, to be given up to +his enemies. + +(M79) In order to prepare the world for this consummation of +Franco-Sardinian policy, there appeared a new pamphlet, entitled _La +France, Rome et l'Italie_. It was signed by M. de la Gueronniere, and +published on the 7th day of March. It was suggested, if not actually +written, by the Emperor himself. The allocution already alluded to, dealt +by anticipation with the chief points of this publication. It was, +however, directly replied to in a letter of the eminent Cardinal +Antonelli, to the Papal Minister at Paris. The cardinal begins by stating +that the chief object of the pamphlet was "to throw on the Holy Father and +his government the responsibility of the condition to which Italy and the +Pontifical States in particular were reduced." He then proceeds lucidly, +logically, and not without eloquence, to attack all the positions assumed +by the writer, and exposes the treachery, baseness and duplicity of the +principal adversaries of the Holy See in its long struggle with +revolutionary Piedmont, supported as it was by the Emperor Napoleon III. +It will be recollected that it had been proposed, indeed it was one of the +articles of the treaty of Zurich, that there should be a confederation of +the States of Italy. The writer of the pamphlet audaciously accused the +Pope of having rejected the plan of an Italian confederacy, just as if he +and not the Emperor and his ally, the King of Piedmont, had violated the +treaty which succeeded the battle of Solferino. "The official proposition +of such a confederacy," the cardinal states, "and of its presidency came +only after the preliminaries of Villafranca and the treaty of Zurich; and +the Holy Father showed himself disposed to accept it as soon as its basis +should be defined. The author, nevertheless, says that it was then too +late. He does not, in saying so, seem to perceive that he seriously +insults his own sovereign, as if he and the other Powers had proposed as +the basis of a solemn treaty and the great means of conciliation, a thing +which was at that moment neither possible nor opportune. Be that as it +may, it was only then that the proposition was made by the person +authorized to make it; and it is unjust to pretend that his Holiness had +taken any action thereon before it was laid before him. Since, therefore, +the plan fell through independently of his refusal, how can he, without a +positive act of calumny, be accused of obstinacy on this point?" + +The cardinal's letter is of great length. In one place he recapitulates +the heads of accusation contained in the pamphlet. "Putting aside," says +he, "the unfounded assertions, the matters foreign to the case, which +helped to fill up the pamphlet, the obstinacy which it imputes to the Holy +Father amounts to his having declined an abdication which his conscience +condemned, to his having deferred some reforms that were promised till the +revolted provinces had returned to their allegiance; to his having +proposed to recruit an army for himself instead of accepting the troops +offered to him; to his having preferred the voluntary offerings of the +faithful to subsidies furnished by governments which are not all nor +always equally disposed to be friendly. And these acts of firmness, of +noble disinterestedness, which must appear most praiseworthy to the +unprejudiced mind, which have appeared and do still appear worthy of the +admiration of Protestants, seem, on the other hand, to the Catholic author +of the pamphlet, to be so blameworthy that he could not find more bitter +words of censure were he to write against those who are alone responsible +for the sad disorders of the present time. But this is precisely what is +of a nature to surprise us. The Imperial government of France had given +advice to his Holiness; it had also given advice to the Piedmontese +government. Now, if the Holy Father must be accused of not having followed +such advice, the Piedmontese government does not seem to have been more +docile. His Holiness did not deem it expedient to do some things desired +by the French government. But Piedmont did a great many things which the +French government had publicly declared it was opposed to. The Imperial +government forbade the violation of the neutrality of the Papal States; +and to this the Piedmontese government responded by occupying the Romagna. +The Imperial government disapproved annexation; and the Piedmontese +government only answered by accomplishing annexation. The Imperial +government forbade, in threatening language, the invasion of the Marches +and Umbria; and the Piedmontese government responded by pouring grape shot +into the small Pontifical army, by bombarding Ancona from sea and land, +and by refusing to observe any of the laws of war acknowledged by all +civilized nations. The author of the pamphlet allows his pen the most +cruel license against the Holy See, but has not one single word of blame +for the Piedmontese government. Who can explain such an attitude? The +explanation is a very natural one, and is given on the last page of the +pamphlet, where the author tells us that the Emperor of the French _cannot +sacrifice Italy to the Court of Rome, nor give up the Papacy to the +revolution_; which means that the Court of Rome must be sacrificed to the +exigencies of the peninsula, that the temporal dominion of the Holy See +must be done away with, because it is in the way of the unification of +Italy, and that this suppression is to prevent the Papacy or the spiritual +power from falling beneath the blows of the revolution." It cannot fail to +be remarked that in all the French Emperor's manifestos appears the +pretext of protecting the Papacy from the revolution, whilst, but for his +interference, it needed not such protection. Pius IX. was quite able to +contend successfully against whatever revolutionary element there was in +the Pontifical States. With the aid of his allies, he could also have +repelled the attacks of Piedmont, if unsupported by the French. But +against a Power so great that it could command the non-intervention of all +other Powers, he was powerless. It may have afforded a momentary pleasure +to the Carbonaro Prince, Napoleon III., to annihilate, for the sake of his +way of promoting Italian unification, the time-honored sovereignty of the +Pope. It afforded him no lasting benefit. Germany caught the idea, and +becoming unified, hurled her legions against the common European enemy, +who, in his day of sorest need, found not an ally, not so much as one +powerful friend even in that Italy for which he had done and sacrificed so +much. + +(M80) It now only remained for young Italy, revolutionized as it was, to +assume and wear its blushing honors. Piedmont having seized Umbria and the +Marches of Ancona, and having also, through her agent Garibaldi, taken +possession of Sicily and Naples, was mistress not only of the greater +portion of the Pontifical States, but also of almost all Italy at the same +time. It became such greatness to have a parliament. Accordingly, the +first Italian parliament assembled at Turin in February, 1861; and on the +14th of March, Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed King of Italy. It was not, +however, till the 24th of June that the French Emperor found it convenient +to recognize this extended sovereignty. In doing so, no doubt, he was +consistent with himself, although quite at variance with the professions +of him who had so lately withdrawn his ambassador from the Court of Turin. + +(M81) Count de Cavour lived not to enjoy this recognition. He died on the +6th of June. This minister was a politician to the end; and he had no wish +ever to be anything else. He was anxious, however, at the close, to have +the merit of reconciliation with the church which he had so cruelly +persecuted, both in the ancient State of Sardinia and in the newly-annexed +territories of the "Kingdom of Italy." Finding that his latter end was +approaching, he desired the presence of Friar Giacomo, Rector of the +Madonna degli Angeli. This Friar, with whom, as is related, the Count had +had a previous understanding, faithfully came. M. de Cavour remained alone +with him for half an hour; and when the priest was gone he called Farini, +and said to him: "My niece has had Fra Giacomo to come to me; I must +prepare for the dread passage to eternity; I have made my confession and +received absolution. I wish all to know, and the good people of Turin +particularly, that I die like a good Christian. I am at peace with myself. +I have never wronged any one." It is a trite saying that the ruling +passion of a man's life asserts its power at the hour of death; and the +last recorded words of Count de Cavour would seem to show that to the end +he was more bent on politics than prayer. As Friar Giacomo was reciting +solemnly by his bedside the prayers for the departing soul, "Frate! +Frate!" he exclaimed, whilst he pressed the Friar's hand, "_libera chiesa +in libera stato_!" (a free church in a free state). Admirable, no doubt. +But how was the great idea to be realized, since the church could only be +free when her ministers were dictated to, imprisoned, banished, and +otherwise tormented? And what freedom for the state, unless it were free +to tyrannize over and persecute the church? Judging Cavour and his party +by their acts rather than their fine speeches, such was their idea of _a +free church in a free state_. If it be true that, as men live so they die, +it is not true that Count de Cavour died like a good Christian. None will +be inclined to dispute with him the comfort which he claimed of being at +peace with himself. But they who are aware of the violence, the +spoliation, the rapine, bloodshed, and unspeakable suffering, in all which +he was, at least, an accomplice, if not the direct cause, throughout the +States of the Italian Grand Dukes, the Pontifical territories and the +kingdom of Naples, will not easily acknowledge that he spoke truth when he +said that "he had never wronged anyone." But let us now be silent. There +is _One_, and only _One_, who judgeth. + +(M82) Considering the assistance so recently afforded to Turkey by the +Christian Powers, her Christian subjects were surely entitled to her +protection, But gratitude, it would appear, is not one of the virtues of +Islamism. In June, 1860, the Pachas disarmed and delivered up to their +deadly enemies the Christian Maronites of Lebanon and Damascus. Over a +hundred villages inhabited by these people were completely destroyed. +Neither the aged nor the young that fell into the hands of the enemy were +spared; and, worse than all, seven thousand young women were carried +captive into the desert. In these melancholy circumstances, Napoleon III. +acted honorably and independently. He sent an armed expedition to chastise +the guilty, and that in defiance of all opposition on the part of his +allies, the English, who, from national jealousy, resisted a French +protectorate in the East, and so assumed the disgraceful _role_ of +patronizing hordes of assassins. Incomprehensible conduct! since, a few +years later, the same people were so moved by Turkish atrocities in +Bulgaria that no British government could have dared to raise an arm in +defence of the crumbling Empire of the Sultan. Pius IX. was deeply moved +by the sufferings of his fellow-Christians. In a letter of 29th July, to +the Patriarch of Antioch and the Bishops of his Patriarchate, he expressed +his sorrow and indignation at the fearful crimes that were committed. "It +is particularly afflicting," said he, as he condemned certain speeches +that were delivered in the British Parliament in favor of the guilty +parties, "that more sympathy is accorded, and even more assistance +extended, in our age to the fomenters of troubles and revolutions than to +their victims." He commended France, that had remembered in the +circumstances her Catholic traditions, and intimated that he would +encourage with all his power the liberal offerings of the Christians of +the West in support of their brethren of Syria. He himself, although he +was deprived of his accustomed revenue, together with the greater portion +of his states, contrived to bestow considerable assistance. + +(M83) A little later in the same year, the Holy Father met with +unlooked-for consolation in the conversion of the Bulgarian nation. On the +20th December, bishops, priests, and a great many lay persons of that +country, abjured the Photian schism, and addressed to Rome a solemn act of +union in the name of the majority of their fellow-countrymen. Pius IX. +replied on the 29th of January, 1861. He was pleased himself to consecrate +in the Sistine chapel their new archbishop, Sokolski. The latter, as he +renewed the profession of faith, which had been already formulated in +writing at Constantinople, said to the Holy Father: "It is your work that, +although dead, we are come to life, and that, being lost, we are found +again." Pius IX. referred all the glory to God. "Such works," he said, +"are wholly divine. To Thee praise, benediction, everlasting thanks! O, +Jesus Christ! source of mercy and of all consolation!" The Bulgarians were +unfortunately situated. Jealousies of race prevailed among them, and did +much to shake religious principle. Add to this that the schismatical +Patriarch of Constantinople agreed to grant ecclesiastical autonomy, as it +might be called, to Bulgaria. This was a deadly blow to the noble impulse +which led them towards the centre of Christian unity. At first they were +three millions of Catholics. The number speedily diminished to some tens +of thousands. Archbishop Sokolski suddenly disappeared. It is not known +whether he abandoned his post or was carried away by force. The latter +supposition is, as yet, the more probable. He is thought to have been +recognized, several times, in a Russian monastery, whither he is supposed +to have been taken by surprise, and obliged to remain against his will. +Pius IX., understanding how necessary it was that the new flock should +have a resident pastor, appointed a provisional successor to Sokolski, +with the title of Administrator of the United Bulgarians, and labored +assiduously to found for him churches and schools. Three schismatical +Greek bishops, who had sought protection at Rome from the violent +proceedings of their patriarch, did not persevere any more than the +majority of the Bulgarians. A fourth, however, Melethios, Archbishop of +Drama, happily remained steadfast, together with the Protestant bishop of +Malta, another Protestant bishop, who was an American of the United +States, and several prelates of the Greek schism, Armenians, Chaldeans or +Copts. All these, about this time, placed themselves under the crook of +the Supreme Pastor. + +(M84) Shortly before the death of Count de Cavour, the Emperor Napoleon +was pleased to define the new limits of the papal domain. In doing so, he +left the recently alienated provinces to Piedmont, and and confined the +Pontiff to a comparatively small territory around the city of Rome. He +could not have sanctioned more decidedly or more publicly the +unjustifiable spoliation of the Sardinian king. Such a proceeding cannot +but appear inconsistent to such as are aware only of his apparent quarrel +with this monarch, and the withdrawal of his ambassador from Turin. To +those, on the contrary, who have knowledge of, and consider his secret +conference with, the Piedmontese Envoys at Chambery, and the violent +attack on the Papal States, which, notwithstanding the public and official +protest of the French government through their consul at Ancona, +immediately followed, it will appear that Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, +Emperor of the French, was only acting up to his policy and character. +Soon after this new distribution of territory, the "Kingdom of Italy" was +officially recognized by the government of the French Emperor; and this +recognition paved the way for that of the other Powers, by most of whom, +after some time, it was reluctantly given. + +(M85) Cavour was dead. But Sardinian ambition died not with him. Baron +Ricasoli, who succeeded him as Prime Minister, encouraged by the support +of France, which was no longer disguised, actually wrote, in the name of +his king, both to the Pope and Cardinal Antonelli, urging them to give up +the sovereignty of Rome. This was done, not, of course, from any ambitious +motive, but with a view to carrying out their great designs, such as the +regeneration of society, and, above all, their conception of a "free +church in a free state." The minister concludes magniloquently: "It is in +your power, Holy Father, to renew, once more, the face of the earth. You +can raise the Apostolic See to a height unknown for ages. If you wish to +be greater than earthly sovereigns, cast away from you the wretched +kingship which brings you down to their level. Italy will bestow upon you +a firm seat, entire liberty, and new greatness. She reveres in you the +Pontiff; but she will not stop in her progress for the Prince. She intends +to remain Catholic; but she purposes to be a free and independent nation. +If you will only hearken to the prayers of that daughter whom you love so +dearly, you will gain over souls more power than you can lose as a prince, +and from the Vatican, as you lift your hand to bless Rome and the world, +you will behold the nations, restored to their rights, bow down before +you, their defender and protector." The new minister, less wary than his +predecessor, immediately set about realizing his grand idea. With what +success will soon be seen. + +(M86) The Piedmontese conquests had not been made without cost. Enormous +sums had been spent in corrupting the Neapolitan people. Large amounts +were still scattered throughout the annexed provinces, in order to +maintain their loyalty to the new power; and the press was liberally +subsidized, both in Italy and abroad. For such heavy expenditure money +must be had. _Rem! quomodocunque modo rem!_ An expedient which occurs so +readily to revolutions was had recourse to. The properties of the convents +and the treasures of the churches were seized. Members of religious +communities were expelled from their monasteries and reduced to mendicity. +The laws of the church were trampled under foot, together with the rights +of citizens. The Jesuits were banished and cruelly maltreated like so many +felons. Religious corporations were suppressed, the faithful clergy were +thrown into prison, and many dioceses and parishes deprived of their +pastors. Pius IX. deplored these calamities in his Allocution of 30th +November, 1861. In that of 18th March of the same year, he had replied to +those who conjured him to be reconciled with modern civilization: "The +Holy See," the Pontiff insisted, "is always consistent. It has never +ceased to promote and sustain civilization. History bears witness to this +fact. It shows most eloquently that, in every age, the Popes carried +civilization into barbarous nations, and even to the remotest lands. But +is that true civilization which enslaves the church, makes no account of +treaties, and recognizes not the rights of weaker parties? It is quite +certain that the church can never come to an understanding with such +civilization. What is there in common, says the apostle, between Christ +and Belial? As to making friendship with the usurpers of our provinces, +before they have shown repentance, let no such thing be hoped for. To make +such a proposition to us, is to ask this see, which has always been the +rampart of justice and truth, to sanction the principle that a stolen +object can be possessed in peace by the thief, and that injustice which +succeeds is justified by success. We loudly declare, therefore, before God +and men, that there is no reason why we should be reconciled with any one. +Our only duty, in this connection, is to forgive our enemies, and to pray +for them, in order that they may be converted. This we do in all +sincerity. But when we are asked to do what is unjust, we cannot give our +consent: _Praestare non possumus_." + +A little later, January, 1862, Cardinal Antonelli replied in the name of +Pius IX. to the Marquis de Lavallette, the French Ambassador at Rome, +showing that it was by no means true to say that the Pope was at variance +with Italy. "An Italian himself, and the chief Italian, he suffers when +Italy suffers, and he beholds with pain the severe trials to which the +Italian church is subjected. As to arranging with those who have robbed +us, we never will do any such thing. All transaction on this ground is +impossible. By whatever reservations it might be accompanied, with +whatever ingenuity of language it might be disguised, we could not accept, +without appearing to consecrate the wrong. The Sovereign Pontiff, before +his exaltation, as well as the cardinals before their nomination, bind +themselves by oath to cede no portion of the territory of the church. The +Holy Father, therefore, will not make any concession of this kind. Neither +a Conclave, nor a new Pontiff, nor his successors in any age, would be +entitled to make such concession." + +The revolutionists, however, could help themselves. It would not be +difficult to imagine the people of Italy, a few generations hence, if, +indeed, the kingdom of Italy be destined to last so long, looking back to +their founders with that same kind of pride which animated the great +Romans when they thought of Romulus and Remus, and the band of brigands +who helped them to found the city. + +(M87) About this time the French parliamentary chambers began to enjoy, to +a certain extent, liberty of speech. They could now discuss an address to +the sovereign, and give full publicity to their debates. Inquiry could now +be made to some purpose, whether the Italian policy of Napoleon III. was +sanctioned by France, whether that aberration were national which impelled +to the violation of all right and law, in order to unify Italy, and pave +the way, at the same time, for the unification of Germany. The +revolutionary left of the French parliament, as a matter of course, +favored the Emperor's revolutionary foreign policy. But the liberty of +debate showed that there was a powerful minority opposed to them, and this +minority enjoyed the sanction of the greatest statesmen of the age. In the +Senate, notwithstanding the absence of every member of the Legitimist +party, as well as that of Messrs. de Montalembert and de Fallou, whom a +coalition of the despotism of the day with radicalism had caused to lose +their seats, a tolerable number of the most devoted partisans of the +empire showed a boldness of language, together with well-defined +statesmanlike views, to which the Imperial _regime_ was not accustomed. +Several of the ablest orators concurred in presenting an amendment to the +address to the throne in favor of the Pope's temporal sovereignty. It was, +of course, opposed by the government, but was supported, nevertheless, by +sixty votes to seventy-nine. In the legislative assembly, notwithstanding +all the ability displayed by the representatives of the government, the +Emperor's Italian policy could obtain the support of only 161 votes, +whilst it was condemned by the powerful minority of ninety-one. The +radical leaders of the majority now thought the time opportune for +demanding the recall of the French troops from Rome. The government went +dead against it, and invited the deputies to join with it in condemning +the inordinate and persistent ambition of the revolution. This the +assembly did by a solid vote of the whole house to five. Of this precious +quintet, Jules Favre and Emile Olivier, the leaders of the government, +were two. + +Such national demonstrations in favor of the sovereignty which he had done +his best to crush were very irritating to the Emperor Napoleon; and +although he endeavored to appear wholly absorbed by his life of Caesar, he +could not avoid showing by his acts how profoundly he was disturbed by +being thwarted. Everywhere throughout France the Catholics were made to +suffer. The clergy were persecuted as far as the laws of the country would +allow, and the Imperial anger went so far as to wreak its vengeance on the +poor by suppressing that benevolent and non-political institution, the +Association of St. Vincent de Paul. Needless to say that, at the same +time, the Catholic press was held in fetters. There was no relaxation in +its favor till the year 1867, when the law extending the liberty of the +press became available to Catholic as well as all other writers. The +Emperor even sacrificed the best supporters of the Imperial system on +account of their dislike to his anti-Roman policy. Not only from such men +did warnings come, but also from eminent statesmen of former _regimes_, +such as Messrs. Sauzet, de Broglie, Vitet, and even M. Guizot, who was a +Protestant, together with Messrs. Thiers, Cousin and Dufaure, who were +only nominal Catholics. "Madame," said M. Thiers, one day, to the Empress, +with more truth than _politesse_, "history lays down the law that +_quiconque mange du Pape en creve_."(6) + +So many and such decided manifestations of public opinion were not without +their effects. No less a personage than Garibaldi, relying, as he thought +he could do, on Piedmontese support, now undertook to realize to the full +the revolutionary programme--the Kingdom of Italy, with Rome for its +capital. The King of Piedmont, whilst he publicly disowned the filibuster, +as he had affected to disown him in Sicily, held an army in reserve for +his support. He expected himself to be officially condemned, whilst in +reality, as usual, privately sustained. + +(M88) In the meantime, however, the policy of his Imperial patron was +considerably modified; and orders were despatched to his Sardinian +Majesty, which he could neither take as a blind nor dare to disregard. So +the Piedmontese army, which was intended to aid the filibusters in the +sack of Rome, was obliged to fight them. It came up with the bands of +Garibaldi, at a place called Aspromonte, on the 29th of August, 1862. The +irregular force was defeated, its leader wounded in the heel and taken +prisoner. Garibaldi being so renowned a warrior--Achilles was nothing to +him--was immediately released. Napoleon had spoken sincerely at last. If he +had always done so there would have been less disorder, less violation of +all right and less bloodshed, in bringing together the provinces and +states of Italy. If it had been his policy to concur with the Pope and the +party of true reform, instead of patronizing a filibustering prince, he +might have lived to see a less objectionable and more lasting unification +of Italy than that which he so powerfully aided in achieving. + +The intriguing Cabinet of Turin took great credit to itself for having so +vigorously acted, although against its will, in preventing Garibaldi from +seizing Rome. As a reward for this signal service, it boldly proposed to +go there itself. But the time had not yet come. The fall of Rome was +destined to occur simultaneously with another event, in which the Emperor +Napoleon was directly and personally interested. To do him justice, he was +from this time anxious that matters should be settled advantageously to +the Holy See, but without prejudice to the revolution. The idea was +chimerical. But that is no reason for supposing that it was not sincerely +entertained. + +(M89) The venerable Pontiff derived some comfort from the resolve of the +French nation, in which all parties, as has been seen, concurred, and the +determination of its Imperial head to check the career of revolution, and +leave Rome to its legitimate sovereign. But meanwhile more abundant +consolations in the spiritual order were showered upon him. In the course +of the great struggle in which there was now, at length, a pause, he was +practically abandoned, even by the most friendly nations. It now fell to +his lot to fulfil a high duty incident to the Pontifical office, and the +nations, through their numerous representatives, flocked around him. No +earthly prince was ever so sustained by the sympathies of mankind. The +time had now arrived, all research and investigation having come to a +close, when those heroes of the Christian faith who, in the year 1597, had +suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Japanese, should be solemnly +canonized. They were twenty-six in number. One of these was an American, +and suffered at Nagasaki in the year just mentioned. Another process of +canonization had also been concluded--that of the blessed Michael de +Sanctis, a Trinitarian, and member of the order for the Redemption of +Captives. Pius IX. had invited the bishops to attend the important +ceremony. The Sardinian government, which took credit to itself for having +established a "free church in a free state," forbade the Italian bishops +to visit Rome on this occasion. No fewer than ninety bishops protested +against this mockery of liberty, and declared that nothing but the strong +hand of power could have prevented them from repairing to the holy city. + +Notwithstanding the forced absence of so many bishops, there were at Rome +three hundred and twenty-three cardinals, patriarchs, archbishops and +bishops, more than four thousand priests, and one hundred thousand +strangers of various nations and classes. Humble curates of the Alpine +regions, who were too poor to undertake the journey, subscribed in order +to send a few of their number in the name of the rest. Numerous ships +which were, for the time, as floating convents, sailed from the ports of +France, Spain and Italy, invoking Mary the Star of the Sea--_Ave Maris +Stella_--whilst masses of people responded from the shore; the hearts of +all were with them. There was high festival at Rome from Ascension Day to +Whitsuntide. All thoughts of politics were dismissed; the grand religious +celebration absorbing all attention. As often as Pius IX. appeared in +public, he was honored with an ovation. On one occasion, in particular, +there was a great demonstration by the clergy and the artillerymen of the +French army, on the day before Pentecost Sunday. The Bishop of Tulle, Mgr. +Berteaud, Mgr. Dupanloup of Orleans, and other bishops, addressed immense +crowds, and produced religious emotion in which unbelievers could not help +participating. It is not recorded that Pius IX. had preached in public +since the beginning of his Pontificate. He now, on the 6th of June, +delivered the word of God in the Sistine Chapel, speaking first in Latin +and afterwards in French. His audience consisted of four thousand priests, +as many as could be assembled within the spacious edifice. All were deeply +moved, and only refrained through reverence from giving vent to their +feelings. As soon as the Holy Father had announced the apostolic +benediction, one of the priests happily intoned the liturgical prayer: +"_Oremus pro Pontifice nostro Pio_." "Let us pray for our Pontiff Pius." +All present, as if with one voice, responded: "The Lord preserve him and +give him life, and make him blessed upon earth, and deliver him not to the +will of his enemies." One may have some idea how the Catholic mind was +impressed, from the words of M. Louis Veuillot: "We traversed our beloved +Rome with filial affection. And if the thought occurred to us that there +existed a design to rob us of it, our feeling was one of anger rather than +of fear. We passed from sanctuary to sanctuary, inquiring as to the places +where Pius IX. would appear, in order to pay profoundest reverence to the +Holy Pontiff. 'No, no,' exclaimed a bishop, as he came from the presence +of the Holy Father, 'it is not true, it is not possible! Do not believe +that there are Victor Emmanuels, Garibaldis, Ratazzis! Such a man cannot +have enemies!' " + +On Pentecost Sunday, June 8th, 1862, it was known that the Basilica of St. +Peter would be open at five o'clock in the morning. All night the +neighboring streets were crowded, and when the gates were thrown open that +greatest of earth's temples was filled in a few minutes. The Pontifical +troops were on guard inside. The foreign ambassadors, the royal family of +Naples, and other distinguished persons filled the tribunes; and the +French infantry was massed on St. Peter's place. The church was +appropriately decorated with paintings representing scenes in the lives of +the martyrs and illustrious confessors. The thousands of lights which +shone around added splendor to the scene. At seven o'clock the great +procession began to move. First came a troop of orphans, then appeared the +students of the ecclesiastical seminaries. These were followed by +religious communities and the secular clergy. Bishops came next, and +archbishops, patriarchs and cardinals. Then appeared the Supreme Pastor, +preceded by the banners of the saints that were to be canonized. All +besides was now forgot, as the Holy Father was borne slowly along, seated +on the _sedia gestatoria_, which was carried by twelve attendants in +scarlet cloaks. The Tiara added dignity to the noble figure of the +Pontiff. In his left hand, which was veiled with white silk, embroidered +with gold, he held a lighted wax taper, while his right was left free to +bless the people as he passed along. The correspondent of the London +_Times_, who was a Protestant, says: "Looking over the sea of heads placed +between me and the procession, I observed that all knelt before Pius IX., +the meek and the good, for it is only justice so to speak of him. The +chanters of the Vatican chanted in angelic tones: _Tu es Petrus_, and +these tones, softened rather than weakened by distance, pervaded the whole +edifice like spirits. At intervals, another group chanted: _Ave Maris +Stella_, and thus the Pope was borne, through the thousands of Christians +who had come from every country on which the sun shines, to the high altar +behind the tomb of the apostles." + +In the midst of so much pomp and glory, Pius IX. was humble and collected, +referring all to Him of whom he was only the representative on earth. At +the same time, his soul overflowed with happiness when he saw that there +was still so much faith in Israel. The Sovereign Pontiff now took his seat +upon the Papal throne, and having received the obedience of the cardinals +and bishops, he was approached by the consistorial advocate, who thrice +petitioned him to permit the names of the glorious martyrs and confessors +to be inscribed on the diptychs of the saints, which the church recognizes +and holds sacred. After the request had been made the third time, the Holy +Father read in a clear and audible voice the decree of canonization. He +then intoned the _Te Deum_, which was chanted by the immense congregation. +The ceremonies concluded with a solemn High Mass, which was celebrated by +the Pope himself, surrounded by the cardinals and bishops. The people +spent the remainder of the day in pious rejoicing. They were gay and +expansive, but calm and brotherly; thus exhibiting, without being +conscious of it, a spectacle unknown to the inhabitants of other capitals. + +(M90) The demonstrations which took place at Rome on the following day +were not less important, and perhaps had greater significance, although +not accompanied by so much pomp and ceremony. There was held in the Palace +of the Vatican a semi-public consistory, at which all the bishops who were +at Rome attended. The venerable Pontiff denounced, in his allocution to +the attentive audience, those errors which are too ancient to have even +the merit of originality, but which are the more dangerous that, at the +present time more than ever, they are loudly preached and widely +disseminated. He alluded in particular to that German criticism, which +views our sacred books as nothing better than a system of mythology, and +to that too well-known romance of a French writer, M. Renan, entitled: +"The Life of Jesus." He condemned materialism, pantheism, naturalism, and +all those more or less degrading systems which deny human liberty, +proclaim a morality independent of the laws of God; which derive from +material force and superior numbers all law and authority: and which in +philosophy make reason their God, the state in politics, and passion in +the daily conduct of life. The Holy Father then thanked the bishops who +were present, regretting the absence of those of Portugal and Italy, the +latter of whom were restrained by the Piedmontese government, and exhorted +them all to continue to combat error, and to turn away the eyes and hands +of the faithful from bad books and bad journals, and to promote, without +ever wearying, the instruction of the clergy and the good education of +youth. He concluded, in a voice which was impeded by his tears, and with +his eyes raised to heaven, by joining with all present in beseeching the +Father of mercies, through the merits of Jesus Christ, His only Son, to +extend a helping hand to Christian and civil society, and to restore peace +to the church. + +Cardinal Mattei, dean of the Sacred College, replied in the name of all +the bishops. Three points chiefly, among others, were affirmed in his +declaration. First of all, the supreme doctrinal authority and +infallibility of the Roman Pontiff. "You are in our regard the master of +sound doctrine. You are the centre of unity. You are the foundation of the +church itself, against which the gates of hell shall not prevail. When you +speak, we hear Peter. When you decree, we obey Jesus Christ. We admire you +in the midst of so many trials and tempests, with a serene brow and +unshaken mind, invincibly fulfilling your sacred ministry." Next, the +temporal sovereignty of the Holy See. "We acknowledge that your temporal +sovereignty is necessary, and that it was established in fulfilment of a +manifest design of Divine Providence. We hesitate not to declare that this +temporal sovereignty is required for the good of the church and the free +government of souls. It was necessary that the Supreme Pontiff should be +neither the subject nor even the guest of any prince. There was required +in the centre of Europe a sacred bond, placed between the three continents +of the ancient world, an august seat, whence arises in turns, for peoples +and for princes, a great and powerful voice, the voice of justice and of +truth, impartial and without preference, free from all arbitrary +influence, and which can neither be repressed by fear nor circumvented by +artifice. How could it have been that at this very moment the prelates of +the church, arriving from all points of the universe, should have come +here in order to represent all peoples, and confer in security on the +gravest interests, if they had found any prince whomsoever ruling in this +land who had suspicions of their princes, or who was suspected by them on +account of his hostility? In such case their duties as citizens might have +conflicted with their duties as bishops." Finally, the intimate union of +the Catholic world with the Pope. "We condemn the errors which you have +condemned. We reprove the sacrilegious acts, the violations of +ecclesiastical immunity, and the other crimes committed against the chair +of Peter. We give utterance to this protest, which we claim shall be +inserted in the annals of the church, in all sincerity, in the name of our +brethren who are absent, in the name of those who, detained at home by +force, lament and are silent, in the name of those whom the state of their +health or important affairs have prevented from joining us in this place. +To our number we add the clergy and the faithful people who give you proof +of their love and veneration by their assiduous prayers, as well as by the +offering of Peter's pence. Would to God that all kings and powerful men in +the world understood that the cause of the Pontiff is the cause of all +states. Would to God that they came to an understanding in order to place +in security the sacred cause of the Christian world and of social order." + +Pius IX. made reply: "United as we are, venerable brethren, we cannot +doubt that the God of peace and charity is with us. And if God be with us, +who shall be against us? Praise, honor, glory to God! To you, peace, +salvation and joy! Peace to your minds; salvation to the faithful +committed to your care; joy to you and to them, in order that you may all +rejoice, chaunting a new canticle in the House of God for evermore!" + +The address which Cardinal Mattei read bore the signatures of all the +bishops who were in Rome. The bishops of Italy hastened to express their +concurrence, with one exception, Ariano, who had participated in the +revolutionary movement, and who came to an unhappy death within the year. +There came, in due course, numerous adhesions from all parts of the world, +together with countless addresses from the clergy of the second order. The +laity, on their part, received the bishops on their return home with +triumphal honors. They came around them and escorted them to the pulpits +of their cathedrals, in order to hear from their lips all that had taken +place at Rome. The Bishop of Moulins, Mgr. de Droux Breze, admirably +expressed in a few words the impressions of the venerable pilgrims: "Rome +is a city of wonders; but the wonder of Rome is Pius IX." + +The moral result of all these manifestations was incalculable. At a time +when universal suffrage had come into vogue, it was impossible not to see +in all this, from a merely wordly point of view, indirect, indeed, but +strikingly universal suffrage. The vote of the whole Catholic world was +shown, united with that of the Romans, in affirming the rights of the +Catholic world over Rome, whilst appeared, at the same time, the +determination of the Romans to retain their cherished autonomy, and to +remain the capital of the Catholic world. The parliament of Turin was +greatly agitated. There was indescribable confusion, so that discussion +was impossible. They voted, in opposition to the Episcopal and Pontifical +allocutions, an address to Victor Emmanuel, the character of which may be +gathered from the following few words: "Sire, bishops, almost all +strangers in Italy, have proclaimed the strange doctrine that Rome is the +slave of the Catholic world. We reply to them by declaring that we are +resolved, to maintain inviolable the right of the nation and that of the +Italian metropolis, which is, at present, retained by force under a +detested yoke." It was of a piece with many other assertions of the +revolutionary party that the Romans detested the rule of the Holy Father. +It was particularly audacious to make such an assertion in face of the +enthusiastic demonstrations which had just been made in the city of the +Popes. They had forbidden the presence of the Italian bishops at Rome, and +nevertheless they dared to complain that almost all the bishops who +gathered around the Sovereign Pontiff were strangers in Italy. But what +did this avail them? Did not the Italian bishops decidedly express +complete concurrence with their brethren? + +It is still more surprising that the Emperor Napoleon took no warning from +the words of the Turin parliament, and went so far as to conclude an +agreement with them for the preservation to the Pope of the Holy City. + +(M91) It is difficult to understand how a people numerically so weak as +the inhabitants of that portion of the once great kingdom of Poland, which +fell to the Russian Empire at the time of the unfortunate partition, could +have undertaken a rebellion against so great a Power as Russia. But +provocation, patriotism, the sense of nationality, together with the +ardent love of liberty, set the laws of prudence at defiance. That +provocation must have been of no ordinary kind which could excite, in +Russian Poland, a third rebellion, which had no better prospect of success +than the two former, which resulted so disastrously for the unhappy Poles. +And, indeed, what could be worse or more calculated to cause insurrection +than the cruelties, crimes and sacrilegious acts which the Russian +government was guilty of throughout Poland in the years 1861 and 1862? The +churches of that ill-fated country were seized and profaned, divine +service interdicted, and the bishops arraigned before courts-martial and +cast into prison. Such atrocities, instead of crushing, only increased the +patriotism of the people. Russian policy, baffled as was to be expected, +in its design of establishing tranquillity by such barbarous proceedings, +had recourse to a rigid conscription intended to have the effect of +forcing all the patriotic youth of the country into the ranks of the +Russian army. This violent recruiting was first attempted at Warsaw, at +dead of night, on the 15th of January, 1863. When the news of this +violence spread throughout the country, all the young men capable of +bearing arms fled to the steppes and forests, and, in eight days, all +Poland was in rebellion for the third time, in order to break the yoke of +the foreigner. A word from the great Powers, or any one of them, would +have restored peace. But they all alike refused to speak this word. The +British, after having encouraged the Poles to resistance in public +speeches, were on the point of intervening in their behalf, when a hint +from M. de Bismark suddenly cooled their zeal, and determined Lord John +Russell to recall by telegraph threatening despatches which were already +on their way to St. Petersburgh. It need scarcely be said that Prussia, +which was an accomplice of Russia in the iniquitous partition, made common +cause with Russia in the work of repression. Austria was at the time +paralyzed, as Italy was threatening Venice. Italy simply expressed to +Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Chancellor, "its confidence that the +Emperor Alexander would persevere in the reforms so unfortunately +interrupted by the rebellion." Innocent Italians! They, of course, were +not guilty of causing rebellion, which was now, in their estimation, so +deplorable in Sicily, Naples, the Grand Duchies, &c. Napoleon remained, as +was his wont, undecided. He would neither assist the Poles nor give them +to understand that he would not assist them. A word from him would have +shortened, by eighteen months, a hopeless struggle of two years, which +ended by exhausting them. + +There was one, however, who protested. Pius IX. denounced the oppressor as +fearlessly as if he had been the least of the princes of the earth. He +wrote to him, at first, in a tone of mild remonstrance, on the 22d of +April, 1863. But finding that his representations were not heeded, he +renewed them more pressingly. He did not confine himself to merely +official acts. He sent Cardinal Reisach on a confidential mission to +Vienna, and addressed a warm and feeling letter to the Emperor Francis +Joseph, in order to induce him to take action energetically in common with +France. He invited the whole Christian world to join with him in praying +for the suffering nation which he nobly declared to be "the soldier of +civilization and of faith." Such as were at Rome, at the time of these +prayers, will never forget how enthusiastically the Roman people responded +to the call of Pius IX. In praying for the defenders of a distant country, +they seemed to pray, at the same time, for their own, which was now, more +than ever, threatened. But the time of mercy had not yet come, and +persecution was redoubled. Ecclesiastics were deported or put to death, +simply for not having refused the aid of religion to the dying on the +field of battle. Families and whole populations were doomed to choose +between exile and apostacy. All the bishops, without exception, were +driven from their dioceses, and some of them perished on the way to +Siberia. Pius IX. could no longer contain his grief and indignation. On +the 27th of April, 1864, in replying to the postulators in the cause of +blessed Francis of the five wounds, he said: "The blood of the helpless +and the innocent cries for vengeance to the throne of the Almighty against +those by whom it is shed. Unhappy Poland! It was my desire not to speak +before the approaching consistory. But I fear lest, by being silent any +longer, I should draw down upon myself the punishment denounced by the +prophets against those who tolerate iniquity. No, I would not that I were +forced to cry out, one day, in presence of the Sovereign Judge: 'Woe to me +because I have held my peace!' (_Va mihi quia tacui._) I feel inspired at +this moment to condemn a sovereign whose vast Empire reaches to the Pole. +This potentate, who falsely calls himself the Catholic of the East, but +who is only a schismatic cast forth from the bosom of the true church, +persecutes and slays his Catholic subjects, and by his ferocious cruelty +has driven them to insurrection. Under the pretext of suppressing this +insurrection, he extirpates the Catholic religion. He deports whole +populations to inhospitable climes, where they are deprived of all +religious assistance, and replaces them by schismatical adventurers. He +tears the pastors from their flocks, and drives them into exile, or +condemns them to forced labors and other degrading punishments. Happy they +who have been able to escape, and who now wander in strange lands! This +potentate, all heterodox and schismatical as he is, arrogates to himself a +power which the Vicar of Christ possesses not. He pretends to deprive a +bishop whom we have rightfully instituted. Can he be ignorant that a +Catholic bishop is always the same, whether in his see or in the +catacombs, and that his character is ineffaceable? Let it not be said that +in raising our voice against such misdeeds we encourage the European +revolution. We can distinguish between the socialist revolution and the +legitimate rights of a nation struggling for independence and its +religion. In stigmatizing the persecutors of the Catholic religion, we +fulfil a duty laid on us by our conscience. It behooves us to pray, with +renewed earnestness, for that unfortunate country. In consequence, we +impart our apostolic benediction to all who shall, this day, pray for +Poland. Let us all pray for Poland!" It was as if the breath of God's +anger were on the lips of the Holy Pontiff. Pius IX., remarks M. de St. +Albin, swayed by his deep emotion, had risen from his throne, his voice +was like thunder, and his arm appeared to threaten as if possessed of +omnipotence. + +(M92) Such apostolic courage commanded the admiration of the enemies of +the Papacy. The deputy, Brofferio, said in the parliament of Turin, whilst +his colleagues, revolutionists like himself, applauded: "An old man, +exhausted, sickly, without resources, without an army, on the brink of the +grave, curses a potentate who slaughters a people; I feel moved in my +inmost soul; I imagine myself borne back to the days of Gregory VII.; I +reverence and applaud." + +(M93) M. Meyendorf, the _charge d'affaires_ of Russia, having been +admitted to a private audience on occasion of the Christmas festivities of +1866, Pius IX. naturally directed the conversation to the painful state of +ecclesiastical affairs in Poland. The Russian minister denied everything, +even the most notorious facts, and ended by casting all the blame on the +Catholics, who, he affirmed, had openly transacted with the Polish +insurrection, whilst the Protestants generally sided with the government. +"Nor was this astonishing," he added, "considering that Catholicism and +revolution are the same thing." Pius IX. could not tolerate this false +assertion, which was so absurd that it could have no other object than to +insult him and the whole body of the faithful of whom he was the Chief. +"Depart," said he to the minister, as he dismissed him, "I cannot but +believe that your Emperor is ignorant of the greater part of the injustice +under which Poland suffers. I, therefore, honor and esteem your Emperor; +but I cannot say as much of his representative who comes to insult me in +my own house." Pius IX. vainly hoped that the Envoy would be disowned, and +diplomatic relations between Rome and St. Petersburgh continued. When +Alexander II. suppressed, by his own authority, in 1867, the Catholic +diocese of Kaminieck, Pius IX. was obliged to have recourse to the +newspaper press, in order to make known to the Catholics of that +unfortunate country that he appointed the Bishop of Zitomir provisional +administrator. "I have no other means of communicating with them," said he +"I act like the captain of a vessel who encloses in a bottle his last +words to his family, and confides them to the storm, hoping that the waves +will deposit them on some shore where they will be gathered up." + +(M94) Pius IX. showed himself as generous to princes as to peoples, acting +always as the champion of justice in the cause of the former, as well as +in supporting the undoubted rights of the latter. Francis II., of Naples, +dethroned by his ambitious cousin, King Victor Emmanuel, was, as the +Bonapartes had once been, an exile at Rome, and enjoyed the same princely +hospitality which his predecessor, in 1848, had extended to the Holy +Father in the Kingdom of Naples. Victor Emmanuel remonstrated against this +kindness to a fallen enemy. But in vain! He was powerless. His ally and +patron, however, the French Emperor, was not so easily resisted. This +potentate gave it to be understood, although not in express terms, that +the stay of the French troops at Rome was dependent on the departure of +the exiled monarch. The Pope, alluding to the family of Napoleon I., whom +Pius VII. had kindly received at Rome, replied, satirically, that the +Roman Pontiffs had traditions of hospitality, as regarded their +persecutors, and much more in favor of their benefactors. Napoleon was +ashamed to persist; and Francis II. remained at Rome as long as Pius IX. +was master there. + +(M95) It was quite natural that Napoleon III. should entertain the idea +that he was born to found empires. He had succeeded in establishing one on +the ruins of a republic in the Old World. He now sought to build up +Imperial power side by side with a republic in the New. Mexico was +designed to be the seat of this empire; and, as that country greatly +needed government of some kind, the time was deemed opportune for carrying +into effect Napoleon's idea. The Imperial dignity was offered to the +Archduke Maximilian of Austria; and this prince, relying on the support of +France, consented to ascend the throne of the Montezumas. Before crossing +the seas, Prince Maximilian came, together with his wife, the Princess +Charlotte of Belgium, to Rome, in order to beg the prayers, the wise +counsel and the apostolic benediction of the venerable Pontiff. So desired +the new Emperor to inaugurate a reign which, it was hoped, would be great +and prosperous. The Holy Father, at the solemn moment of communion, spoke +to the Prince of Him by whom kings reign and the framers of laws decree +just things. In the name of this King of kings, he recommended to him the +Catholic nation of Mexico, reminding him, at the same time, that he was, +under God, the constituted protector of the rights of the people as well +as those of the church. The Emperor and his youthful spouse were moved to +tears; and Maximilian, on leaving Rome, declared that he departed under +the protection of God, and with the benediction of the Holy Pontiff. "I am +confident, therefore," he added, "that I shall be able to fulfil my great +mission to Mexico." + +Unfortunately for him, however, liberalism, or, rather, ill-disguised +socialism, was enthroned, for the moment, in what was destined to be, for +a little while longer, the chief seat of European Power. It is not +difficult to imagine whence counsel proceeded, and the inexperienced +Emperor came to believe that Mexico might be governed as France was, +whilst its ruler thwarted the will of the great majority of her people. He +may not, indeed, have been free to reject the advice which swayed him. Be +this as it may, he most unwisely cast himself into the arms of the party +to whom monarchy and religion were alike hateful. He now framed a +Concordat which, whilst it could not be acceptable to his new friends, was +far from being such as the Pope could ratify. The revolutionary party had +gained the new Emperor. + +(M96) The Holy Father, ever anxious to promote the well-being of the +church, sent a nuncio to Maximilian, in order to remind him of his +promises, and induce him to abolish the laws that had been enacted for the +purpose of oppressing the church, and completely to reorganize +ecclesiastical affairs with the full concurrence of the Holy See. The +letter borne by the nuncio required that the Catholic religion should +continue to be the stay and glory of the Mexican nation; that the bishops +should be entirely free in the exercise of their pastoral ministry; that +the religious orders should be restored and organized according to the +instructions and faculties imparted by the Sovereign Pontiff; that the +patrimony of the church and the rights connected therewith should be +guaranteed and protected; that none be allowed to disseminate false and +subversive doctrines; that public as well as private education be directed +and superintended by ecclesiastical authority; and, finally, that those +fetters be broken which had hitherto for some time held the church +dependent on the arbitrary will of the civil power. "If," continued the +Holy Father, "the religious edifice be re-established, as we doubt not it +will, on such foundations, your Majesty will satisfy one of the greatest +wants and realize the most ardent aspirations of the religious people of +Mexico; you will dispel our disquietude and that of the illustrious +Mexican Episcopate; you will pave the way for the education of a learned +and zealous clergy, as well as the moral reformation of the people. You +will thus, also, consolidate your throne, and promote the prosperity and +glory of your Imperial family." In all this the Emperor would have been +sustained by the great majority of the Mexican people. And there was +nothing impossible required of him. It is not shown anywhere that the +restoration of church properties, which had been long alienated and had +often changed proprietors, would have been exacted, any more than in +England, when religion was restored under the reign of Mary. The policy +indicated by Pius IX. would have won for Maximilian a host of friends and +supporters. The line of conduct which he pursued was most unacceptable to +the Catholic nation of Mexico, whilst it was not in the least calculated +to satisfy the revolutionary party. Refusing to concede everything that +the church required, he wished to retain for himself the ancient regal +privileges of the Crown of Spain--the investiture of bishops, the +regulating of ecclesiastical tariffs, the limitation of the number of +monastic orders and religious associations, &c. So far the revolution was +pleased. It was loud in its applause. With what sincerity events failed +not to show. Pius IX. insisted on the Emperor's solemn pledges so recently +given at Rome. Maximilian was deaf to the counsels, the complaints, the +earnest prayers of the Holy Father. So it remained only for the Papal +Nuncio, Monsignor Meglia, to take his departure from Vera Cruz (1st June, +1865). Meanwhile, Maximilian's chief support, the French Emperor, dreading +the formidable hostility of the United States of America, which could not +tolerate an empire on the borders of their great republic, was obliged to +withdraw from Mexico the army which, from the first, was necessary to +sustain the new empire. Napoleon, one would say, was pledged to +Maximilian, having induced him to assume the Imperial Crown, and having +also promised all necessary support. He could not, however, command +success; and chivalry, even if it had still existed, would have availed +but little, when power alone could win. + +Maximilian was now all alone, face to face with anarchy and the Mexican +nation which he had slighted. Faction ruled in his place. The +revolutionary party which he had favored proved untrue; and falling into +the hands of his enemies, he was solemnly murdered by the ruling brigand +of the day. The officers of Napoleon's army sincerely believed that no +better fate could be anticipated; for they earnestly advised him to +accompany them on their return to Europe. This he could have done without +dishonor. The idea of a Mexican empire was Napoleon's, and he alone was +answerable for its success. On the part of Maximilian it was more than +chivalry to remain in Mexico when his guard was gone. But the idea of the +youthful Prince in regard to honor appears to have been, like his policy, +unsound. The policy may not have been, most probably was not, his. But the +sentiment of honor was all his own. And although, in an age of chivalry +even, it would have appeared exaggerated, it redounds to his credit. It is +not surprising that a man animated by such noble sentiments should have +died as became a hero and a Christian. + +(M97) The potentate, on whom, as far as worldly power was concerned, +depended the Pope's temporal sovereignty, was throwing himself every day +more and more into the hands of the enemies of the church. His ministers, +more audacious than himself, carried their blind hatred of "Clericalism" +to such an extent as to sacrifice many of the best supporters of the +empire. This was singularly apparent at the general election of 1863. M. +de Persigny hesitated not to employ all the influence of the government +against such Imperialists as had voted for or shown themselves favorable +to the Pope's temporal power. He succeeded in causing such friends of +Napoleon as De Caverville, Cochin and Lemercier to be replaced by the most +bitter enemies of the Imperial _regime_. He also managed to exclude from +parliament Messrs. de Montalembert, de Falloux and Keller. But Messrs. +Plichou, Berryer and Thiers, notwithstanding his hostile efforts, were +elected. This last-named statesman was himself a host, and his eloquent +speeches in support of the temporal sovereignty made all the more +impression that they were known to be dictated by far-seeing policy, +rather than any leaning towards religion. They deeply impressed the +parliament and the country; but availed not with Napoleon III., whom an +unprincipled ministry were leading blindfolded to destruction. Meanwhile, +the question of Rome entered on a new phase. The Cabinets of Turin and +Paris concluded an agreement in regard to the Roman State on 15th +September, 1864. The text of this notorious agreement was known to Europe, +whilst its meaning remained a mystery. The ministry of Napoleon III. made +it appear in France as a guarantee for the safety of the Pope. The +Piedmontese government flattered the revolutionary element of Italy, by +representing that it did not in the least change their programme, the +keynote of which was "Rome the Capital." They were right. This proved to +be the true solution of the mystery. The first article provided that the +King of Piedmont should not attack, and he bound himself by oath not to +attack, the remaining territory of the Holy Father, to prevent by force, +if necessary, all aggression from any other quarter, and to pay the debts +of the former States of the Church. By the second clause France became +bound to withdraw her troops in two years. A protocol was added, by which +Victor Emmanuel engaged to transfer his capital from Turin to Florence in +six months. It was more than disrespectful to the Pope; it was of evil +omen, of sinister import, that the sovereign whose state was concerned was +not a party to the treaty--was not even consulted. The minds of all +Catholics were greatly disquieted, and their anxiety was only increased by +the Italian interpretation of the agreement. Pius IX., who understood well +by what men and by what principles the Cabinet of the Tuileries was +governed, made a remark which indicated more his fears for the great +French nation than for the fragment which remained to him of his +territory. He would have nothing to do with the pecuniary compensation +that was offered to him. He could only say that "he pitied France." The +crime of that country was that her government made any agreement at all +with the monarch who had so unscrupulously violated the treaty of Zurich, +and who was, besides, the chief hero of Gaeta, Naples, Castelfidardo and +Ancona. One of the most eloquent of Bishop Dupanloup's publications, the +one which, perhaps, has been the most generally read, exposes the +hollowness of this arrangement, which is known in history as the September +agreement. + +(M98) The 8th of December, 1864, the tenth anniversary of the proclamation +of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, was marked by the publication +of the Encyclical, "quanta cura," and, together with it, the "Syllabus." +This great doctrinal act was a crushing reply to the erroneous assertions +of the time, as well as to the vain ideas of those politicians who boasted +that, through their efforts, the spiritual office no less than the +temporal sovereignty of the Pope was drawing to a close. The Encyclical +letter is addressed to all bishops in communion with the Holy See, and +through them to all the faithful throughout the world. It contains the +teachings of Pius IX., and the Popes, his predecessors, in opposition to +the errors of the present age--the mistaken ideas of natural religion; +religious indifference which, falsely assuming the name of liberty of +conscience and of worship, establishes the reign of physical force in the +place of law and justice; communism and socialism; the subjection of the +church to the state; and the independence of Christians in regard to the +Holy See. + +The "Syllabus" consists of eighty propositions, which are a summary of the +false teachings of the enemies of the Catholic church, as found in the +periodical press, as well as in their writings of a more permanent +character. The first seven propositions briefly express the errors on +pantheism, naturalism, and absolute rationalism. All who have any +Christian belief, to whatever denomination they may adhere, must surely +acknowledge the justice of denouncing philosophers of the school of +Strauss, who insist that Christ is a myth, and His religion a system of +mythology. + +From the eighth to the fourteenth proposition inclusively, are pointed out +and condemned the errors of modern rationalism. From the fourteenth to the +eighteenth, indifferentism and latitudinarianism are exposed. Throughout +the rest of the catalogue, secret societies and communism are condemned; +erroneous views, as regards church and state, natural and Christian +ethics, and Christian marriage are expressed and denounced. Finally, are +pointed out the errors that have been uttered in regard to the temporal +power of the Pope, together with such as have reference to modern +liberalism. + +These important documents, the Encyclical, "quanta cura," and the +"Syllabus," are not so much the work of Pius IX. as of all the Popes of a +century back, from the Council of Pistoia, Febronianism and Josephism. +Whilst the "Syllabus" was yet in embryo, it was, with the exception of a +few propositions which were not yet formulated, confidentially +communicated to the bishops on occasion of the canonization of the +Japanese martyrs. Each bishop was at that time invited to select two +theologians in order to examine the propositions, and give their opinion +in six months. The church, therefore, was not taken by surprise, when the +"Syllabus" appeared, however much its publication may have struck with +astonishment and alarm the party of revolution and unbelief. Catholics, at +least, could not fail to be swayed by such a masterly exposition of +Catholic theology on so many subjects, all intimately connected with human +conduct in private life as well as in affairs of public import. And there +were Catholics everywhere--among the rulers of the world and its leading +statesmen, no less than in all classes and grades of society. Such now +could have no excuse for favoring opinions which were so distinctly +condemned by that authority which they all recognized as the highest upon +earth. Nevertheless, whatever impression the clear teaching of the +"Syllabus," in regard to the church and her rights, civil society, and +both natural and Christian morality, was destined, in time, to produce, +but little disposition was shown to be guided by it at the outset. There +was all but a universal clamor that the church had pronounced a divorce +between modern society and the spiritual order. Nor could it be otherwise, +so long as the former held principles which were essentially incompatible +with the latter. Neither could reconciliation be easily or speedily +brought about. The principles which religion condemned were in the +ascendant. The existing civil law of all European nations was founded on +them. There was no government that had not adopted them and shown itself +inclined to be entirely guided by them. The formal condemnation of the +cherished ideas of the age was as a thunderbolt hurled against the social +elements of the day. But why disturb their peace? They had no peace. They +were already discordant. "_Non esi pax impiis_." Peace could not be born +of unbelief. It could come only through the truth, even as health conquers +disease by the most trying curative process. Napoleon III. was the first +who openly resisted the "encroachments" of Rome, just as if they had +constituted the only danger to his throne. By a decree dated 1st January, +1865, he forbade the publication of the Encyclical and the Syllabus, +whilst he caused to be tried and condemned, as guilty of abuse, the +Archbishop of Besancon and the Bishop of Moulins, because they had read +the Encyclical in their pulpits. The other prelates of France so far +submitted as to avoid printing the obnoxious documents, lest their +printers should be uselessly compromised. Several bishops declared that +the Encyclical was already sufficiently published in their dioceses by the +voice of the press. They thus expressed the idea of the whole episcopate. +Pius IX. highly commended their zeal. "We must go back," he said, "to the +early ages of Christianity, in order to find an episcopal body that could +show such courage." + +To persons accustomed to theological studies, it is sufficiently apparent +why each proposition of the "Syllabus" stands condemned. To others, cause +is shown in the consistorial allocutions, Encyclical and other letters +apostolical of the Holy Father, in relation to each proposition. Some +things must be interpreted by the conduct of the Pope himself. For +instance, what is said in regard to the liberty of public worship and of +the press must be read in the light of that reasonable tolerance which the +Popes were accustomed to exercise when they ruled at Rome as sovereign +Princes. There is no liberty without some restraint. The press, in this +respect, is in the same position as individuals. According to the laws of +all civilized lands, when it abuses its liberty and commits crime, it is +visited with severe punishment. The greater liberty which the press +enjoys, and must enjoy, in the present circumstances of the world, by no +means clashes with the condemnation of proposition 79 of the "Syllabus." +The press can no more be free to publish anything whatsoever, however +offensive it may be, than persons are free to perform such acts as +necessarily subject them, even in states where there is the greatest +attainable degree of liberty, to condemnation and punishment. If every +organized community possesses, as it certainly does possess, the right so +to stigmatize an offending citizen, and that without any violation of +liberty, it is equally entitled to judge and punish an offending press. + +(M99) Not satisfied with the blow which so greatly weakened Austria in the +Italian campaign, Napoleon III. plotted with Prussia for a further +humbling of the great Catholic Power. To this end he held dark +consultations with Count Bismark, at Biarritz, as he had formerly done +with Count de Cavour at Plombieres. The former, however, proved to be more +than a match for him. Hence the great victory of Sadowa which paved the +way for Sedan. Prussia, without a rival in Germany, could freely pursue +her ambitious schemes. Napoleon, apparently suspecting nothing, left the +Rhine frontier comparatively unprotected; and Prussia, victorious in the +struggle with Austria, refused to France all compensation for her +complicity and encouragement. This hindered not Napoleon from taking part +in the treaty of Prague, as president, and sanctioning by his signature +the expulsion of Austria from Germany, and the confiscation of Hanover, +Nassau, the two Hesses and other small independent sovereignties, in the +interest of Prussia. This Power, besides, assumed the military direction +of Southern Germany, and so was, literally, doubled in extent and +population. Thus was swept away in the course of seven years, through the +agency of Napoleon III., the barrier of small states which the wisdom of +ages had placed along the continental frontier of France, from the +Mediterranean to the ocean, and which moderated the shocks of the greater +Powers. France, accordingly, by her own act, was confined between unified +Italy on the one hand, and on the other, the formidable German Empire. + +In exchange for combinations which proved so disastrous, Venice was ceded +to Napoleon, and immediately made over by him to Italy. Defeated both by +sea and land in his struggle with Austria, Victor Emmanuel, nevertheless, +accepted the present, as if it had come to him by conquest, and Italy was +free to the Adriatic, and the celebrated Milan programme of 1859 +completely carried out. This result, whilst it flattered the vanity of +Napoleon III., crowned the wishes of the secret societies. Protestants, +Jews, Freemasons, and people of all shades of unbelief, deputies of the +French left, and the revolutionary journals, all zealous in the service of +Prussia, enthusiastically applauded. The French Emperor's ministers, even, +M. Rouher, in the Legislative Chamber, and M. de Lavalette, in a +diplomatic circular, were not ashamed to congratulate themselves publicly +on the stipulations of the treaty of Prague. In their mania for Italian +unity, these wise statesmen became blind to the interests of their own +country--condign punishment, surely, of their disloyal and unprincipled +policy. + +(M100) Whilst the political world was extraordinarily agitated, and a +great potentate was endeavoring to destroy the last remnant of Papal +sovereignty, and was himself at the same time, hastening blindly but +surely to ignominy and ruin, the Pontiff against whom he warred calmly and +successfully continued to accomplish the sublime work of his spiritual +mission. + +(M101) Nothing tends more to the instruction and edification of the +Catholic people than the canonization of saints and martyrs. But for the +care which the church bestows in bringing to light the acts and sufferings +of those heroes of the Christian faith, many of them, remaining unknown, +would be lost as examples to the rest of mankind. It is also due to the +saints themselves that the church should honor them, although, indeed, +earthly celebrity and true fame which lasts throughout all time is as +nothing compared to the glory which they enjoy. John Baptist de Rossi (de +Rubaes) was a canon of the Collegiate Basilica of Saint Mary, _in +cosmedin_. The venerable John Baptist de Rossi was in every respect a +worthy minister of God. He labored last century at Rome, in the vineyard +of the Lord, with so much, patience, longanimity and meekness, and was so +filled with the Holy Ghost and sincere charity, that he spent his whole +life in evangelizing the poor, to the great gain of souls. He instructed +others unto righteousness, and God willed that he should shine for +evermore as a star in the firmament. And not only was he crowned with +light in heaven, in order that, transformed to the Divine image, he should +appear in God's presence environed with heavenly splendor; but God, +through His unspeakable bounty, appointed that His servant, enriched by an +abundant harvest of merits, illustrated by triumphal honors, and glorified +by miracles, should also enjoy upon earth a name glorious in the +estimation of mankind, and should thus be a new ornament to the church +militant. The process of canonization was commenced in the time of Gregory +XVI., and completed by Pius IX., when in March, 1859, the name of John +Baptist de Rossi was inscribed on the sacred diptychs. + +(M102) John Sarcander was born at Skoczovia, in Upper Silesia, in the year +1577. He obeyed the call of God and joined the ranks of the priesthood. +When ordained priest, he showed himself in every way a pattern of +excellence--by his good works, his science, the integrity and gravity of +his character. He was appointed, accordingly, to the charge and guidance +of souls. He fulfilled so well all the duties of a good pastor that the +four parishes to which he was successively called by episcopal authority +received him as an angel sent to them from heaven, and bore witness by +their tears to their regret when they were deprived of his presence. +Meanwhile, the ministers of the sect of Pikardites were driven from the +parish of Holleschow, where the scourge of heresy, like the wild boar of +the forests, had spread devastation during eight years. John Sarcander was +selected in order to repair the incalculable evil that had been done to +that unfortunate vineyard. He shrunk not from the struggle which it +behooved him to maintain in the cause of the true faith. He was in every +sense an example to his flock. He exhorted, beseeched, reprimanded with +patience and wisdom, neglecting nothing that was calculated to strengthen +whatever was weak and heal what was sick, to reunite those who were +separated, to raise up the fallen and seek such as were astray. Such +exemplary conduct only excited the extreme hatred of the heretical party, +and he was obliged to leave Holleschow and retire to Poland. But moved by +the dangers to which were exposed the people whom he loved so dearly in +Christ, he returned to his parish, after having venerated the Holy Virgin +at her shrine of Crenstochow, in fulfilment of a vow which he had made. +Soon after his return the heretics cast him into prison as a traitor to +his country, but, in reality, on account of his zeal in preaching the +Catholic faith. He was subjected to vigorous interrogatories, and in order +to induce him to reveal what the supreme head of the administration in +Moravia had confided to him in confession, he was made to undergo the most +exquisite torture. Preferring a glorious death to a miserable life, he +combated to his last breath for the work of Christ, and gave up his soul +to God, leaving to all the people the remembrance of his death as an +example of fortitude and courage. Fearfully tortured on the rack for three +hours, burned slowly in almost every part of his body, by torches and +bundles of feathers steeped in rosin, oil, pitch and sulphur, he was +carried back almost lifeless to his prison. There he lingered a whole +month, suffering more than the pain of death, whilst his mind and heart +were so fixed on God that he ceased not to sing His praises as long as +life remained. He fell asleep in the Lord, the sixteenth of the calends of +April, 1620. It was not appointed that such heroic suffering should be +doomed to oblivion. Public report, the witness of contemporary writers, +the monuments of the time, and the splendor of miracles caused them to be +so celebrated that, notwithstanding the wars, losses and other impediments +which had prevented the Archbishops of Olmutz from considering this grand +and beautiful cause, and reporting it to the Holy See sooner than the 18th +century, the sanctity and martyrdom of the venerable John Sarcander were +not only known to the populations of Moravia and the neighboring +countries, but were also remembered with the most profound veneration. +From 1754 till the time of Pius IX., this celebrated cause was before the +church, and subjected to the usual searching investigation. Finally, in +February, 1859, it was concluded, and the blessed John Sarcander +recognized, as a saint and martyr, by the universal church. + +(M103) This same year, 1859, was canonized the venerable servant of God, +Benedict Joseph Labre, of the diocese of Boulogne. Voluntary poverty was +the lot in life of this saint of modern times. Worldly wisdom condemns as +folly, the choice of this devoted Christian who preferred to all earthly +advantages the most abject poverty. God is, indeed, wonderful in His +saints; and as He often chooses what is folly in the estimation of the +world, in order to confound what it holds to be wise, so He appointed that +the humble Labre who, for the love of Christ, led a life of poverty, and +taught mankind the excellence of self-denial in an unbelieving and selfish +age, should be exalted, even upon earth, and ranked among the princes of +God's people. In June, 1842, Gregory XVI. declared, by a solemn decree, +that Benedict Joseph Labre had practised, in a heroic degree, all the +Christian virtues. The necessary investigations and formalities were +continued, and in September, 1859, Pius IX. ordained that apostolic +letters should be issued, ordering the celebration of the solemn rite of +his beatification in the Patriarchal Basilica of the Vatican. + +(M104) The year 1859 was also marked by the solicitude of Pius IX. for the +Church of Ireland. In a letter to the archbishops and bishops of that +country, he commends their zeal in promoting Catholic education, and +concurs with them in pointing out the dangers of mixed schools. In the +same letter the Holy Father earnestly entreats the venerable pastors of +the Irish Church to pray that the designs of the wicked may not succeed, +that it would please God to bring to naught the machinations of those +misguided men who, by their false teachings, endeavor to corrupt the +people everywhere, and to overthrow, if that were possible, the Catholic +religion. At the same time, it was appointed that the feast of Saint +Patrick, the Patron Saint of Ireland, should be celebrated according to a +higher rite. + +(M105) The anti-President Juarez had succeeded in establishing himself at +Vera Cruz, whilst Miramon was recognized by Mexico, after General Zuloago, +as the successor of Santa Anna. Juarez was a revolutionist and persecutor +of the church; Miramon, a conservative and friend of religion. As proof of +the tyranny of the former, may be cited a decree which he published in +July of this year (1859). This decree, which aimed at nothing less than +the destruction of religion, and was, at the same time, a cruel outrage on +the Catholic nation of Mexico, accounts for the earnestness and +determination with which Pius IX., a little later, as has already been +shown, insisted that the Emperor Maximilian should adopt a policy friendly +to the church, and in harmony with the wishes of the great majority of the +Mexican people. Such policy, if only followed in time, would have so +strengthened the hands of Maximilian that, in all probability, he would +have been able to hold his ground when most unchivalrously abandoned by +his faint-hearted ally. No doubt the anti-president claimed that he was a +reformer of the church. And surely, indeed, he was, if it was reform to +suppress all religious societies whatsoever, to rob the clergy of their +property, and that so completely as to reduce them to mendicancy. But let +the decree speak for itself: + +Art. 1. All property administered under divers titles, by the regular or +secular clergy, whether real or personal, whatever its name or object, is +henceforth the property of the nation. + +Art. 3. There shall be complete independence between affairs of state and +such as are purely ecclesiastical. The government will confine itself to +protecting the public worship of the Catholic religion the same as any +other religion. + +Art. 4. The ministers of religion can accept such offerings as may be made +on account of the administration of the sacraments and the other duties of +their office. They may also, by an agreement with those who employ them, +stipulate for remuneration for their services. But in no case can these +offerings or this remuneration be converted into permanent property. + +Art. 5. All religious orders, whatever their name or their object, are +suppressed throughout the whole republic, as well as confraternities or +associations connected with a religious community or any church +whatsoever. + +The 6th article, whilst it prohibits the erection of new convents and new +confraternities, forbids also the use of the religious habit. + +THE EIGHTEENTH CENTENARY OF THE MARTYRDOM OF SS. PETER AND PAUL. + +A new joy awaited the Holy Father. The year 1867 will be ever memorable in +sacred annals, as the year of the great centennial celebration of the +glorious martrydom of SS. Peter and Paul. "Peter went to Rome," St. Jerome +writes, "in the second year of the Emperor Claudius, and occupied there +the priestly chair for twenty-five years." On the same venerable authority +it is known that Peter suffered two years after the death of the great +Roman philosopher, Seneca, who was executed by order of Nero in the +sixty-fifth year of the Christian era. In the same work (_de viris +illustribus_), St. Jerome says that SS. Peter and Paul were put to death +in the fourteenth year of Nero's reign, which corresponds with the +sixty-seventh year of our era, when reckoned from the first of January, +and not from the 13th October, the date of Nero's accession. + +The French troops had scarcely been withdrawn from Rome in fulfilment of +the September agreement, when Pius IX. invited all the clergy and people +of the Catholic world to visit the city in order to participate in the +celebration of the centenary, and witness the canonization of several holy +persons long since deceased. Their names were Josaphat, the martyr +Archbishop of Solotsk; Pedro de Arbues, an Augustinian friar; the martyrs +of Gorcum; Paul of the Cross, founder of the Passionists; Leonardo di +Porto Maurizio; Maria Francesca, a Neapolitan of the third order of St. +Peter of Alcantara, and Germaine Cousin, of the diocese of Toulouse. +Shortly before, in the preceding December, the Holy Father enjoyed the +great happiness of celebrating, with even more than ordinary solemnity, +the beatification of the Franciscan Monk, Benedict of Urbino, who died in +odor of sanctity, at Fossombrone, in 1625, within a few miles of +Sinigaglia, the birthplace of the Pope, leaving the whole country +bordering on the Adriatic and the province of Umbria in a manner embalmed +by a life of sanctity and extraordinary self-denial. Pius IX., from early +youth, was familiar with the history of this saint, whose noble birth and +distinguished abilities opened to him the way to worldly fame and +prosperity, but who, nevertheless, chose the cross, becoming a Capuchin, +and having no other ambition in the seclusion of the cloister than to be a +worthy disciple of his crucified Saviour. + +It was by no means to indulge his own pious feelings, or to gratify the +clergy and Catholic people, that the venerable Pontiff invited so many +from Italy and all parts of the Christian world to take part with him in +celebrating these canonizations, and, at the same time, the eighteen +hundredth anniversary of the martyrdom of the blessed Apostles, the +founders of the Church. His object was to edify, to place in contrast +with, and in opposition to, the worldly and unbelieving spirit of the time +the teachings and the solemn offices of religion, together with the power +of holiness, so admirably shown forth in the lives and glory of the +saints. The revolution aimed at nothing less than the destruction of +everything spiritual. It was good for it to be taught that true +spirituality is beyond its reach. + +It would hardly be fair to contrast as purely worldly the grand exposition +at Paris, the World's Fair, with the religious celebrations at Rome. The +rich and varied display of the objects of art and industry, in the +beautiful capital of France, was the result of an advanced Christian +civilization. It was recognized as such by the greatest statesmen, the +ablest men of science, and the wisest rulers of the age. No doubt it +savored more of the world and of things worldly than the festivals at +Rome. But the holy city bore it no grudge. It was other powers and other +arts than those which furnished out so grandly the Parisian exposition +against which Rome waged perpetual war. A Roman, let it not be forgotten, +and not the least pious among the Romans, the illustrious scientist, +Father Secchi, whose recent decease the world laments, took the highest +honors at the great industrial and artistic fair. + +Paris, indeed, was in contrast with Rome, but more by its materialist +philosophy than by its magnificent exhibition of material improvements. +This philosophy availed itself of the exposition in order to show to what +extent it prevailed; and Paris extolled mere worldly power, luxury, +comfort and voluptuousness, whilst Rome had no praise but for humility, +poverty, self-denial, chastity. Paris applauded Alexander II., who +massacred the Poles; Rome, on the other hand, did honor to a Polish +bishop, Joseph Kunicievicz, who was cruelly murdered by Russian +fanaticism. Paris celebrated the apotheosis of free-thinking and religious +indifference; Rome, on the contrary, heaped honors on an Inquisitor, Peter +d'Arbues, who suffered martyrdom. Paris was loud in her acclamations to +the potentates and conquerors of the day, whilst Rome exalted an humble +shepherdess, Germaine Cousin, and some poor and obscure monks who were +hanged by heretics three hundred years ago, in a small town of Holland. +Yet was not Paris distinguished only by material glories, nor was Rome +altogether free from the taint of modern worldliness. There were those in +the latter city who, in the midst of an atmosphere of pious thought, +plotted deeds of diabolic wickedness, whilst Paris, which honored the +arts, was not without sympathy at Rome, and her prelates, the bishops of +France, were far from being the least among those five hundred high +dignitaries, twenty thousand priests of God's Church, and more than one +hundred and fifty thousand Christian people from all quarters of the known +world, who took part in celebrating the glorious centenary and the no less +glorious victory of more than two hundred martyrs. The display of art, +industry and modern improvements of very kind presented, indeed, in the +midst of the beautiful French capital, a magnificent and cheering sight. +It was nothing, however, to the moral spectacle afforded by the presence +of ten or twelve mighty sovereigns around the now Imperial author of the +_coup d'etat_. It was supremely worldly. Who would then have said that +William of Prussia, and Napoleon III., the Czar of Russia, and the +successor of the caliphs, who, at the exhibition _fetes_, joined hands in +apparent friendship, were so soon to be engaged in deadly strife? and that +that capital, where so many great potentates came to honor Napoleon, +should, in a year or two, know him no more, and even struggle with all the +energy of desperation to obliterate every vestige of the improvements with +which he had so enriched and beautified the city? This was the world; for +the world is insincere. This was the world; for the figure thereof passeth +quickly away. + +In Rome it was not so. There art and religion walked hand in hand. +Religion fostered art. Art was dutiful, and repaid the boon. It became the +handmaid of religion. Everywhere within the walls of her temples were seen +the products of art's filial labor, in sculpture, painting, poetry and +music, her inexhaustible treasury of thought and history ever presenting +new sources of artistic power to the hand of genius. Those temples +themselves being, indeed, the finest monuments of architecture, bear +glorious witness to the excellent union of art and religion. Worldliness, +on the other hand, when at the height of its passion against religion, +seeks to destroy all the creations of art and genius. It aims at nothing +less than to reduce mankind to the condition of the savage, and is not +ashamed to acknowledge that such is its aim. + +Let us hear the testimony of the Roman artists. This body, on the one +hand, rejoiced in the coming celebration of the centenary; on the other, +they were filled with sad forebodings as to the approaching downfall of +the Papal sovereignty by the threats of Garibaldi and the predictions of +Mazzini. They resolved, therefore, whilst yet the Pope, who, like his +predecessors, had shown them much kindness, and munificently rewarded +their labors, reigned at Rome, to present to him a dutiful and +affectionate address, which should remain, in time to come, as a testimony +of their gratitude to that beneficent sovereignty which they had but too +much reason to fear would soon come to an end. This address is so +important and tells so much truth, that it is deserving of a place in all +histories. It is as follows: "Most Holy Father, religion, policy and mere +human wisdom have protested in favor of the temporal power of the Papacy. +The arts come, in their turn, to lay their homage at the feet of your +Holiness, and to proclaim to the world that this power is to them +indispensable. Their voice must be heard and listened to. For when the +tide of generations recedes, the arts remain as the irrefutable witnesses +of the power and splendor of the civilization amid which these generations +lived. The sovereigns who encourage and develop them acquire immortal +renown; those who neglect or oppress them meet only with the contempt of +posterity. What royal dynasty has in this respect deserved so well of +civilization and humanity as that of the Sovereign Pontiffs? They have +been the watchful guardians of the master-pieces bequeathed to us by +antiquity. They have given these a home in their own palaces to show that +religion adopts and ennobles all that is truly beautiful. It is the +Sovereign Pontiffs who, by opening new avenues for modern art, have +brought it to the point of perfection, embodied in the master-pieces of +Raphael and Michael Angelo. They alone support in Rome that unique +assemblage of all that is beautiful in every order, that splendid +intellectual galaxy in whose light the artists of every land are formed. +Holy Father, the little spot of earth which the revolution has not yet +taken from you is the only place in which the arts find the inspiration +that is for them the breath of life, and the quiet without which that life +cannot expand. The soul of the true artist is filled with unspeakable +apprehension by the possibility of seeing these master-pieces destroyed or +scattered abroad, these treasures plundered, all this wealth annihilated; +and especially by the danger of seeing the ungraceful and meagre forms of +modern utilitarianism usurp the place held by the manners, the habits, the +face of all things in this privileged land of beauty, all consecrated by +the admiration of ages. Alas! Holy Father, what is happening in the rest +of Italy affords but too firm a ground for such apprehensions. The genius +of destruction is abroad there, and proceeds to sweep away pitilessly what +was the glory of ancient Italy. The spoliation and suppression of the +religious orders are one of the most deadly blows ever aimed at the +existence of the fine arts. Saddened by those forebodings, fearful of what +the future may bring forth, the artists resident in Rome come to the feet +of your Holiness to give utterance to their deep conviction that the +splendor, the greatness, the very existence of the fine arts in Europe are +inseparably connected with the maintenance of the beneficent power of the +Sovereign Pontiffs. Were it not that the rival passions which divide +Europe are of themselves fatally blind to consequences, the reign of your +Holiness would suffice to render this truth evident to all. For while +elsewhere national wealth is wasted in frivolous undertakings, or in +preparing instruments of destruction, the modest revenues inherited by +your Holiness are ever employed in continuing gloriously the noble labor +of your predecessors. On the one hand, you have drawn from obscurity the +beginnings of Christian art, thereby affording it new and precious data; +on the other, you have adorned Rome and the Vatican with works which +furnish a new and brilliant page to the grand history of art embodied in +the Vatican itself. While elsewhere reigned trouble and agitation, here +artists were able, beneath the blessed sway of your Holiness, to enjoy a +kindly welcome, an unrestrained liberty, and the peaceful contemplation of +those venerable structures and sites preserved so happily by the +Pontifical government from the sad alterations blindly wrought in other +cities by the troublous life of modern communities. May the Almighty One +hear our prayer, and persuade both sovereigns and nations that their honor +and glory will be measured, in coming ages, on the degree of protection +they shall have afforded to the temporal power of the Papacy, which has +ever been the unwearied promoter of the development of all the noblest +faculties in man, and which alone can continue to be the custodian of the +works of art originated by itself, and by it so faithfully treasured for +the benefit of all peoples!" This eloquent address will ever remain +carefully guarded by history, a noble monument of gratitude, and not only +this, but also as a testimony, all the more valuable as it is the +spontaneous utterance of men of the most cultivated intellect, in favor of +that sovereignty the destruction of which was sought, and has been +accomplished, by a party in whose ranks could be counted only rude +soldiers, bands of filibusters and politicians, if such they could be +called, whose counsels were inspired, not by the wisdom which +distinguishes statesmen, but by blind passion, and the most unworthy of +all passions, the passion of hatred--hatred of everything connected with +the Christian faith. + +The great centennial celebration proceeded. Who would have dared to say, +whilst Nero reigned at Rome, and Christians were as pariahs, tolerated +only in order to afford the spectacle of their tortures to a heathen +multitude, that eighteen hundred years from Nero's time, Christianity +would flourish and celebrate in that city, which was the scene of its +greatest trials, as well as all over the world, its victory and the +glorious martyrdom of its apostolic founders! The month of June, 1867, +will ever be memorable in the annals of the church. Never had so many +bishops assembled in the holy city. Nor were there ever there, at one +time, so many priests and pilgrims of all ranks and classes. The duties of +the time were commenced early in the month. On the 11th and 12th of June, +consistories were held in presence of the bishops, in order to make +preparation for the canonization of two hundred and five Japanese +Christians--priests, catechists, laymen, women and children--put to death in +hatred of the Christian faith, from 1617 to 1632. On the 26th of February, +1867, the decree of canonization had already been solemnly read in +presence of Pius IX., who, on the occasion, went in state to the Roman +College. On the 22nd February of the same year, the Holy Father signed +decrees bearing on the beatification of several holy persons, among whom +was Clement Maria Hofbauer, a Redemptorist. In an age of unbelief, it was +only to be expected that the enquiry should be made why the Pope made so +many saints? + +In February, 1867, his Holiness replied, on occasion of a visit to the +Convent of the Capuchin Friars: "I have been shown," said he, "a pamphlet, +entitled 'Why so many Saints?' Had we ever so much need of intercessors in +heaven and patterns in this world?" A little later he also said, alluding +to the festivals at Paris: "Man has not been placed on the earth solely in +order to amass wealth; still less in order to lead a life of pleasure. The +world is ignorant of this. It forgets mind, and devotes itself to matter. +Neither you nor I are this world of which I speak. You are come here in +the good disposition to seek the edification of your souls. I hope, +therefore, that you will bear away with you a salutary impression. Never +forget, my children, that you have a soul, a soul created in the image of +God, and which God will judge. Bestow on it more thought and care than on +industrial speculations, railways, and all those lesser objects which +constitute the good things of this world. I forbid you not to interest +yourselves in such transient matters. Do so reasonably and moderately. But +let me once more beg of you to remember that you have a soul." + +None of the ten or twelve potentates who visited Paris came to Rome. But +their absence was amply made up for by the immense concourse of clergy and +people from every quarter of the civilized world. The reverence shown to +Pius IX. by so many prelates was truly admirable. A Chinese bishop, Mgr. +Languillat, Vicar-apostolic of Nankin, coming for the first time into the +presence of the Supreme Pastor, fell prostrate on the threshold, and with +his arms extended towards the Pontiff, began to exclaim: "_Tu es Petrus!_" +("Thou art Peter!") + +"Come to me, my brother," said the Holy Father. "_Tu es Petrus!_" replied +the Chinese bishop, "_Tu es Petrus!_" Needless to say that when he +approached the venerable Pontiff affectionately embraced him, whilst both +gave vent to their feelings in tears. The laity of all ranks and classes +were no less devoted. A very moving scene which was witnessed this same +year (1867) is beautifully described by the Protestant correspondent of +the London _Morning Post_: "It is truly delightful to meet Pius IX. in the +country on foot, walking faster than one would suppose his age could +allow, his majestic person arrayed in a white soutane, and protected by a +large broad-brimmed purple hat. The other day, when I was at Aricia, he +was proceeding towards Genzano, followed by his guards and his carriage. +The ex-Queen of Naples and the Infanta, lately Regent, were walking in the +opposite direction, followed by their equipages and domestics. At a turn +of the road, exactly below the Villa Chigi, the two groups met. In a +moment their Royal Majesties were on their knees. His Holiness quickened +his pace in order to raise them up. The peasants of the neighborhood, who +were returning from their vineyards and orchards, together with their +wives and daughters, were struck with admiration. They also advanced and +knelt on each side of the central group formed by the illustrious +personages, calling out with all their might: '_Santo Padre, la +benedizione_.' 'Holy Father, your benediction!' It was a splendid +tableau." + +On occasion of the centennial, substantial proofs of devotedness abounded. +The numerous pilgrims not only gave the homage of their faith, but also +brought magnificent offerings, as Peter's pence, and presented addresses +with millions of signatures. One day fifteen hundred Italians were +received at an audience of the Holy Father, and made the offering of a +monumental album, together with one hundred purses filled with gold, as +the homage of one hundred Italian cities. Cardinal Manning laid at the +feet of Pius IX. L30,000--a generous testimony of English piety. The +Cardinal Archbishop of Mechlin brought to the centenary celebration +L16,000, the Archbishop of Posen L20,000, and the Mexican archbishop +L12,000, whilst Cuba offered 100,000 douros. "We are reversing the order +of nature," smilingly observed the Holy Father; "here are the children +supporting the Father." Nor was it too much for the wants of such a +Father. He received with one hand and generously dispensed with the other. +He took charge himself to lodge and entertain eighty-five of the poorer +bishops from Italy, the East, and remote missions. None of these were +allowed to depart without receiving abundant aid for their diocesan good +works. + +Festival followed festival at Rome, from the 20th June till the 7th of +July. On the former day was celebrated the grand solemnity of Corpus +Christi. The Pope himself bore the holy sacrament, kneeling and surrounded +by the greater half of the whole Christian episcopate. It was remarked +that he was as calm and collected in the midst of such a great and +imposing multitude as if he had been in his private oratory. The vast +assemblage was also rapt in silent contemplation. Not a sound was heard +save the murmur of the fountains. An eye-witness has observed that if one +closed his eyes he could imagine himself in a desert. Next day was +celebrated the 21st anniversary of the coronation of Pius IX. He had +already said, in reply to an address read by Cardinal Patrizi, when all +the visitors to Rome were assembled on occasion of the commemoration of +his election--10th June--"Modern society is ardent in the pursuit of two +things, progress, and unity. It fails to reach either, because its motive +principles are selfishness and pride. Pride is the worst enemy of +progress, and selfishness by destroying charity, the bond of souls, +thereby rendering union impossible. Now God Himself has established the +Sovereign Pontiff in order to direct and enlighten society, to point out +evil and indicate the proper remedy. This induced me, some years ago, to +publish the 'Syllabus.' I now confirm that solemn act in your presence. It +is to be, henceforth, the rule of your teaching. We have to contend, +unceasingly, with the enemies who beset us. Placed on the mountain-top +like Moses, I lift up my hands to God in prayer for the triumph of the +church. I ask of you, my brother bishops, to support my arms, for they +grow weary. Take courage! The church must triumph. I leave this hope in +your hearts, not as a hope merely, but as a prophecy." + +On the 23rd was consecrated the Church of St. Mary of the Angels, an +admirable architectural monument, built originally according to the plans +of Michael Angelo, and rebuilt by Pius IX. The 24th, on leaving the +Basilica of St. John Lateran, the Pope was the object of a more splendid +ovation than any, perhaps, that he had as yet received. Kneeling on the +vast place, and completely filling it, the multitude which had not been +able to enter the Basilica waited for the Pontifical benediction. After +the Holy Father had raised his hand and pronounced the words of blessing, +the whole people rose, and, by a simultaneous movement and with one voice, +replied: "Live Pius IX.! Live the Pope-King!" Arms and handkerchiefs waved +amidst a rain of beautiful flowers. The Pope's carriage was detained a +considerable time, and he himself, accustomed as he was to the +demonstrations of a devoted people, was moved to tears. His hood was +almost taken to pieces, thread by thread, by French ecclesiastics who were +close behind his Holiness, and who deposited the fragments, as precious +relics, in their breviaries. The crowd thronged around the Holy Father and +continued their acclamations as far as the Vatican, a distance of three +miles. Every new day gave proof of a like enthusiasm. + +Pius IX. was anxious to address words of encouragement to the twenty +thousand priests of the church who had come to Rome. The greatness of +their number was a serious hindrance to this laudable purpose. The +spacious consistorial hall was by far too small to contain so many. On the +25th of June, however, they came to the hall, crowding its approaches, the +passages, the great staircase and the outer court. The Holy Father, +desiring to show his respect and affection for so many pilgrims of the +sacred order of the priesthood, came to the assembly in more than usual +state. The throne was raised a few steps, in order to afford an +opportunity of seeing and hearing the Supreme Pastor. The Pontiff was +preceded by the noble guard and the household prelates. As he entered the +hall, loud and joyous acclamations burst from the assembled priesthood, +for whom it was impossible to restrain their feelings of love and +veneration. The Holy Father himself was deeply moved, and, gathering +enthusiasm from the unusual scene around him, spoke so as to be heard even +in the remotest corridors, whilst those at a still greater distance were +visibly moved by the thrilling tones of his sonorous voice. There are no +readers who will not be interested in the words which fell from the lips +of the Sovereign Pontiff on this unique and solemn occasion. He began by +thanking the assembled clergy for their attendance in such imposing +numbers. They were the tribe in Israel, he continued, whose special +inheritance was the Lord. They stood between him and his people evermore, +offering with prayer and supplication the spotless victim of the new law. +Let them look well to the ministry entrusted to them, shining in the +presence of all men by the dignity of their bearing, the innocence of +their life, by integrity and charity, and the golden ornaments of every +virtue. "You," he said, "who are the interpreters of the word of God, you +must preach it unweariedly to the wise and the unwise. Preach to them +Christ and Him crucified, not in loftiness of speech, but in the knowledge +of the spirit, never ceasing to call into the right road all who stray, +and confirm them in sound doctrine. Dispensers of the divine mysteries and +of the manifold grace of God, deal it out to the faithful people, to the +sick especially, in order that no help may fail them in their last +struggle with the evil one. Do not refuse to the little ones of the flock +the milk which they need. Let it be your dearest care to teach them, to +train them, to form them. Be the faithful and devoted helpmates of your +respective bishops; obeying them in all things, zealous to heal in your +parishes whatever is ailing, to bind up what is broken, to raise up what +is fallen, to seek what is lost, in order that in all things God may be +honored through our Lord Jesus Christ. Lift up your souls and contemplate +the immeasurable height of glory prepared by him for all true and faithful +laborers." + +On the 26th a great public consistory was held. The five hundred bishops +then at Rome were invited to attend. So great a number had never before +assembled in Italy or any part of Western Christendom. Nor indeed was +there ever, or could there ever have been, so great an occasion for their +assembling. There was question of celebrating the eighteen hundredth +anniversary of the glorious martyrdom of Rome's first great bishop, so +many prelates had come together, also in order to venerate Peter in the +person of his venerable successor, who had now so long and so gloriously +borne witness to the Truth--the Truth in its plenitude, as first committed +to Peter and his fellow-apostles. The world was no longer heathen, and no +Nero reigned, but the spirit of unbelief was abroad, and its champions +were even then seeking to drive the Sovereign Pontiff from the holy city, +and were waging war with as determined wickedness as that of the early +persecutors against whom the apostles had so successfully contended. + +The number of pilgrims from all parts of the Christian world, who had come +to Rome on occasion of the centennial celebration, is said by some writers +to have been not less than half a million. The presence of so great a +number of devoted Christian people on such an occasion was the noblest +protest that could be imagined against the vain boasts and prophecies of +the enemies of the Church which Peter founded. That church was not yet +forsaken, or destined soon to perish, which, in the nineteenth century of +her uninterrupted existence, could speak through so many witnesses--the +representatives of every civilized nation of the world. + +The great consistorial hall in the Vatican Palace being too small to +contain so great a crowd of dignified listeners, the assembly was held in +the more spacious room which is situated above the vestibule of St. +Peter's Church. At the opening of the consistory the cardinal's hat was +conferred on the Archbishop of Seville, Luis de la Lastray Cuesta. A +formal petition for the beatification of Marie Rivier, the foundress of +the presentation Nuns of France, was then presented. After this ceremony, +the Holy Father, as was expected, delivered an allocution to the bishops. +He was full of admiration for their zeal in coming in such numbers on his +invitation, and he could not do less than express to them his gratitude. +Their presence was a striking proof of the unity of the Catholic Church. +"Yes, everything here proclaims that admirable unity by which, as through +a mysterious channel, all the gifts and graces of the Holy Spirit flow +into the mystic body of Christ, calling forth in every one of its members +those acts of faith and charity which excite the wonder of all mankind. +What has brought you here? Are you not come to decree the honors of +sanctity to those heroes of the church, the greater number of whom bore +away the palm of victory in their glorious witness for Christ? Of these +some died in defending the primacy of this apostolic see, which is the +centre of truth and unity; others gave their lives in defence of the unity +and integrity of the faith; others again shed their blood in the endeavor +to bring back schismatics to the one fold. Is it not providential that +such heroism should be commemorated and honored at the very moment when +the Catholic faith and the authority of the Holy See are the objects of +such furious and implacable conspiracies? We are also here to celebrate +with solemn rites the memory of that auspicious day, eighteen hundred +years ago, when Peter and Paul consecrated by their heroic witnessing and +their precious blood this impregnable stronghold of Catholic unity. What +can be more reasonable than that our joyous commemoration of this +triumphant death of the prince of the apostles should be graced by your +presence? For he belongs to the entire Catholic world. It is also most +important that the enemies of religion should conclude from what they +witness here how mighty is the energy, how unfailing the life, of that +Catholic Church which they so bitterly hate; how little wisdom they +display in matching their strength and their temporary triumphs over her +against that incomparable union of living forces which the creative power +of Christ has bound around this central rock. More than ever is it needful +in our age, that all men should see and understand that the only strong +and lasting tie between men's souls depends on the reign over all of the +same Spirit of God. Besides, what can make a more abiding impression on +Catholic nations; what can draw them more powerfully and bind them more +closely in obedience to this apostolic chair and to us, than to see how +much their pastors cherish the rights and duties of Catholic unity, than +to behold them journeying from the farthest lands, notwithstanding every +inconvenience and impediment, in order to visit Rome and the apostolic +chair, as well as to revere in our humble person the successor of Peter +and the Vicar of Christ? We have been always convinced, from the moment we +beheld you approaching Peter in the person of his successor, or even +entering this city, which is impregnated with his blood, that from thence +to each one of you should go forth a special virtue. Yes, from this tomb, +where Peter's ashes repose amid the veneration of the Christian world, a +hidden power, a salutary energy, emanates which instils into the souls of +the Chief Pastors the desire of great undertakings and of vast designs, +inspiring that fearlessness and magnanimity which enable them to put down +the impudent boldness of their assailants. There cannot be offered to the +eyes of men and angels a more magnificent spectacle than what one beholds +in such a concourse of pilgrims as this. You who come from the ends of the +earth to this home of your Father remind us not only of that pilgrimage +which leads us all to the eternal home, you also call to mind the journey +of the chosen people from AEgypt to the promised land, the twelve tribes +marching together, each under its chief, bearing its own name, having its +own appropriate place in the camp. Every family there was obedient to its +parents, every company of warriors hearkened to the voice of its captain, +and the entire multitude to the divinely-appointed leader. All these +tribes, nevertheless, were but one people, adoring the same God, +worshipping at the same altar, obeying the same laws, having one Pontiff, +Aaron, and one leader, Moses--one people, enjoying common rights in the +perils and labors of warfare as well as in the results of victory, +dwelling in the same tents, and fed by the same miraculous bread, whilst +all yearned for the same end of their pilgrimage. Nothing is to us the +subject of such ardent longing as to see both ourselves and the whole +church deriving from this precious union the most salutary blessings. It +has long been a serious matter of thought for us, and which, indeed, we +communicated to several of the episcopal body, to hold an OEcumenical +Council, in which, with the Divine assistance, our united counsels and +solicitude should devise such efficient remedies as are necessary for the +evils that afflict the church." + +Pius IX. had for a long time entertained the idea of holding an OEcumenical +Council. And no doubt his mind found relief when he communicated his +purpose to the assembled bishops. Two years later, as is well known, the +proposed council was convened at the Vatican, and from this circumstance +is known in history as the Vatican Council. Bishops, priests and laity +heard the intimation with delight. Their fervor and enthusiasm increased +as the day of the grand centennial celebration approached. The vigil, 28th +June, was enlivened by illuminations. By early dawn on the 29th, the feast +of SS. Peter and Paul, people poured into Rome from the surrounding +territory. They were welcome visitors. The Romans, far from being jealous +of so great a concourse of strangers, hailed them as brothers, engaged, as +they also were, in the great object of doing honor to the memory of Rome's +apostles. The first grand public ceremony of the day was the solemn +canonization, of which no description need be given in this place, as +everything was conducted in the same way as in 1852 and 1863. The Holy +Father himself then celebrated High Mass, and, what is still more +noteworthy, delivered the sermon of the day. Until the time of Pius IX., +no Pope had preached in public since the epoch of the Crusades and the +Pontificate of Gregory VII. The Holy Father set an example to all who +preach on great and solemn public occasions. His sermon was short, but +replete with instruction, and marked by that earnestness which commands +attention and moves the soul. The music, as was fitting at so great a +celebration, was given by three choirs, in all four hundred voices, which +completely filled the immense Basilica, conveying, by the exquisite music +which they gave forth, an idea of that more than earthly harmony which +ever ascends to the throne of heaven from the angelic choirs. There was +also a solemn service in the afternoon, which was alike highly interesting +and calculated to inspire devotion. The general illumination which took +place at night rivalled the splendor of the bright Italian day. On June +30th was celebrated the special feast of St. Paul in the fine church +dedicated to this great apostle, and with scarcely less magnificence than +that of St. Peter had been honored. + +The bishops now desired, before leaving Rome, to present an address to the +Holy Father, as well in reply to his allocution of 26th June as to express +their gratitude for the great kindness which he had shown them. The 1st +July was the day chosen for the presentation of this address. It is a +model of elegant Latinity, and completely refutes the modern assertion +that churchmen are unacquainted with the Latin of the classics. The reply +of the assembled bishops to the fatherly allocution of Pius IX. affords, +moreover, an admirable proof of the sympathy of the united episcopate with +the Supreme Bishop. It shows the excellent union of the bishops with one +another, and their no less perfect union with their Head. What more could +there have been in the brightest days of the church's history? + +(M106) The French garrison had departed before the commencement of the +memorable celebrations that have been just described. Although the +population of Rome was literally doubled by the presence of pious +strangers, not the slightest breach of order was ever observed. The +exercise of filial duty required not to be watched over by any outside +power. It was now seven months since Napoleon III. had withdrawn his +troops. + +On the 6th December, 1866, Pius IX. had taken leave of them in the +following words: + +"Your flag, which left France eighteen years ago with commission to defend +the rights of the Holy See, was at that time attended by the prayers and +acclamations of all Christendom. To-day it returns to France. I desire, my +dear children, that it may be welcomed by the same acclamations. But I +doubt it. It is only too manifest, indeed, that because it will appear to +have ceased to protect me my enemies will not on that account cease to +attack me. Quite the contrary. We must not delude ourselves. The +revolution will come here. It has declared and still declares that it +will. An Italian personage in high position lately said that Italy is made +but not completed. Italy would be undone if there were here one spot of +earth where order, justice and tranquillity prevail! Formerly, six years +ago, I conversed with a representative of France. He asked me if there +were anything I wished to transmit to the Emperor. I replied: St. +Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, which is now a French city, beholding the +barbarians at the gates of the town, prayed the Lord that he might die +before they entered, because his mind was horror-struck by the thought of +the evils which they would cause. I added: Say this to the Emperor: he +will understand it. The ambassador made answer: Most Holy Father, have +confidence; the barbarians will not enter. The ambassador was no prophet. +Depart, my children, depart with my blessing and my love. If you see the +Emperor, tell him that I pray for him every day. It is said that his +health is not very good; I pray that he may have health. It is said that +his mind is not at ease. I pray for his soul. The French nation is +Christian; its Chief ought also to be Christian. Let there be prayer with +confidence and perseverance, and this great and powerful nation may obtain +what it desires. Depart, my children; I impart to you my benediction, and +with it my wish that it may attend you throughout the journey of life. +Think not that you leave me here alone and deprived of all resource. God +remains with me; in Him I place my trust!" + +Pius IX., in a more private communication, said: "Yes, God sustains His +vicar and aids his weakness. He may permit him to be driven away, but only +in order to show, once more, that he can bring him back. I have been +exiled; I returned from exile. If banished anew, I will again return. And +if I die--well! if I die, Peter will rise again!" + +Thus did Pius IX. clearly foresee the danger but was not on that account +less confident. Nor did his confidence lessen his foresight. What, indeed, +he said publicly, "The revolution will come here," everyone capable of +reasoning said in secret. The September convention left the small +Pontifical sovereignty surrounded on all sides by its enemies, just as the +government of Napoleon III. would have been if isolated in Paris and the +two neighboring departments, all the rest of the French territory being in +the power of a republic, or a Bourbon Monarchy. In vain did M. Rouher +endeavor to demonstrate to the Chambers that a stable equilibrium was +established, and which was of such a character as to remain by itself for +an indefinite period. Nobody was convinced by his reasoning. But the +Imperial majorities, recruited as they were by the system of official +candidatures, asked not of the complaisant minister reasons which he had +not to give. They sought only pretexts which should allow them to vote, +with a show of decency, according to the wishes of the master. + +The Holy Father was destined to enjoy a period of success before his +prophecy came to be fulfilled. Immediately after the disastrous but +glorious events of 1860, the courageous Belgian, Mgr. de Merode, as +Minister of War, and afterwards General Kanzler, in this same capacity, +greatly renewed the small Pontifical army. As their labors deserved, they +were attended with success. Lamoriciere died towards the end of 1865; but +on the new alarm of danger, many of his veterans of Castelfidardo and +Ancona, returned to Rome in 1866. The flower of the French, Dutch, +Belgian, English, Swiss and Roman youth made it a point of honor to swell +the ranks of the Papal Zouaves. The high tone, the illustrious names of +several of these new crusaders, and the admirable discipline which +prevailed among them all, soon won for them the respect even of the few +revolutionists who were at Rome. These brave and self-sacrificing youths, +many of whom served at their own cost, were addressed as "Signor Soldato" +(Signor Soldier) by the passers-by, whilst the venal scribes of the +outside revolutionary press did their best to stigmatize them as "the +mercenaries of the Pope." Whilst some of these warriors devoted their +life, others bestowed their gold. It is honorable to the Catholic people +that, in the circumstances, they added the good work of supporting the +Pontifical army to their collections of Peter's pence. In order to furnish +the sum of 500 francs (L20 sterling) yearly, which was required for each +soldier, artisans and even domestic servants freely subscribed. In 1867, +the Catholics of the diocese of Cambrai, sent two hundred Zouaves; those +of Rodez and Arras, one hundred for each diocese; whilst Cologne, Nantes, +Rennes and Toulouse did almost as much. + +Meanwhile, having its eyes somewhat opened by the light from Sadowa, the +French government appeared to have abandoned, as regarded the protection +of the Holy See, its secret maxim of 1860: "Neither do anything nor allow +anything to be done." In withdrawing from Rome, it had authorized the +creation, under a chief whom it was pleased itself to designate, a body of +volunteers, selected chiefly from the French army, whose duty it should be +to guard the Pope. This corps was called the Legion of Antibes, from the +name of the city where it was formed. Pius IX., besides, could rely on the +fidelity of the Roman army, properly so called. Thus was he more than +sufficiently provided against any possible internal disturbance. It was +not to be expected that he should be prepared to meet a formidable foreign +invasion of his state. + +The notorious Garibaldi had already made preparations for invading the +Roman territory. Whilst he neglected not to strengthen the _International_ +at the Geneva Congress of Demagogues, the indefatigable brigand availed +himself of the crowding of pilgrims to Rome in order to deceive the +Pontifical police, and to introduce into the city bands of cutthroats, +munitions of war, and arms of every kind, not excepting Orsini bombs. +After the departure of the bishops, he opened publicly, in Italy, +subscription lists, and enrolled soldiers. The Piedmontese government +stores were at his service as they were in 1860, in order to aid him in +clothing and arming his volunteers. These were joined by numerous +functionaries and officers of the regular army, who took no pains to +conceal their Piedmontese arms and uniforms. Municipalities, at public +deliberative meetings, voted subsidies to the Garibaldians, and railway +managers provided them with special trains. Whilst so many things that +clearly showed the complicity of Piedmont were done, Victor Emmanuel sent +protestation after protestation to Paris. He did not, by any means, +intend, he said, to disembarrass himself of the obligations which were +imposed on him by the first article of the convention of the 15th +September, 1865. It might be relied upon, besides, that he would check the +agitators and repress by force, even, if necessary, all violation of the +Pontifical frontier. Nor did the wily monarch confine himself to words. He +acted as he could act so well. Garibaldi was sent to his island, Caprera; +but only in order to escape from it at the opportune moment, through the +seven vessels by which he was guarded. An order for his arrest was then +issued. Active search was made for him at Genoa, at Turin, everywhere +except at Florence, where he harangued the people in the most public +places, even under the windows of the King's palace. Later, when it was +undertaken to arrest him at Florence, it so happened that he had started +by a special train for the Roman frontier, together with a complete staff. +(M107) The telegraph was put in requisition in order to turn back the +train. But, possibly through the fault of a disobedient employee, the +telegraph failed to accomplish its purpose. The Italian government +neglected not to hold an investigation in regard to this matter, and swore +that the guilty party, if found out, would be punished. What more could be +desired? Was not France satisfied with much less than this in 1860? Whilst +diplomacy was thus playing its _role_, Garibaldi and his myrmidons were +penetrating on all sides at once the Pontifical territory. Twenty-seven +gensd'armes, who guarded the small town of Aquapendente, were surprised by +two hundred and fifty Garibaldians, who, on being re-inforced by another +band, marched thence on Ischia, Valentano and Canino, pillaging the public +chests, sacking the convents and churches, prudently retiring as often as +they met Pontifical forces in any considerable numbers. Eighty-five +Zouaves, or soldiers of the line, having rashly pursued them at Bagnorea, +and attacked them with the bayonet, were repulsed with loss. It could not +well have been otherwise, considering the great disparity of numbers. +Garibaldi shouted victory, in his usual emphatic style: "Hail to the +victors of Aquapendente and Bagnorea! The foreign mercenaries have fled +before the valiant champions of Italian liberty. Those braggarts who +thirsted for blood have experienced the noble generosity of their brave +conquerors. As to you, priests, who know so well how to burn, torture and +imprison; you who drink, with hyena-like delight, in the cup of your +deceit, the blood of the liberators; we pardon you, and, together with +you, that butcher soldiery, the pestilent scum of a faithless faction." + +The conquerors, however, were driven from their easy conquests before they +received this proclamation which spoke of mercy in terms that expressed it +so poorly. Events which were a cruel satire on Garibaldi's words, and +which he had not foreseen, caused his bands to fall into the power of the +Pontifical troops, so that it was they who sued for pardon and obtained +it. It can even be said that on this occasion the generosity of the +soldiers of the Pope was excessive, for the vanquished enemy had been +guilty of many other crimes besides that of rising in arms against the +legitimate government. They had pillaged the Cathedral of Bagnorea, broken +the tabernacle, stolen the sacred vessels, defiled the image of the +Madonna, pierced the crucifix with their bayonets, decapitated the statues +of the saints, and enacting an infernal parody, shot an inoffensive man, +in order that human blood might be shed on the altar of sacrifice. + +At Subiaco, the governor, who was a priest, fell, together with the town, +into the hands of the banditti. They were preparing to sack the place and +put the governor to death, when a Pontifical troop appeared. The struggle +was short. The Garibaldian chief was slain, and the rest fled. They who +guarded the prisoner threw themselves at his knees, imploring mercy. "Have +pity on us, my Lord; do not give us up to the Zouaves; they would kill +us." The governor made them go into his oratory and closed the door. +Meanwhile the commandant of the Zouaves arrived, gave him the details of +the battle, and spoke of the prisoners he had taken. "Everybody makes +prisoners," said the governor, smiling. "I have some also, although not, +like you, a man of the sword." "Where are they?" "Ah! they are mine and +not yours. Promise that you will respect my absolute right of conqueror; +if not, I will not show them." The commandant made the desired promise, +and the governor opened the door of his oratory and made the Garibaldians +come out. These prisoners were greatly amazed. Having asked and obtained +the governor's priestly blessing, they freely recrossed the Italian +frontier. + +The action at Monte-Libretti, which took place on the 14th October, was of +a more serious character. Eighty Zouaves contended from half-past five in +the evening till eight o'clock against twelve hundred Garibaldians. Arthur +Guillemin, their captain, and Urbain de Quelen, their second lieutenant, +fell gloriously. When night came, the Zouaves being unable to fight any +longer, and not venturing to establish themselves in the first houses +which they had taken, whilst all the rest of the town still swarmed with +the enemy, retired in good order, bearing away their dead, and also twelve +prisoners. They returned next morning, in order to renew the attack, but +found the place evacuated. + +The violation of the Pontifical territory was now too flagrant to be +denied any longer, and the more so, as the Cabinet of the Tuileries was +not ignorant of anything that was taking place. It was, by a fortunate +accident, represented at Rome by a diplomatist of a different school from +that of Thouvenel and Lavalette. The ambassador, M. de Sartiges, was +absent on leave, and was replaced by his first secretary, M. Arman. The +latter understood his duty, and, at the risk of being importunate, ceased +not to make known, every day, to France, the events which were so rapidly +occurring. Thus did a comparatively humble secretary save the honor of his +country. Compelled by the terms of the September convention to stay the +invasion, the Government of Florence stationed a corps of forty thousand +men, under the command of Cialdini, around the Pontifical frontier, and +intimated to the Tuileries that it was for its protection. It soon became +evident that it was in order to fall upon it, in the wake of Garibaldi, as +they had fallen upon the Kingdom of Naples in 1860. Meanwhile, the +invaders passed without any difficulty between the different posts, and +when beaten and pursued by the Pontifical troops, they retired and +reformed behind the ranks of the Piedmontese. + +(M108) Hence the small body of Pontifical soldiers was easily overwhelmed, +and the Garibaldian hordes, although beaten, were always advancing. Rome +was filled with consternation. The cutthroats of the revolution spoke of +applying gunpowder to public edifices. And indeed they set about +fulfilling their threat by blowing up the Serratori barracks, which they +had undermined, and which buried, one evening, in their ruins, the music +band of the Zouaves, whilst they were engaged at a rehearsal. Fortunately +the bandsmen were the only victims. The rest of the corps which remained +to guard the city was at the moment patrolling at a distance from the +barracks. The Garibaldians expected the explosion. They rushed into the +streets and endeavored to avail themselves of the terror and confusion +which generally prevailed in order to seize the military posts. They +managed to assassinate, in the dark, a few soldiers and some gensd'armes; +but they succeeded not even in ringing the alarm-bell at the Capitol, +which was intended to be their signal. Their principal leader, a Milanese, +whose name was Cairoli, was killed with arms in his hands, together with +some twenty of his followers, in a vineyard near the city; and so failed +the enterprise. + +The French Cabinet ceased, at length, to persist in the face of the +clearest evidence and against the unanimous voice of the national +conscience. A small body of soldiers had been sent to the French port of +Toulon. It received orders to embark for Civita Vecchia. Catholics were +relieved from their anxiety. Meanwhile came new assurances from Florence. +A counter-order was given, and the embarkation suspended. Victor Emmanuel +and his minister, Ratazzi, thought they understood the secret meaning of +this counter-order. They remembered the past, and the troops of Cialdini +boldly crossed the Pontifical frontier. + +(M109) French historians relate that, on receiving this news, all who had +any concern for the honor of France believed that it had come to an end, +and made up their minds, in sullen silence, to swallow the new disgrace. +They who were indifferent, even, became indignant. People who met on the +boulevards of Paris asked one another to what extremes those Italian +mountebanks (farceurs) would bring them. The enemies of the Pope, who were +equally hostile to the Emperor, rejoiced, but secretly. The deputies +either protested together with the Catholics, or dared not show +themselves; the ministers were silent. Finally, the army took its +departure from Toulon. It was time that it should; and this appeared to be +well understood. There was great irresolution in coming to a decision. It +was no less promptly carried into effect. The French army disembarked at +Civita Vecchia on the 29th October, under the command of General de +Failly. + +Three days earlier, 26th October, the small town of Monte Rotondo, five +leagues from Rome, was attacked by Garibaldi in person, attended by a band +of five thousand four hundred fighting men. Its garrison consisted of five +hundred men of the legion of Antibes. These few brave soldiers held their +ground for two days and repelled five attacks. They were compelled at last +to yield, having exhausted all their munitions of war. They retired, but +left Garibaldi so much weakened and disorganized by his inglorious victory +that he was unable for several days to advance. Thus, for the moment, did +the legion of Antibes save Rome. + +(M110) Monte Rotondo, it is almost superfluous to relate, experienced the +fate of Bagnorea. Nothing comparable in point of atrocity had occurred +since the invasion of Italy by the barbarians. In justice to Garibaldi, it +must be said that he rebuked publicly by an order of the day, dated 28th +October, the "shameful excess" of his fellow-adventurers, and proceeded to +expurgate their ranks. But he could not hinder them from being what they +were, a mob of miscreants that the secret societies of the whole world had +discharged on the Pontifical State. He was not less astonished to meet +with so poor a welcome on the part of the people whom it was supposed he +came to deliver. His chief lieutenant, Bertani, bears witness to this +state of things, in the _Riforma_ of 18th November, 1867: "It must be +admitted," said this writer, "that the people of the Roman States have no +idea of an Italy one and free. We have not been greeted or encouraged by a +single cry of rejoicing; nor have we obtained either any spontaneous +assistance, or even a word of consolation, from these brutified people." + +General Kanzler, the pro-Minister of War, well understood that it was +impossible to defend for any length of time the frontier against bands +that were constantly recruited. Accordingly, he ordered all the isolated +garrisons to concentrate at Rome. It was more important than anything else +to preserve the Papal city from being surprised by the invaders. +Garibaldi, when re-inforced, marched in advance of Monte Rotondo. Cialdini +followed him at some distance, but without daring as yet openly to join +the banditti. The French, however, were _en route_. Kanzler took his +departure from Rome on 3rd November, at two o'clock in the morning, +followed by 3,000 Pontifical troops and 2,000 French soldiers. "Come," +said he, to M. Emilius Keller, Dr. O'Zannam, and some others who had just +arrived from Paris, in order to organize the ambulance service of the +Pontifical army, "come, and you will see a fine battle." The small army +met the enemy at one o'clock in the afternoon, at a short distance from +the town of Mentana, the ancient Nomentum from which the Nomentan way +(_via Nomentana_) took its name. Garibaldi's command was from 10,000 to +12,000 strong. He placed his men in ambuscade, partly on small hills that +were covered with wood, and partly scattered them, as fusileers, along the +hedges. His left wing was commanded by Pianciani, who, some time later, +was Mayor of Rome. Kanzler's force commenced firing. But what could it +avail against an enemy that was invisible and in superior numbers? A +veteran of Castelfidardo, Lieutenant-Colonel de Charette, the same who was +destined afterwards to immortalize himself at Patay and at Mans, +understood that nothing was to be gained by a fusillade. "Forward," he +cried, "my Zouaves! charge with the bayonet; and, remember, the French +army is looking on." The Zouaves reply: "Live Pius IX!" and spring forward +with their leader. The Garibaldians are dislodged from the first hill--from +the other hills, and would have been utterly routed but for the formidable +intrenchments presented by the Santucci vineyard, which was laid out in +gardens rising in storeys, one above the other, and intersected by walls. +Garibaldi was posted on the summit, in a villa, whence he directed his +fire without being exposed to personal danger. His position was, indeed, +strong. Charette's troop was observed to waver. "Forward, Zouaves!" cried +their leader, "or I shall die without you!" As he spoke, his horse was +struck by a ball and fell dead. Meanwhile, the Zouaves scaled the walls +and the ravines, without heeding those who fell. Garibaldi was +disconcerted by this living tornado. He fell back from his villa to the +houses, and thence to the Castle of Mentana. The Zouaves followed in the +face of a murderous fire, discharged from the walls of the castle; but +they always advanced, and finally, repelled, by a bayonet charge, a +renewed and general attack of the enemy. Such efforts, however, could not +have been sustained for any length of time unaided, and bravery must, in +the end, have given way to numbers. General de Courten, who directed this +attack, sent to ask assistance from General Polhes, who commanded the army +of France. The French soldiers had been, hitherto, inactive, although by +no means unheeding spectators of the combat. "Bravo! Zouaves, bravo!" +cried they, eagerly desiring to share in the fight. At a sign from their +chief, they sprang forward in their turn. At their head was Colonel +Saussier, of the 20th regiment of the line, who was afterwards general and +member of the National Assembly at Versailles. The sudden and hitherto +unknown fire of the chassepots carried death and terror within the +precincts of the castle. Meanwhile, a detachment of Zouaves managed to +place themselves between Mentana and Monte Rotondo, and so intercepted the +reinforcements which were hastening from the latter place to join the +Garibaldians. At sight of this achievement, the bands, already much +demoralized, were thrown into confusion. Night came, and, favoring their +flight, changed it to a rout. Garibaldi himself, who had so often shouted, +"_Rome or death_"--stole away, under cover of the darkness, like the +meanest of the fugitives. His sons did in like manner. It was expected +that they would renew the battle next day, as Monte Rotondo, which they +still held, presented a convenient position for rallying. They did nothing +of the kind. On the very night which followed the engagement Garibaldi and +his sons recrossed the Italian frontier. "He always runs away" (_si salva +sempre_), said his followers, in the bitterness of their disappointment, +when so shamefully betrayed and abandoned. The French soldiers, on the +other hand, always inclined to raillery and punning, baptized the action +of the preceding day, calling it the battle of _Montre ton dos_. The +Garibaldians, who held the castle, as well as the rest of the banditti who +could not get away in time, surrendered, unconditionally, to General +Polhes. There was but little bloodshed on the side of the victors, thanks +to the rapidity with which the victory was won. The losses of the French +troops were not more than two killed, two officers and thirty-six privates +wounded. Of the Pontifical force there were twenty killed and one hundred +and twenty-three wounded. Several of these died of their wounds. + +(M111) Among those noble victims who claim the gratitude of the Catholic +world, were names already dear to the church--such as Bernard de +Quatre-barbe, a nephew of the defender of Ancona; Rodolph de Maistre, +grandson of the immortal author of "The Pope;" and John de Muller, son of +the celebrated German controversialist. As if nothing that is glorious +should be wanting to the field of Mentana, it had also its martyrs of +charity. The Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul went and came among the +wounded and the dying, giving their aid alike to all, no matter what their +uniform. There was need of water. A Pontifical Zouave, Julius Watts +Russell, ran to find some for a Garibaldian who was at the point of death. +As he was gently raising the head of the moribund, in order that he might +drink, he was himself struck with a ball and fell dead on the body of him +whom he had endeavored to succour. On his person was found a small note, +in which he thus exhorted himself: "My soul, O, my soul! love God and +pursue thy way." What Christian would not be envious of a like death--a +death which nobly crowned such a life as these few words necessarily +suppose? + +(M112) The vanquished had been fanaticised by the secret societies as well +as by Garibaldi himself, that infuriated enthusiast, who could not write +four lines nor utter four words without enshrining therein the treasons of +the black race, that prurient sore of Italy; or the _venom_ of the +Vatican, that nest of vipers; or the lies of Pius IX., that pest, that +monster, twice accursed, as priest and as king. So when these people were +made prisoners, they expected nothing better than the hardest treatment +and the most terrible vengeance. How surprised must they not then have +been to find that their wounded were attended to on the field of battle, +and the same care and attention extended to them as to the wounded of the +Pontifical force, whilst those who were sound met with no other punishment +than to be well guarded at first, and afterwards released by degrees, as +it became certain that Garibaldi would be in no hurry to renew his game. +Finally, a complete amnesty was granted. This extreme clemency of a +legitimate government towards an invading banditti presented a noble and +happy contrast with the implacable revenge of the usurping King of +Piedmont. Victor Emmanuel, in fact, had no hesitation in putting to death +the Spanish general Borges and his Neapolitan comrades, who were arrested +whilst bearing arms in an endeavor to deliver the kingdom of Naples, and +restore its former king, Francis II. + +(M113) Two men only were excepted from the Pontifical amnesty. These were +the authors of that atrocious act, the blowing up of the Sorristori +barracks. Their crime, indeed, could not be considered as anything +connected with the war, but simply as cowardly assassination. Those two +wretches, Monti and Tognetti, underwent a regular trial, which lasted more +than a year, and at which all the forms required by law were strictly +observed. They were convicted, and ended by acknowledging everything. They +suffered capital punishment, and, at their execution, begged pardon of God +and men. The day after this execution--coming generations will scarcely +believe so strange a fact--the Chamber of Deputies at Florence solemnly +protested against it, as did also Victor Emmanuel. The secret societies +opened a subscription list for the widows of the executed criminals. +Victor Emmanuel took part in it. And thus did a king honor parties who +commit murder by gunpowder plots. True, this king was the same prince who, +in pursuance of a decree issued by Garibaldi, at Naples, in 1861, +pensioned the widow of the regicide, Agesilas Milano. + +(M114) Pius IX. entertained quite a different idea of the duties of +royalty. He was persuaded that an example should be made of the foul crime +of Monti and Tognetti, and so could not be moved. "A king," said he, "owes +justice to all alike, certainly not excepting honest people: and hence +assassins must not be allowed to count on impunity." He went kindly to +visit the wounded Garibaldians, "those unfortunate people, a great many of +whom were only misled, and who, nevertheless, were his children." Two +hundred of them had been conveyed to a lower room in the Castle of St. +Angelo. He visited them quite alone, and thus addressed them: "Here I am, +my friends; you see before you him whom your general calls the Vampire of +Italy; you all took up arms against me, and you see that I am only a poor +old man! You are in need of shoes, clothes and linen. Well, the Pope on +whom you made war will cause you to be supplied with all these things. He +will then send you back to your families; only before your departure, you +will, from love to me, make a spiritual retreat." The unfortunate rebels +could not believe their eyes or their ears. Some turned away from him in +sullen wrath, like demons who will not give up hating. Others, in greater +numbers, seized hold of the paternal hand which was raised over them to +bless them, and bathed it with their tears. The good Pope, marvelled at +the designs of God, who brings good out of evil. "_O felix culpa_" ("O +happy fault!"), said he, alluding to the prayers of Holy Saturday, "if +these children had not borne arms against me, they would not, perhaps, +have died so piously." + +It was some time before the details of Mentana were known in France. The +government, it would appear, feared to acknowledge that the French +soldiers took part in the engagement. When, however, the general's report +put an end to all doubt on the subject, there were no bounds to the rage +of the revolutionary party. The revolution, hitherto, had used Louis +Napoleon as a facile and valuable instrument. It could not pardon him +Mentana. But France was not all revolutionary. The mass of the nation, +honest and loyal, shared not the ideas of the secret societies. Far from +regretting what had taken place, the French people dreaded lest there +should not have been enough done. + +Cialdini, indeed, had been able to withdraw his troops, not with honor but +without molestation, within the Italian frontier, whilst no account was +required of his violation of the September convention. The ministers +continued to discuss Italian unity as freely as they had been in the habit +of doing for eight years, and the officious demagogue papers which were +devoted to Prince Napoleon began to demand the speedy return of the French +troops from Rome, and that by virtue of the famous convention which, +according to these politicians, was binding on France, but not on Italy. +The legislative body was moved. Not only the deputies who were declared +Catholics, and who always divided against the government on the Roman +question, but a great number of those also who had never until that time +shown any indocility at the moment of voting, resolved to force the +government to make a clear and public declaration of its intentions. The +debate was opened by M. Thiers in an eloquent speech at the sitting of 4th +December. He proved, and the proof was not difficult, that no reliance +could be placed on the word of Victor Emmanual or Italian promises. "The +House of Savoy," said he, "goes to a falcon hunt with Garibaldi. If the +latter fails he is taken to Caprera. If he succeeds, and takes a kingdom, +they say to him, you are the revolution: your prey does not belong to you; +it is ours, who are order and legality." Jules Favre, a barrister, +shamelessly spoke in a contrary sense, and endeavored to justify Italy. +His sophistry met with no response. + +The minister, M. Rouher, could not retreat. He made a long speech, in +which he defended the policy of Napoleon III. against the two former +speakers, and involved himself once more in the inconceivable idea of +neither sacrificing Italian unity to the Pope's temporal sovereignty nor +that sovereignty to Italian unity. (On the one hand, M. Jules Favre +objected that Italy, and chiefly amongst others, Menabrea, the actual head +of the Florence Cabinet, whose wisdom and moderation had just been praised +by the French minister, ceased not to declare that the possession of Rome +was indispensable.) On the other hand, there were loud murmurs which +protested against the iniquitous equality which was sought to be +established between the victim and his executioner. M. Rouher perceived +that the majority which the Imperial government had commanded for sixteen +years, was on the point of slipping from him; so, turning to Jules Favre, +he declared "that he was not agreed with him on any point--that he +absolutely rejected his policy." Then, addressing the Conservatives, he +affirmed that they would defend Rome so long as the desired reconciliation +did not take place--that France would never, never abandon Rome. He +concluded by conjuring the deputies to cling to the government which gave +the battle of Mentana as a pledge of its sincerity. This declaration was +greeted with prolonged applause, and it could no longer be doubted that +the vote would be almost unanimous. The deputies, however, determined that +the head of their church should not be imperfectly protected, required of +the minister a distinct explanation of what he meant by defending Rome. +They were resolved that the government should not have the power to give +up to Italy the territory around the city which the Pope still possessed, +and leave to him only the walls of Rome. This position was maintained by +the veteran orator of French parliaments, M. Berryer. A great number of +deputies came to his support, so necessary was it understood to be to +guard against all subterfuge in transacting with Napoleon III. M. Rouher +was constrained to reascend the tribune. He did so, he said, more fully to +express his idea, and declared, whilst the Chamber loudly applauded, that +the Emperor guaranteed not only the city of Rome, but also the territory +actually possessed by the Holy See, in all its integrity. Such was the +memorable sitting of 4th December, 1867, at which the will of France was +forced on its despotic ruler. But both for him and the country, French +writers assure us, it was too late. If the representatives of the nation, +they say, had shown from the beginning the same decision; if the empire +had always spoken as on the 4th December, 1867; if, above all, it had +acted conformably to its words, it would either not have fallen or fallen +with honor. But never would we have seen either Italian unity or German +unity, and the black flag of Prussia would not wave to-day over Metz, +Malhouse and Strasbourg. + +Piedmont having withdrawn its threatening force on the approach of the +French troops, the Holy See had nothing to dread, for some time at least, +from foreign invasion. It remained only to provide against the attacks of +banditti such as had been just defeated at Mentana. In this important +matter the Holy Father was not left to his own resources. The whole +Christian world was in sympathy with him, and anxious for his safety. +Volunteers from all Catholic countries hastened to Rome. Even remote +Canada, so early as 1868, had sent her three hundred. And these +mercenaries, as the enemy called them, served at their own expense. The +Bishops of Hungary furnished three squadrons of Hussars, who were all +mounted, equipped, and in every way supplied by Hungarian subscriptions. +The bishops and nobility of Galicia sent lancers. France, Belgium and +Catholic Germany, emulated one another in their efforts to maintain the +Pontifical force. + +There was nothing warlike in thus providing against possible danger. So +long as France held Piedmont bound to treaty stipulations, any army in the +service of the Pope could only be employed as a police force in +maintaining internal peace, or in repelling such attempts as had recently +been made by the irregular bands of Garibaldi against the Pontifical +States. + +Meanwhile, the arts of peace were not neglected. The Holy Father, as might +be supposed, when freed from the fear of invasion and expulsion from his +state, applied with renewed zeal to the duties of his sublime office. Nor +to these alone did he confine the exercise of his well-directed charity. +The agricultural school for children remains a lasting and solid proof of +his enlightened benevolence. This establishment is called, in honor of its +august founder, the Pio Vigneard (Pia Vigna). It is provided with all the +most improved implements, and is confided to the care of the Belgian +Brothers of Mercy. It is wholly maintained by the private funds of Pius +IX. It may be seen on an eminence to the left of the railway as you +approach the city of Rome. + +ANNIVERSARY OF THE HOLY FATHER'S ORDINATION. + +The anniversary of the elevation of Pius IX. to the Christian priesthood +happily occurred during this interval of peace. There was but one feeling +throughout the whole Christian world. The warmest expressions of love and +devotedness proceeded from every land. All the sovereigns of Europe +conveyed by autograph letters their dutiful congratulations, whilst the +joy of the people everywhere knew no bounds. At Rome the feast of the +golden wedding of Pius IX. lasted three days. Everywhere else, as it fell +on the Sunday of the Good Shepherd, it was celebrated in the churches, and +often in public places or on the mountains by illuminations or bonfires. +Under the name of handsel to Pius IX., the Catholic press opened +subscription lists. Notwithstanding the regular payment of Peter's pence, +the public generosity was not exhausted. + +One journal might be quoted, which alone collected more than one hundred +thousand francs. The Archbishop of Cologne, Monsigneur Melchers, observed, +in a pastoral instruction which he issued on the occasion, that never +before had a Pope been in such intimate and universal relation with the +heart of humanity. And indeed it was more consoling to the Supreme Pastor +than all other demonstrations to reflect that so many millions on millions +of faithful united with him in prayer at the Mass of the 11th of April, +all on the occasion participating in the Holy Communion. He felt that the +whole universe prayed with him and for him. "O God!" he exclaimed, in +presence of some pilgrims who had come to congratulate him in person, "O +God! have mercy on me! This is too much happiness! I dread when, ere long, +I shall appear before Thy judgment-seat, lest Thou say to me: Thou hast +had thy reward on earth! Not to me, but to Thee, O Lord! belongeth the +love of Christians." He fully appreciated the numerous offerings and +congratulations of the Catholic world. His servants conceived the happy +idea of placing in symmetrical order throughout the apartments of the +Vatican the rich and numerous gifts which were presented to him on the +occasion of his jubilee. Beholding them, he exclaimed: "I also have my +universal exposition! It is the fruit not of my industry but of the love +of my children." Then, as he turned over the leaves of the gigantic +manuscripts which were covered with addresses of devotedness, he added: +"This is the true expression of the universal Catholic suffrage." + +This auspicious time of peace and rejoicing was not without its sorrows. +Among these were the fearful massacres of Christians in China. Nor were +these the worst, for they carried with them their consolation. If the +Church was cruelly persecuted in China, she won new glory in adding +martyrs to the Triumphant army in heaven. The many scandals that occurred +throughout Christendom were more truly afflicting. Above all, were truly +trying to the paternal heart of the Holy Father those which happened among +the Catholic people, who protected him in the possession of what remained +of his dilapidated patrimony. A court and a political system which were +destined soon to disappear were laboring to put an end to Christian +education. The prince, cousin of the Emperor, Napoleon III., and the +Senator and Academician, Sainte Beuve, held heathenish orgies in the +Lenten season, even on Good Friday. To crown the list of evil, apostacy +was not wanting. It was of little consequence that one who fell away, +although a vehement declaimer, was a shallow theologian; his loss was, +nevertheless, to be deplored. The progress of a low sect in Belgium called +Solidaires, the success of a new revolution in Spain, under favor of which +the members of religious communities, both of men and of women, were +driven from their homes in the name of liberty, together with the opening +of revolutionary clubs in Paris, caused Pius IX. to dread catastrophes in +the near future. Severe domestic affliction came this year (1869) to +aggravate the sorrows of Pius IX. His brother, Count Gabriel Mastai, met +with an accident which, at his advanced age, ninety, proved to be serious. +The Holy Father, immediately traversing Rome, ascended on his knees the +_scala sancta_. A few days later the death of the patient was intimated to +him. He shut himself up several hours in his private apartment, in order +that none might witness the tears which grief made him shed. Finally, he +repaired to the Vatican Basilica, where he prayed for a long time, both +before the Holy Sacrament and at the tomb of the apostles. + +AN EXERCISE OF SOVEREIGNTY. + +Those states which formed the monetary division of Western Europe--France, +Belgium, Switzerland and the Holy See, agreed at this time to refound +their silver coinage. A model was chosen, which Greece, Portugal, Roumania +and some other countries adopted in their turn, and it was understood that +the new coinage for each state should be in proportion to its population. +Hence it behooved the Pontifical State to issue forty millions of livres +or thereby, for a population numbering from three to four millions of +souls, including Romagna and Umbria, which the Pope still claimed. The +Florence government remonstrated against the issue of forty million +livres, on the ground that the Pontiff could not now actually count more +than from 600,000 to 700,000 subjects. Napoleon III., always inclined to +gratify the revolution, summoned Pius IX. to suspend the issue of his +exaggerated coinage, three-fourths of which, it was insisted, should be +cast anew with the effigy of Victor Emmanuel. This interference of +Napoleon was considered inopportune and unacceptable, the operation of +coining being almost completed. Cardinal Antonelli maintained the right of +the Holy See. The French and Italian governments agreed to exclude from +their circulation, and consequently from that of the whole monetary union, +all silver coins which bore the meek and noble likeness of Pius IX. This +they did without offering to the public any explanation. The revolutionary +party, however, were too honest not to supply this want. They at once gave +circulation to the rumor that the coinage of the Pope was of inferior +quality. He was pointed out as a money-counterfeiter by the thousand +organs of the infidel press. The people, grossly deceived, repelled with +indignation, as if it were that of a robber, the likeness of the +representative of justice on earth. The Catholics, meanwhile, observed +with pain that while this storm of calumny was raging, one of their own +number, once a champion of the temporal power, held in the French +government the portfolio of finance. The Pontifical treasury subjected +itself to considerable sacrifices, in order to diminish the losses and +silence the recriminations of those who were compelled to stop its money, +which could no longer be circulated. Chemists, in the interest of truth, +analyzed the depreciated metal, and declared that it was exactly of the +same value as the coinage of Napoleon III. But neither the officious nor +the official press took the pains to publish this fact, and the calumny +remained. The time was even then at hand, as French writers observe with +pain, when France, in her downfallen and exhausted condition, would have +been glad to possess this Pontifical money and dispense with worthless +paper. + +THE VATICAN COUNCIL--PURPOSE OF THE POPE IN CONVENING A GENERAL COUNCIL. + +This time of sorrow, mourning and difficulty was succeeded by a period of +unwonted activity. It was deemed expedient to convoke an OEcumenical +Council. This important measure was thought of on occasion of the +centenary celebration of the martyrdom of SS. Peter and Paul. After two +years of serious and mature deliberation and consultation, Pius IX. issued +apostolical letters, convening a council of the whole church at the +Vatican Basilica. The 8th of December, 1869, was appointed as the day for +its first assembling. The objects in view cannot be better described than +in the words of the venerable Pontiff. After a few preliminary paragraphs +in his Bull of Indiction, the Holy Father thus proceeds: + +"The Roman Pontiffs, in the discharge of the office divinely confided to +them in the person of Peter of feeding the entire flock of Christ, have +unweariedly taken on themselves the most arduous labors, and used every +possible means in order to have the various nations and races all over the +earth brought to the light of the Gospel, and by truth and holiness to +eternal life. All men know the zeal and unceasing vigilance with which +these same Roman Pontiffs have kept inviolate the deposit of faith, +discipline among the clergy, purity and science in the education given to +the members of the church, the holiness and dignity of Christian marriage: +how they studied day by day to promote the Christian education of the +youth of both sexes, to foster among all classes the love of religion, the +practice of piety and purity of morals as well as everything that might +conduce to the tranquillity, the good order and the prosperity of civil +society. Whenever great troubles arose, or serious calamities threatened +either the church or social order, the Roman Pontiffs judged it opportune +to convoke general councils, in order that with the advice and assistance +of the bishops of the Catholic world, whom the Holy Ghost hath established +to rule the Church of God, they might, in their united wisdom and +forethought, so dispose everything as to define the doctrines of faith, to +secure the destruction of the most prevalent errors, defend, illustrate +and develop Catholic teaching, restore and promote ecclesiastical +discipline and the reformation of morals. + +"No one at the present time can be ignorant how terrible is the storm by +which the church is assailed, and what an accumulation of evils afflicts +civil society. The Catholic Church, her most salutary doctrines, her most +revered power, the supreme authority of this Holy See, are all assailed +and trampled on by the bitter enemies of God and man. All that is most +sacred is held up to contempt; ecclesiastical property is made the prey of +the spoiler; the most venerable ministers of the sacraments, men most +eminent for their Catholic character, are harassed by unheard of +annoyances. The religious orders are suppressed, impious books of every +kind and pestilential publications are disseminated, wicked and pernicious +societies are everywhere and under every form multiplied. The education of +youth is, in almost all countries, withdrawn from the clergy, and, what is +far worse, intrusted in many places to teachers of error and evil. + +"In consequence of all these facts, to our great grief and that of all +good men, and to the irreparable ruin of souls, impiety, corruption of +morals, unbridled licentiousness, the contagion of depraved opinions, and +of every species of pestilential vice and crime, the violation of all +laws, human and divine, prevail everywhere to such an extent, that not +only religion but human society itself is thrown into the most deplorable +disorder and confusion. + +"Wherefore, following in the footsteps of our illustrious predecessors, we +have deemed it opportune to call together a General Council, as we had +long desired to do. + +"This OEcumenical Council will have to examine most diligently, and to +determine what it is most seasonable to do, in these calamitous times, for +the greatest glory of God, the integrity of faith, the splendor of Divine +worship, the eternal salvation of men, the discipline of the regular and +secular clergy, and their sound and solid education, the observance of +ecclesiastical laws, the reformation of morals, the Christian education of +youth, the common peace and universal concord. With the Divine assistance, +our labors must also be directed towards remedying the peculiar evils +which afflict church and state; towards bringing back into the right road +those who have strayed away from truth and righteousness; towards +repressing vice and error, in order that our holy religion and her saving +doctrines may acquire renewed vigor all over the earth, that its empire +may be restored and increased, and that thereby piety, modesty, honor, +justice, charity and all Christian virtues may wax strong and nourish for +the glory and happiness of our common humanity." + +It has been alleged and persistently maintained by the enemies of the Holy +See, that Pius IX. sought only to promote his own importance by convening +a General Council. Of this calumny the foregoing words, which so plainly +and distinctly set forth the purposes of the council, afford an abundant +refutation. No man holding a great public office can fulfil faithfully the +duties of that office without exalting his own character in the estimation +of mankind. Ought he then, because such things exalt him, to leave them +undone? This would, indeed, be mistaken humility. + +Councils, although not an essential element in the government of the +church, are had recourse to in times of difficulty, in order to settle +doctrinal disputes, promote morality and establish or restore discipline. +With the exception of the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem, no council was +held for the first three hundred years of the church's existence. The +church, nevertheless, as regarded her spiritual state, was highly +prosperous and extended rapidly. Councils came as exigencies arose, and +when there was no insuperable impediment to their assembling. They were in +their time a source of great and lasting good, whilst their record remains +shedding light on the centuries as they pass. There had already been +eighteen OEcumenical Councils, that of Trent, held three hundred years ago, +having been the last. Causes like to those which occasioned the earlier +councils, although in a different state of the world and human society, +appeared to call for such action on the part of the church as should +powerfully influence the passing age, and cause the light of Divine +revelation to penetrate the dark places of the nineteenth century. It was +resolved, accordingly, to convoke the OEcumenical Council of the age. + +BISHOPS, ETC., BIDDEN TO THE COUNCIL. + +It was the duty of the Commission of Direction to decide as to who had a +right to be called to, and to sit in, the council. This commission +consisted of five cardinals who were presidents, eight bishops and a +secretary, the Archbishop of Sardis. There was no difference of opinion. A +question, however, arose as to the right of vicars-apostolic to be invited +to the council. They were bishops, indeed, but without ordinary +jurisdiction. Hence the doubt as to their right to be called. Neither +their admissibility, if invited, nor of their decisive vote when admitted +was at all questioned. The precedents and practice of the Holy See were in +favor of their being called. It was also dreaded lest their exclusion +should give rise to questions as to the oecumenicity of the council. All +bishops, undoubtedly, were entitled to be invited. It was decided, +therefore, that bishops, vicars-apostolic, should be bidden to the +council. The Bulls by which former councils had been convoked called +together archbishops, bishops, etc. The law, therefore, making no +distinction between bishops in ordinary and such as were vicars-apostolic, +neither could the commission. _Ubi lex non distinguit nec nos distingnere +debemus_. + +It was a far more serious matter to invite "the bishops of the Oriental +rite who are not in communion with the Apostolic See." An earnest and +affectionate letter of invitation was addressed to them. It was presented +to the Patriarch of the "Orthodox" Greek Church, who did not consider it +worth while to open it. On the same day, it is related, four millions of +Bulgarians notified to this patriarch their withdrawal from his +jurisdiction. Many bishops of the Greek patriarchate were deeply moved by +the most kind and pressing appeal of the Holy Father. He had beseeched and +conjured them in the most earnest manner "to come to the general assembly +of the bishops of the West and of the whole world, as their fathers had +come to the second Council of Lyons and that of Florence, in order that, +renewing the charity which existed of old, and restoring the peace which +prevailed in the early ages, the fruits of which time has snatched from +us, we may behold at last the pure and bright dawn of that union which we +so ardently desire." The separated bishops to whom these touching words +were addressed, appear to have been profoundly moved. A goodly number, +even, actuated by the paternal intentions of the Holy Father, were +strongly inclined to meet his advances; but so powerful was the example of +the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, that none of them dared to take the +lead. The non-united Patriarch of Armenia replied that he would attend the +council. But he failed to do so. + +A very considerate letter was also addressed to Protestants and all +non-Catholics. Needless to say it was not responded to. At the Council of +Trent the same attention was shown, but with an equally unsuccessful +result. Julius II. had published the condition on which alone +non-Catholics generally could be invited, viz.: that they should recognize +the Divine authority of the Church. It was not surely to be expected that, +on occasion of the meeting of a General Council, the Catholic Church +should abandon, in favor of a comparatively small number of dissenters, +her fundamental claim to Divine commission, which was acknowledged +throughout all Christendom. The bishops of the Anglican Church were +astonished and irritated on finding that they were invited only as other +Protestants, and not convoked along with the Fathers of the Council. Rome +thus plainly intimated to them that they have yet to prove their +consecration and right to episcopal dignity. + +Rev. Dr. Cumming of London, a minister of the Scotch Presbyterian Church, +asked, through Archbishop Manning, to be allowed to lay before the council +such arguments as could be adduced in support of Protestant opinions. Pius +IX. caused the following reply to be sent to the learned minister: "The +decisions of former councils could not be shaken by bringing them anew +into question, and by discussing what had been already examined, judged +and condemned." Two months later, 30th October, 1869, having been informed +that his words might have been misunderstood, and that certain Protestants +imagined that all access to the Holy See was henceforth closed against +them, the Holy Father, in a new Bull which he very considerately issued, +declared that: "Far from repelling any one, we, on the contrary, make +advances towards all. To those who, led astray by their education, believe +in the truth of their opinions, we, by no means, refuse the examination +and discussion of their arguments. This cannot be done within the council; +but there are not wanting learned theologians whom we shall designate to +them, and to whom they can open their minds. May there be many who, in all +sincerity, shall avail themselves of this facility! We earnestly pray that +the God of mercy may bring about this happy result." + +FATHERS WHO ATTENDED THE COUNCIL. + +A statement of the number of Fathers who attended the council, at any +particular time during its celebration, can hardly convey an accurate idea +of the numbers who took part in its proceedings. Some were always arriving +and others departing. Some fell sick, and a few died. The number in +attendance, however, was always considerable. An official list, published +by the Apostolic Chamber, shows the number and quality of such as were +entitled to be present, and who could have attended except on account of +hindrances arising from sickness, age or impediments thrown in their way +by the governments under which they lived. These included 55 cardinals, 11 +patriarchs, 7 primates, 159 archbishops, 755 bishops, 6 abbots, 22 mitred +abbots-general, 29 generals and vicars-general of orders; in all, 1,044. A +later official list of 1st May states the total number at 1,050, new +primatial, archiepiscopal and episcopal churches having been erected in +the meantime. + +On the 8th December there were at Rome: 49 cardinals, 9 patriarchs, 4 +primates, 123 archbishops, 481 bishops, 6 abbots, 22 abbots-general, 29 +vicars and vicars-general of orders; in all, 723 Fathers. On 20th December +there were 743. + +The following Bishops of England were in attendance at the council: The +Most Rev. Archbishop Manning, of Westminster; the Most Rev. Dr. Errington, +Archbishop of Trebizonde; the Right Rev. Dr. Grant, of Southwark; the +Right Rev. Dr. Cornthwaite, of Beverly; the Right Rev. Dr. Uullathorne, of +Birmingham; the Right Rev. Dr. Clifford, of Clifton; the Right Rev. Dr. +Chadwick, of Hexham; the Right Rev. Dr. Amherst, of Northampton; the Right +Rev. Dr. Roskell, of Nottingham; the Right Rev. Dr. Vaughan, of Plymouth; +the Right Rev. Dr. Turner, of Salford; the Right Rev. Dr. Brown, of +Shrewsbury. + +There was a somewhat longer list of Irish bishops, viz.: His Eminence +Paul, Cardinal-Archbishop of Dublin; the Most Rev. Dr. McGettigan, Primate +of all Ireland, Archbishop of Armagh; the Most Rev. Dr. Leahy, Archbishop +of Cashel; the Most Rev. Dr. McHale, Archbishop of Tuam; the Right Rev. +Dr. Derry, of Clonfert; O'Keane, Fermoy; Kelly, Derry; Moriarty, Kerry; +Leahy, Dromore; Gillooly, Elphin; McEvilly, Galway; Furlong, Ferns; O'Hea, +Ross; Dorrian, Down and Connor; Butler, Limerick; Conaty, Kilmore; Nulty, +Meath; Donnelly, Clogher; Power, Killaloe; McCabe, Ardagh. + +The hierarchy had not yet been restored in Scotland; so that country could +send only three bishops to the OEcumenical Council. These were the Right +Rev. John Strain, Vicar-Apostolic, Edinburgh (afterwards, in the restored +hierarchy, Most Rev. Archbishop of Saint Andrews and Edinburgh); the Most +Rev. Dr. Eyre, Archbishop, Glasgow; the Right Rev. Dr. McDonald (in the +restored hierarchy, Bishop of Aberdeen), Vicar-Apostolic, Preshome. + +All the other civilized nations, with scarcely an exception,(7) sent their +bishops to the general assembly of the Church. France supplied the +greatest number, eighty-one. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies came next, +being represented by sixty-eight bishops. Next came the States of the +Church, sending sixty-two bishops. From Great Britain and Ireland, with +the colonies, including Canada, went fifty-five bishops to the great +council. Austria and Hungary were nobly represented by forty-three +bishops. Spain and the United States of America sent each forty prelates, +and the States of South America, thirty; whilst of the Oriental rites +there were forty-two bishops. Piedmont, Tuscany, Lombardy and Venetia, +together with Modena and Parma, Prussia, Bavaria, Mexico, Belgium, +Holland, Portugal, Switzerland, the Isles of Greece, and even the Turkish +empire, cheerfully willed that the Catholic prelates of their lands should +bear their part in the grand OEcumenical Council which was now about to +assemble. All these, with the cardinals, abbots, mitred abbots and +generals of religious orders, who were also members of the great assembly, +made up the goodly number which has already been adverted to.(8) + +SUBJECTS WHICH IT WAS PROPOSED TO DISCUSS IN THE COUNCIL. + +The subjects for discussion were expressed in _schemata_, or draft +decrees, which were drawn up by a "congregation," or, as we should say, a +committee of one hundred and two ecclesiastics, who were cardinals and +others learned in theology and canon law, selected from many nations on +account of their superior wisdom and experience. By these alone the +_schemata_ were prepared. They bore not so much as the shadow of the +supreme authority. So the council was perfectly at liberty to accept or +reject, to change or to modify them, as it should deem fit and proper. Of +this we are assured by the words of the Pope, who, in his "Constitution," +at the commencement of the council, informed the bishops that he had not +given any sanction to the _schemata_, and that consequently in regard to +them there was complete freedom. + +The _schemata_, six in number, were very comprehensive. It is deeply to be +regretted that the council was not allowed time to discuss them all. They +concerned: + + + 1. Catholic doctrine in opposition to the manifold errors flowing + from rationalism. + + 2. The Church of Christ. + + 3. The office of bishops. + + 4. The vacancy of sees. + + 5. The life and manners of the clergy. + + 6. The Little Catechism. + + +The _schema_ on the Church of Christ necessarily involved the question of +infallibility. As this question, more than any other subject, appears to +have disturbed the equanimity of the outside world, it may not be +inappropriate to consider the preliminary labors, as regarded it, of the +great theological commission. The _schema_ on the Church of Christ +extended to fifteen chapters. Having treated, at length, on the body of +the church, the commission or committee of 102 theologians could not fail +to treat also of the Church's Head. On this point they prepared two +chapters. The one spoke of the primacy of the Roman Pontiff, the other of +his temporal power. In treating of the primacy, its endowments also +necessarily came under discussion. Among these claimed the first place the +Divine assistance in matters of faith which was promised to Peter, and in +Peter to his successors. This is nothing less than infallibility. + +On the 14th and 21st of January, the commission discussed the nature of +the primacy. On the 11th of February, it took up the question of +infallibility. It was enquired: 1st, whether the infallibility of the +Roman Pontiff can be defined as an article of faith; 2nd, whether it ought +to be so defined? The first question was answered unanimously in the +affirmative. To the second, all, with one exception, replied, expressing +concurrence in the judgment that the subject ought not to be proposed to +the council unless it were demanded by the bishops. The wording of the +judgment is as follows: _Sententia commissionis est, nonnisi ad +postulationem episcoporum rei hujus propositionem ab apostolica sede +faciendam esse._ ("The judgment of the commission is that this subject +ought not to be proposed by the Apostolic See, except at the petition of +the bishops.") One member of the commission considered the discussion of +the subject inopportune. On account of his dissent, the chapter bearing on +infallibility was never completed. + +Thus for a second time was the question of infallibility deliberately set +aside. As for Pius IX. himself, he had no desire any more than he had need +to propose that there should be a dogmatical definition. Even as his +predecessors in all preceding ages, he was conscious that his primacy was +complete. He had acted on this conviction, exercising his sublime +privilege with universal consent, in the face of all Christendom. In 1854, +1862 and 1867, the bishops had abundantly testified in his favor. If an +authoritative declaration was called for, it could only be on account of +the few who disputed and doubted, and the still smaller number who denied +that the Head of the Church on earth can neither err in faith and morals, +nor lead into error the church of which he is divinely constituted the +Supreme Teacher. + +OPENING OF THE COUNCIL. + +On the 7th of December, 1869--Vigil of the Immaculate Conception--Pius IX., +attended by an imposing suite, repaired to the Church of the Twelve +Apostles, in order to inaugurate solemnly a period of nine days' prayer in +honor of the Blessed and Immaculate Mary. The following day, at an early +hour, the cannon of the Castle of St. Angelo announced to the holy city +the great event that had been so long looked forward to. As early as six +o'clock a.m. the three naves of St. Peter's were filled with a crowd of +the faithful, and all the approaches to the Basilica were thronged with +people. At nine o'clock was seen the magnificent procession of mitred +abbots, bishops and archbishops, primates, patriarchs and cardinals, that +preceded the _sedia gestatoria_ which bore the Pope. The sacred cortege +required about an hour to traverse the hall (atrium) and the chief nave of +St. Peter's, and reach the left(9) arm of the cross which forms the +immense Basilica, and which had been set apart and prepared as a vast +chamber for the celebration of the council by that skilful architect, +Virginius Vespignani. + +1,044 Fathers were invited to be present as members of the council. 803 +attended at the opening. Of these there were six archbishops who were also +princes, forty-nine cardinals, eleven patriarchs, six hundred and eighty +archbishops and bishops, twenty-eight abbots, and twenty-nine generals of +religious orders. The entire number surpassed by one hundred and +thirty-five the united numbers of all the Fathers of Nice, Constantinople +and Ephesus. The day had gone by when the European sovereigns could be +bidden to an OEcumenical Council. Several of their representatives, +however, attended at the opening. The highest of the Roman nobility were +also present. The Colonna and Orsini families enjoyed the honor of being +princes attendant at the Papal throne on occasion of all the public +ceremonials of the council. Others of the Roman nobility, sovereigns and +princes, at the time in the city, were present. Among these were the +ex-King of Naples, the Empress of Austria, the ex-Duke and Duchess of +Tuscany, the ex-Duke and Duchess of Parma, together with the Doria and +Borghese families. Several foreign princes, General Kanzler, +commander-in-chief of the Papal forces, and General Dumont, who commanded +the French battalions in garrison at Rome, likewise attended. + +The hymn, _Veni Creator_, was sung, and immediately thereafter the first +session of the Vatican Council was formally opened with the celebration of +High Mass. At the conclusion of mass, the secretary of the council placed +upon the altar the Book of the Gospels, which always remained open +throughout the session. The council then heard a sermon, and the Holy +Father intoned the Synodal prayers, which were followed by the Litany of +the Saints. Immediately after the chanting of the Gospel, Pius IX. made an +allocution to the following effect: "You are met, venerable brethren, in +the name of Jesus Christ, to bear witness with us to the word of God; to +declare with us to all men the truth, which is the way that leads to God; +and to condemn with us, under the guidance of the Holy Ghost, the +doctrines of false science. God is present in His holy place; He is with +our deliberations and our efforts; He has chosen us to be His servants and +fellow-workers in the great work of His salvation. Therefore, knowing well +our own weakness, and filled with mistrust of ourselves, we lift up our +eyes and our prayers to Thee, O Holy Ghost, to Thee the source of true +light and wisdom." + +The _Veni Creator_ having been once more sung, the Bishop of Fabriano read +from the _Ambo_ the decree ordaining the opening of the council. It was in +substance as follows: "Is it the pleasure of the Fathers that the +OEcumenical Council of the Vatican should be opened, and should be declared +open for the glory of the Most Holy Trinity, the custody and declaration +of the faith and of the Catholic religion; for the condemnation of errors +which are widely spreading, and the correction of clergy and people?" The +council replied unanimously _placet_. The Pope then declared the council +to be opened, and fixed the second public session for the feast of the +Epiphany, January 6, 1870. The session closed with the _Te Deum_ and the +Pontifical benediction. All the public sessions which were afterwards held +were opened pretty much in the same manner. + +DEATH OF TWO DISTINGUISHED MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. + +At this time the council and the Catholic world had to bewail the death of +two very eminent Fathers. Cardinal de Reisach was a man of great and +varied learning, of large and refined culture of mind, and was fitted in a +special way to understand the diversities of thought which met in the +Vatican Council. His loss to the Holy See, great as it would have been at +any time, was more seriously felt at the meeting of the council, in +preparing for which he had borne a chief part. Cardinal de Reisach was not +only one of the foremost members of the Sacred College in the public +service of the church, but in private life he was greatly and deservedly +loved for his genial and sympathetic character. + +The late illustrious Bishop of Southwark, the Right Rev. Thomas Grant, +whose zeal induced him to proceed to Rome in the height of a serious +illness, was also torn away from the cares of this life and the affection +of many friends, when, a little later, he was about to address a luminous +discourse to the assembled Fathers. Whilst he stood in the midst of them, +there occurred a crisis of his malady from which he never rallied. He was +visited on his deathbed, which was that of the faithful servant, by Pius +IX., who held him in the highest esteem. + +THE SECOND SESSION. + +Preparatory to the second session of the council, various commissions were +constituted. That of postulates or propositions was appointed by the Pope, +and consisted of cardinals who had experience, both as residents of Rome +and formerly as nuncios at foreign courts, together with archbishops and +bishops selected from each of the chief nations in the council. Its +members were twelve cardinals, two patriarchs--Antioch and Jerusalem--ten +archbishops, among whom was the Archbishop of Westminster, and two +bishops. + +It was resolved that the other commissions should be elected by the +universal suffrage of the council. The Commission of Faith was elected in +the Third General Congregation, on the 20th of December. It was composed +of twenty-five members, among whom were remarked the successor of Fenelon +in the archiepiscopal see of Cambrai, the Archbishop of Westminster and +the Archbishop of Cashel (Ireland), three American bishops, Baltimore, San +Francisco, Rio Grande. + +The Commission of Discipline consisted of twenty-four members, who +represented as many nations--the Bishop of Birmingham, on the part of +England. + +The Commission on Religious Orders was also chosen; the Bishop of Clifton +representing England. + +No more being necessary at the earlier sittings of the council, the +nomination of all other commissions was postponed. + +SECOND PUBLIC SESSION--PROFESSION OF FAITH BY ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE +COUNCIL. + +The second public session was held on the feast of the Epiphany, January +6th, 1870. It had been always customary at general councils to make a +profession of faith. This custom was not departed from at the Vatican +Council. As at Constantinople, A. D. 381, and Chalcedon, A. D. 481, was +recited the Creed of Nicea, and at subsequent councils was solemnly +professed the faith as expressed by those which had preceded them; so at +the Council of the Vatican were repeated the articles of Catholic belief, +as handed down through Trent and the more ancient councils. First of all, +the Holy Father, rising from his seat, read, in a distinct voice, the +definitions of the Council of Trent, known as the Creed of Pope Pius IV. +The same profession of faith was then read from the _Ambo_ by the Bishop +of Fabriano. As soon as he had done so, the other Fathers of the Council +expressed their adhesion by kissing the Gospel at the throne of the Chief +Pastor. Seven hundred bishops of the church, representing more than thirty +nations and about(10) three hundred millions of Christians, thus solemnly +professed, with one heart and mind, the same faith in the same form of +words. In this wonderful unanimity there is more than nature and +philosophy. Through all the changes of nearly nineteen hundred years, this +intellectual unity of faith, although minutely defined at Nicea, +Constantinople and Trent, has endured unchanged. We cannot but behold in +this immutability of Divine faith something far beyond the power of human +wisdom. It is surely providential that, in the face of so much unbelief, +such witness should have been borne to the unity and universality of the +Catholic faith. + +And now closed the second public session of the Vatican Council. + +THIRD SESSION. + +Preparatory to the opening of the third public session of the council, the +_schema_ "on Catholic faith and on the errors springing from rationalism" +was discussed by thirty-five bishops in the general congregations, between +the 18th of December and the 10th of January. It contained eighteen +chapters, and was sent back to the Commission on Faith in order to be +completely remodeled. It was a grand theological document, and was cast in +the traditional form of conciliar decrees, taking its shape, as they did, +from the errors which it was intended to condemn. It was somewhat archaic, +perhaps, in language, but worthy to rank with the decrees of the Councils +of Toledo or of Lateran. Having been referred to the Commission on Faith, +it was again distributed to the council in its new form on the 14th of +March, wholly recast, and was received with general approbation. This new +document is quite of a distinct character, and not to be compared with the +_schema_ by which it was preceded. It contained, instead of eighteen +chapters, only an introduction and four chapters, in which every sentence +is full of condensed doctrine, the whole having impressed upon it a +singular beauty and splendor of Divine truth. The commission was engaged +in recasting this _schema_ until the end of February. Its subject-matter +was what may well be considered the first foundations of natural and +revealed religion, viz.: the existence and perfections of God, the +creation of the world, the powers and office of human reason, revelation, +faith, the relation of reason to faith and of faith to science. As a +consequence of these truths came the condemnation of atheism, materialism, +pantheism, naturalism and rationalism. + +Whilst the non-Catholic world believed that the Pope and the Fathers of +the Council were bestowing all their care on one subject which happened to +be more prominently before the public, they were, on the contrary, +laboring with the greatest pains to elucidate every subject as it came up +for consideration. As has been seen, the most important _schema_ on +Catholic faith had been already very carefully discussed. On the 18th of +March a second discussion took place in the general congregation (or +committee of the whole council) on a report being made by the Primate of +Hungary. Nine bishops then discoursed on the text of the _schema_, after +which, no Father desiring to speak more upon it, the general discussion +ended. Each chapter in particular now came to be discussed. In the debate +on the first chapter sixteen Fathers took part; on the second, twenty; on +the third, twenty-two; on the fourth, twelve; in all, seventy-nine spoke. +This discussion occupied nine sittings, and only ended when no one desired +to speak any further. The amendments of the bishops were sent with the +_schema_ to the commission. As soon as they were printed and distributed +they were examined by the commission, when a full report was made in the +general congregation on the introduction, and the amendments were put to +the vote. The text of the introduction was then once more referred. Each +of the four chapters was treated in the same manner. To the first there +were forty-seven amendments, which, being printed and distributed, the +commission reported, and the amendments were put to the vote. Still +another revision, and the first chapter was adopted, almost unanimously, +on the 1st of April. + +The second chapter had sixty-two amendments. Referring to the commission, +revising, reporting and voting followed, as in the case of the first +chapter, when the second was referred back for final amendment. + +The third chapter had one hundred and twenty-two amendments. The same +process was followed, in regard to these amendments, as in the case of the +first and second chapters. The proceedings lasted two days. + +The fourth chapter had fifty amendments, which were subjected to the same +process as those of the three first, and sent back to the commission. On +the same day, 8th April, the second chapter as amended was passed, and on +the 12th of April, the third and fourth, the former unanimously, the +latter almost so. When the whole was put to the vote, no _non placet_ was +given, whilst there were eighty-three _placets juxta modum_. The +amendments were all sent, as before, to the commission, and printed in a +quarto volume of fifty-one pages. The report was made on the 10th of +April, and on the same day the amended text was unanimously accepted. All +the time between the 14th of March and the 19th of April was consumed in +passing this first _schema_. Sixty-nine members of the council spoke. +Three hundred and sixty-four amendments were made, examined and voted +upon. Six reports were made by the commission upon the text, which, after +its first recasting, had been six times amended. The decree was finally +adopted unanimously by the assembled Fathers, all who were present, six +hundred and sixty-seven, voting in the third public session, on Low Sunday +(Dominica in Abbis), 24th April. This solemn vote of the council was +confirmed by the Pope, who, on the occasion, spoke as follows: "The +decrees and canons contained in the Constitution just read were accepted +by all the Fathers, no one dissenting; and we, the Sacred Council +approving, by our apostolical authority, so define and confirm them." +Continuing, he addressed the Fathers of the Council: "You see, beloved +brethren, how good and pleasant it is to walk in the House of God in unity +and peace. As our Lord gave to His apostles, so I, His unworthy Vicar, in +His name, give peace to you. That peace, as you know, casts out fear; that +peace shuts the ear to unwise words. May that peace go with you in all the +days of your life; may that peace be with you in death; may that peace be +your everlasting joy in heaven." + +After much deliberation and painstaking, the third public session of the +council came to a close. + +At less formal sittings was discussed the discipline relating to bishops. +On this subject thirty-seven Fathers discoursed in the council. Seven +sittings were employed in discussing discipline as concerns the clergy, +and thirty-seven Fathers spoke. Forty-one Fathers took part in discussing +the _schema_ on the Little Catechism. The discussion occupied six +sittings. There was no hurrying of matters in the council. None of the +discussions were closed until none of the Fathers desired further to be +heard. All the _schemata_, it is almost needless to say, having been +discussed, were referred to their respective commissions, in order to be +revised in accordance with the speeches and the written amendments of the +bishops. + +Pius IX., meanwhile, was most anxious to aid and promote the labors of the +council. Notwithstanding the great increase of ecclesiastical business +occasioned by the presence in Rome of so many prelates, the affairs of +whose churches, as well as their own more personal matters, required no +small degree of attention, he followed, with unabated interest, every +stage of its proceedings, and caused a minute account to be given to him +every day of what was done in the various committees. These unwonted +cares, and the unusual amount of labor and fatigue which they entailed, +never induced him to omit any of those devotional offices with which he +was accustomed to renew and strengthen his soul. He would not hear of any +hurrying in the discussions on the first _schema_--that on faith, but, on +the contrary, gave due praise to the pains and labor bestowed by the +Fathers on every chapter, word and sentence. It was their object to secure +that complete accuracy and perfection of expression which could not fail +to prove eminently useful in all time to come. As has been already +remarked, the Fathers of the "Congregations" and "Commissions" labored +most assiduously in preparing, for the acceptance of the council, the +_schema_ on faith and doctrine. In the course of the six weeks that it was +under review, seventy-nine discourses were delivered, three hundred and +sixty-four amendments proposed, examined and voted upon, while six reports +were made upon the text of the _schema_, which had been six times amended. +The introduction, the four chapters and the eighteen canons, having +finally passed the council, were approved by the Holy Father, adopted and +promulgated as a Papal "Constitution," which will be known in history as +the Constitution _Dei Filius_. It is a masterpiece of theological science, +and may be compared to priceless gems artistically arranged by skilful +hands in the richest settings. + +It would be idle, indeed, to recount all the hard and absurd things that +have been said by the enemies of the council and the Catholic religion. +One of their accusations, if well founded, would be truly crushing. Some +scientists, who claim to be very profound, deem it necessary to abjure the +Catholic faith, because the Vatican Council has placed an impassable gulf +between religion and science, faith and reason. The council anticipated +and met this accusation which is so vigorously and persistently urged by +the false science of the day. Let us quote from its "Constitution:" +"Although faith is above reason, there can never be any real discrepancy +between faith and reason, since the same God who reveals mysteries and +infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind, and +cannot deny Himself, nor can truth ever contradict truth. The false +appearance of such a contradiction is mainly due, either to the dogmas of +faith not having been understood and expounded according to the mind of +the church, or to the inventions of opinion having been taken for the +verdicts of reason. And not only can faith and reason never be opposed to +one another, but they are of mutual aid the one to the other. For right +reason demonstrates the foundations of faith, and, enlightened by its +light, cultivates the science of things divine; while faith frees and +guards reason from errors, and furnishes it with manifold knowledge. + +"So far, therefore, is the church from opposing the cultivation of human +arts and sciences, that it, in many ways, helps and promotes it. For the +Church neither ignores nor despises the benefits to human life which +result from the arts and sciences, but confesses that, as they came from +God, the Lord of all science, so, if they be rightly used, they lead to +God by the help of His grace. Nor does the Church forbid that each of +these sciences, in its sphere, should make use of its own principle and +its own method. But while recognizing this just liberty, it stands +watchfully on guard, lest the sciences, setting themselves against the +Divine teaching, or transgressing their own limits, should invade and +disturb the domain of faith." + +FOURTH PUBLIC SESSION. + +There was only one point in the discussions on the Church of Christ in +which the outside world appeared to take an interest, and it is one which +the council did not at first contemplate taking into consideration. The +Fathers appear to have resolved to limit themselves, in treating of the +Church, and consequently of the Head of the Church on earth, to the +discussion of the primacy of the Supreme Pastor and of his temporalities. +The commission of one hundred and two cardinals, and other learned +theologians, had even set aside the question of infallibility when it came +before them, one of their number pronouncing a decision on it as +inopportune. A great majority of the bishops, however, were strongly of +opinion that in view of the outcry which had been raised on this point, +the opportunity of an OEcumenical Council being held should not be allowed +to pass without defining the belief of the Church in regard to the +unerring nature of the decisions, in matters of doctrine and morals, of +the successor of St. Peter. At their request, accordingly, it was ordered +that the important subject should be introduced in the eleventh chapter of +the _schema_ on the Church, and prepared in the usual way for the +consideration of the council. It could not be laid before the Fathers +sooner than the 18th of July, when the fourth solemn session was held. It +is proper to remark here that the doctrine in question was never +discussed, either in the congregations or committees of the whole council, +as to its Divine origin, or as to the fact of its having been revealed; +not one of the seven hundred members of the council expressed any doubt as +to this. There was no discussion except as to the opportuneness of +defining to be of faith what all believed to be so. The _schema_ having +passed through all the preparatory stages, finally assumed the form of a +"dogmatic constitution," which will be known in history as the +Constitution, _Pastor aeternus_, from the words with which it commences. +This Constitution was brought before the council at a solemn session, the +fourth and last which it held, the 18th July, 1870. The session was opened +with all the usual solemnities. The Pope himself presided in person. The +Mass of the Holy Ghost having been celebrated, the Sacred Scriptures were +placed upon the lectern on the high altar, and, as was customary, the +_Veni Creator_ was sung. The Bishop of Fabriano then read the +Constitution, or decree _de Romano Pontifice_, from the _Ambo_ (pulpit), +and the Fathers of the Council were invited to vote. Each Father, +accordingly, as his name was called, took off his mitre, rose from his +seat and voted. Of the five hundred and thirty-five who were present, five +hundred and thirty-three voted _placet_ (aye), whilst there were only two +nays. The secretary of the council, together with the scrutineers, +advanced to the Pontifical throne and declared the result. The Holy Father +then confirmed the decision in the usual form. He prayed, at the same +time, that they who had considered such a decision inopportune, at a time +of unusual agitation, might, in calmer days, unite with the great majority +of their brethren, and contend with them for the truth. The insertion here +of the allocution which he delivered on the occasion cannot but prove +acceptable to all English readers: + + + "Great is the authority with which the Supreme Pontiff is + invested. This authority, however, does not destroy. It builds up. + It does not oppress. But, on the contrary, sustains. Very + frequently it behooves it to defend the rights of our brethren, + the bishops. If some have not been of the same mind with us, let + them consider that they have formed their judgment under the + influence of agitation. Let them bear in mind that the Lord is not + in the storm (2 Kings, xix., 11). Let them remember that, a few + years ago, they held the opposite opinion, and abounded in the + same belief with us, and in that of this most august assembly, for + then they judged in the untroubled air. Can two opposite + consciences stand together in the same judgment? By no means. + Therefore, we pray God that He who alone can work great things, + may Himself enlighten their minds and hearts, that all may come to + the bosom of their Father, the unworthy Vicar of Jesus Christ on + earth, who loves them and desires to be one with them, and, united + in the bond of charity, to fight with them the battle of the Lord. + Thus shall our enemies not dare to deride us, but rather be awed, + and at length lay down the arms of their warfare in the presence + of truth; so that all may say, with St. Augustine: 'Thou hast + called me unto Thy wonderful light, and behold I see.' " + + +_Te Deum_ was now chanted, the Pope intoning the sublime hymn, and with +the Pontifical benediction, ended the fourth solemn public session of the +Vatican Council. With this council also ended all discussion within the +church on those questions in regard to which it pronounced +authoritatively. No doubt the enemies of the Catholic faith would have +been better pleased if there had been absolute unanimity when the final +vote was taken on the widely-discussed question of infallibility. Such a +coincidence would have afforded them a pretext, although, indeed, a +groundless one, for asserting that there was either collusion or +compulsion, whilst in reality there was complete liberty. The two Fathers +who voted, nay, constituting a minority of two, acted according to their +right, and it was not questioned. These Fathers were Monsignor Louis +Riccio, Bishop of Casazzio, in the kingdom of Naples, and the Right Rev, +Edward Fitzgerald, Bishop of Petricola (Little Rock, Arkansas), in the +United States of America. Immediately after the confirmation of the +"Constitution," these two prelates, advancing to the Papal chair, solemnly +declared their adhesion to the act of the council. The four dissentient +cardinals--Rauscher, Schwarzenberg, Mathieu and Hohenlohe--who had left the +council when the fourth session was held, also, in their turn, expressed +their assent to the decision of the assembled Fathers. The opposing +bishops did in like manner. All of them, not excepting Strossmayer, Bishop +of Sirmium, who was the most eloquent orator of the minority in the +council, and who appeared to hesitate longer than the rest, ended by +promulgating all the decrees of the council in their respective dioceses. +This is more than could be said of Nicea, Chalcedon and Constantinople. +For the first time, no bishop persisted in resisting the decisions of an +OEcumenical Council. It was now acknowledged by the whole episcopate that +those measures were timely, wise and salutary, which the Church, ever +guided by the Spirit of God, had deemed it proper to adopt, but which so +many, awed by the spirit of unbelief which was abroad, had judged were +inopportune. + +It may have been merely a coincidence. But there can be no doubt that +grandeur was added to a scene, in itself sufficiently imposing, when, as +on Sinai of old, lightning flashed and thunder pealed, as the Fathers of +the Council solemnly rose to give their final vote. "The _placets_ of the +Fathers," writes the correspondent of the London _Times_ (Aug. 5, 1870), +"struggled through the storm while the thunder pealed above, and the +lightning flashed in at every window, and down through the dome and every +smaller cupola. '_Placet!_' shouted his Eminence or his Grace, and a loud +clap of thunder followed in response, and then the lightning darted about +the Baldacchino and every part of the church and council-hall, as if +announcing the response. So it continued for nearly one hour and a half, +during which time the roll was being called, and a more effective scene I +never witnessed. Had all the decorators and all the getters-up of +ceremonies in Rome been employed, nothing approaching to the solemn +grandeur of the storm could have been prepared, and never will those who +saw it and felt it forget the promulgation of the first dogma of the +church." Less friendly critics beheld, in this magnificent thunder-storm, +a distinct voice of Divine anger, condemning the important act of the +assembled Fathers. Had they forgotten Sinai and the Ten Commandments? All +of a sudden, as the last words were uttered, the tempest ceased; and, at +the moment when Pius IX. intoned the _Te Deum_, a sun-ray lighted up his +noble and expressive countenance. The voices of the Sixtine choristers, +who continued chanting the hymn, could not be heard. They were lost in the +united concert of the venerable Fathers and the vast assemblage. + +COMPARATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE VATICAN COUNCIL. + +In whatever light we view the Council of the Vatican--the oecumenical of the +nineteenth century--it strikes us as being, in ecclesiastical annals, the +event of the age. It also marks, in a remarkable manner, the character and +progress of the time. The Council of Trent was highly important in its +day; and still, after a lapse of three hundred years, its teachings govern +the Church. Whilst, as regards the wisdom of its decisions, it cannot be +excelled, it was surpassed in many things by the Council of the Vatican. + +Trent was attended by comparatively few bishops, who were from Europe, the +Eastern Church and the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The +Vatican Council consisted of prelates from at least thirty different +nations, from the remotest regions of the habitable globe, from the +numerous churches in India which owed their origin to the apostolic zeal +of St. Francis Xavier, from North and South America, China, Australia, New +Zealand and Oceanica. One-fifth of the churches existed not as yet in the +time of Trent which sent their bishops to represent them at the Vatican +Council. The countries in which many of these churches flourish had no +place, when the Council of Trent was called, on the map of the world. From +those vast regions which now constitute the United States of America, +there was not so much as one bishop at Trent. At the Vatican Council there +were no fewer than sixty. There were never more than three bishops of +Ireland present together at Trent, and four only were members of that +council. Twenty Irish prelates attended the Vatican Council. England sent +only one bishop to Trent. He is mentioned as Godveus Anglus, Episc. +Asaphensis. The Catholics of England were represented by thirteen English +bishops at the Council of the Vatican. Scotland had no representation at +Trent. The Catholics of that country were most worthily represented at the +Vatican by Bishop Strain, now Archbishop of St. Andrews and Edinburgh; +Archbishop Eyre, of Glasgow, and Bishop McDonald, of Aberdeen. There was +only a very small number of English-speaking bishops at Trent. At the +Vatican Council they were particularly numerous, constituting, as nearly +as can be calculated, one-fifth of the assembled Catholic hierarchy. At +Trent there were not many bishops from countries speaking different +languages. Twenty-seven languages, and various dialects besides, were +represented by prelates at the Vatican. + +The greater facilities for travelling, which this favored age enjoys, no +doubt rendered it more easy to attend the Council of the Vatican than it +was to journey to Trent, even from the nearest lands. Nevertheless, there +was laborious journeying to the Vatican. Prelates from the vast regions of +Asia and Africa, America and Australia, knew what they would have to +encounter, but they were not deterred. Some, on their way to the Vatican, +travelled for whole weeks mounted on camels before they could reach the +ports at which it behooved them to embark. Bishop Launy, of Santa Fe, was +forty-two days on his land-journey, and travelled on horseback. Such of +the laity as visited Trent were comparatively few, and only from places +not very distant. One hundred thousand pilgrims, many of them from the +most remote regions, repaired to the Vatican. The number of Fathers at any +one time in council at Trent was somewhat under three hundred. Seven +hundred and eighty-three took part in the Council of the Vatican. The +Council of Trent, however, must not be underrated. It was a most important +council, and admirably calculated to meet the wants of the time. It marked +an era in the history of the Church. It provided remedies for numerous +evils, and safety in the midst of danger. It became a power which time has +not diminished. For three hundred years it has guided the destinies of +Peter's barque, prelates and people wisely accepting its discipline, and +meekly obeying its rule. It added, no doubt, to the importance of the +Vatican Council that it was held at Rome, in the very centre of +Catholicity and of Catholic unity, and near the tombs of the martyred +apostles, the founders of the Church. In this it contrasts with Trent, +which, although the Fathers assembled at an obscure village in the Tyrol, +was not less, on this account, an OEcumenical Council. Papal legates +presided at Trent, whilst the Holy Father himself was present at all the +solemn sessions of the Vatican Council which have as yet been held. + +INFALLIBILITY. + +There was no intention at first, as has been shown, of laying the question +of infallibility before the council. It happened, however, that a great +clamor, in regard to this question, came to prevail both within and +without the Church. The enemies of the doctrine railed so strongly against +it, and they who did not deny it declaimed so loudly against the +opportuneness of pronouncing any decision concerning it, that it was +positively forced upon the attention of the assembled Fathers. When, +therefore, they came to discuss the primacy and the temporalities of the +Sovereign Pontiff in connection with the Church of Christ, they hesitated +not to consider, at the same time, his immunity from error when speaking, +as Head of the Church and successor of Saint Peter, _ex cathedra_ on +matters of faith and morals. The learning of theologians and the ability +of orators were brought into requisition, and the fact came prominently +out that it had been according to the mind of the Church at all times, +that the Pope, the successor of St. Peter, is divinely assisted when +pronouncing solemnly _ex cathedra_ on questions of faith and morals. When +so pronouncing, the decisions of the Supreme Pastor have always been +accepted by the Church, whether dispersed or assembled in council. It is a +received belief among Christians that to every legitimate office is +attached a grace of vocation. Is it not, therefore, in accordance with +reason and Christian faith, that such grace should belong, and specially +to the highest and most important of all offices? Such grace or assistance +was promised to St. Peter, and through him to his successors, who are +appointed to bear witness throughout all time to the truths of Divine +revelation. For our blessed Lord declared, "I am with you all days." He +could not better have secured the permanence of his religion--the kingdom +of God on earth, for the salvation of men in every age of the world. When +the Supreme Pastor speaks in the exercise of his sublime office, the +Church also speaks. The teaching and testimony of the Head of the Church +and of the great body of the Church are identical. They must always be in +harmony, as was so admirably shown by the decision of the council on +infallibility and the confirmation thereof by the Holy Father--_confirma +fratres tuous_--"confirm thy brethren." Let not the opponents of the Church +and her salutary doctrines be carried away by the idea that a subservient +council wished only to glorify their spiritual Chief by ascribing to him +imaginary personal gifts. They were incapable of any such thing. They were +an assembly of the most venerable men in Christendom, who felt all the +weight of their responsibility to God and men in the exercise of their +sacred functions. Their decision has not altered the position of the +Supreme Pastor. Any writings or discourses which he may produce in his +merely personal or more private capacity are received by the Christian +world with that degree of consideration to which they are entitled on +account of the estimation in which he is held by men as a theologian and a +man of learning and ability. It is only when pronouncing solemnly _ex __ +cathedra_, as the successor of St. Peter and the Head of the Church, on +questions of faith and morals, that he is universally believed to be +divinely assisted so as to be above the danger of erring, or of leading +into error--in other words (and we cannot help who may be offended), that +he is infallible. + +FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR--WITHDRAWAL OF THE FRENCH GARRISON FROM +ROME--ADJOURNMENT OF THE COUNCIL. + +Events were now at hand which made it impossible for the council to hold +another session. The French Emperor had greatly fallen, in the estimation +of the people of France, from the time of his shameful abandonment of the +chivalrous Maximilian and the popular design of establishing a Latin +empire on the continent of America. In order to make amends and regain his +_prestige_, he had revived the idea, so dear to the French, of rectifying +the Rhine frontier of France by resuming possession of Luxembourg and some +other adjacent provinces. He formally intimated his design to Prussia. +That Power, however, aware of its rights and conscious of its military +superiority, declined all negotiation on the subject. From that moment +Prussia held herself in readiness to repel, with the sword, if necessary, +any insolence that, in the future, might proceed from her aggressive +neighbor, for whose tottering throne war was a necessity. The candidature +of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain now afforded a +pretext, which Napoleon III. was only too anxious to find, for provoking +by a fresh insult his powerful rival. It may be that he dreaded the +accession of strength which might eventually accrue to Prussia if the +crown of Spain were placed on the head of a Prince of the house of +Hohenzollern. Napoleon remonstrated, and threatened war. The youthful +German prince generously renounced a candidature which it was not hard to +see would lead to a rupture between the two Powers, and cause a +destructive war. The King of Prussia, head of the Hohenzollerns, +sanctioned, if he did not command, this act of moderation on the part of +the prince, his relative. But moderation was of no avail. Napoleon, +surrounded by a Jacobinical ministry, insisted upon war. The very idea of +proposing a German for the throne of Spain appeared to him to be a +sufficient cause for issuing a declaration of hostilities. The gauntlet +thus thrown down, the Prussian monarch was too chivalrous to decline the +challenge. He relied on his great military strength, and could afford to +despise the comparatively inferior preparations of the French Empire. With +the vast resources of France at his command, the Emperor, one would +suppose, might have managed, in the course of three years, to increase and +discipline his army, garrison his fortresses and seek alliances. He might +have taken more time if necessary. He had no need to precipitate events, +as he so recklessly did, by declaring war when there was positively no +preparation made for it. We shall presently see whether he were not one of +those whom Providence deprives of reason when it has resolved on their +destruction. In the absence of more effective preparations, the small +garrison at Rome of five thousand men was withdrawn in order to augment +the army which all France believed was destined to crush the formidable +Teuton and capture Berlin. If, however, this had been Napoleon's only +object in recalling the troops, he could have accomplished it as easily by +ordering four thousand five hundred of the Roman garrison to join the +invading army, leaving the remaining five hundred to guard the city of the +Popes. This smaller number would surely have been as able as five thousand +to repel a Piedmontese force of sixty thousand men. But there was question +of more than mere physical power. So long as it was evident that France +protected the Papal city, whether by a greater or smaller number of +soldiers, the legions of Piedmont never would have marched against it. +Napoleon's minister, M. de Gramont, revealed the pretext: "It is certainly +not from strategetical necessity that we evacuate the Roman States, but +the political urgency is obvious. We must conciliate the good-will of the +Italian Cabinet." Much, indeed, it availed them. + +Viterbo was evacuated on the 4th of August. The last remnant of French +troops embarked at Civita Vecchia, partly on the 4th and partly on the +6th, the very days on which the French army experienced its first reverses +at Weissemberg, Woerth and Spikeren. Instead of hesitating to perform a +most cowardly act, which, viewing it only politically, proclaimed his +weakness to all Europe, the Emperor Napoleon made all haste to complete +it. He expressed regret. Who will say that he was sincere? Had he not +perfected the master-work of his reign--his grand transalpine scheme? The +Piedmontese minister, Visconti Venosta, gives a very distinct reply. +Writing to the Piedmontese representatives at foreign courts, this +minister says that as several governments had desired to know their views +in regard to the relation of passing events with the Roman question, his +government had no hesitation in making the clearest explanations. The +convention of 15th September, 1864, had not sufficed to avert the causes +arising abroad which hindered the settlement of the Roman difficulty. He +then accuses the Roman Court of having assumed a hostile attitude in the +centre of the peninsula, and that the consequences of such a position +might be serious for Piedmont on occasion of the Franco-Prussian war and +the complications to which it might give rise. Visconti Venosta further +states that the basis of a new and definite solution of the Roman question +had been confidentially recognized in principle, and was subject only to +the condition of opportunity. + +It is no pleasure, surely, to convict the late Emperor of a deep-laid +conspiracy to revolutionize the Roman State, and rob the Holy Father of +his time-honored patrimony. But there is no escaping the conclusion that +he had never ceased to plot with the revolutionists. He was not yet +vanquished and fallen himself when he left the Sovereign Pontiff to his +enemies. + +One of the chief calumnies of the time was directed by the revolutionists +against Pius IX. They accused the venerable Pontiff of encouraging the +Prussian monarch to wage war against France. The falsehood of this +accusation can only be equalled by its absurdity. The Holy Father, on the +contrary, earnestly endeavored, although in vain, before the commencement +of hostilities, to avert the dire calamity of war. So early as 22nd July, +1870, he interposed between the two rival sovereigns. "Sire," he wrote to +the King of Prussia, "in the most serious circumstances in which we are +placed, it will appear to you unusual to receive a letter from me. But as +I hold the office of Vicar of the God of peace in this world, I cannot do +less than offer you my mediation. It is my desire that all preparations +for war should disappear, and that the evils which inevitably follow +should be prevented. My mediation is that of a sovereign who, in his +capacity of king, cannot, on account of the smallness of his territory, +excite any jealousy, but who, nevertheless, will inspire confidence by the +moral and religious influence which he personifies. May God hear my +prayers! and may He also accept those which I offer for your Majesty, with +whom I desire to be united in the common bond of charity. + +Pius PP. IX." + +"I have written also to the Emperor of the French." + +The King of Prussia replied from Berlin on the 30th July. The kindly +monarch expressed himself beautifully and with the finest feeling: "Most +blessed Pontiff--I was not surprised but deeply moved when I read the +feeling words which you wrote, in order to cause the voice of the God of +peace to be heard. How could I be deaf to such a powerful appeal? God is +my witness that neither I nor my people have desired this war. In +fulfilment of the sacred duties which God lays on sovereigns and on +nations, we have drawn the sword in order to defend the independence and +honor of our country, and we are prepared to lay it down as soon as these +blessings shall no longer be in danger of being torn from us. If your +Holiness could offer me, on the part of him who has so unexpectedly +declared war, the assurance of sincerely pacific dispositions and of +guarantees against a renewal of such violation of the peace and +tranquillity of Europe, I certainly would be far from refusing to accept +them at the venerable hands of your Holiness, united as I am with you by +the bonds of Christian charity and true friendship. WILLIAM." + +The letter of Pius IX. to the French Emperor has not been published, and +it is not known whether Napoleon deigned to reply. One thing is certain. +He did not either accept the mediation or heed the remonstrances of the +Holy Father. He was equally deaf to the warnings of his old allies of +Crimean fame. The British government despatched to Paris a member of the +cabinet, who, in a prolonged interview with the demented Emperor, argued +earnestly on the part of Queen Victoria and her ministry against his +purposed violation of the peace of Europe by undertaking an unprovoked, +unjust and irrational war. + +The war broke out. It was waged disastrously to the French. Pius IX. was +deeply grieved. "Poor France!" he exclaimed, as he heard of each new +defeat of the nation that he loved so well. He interposed once more. But +with the like ill success. Neither could the Germans be checked in their +victorious career, nor could the vanquished French be induced to +acknowledge their defeat and seek such terms of peace as might possibly +have been obtained. On 12th November, 1870, the Holy Father wrote to Mgr. +Guibert, Archbishop of Tours, in whose palace was resident a delegation of +the French government. + +"Neglect nothing," wrote the Pontiff, "we conjure you, in order to prevail +on your illustrious guests to put an end to this war. Nevertheless, we are +not unaware that it does not depend on them alone, and that we should +vainly pursue the great object of peace, if our pacific ministry did not +also meet with support on the part of the conqueror. So we have not +hesitated to write to this effect to his Majesty the King of Prussia. We +cannot, indeed, affirm anything as to the favorable result of the step +which we have taken. We have, nevertheless, some ground for hope, as this +monarch has in other circumstances shown us much good-will." + +Unfortunately, the bold men who had assumed supreme authority in France, +and had undertaken the difficult task of saving the country, were +incapable of accepting good advice, especially when it came from a Pope. +The King of Prussia and his minister, on the other hand, were of the +number of those whom victory intoxicates, and whom the power to dare +everything deprives of all sense of moderation. Pius IX. did not know them +as yet. The representations of Mgr. Guibert to Messrs. Cremieux, Glais +Bisoin and Gambetta, were not more successful than those of Mgr. +Ledochowski, Archbishop of Posen, who hastened to the presence of King +William at Versailles. The earnest endeavors of the archbishop met with +less consideration, to all appearance, at least, although it does not +appear that, on this occasion, William made any reply to Pius IX. + +Notwithstanding these untoward circumstances, the Holy Pontiff never lost +confidence in the nation of Charlemagne and St. Louis. France, he said, +although sadly exhausted and bathed in blood, would yet show excellent +fruits. + +The Piedmontese government, which had been for some time established at +Florence, now resolved to avail itself of the disasters of France to seize +the city of the Popes, and to constitute it the capital of regenerated +Italy. The minister, Visconti Venosta, in a circular letter, renewed his +calumnies, pretending that a hostile power existed in the centre of Italy, +and hypocritically declared that it had become necessary that the +government of his master should assume the protection of the Holy See. +They would not wait, he said, moreover, till the agitation at home should +lead to the effusion of blood between the Romans and foreign forces, but +would proceed, as soon as they could learn that the opportune time had +come, to occupy what remained to the Holy Father of the Roman States. The +information which the minister sought came with remarkable rapidity. The +day after the circular alluded to was written, another minister, Signor +Lanza, declared that the solemn moment had arrived when the government of +his king was called upon, in the interest of the Holy See and of Italy, to +take measures for the national safety. An envoy was despatched to Rome, +with a letter to the Pope, assuring him that the king's government was +firmly resolved to give the necessary guarantees for the spiritual +independence of the Holy See, and that these guarantees would be hereafter +the subject of negotiations with the Powers that were interested in the +Papacy. In addition to this mockery of diplomacy, Victor Emmanuel himself +wrote to the Pope, expressing his filial devotedness, while at the same +time he was preparing, from an excess of affection, to bombard his city +and slay his defenders, to rob him from an excessive zeal for justice, to +imprison him in order to set him free, and, finally, that he ought to +allow all this to be done without complaint, and even thank the good king +who took so much care of him. + +The Florentine Envoy, Signor Ponza di San Martino, when he came to Rome, +made his first visit to Cardinal Antonelli, who received him politely, and +did not refuse to ask for him an interview with the Pope. The cardinal, +however, declined to have any conversation with him on the object of his +mission. "I know already," said he, "all that you could tell me. You are +also aware of the reply that I would give. Force, not argument, speaks at +present." Pius IX. was more afflicted than surprised when he read King +Victor Emmanuel's letter. He was particularly pained by the tone of this +document. "How the revolution has abased a Prince of the House of Savoy! +It is not satisfied with dethroning kings as often as it can, and with +committing their heads to the guillotine. It must also dishonor them." The +envoy insisted that the king was sincere; that he was more convinced than +any other, that the independence of the Chief of the Church was a +necessity; and that he offered real and substantial guarantees to this +independence. "And who will guarantee these guarantees" asked the Pope. +"Your king cannot promise anything. He is no longer a king. He depends on +his parliament, which, in its turn, depends on the secret societies." The +ambassador, more disconcerted than ever, remarked on the difficulties of +the time. He claimed, although timidly, that the king ought to be judged +according to his intentions, as at the time he was constrained by the +aspirations of four-and-twenty millions of Italians. "Your statement is +untrue, sir," replied Pius IX. "You calumniate Italy! Of these +four-and-twenty millions, twenty-three millions are devoted to me, love +and respect me, and only require that the revolution leave them and me in +peace. The remaining million you have poisoned with false doctrines and +inspired with base passions. These unfortunate people are the friends of +your king and the instigators of his ambitious designs. When they have no +longer need of him they will cast him aside. My answer will be +communicated to you to-morrow. I am too much moved with grief and +indignation to be able to write at present." Next day, accordingly, 11th +September, the following reply to Victor Emmanuel was conveyed to Signor +Ponza: + +"SIRE,--Count Ponza di San Martino has handed me a letter which it has +pleased your Majesty to address to me. This letter is not worthy of an +affectionate son who glories in professing the Catholic faith, and who +prides himself on being royally loyal. I dwell not on the details +contained in the letter, in order to avoid renewing the pain which a first +reading of it gave me. I bless God, who has permitted that your Majesty +should overwhelm with bitterness the last years of my life. I cannot admit +the demands made in your letter, nor adopt the principles which it +contains. I call upon God anew, and commend to Him my cause, which is also +wholly His own. I beseech Him to bestow abundant graces on your Majesty, +to deliver you from all danger, and to grant you all the mercy which you +require." This answer was not waited for. Victor Emmanuel made haste to +become the declared enemy of Pius IX. On 11th September, the Pontifical +territory was invaded by his orders at three different +points--Aquapendente, in the north: Orte and Correse, to the east; and on +the south, Ceprano. The invading army amounted to sixty thousand men. +After the withdrawal of the French garrison, there remained only at Rome +the few soldiers who constituted the army of the Pope. A great portion of +these were, to the lasting honor of a remote British dependency, +Canadians. They all deserved well of the Holy Father, and had imperilled +their lives in his service. On occasion of the great difficulty which had +arisen, accordingly, he was pleased to address to them in person special +words of comfort and encouragement. + +It was evident that, in the adverse circumstances of the time, the Council +of the Vatican could not long continue its deliberations. Accordingly, the +Holy Father authorized such of the bishops as desired to retire to return +to their dioceses until the feast of St. Martin, 11th November following, +at which date it was intended to resume the labors of the council. It was +not, however, strictly speaking, suspended. Some general congregations +(committees) were still held, and the various deputations continued their +studies. During this time, the bishops of the minority, one after another, +expressed their adhesion. The bishops, on returning to their dioceses, +were received with magnificent proofs of the people's fidelity. Some +parties pretending that the Constitution, _Pastor aeternus_, was not +obligatory, because the council was not terminated, Cardinal Antonelli +addressed to the Papal Nuncio at Brussels a letter under date of 11th +August, which removed all doubt on the subject. The rapid march of events, +however, rendered it necessary to interrupt the labors of the assembled +Fathers. On 20th October, accordingly, Pius IX. published the Bull, +_Postquam Dei Munere_, which suspended them for an indefinite period. + +THE WOLF IN THE FOLD. + +When all the Pontifical forces had returned from the outposts, on the +approach of the formidable Piedmontese invader, and were concentrated at +Rome, they numbered not more than some ten thousand men. Such an army was +quite inadequate to cope with the superior power of the Florence +government. Pius IX., therefore, in order to prevent an unavailing +conflict, placed an order in the hands of his general-in-chief, to the +effect that as soon as sufficient resistance was made, in order to show +that violence was used against the Holy See, he should surrender the city. +This was a trial to the devoted Papal Zouaves, who, during the few moments +that fighting was allowed, conducted themselves in the most gallant style, +and kept the enemy at bay. Their bravery deserved a better fate than that +which befell them and the Roman State. Two lieutenants, Niel and Brondeis, +fell, pierced with wounds, exclaiming with their last breath, "Long live +Pius IX.!" A brave Alsacian fell by their side. A Canadian Zouave, +Hormisdas Sauvet, was also wounded, and declared that he was more +fortunate than so many of his fellow-countrymen who had been two years in +the Pontifical service without the slightest accident. Another Zouave, +whose name was Burel, when wounded in the mouth, and his tongue was +destroyed, made a sign that he wished to write. Paper was brought to him, +and he thus wrote his will: "I leave to the Holy Father all that I +possess." He died the following day. The paper, all covered with blood, +was taken to Pius IX., who, in his turn, bedewed it with tears, and +desired to keep it as a memorial. + +The Italian general Cadorna, an apostate priest, commenced bombarding Rome +at five points. At one of these, between the gates Pia and Salara, they +speedily effected a breach in an old wall about two feet in thickness, and +built of bricks and tufa. It may be conceived with what feelings the brave +Papal soldiers beheld the storming column enter the city, whilst they, in +obedience to orders, remained inactive spectators. They bore in silence +and without moving an arm the insults and even the violence of the fierce +soldiery of Piedmont. Finally, after a white flag had been displayed for +some time on the Pontifical side, almost in vain, General Kanzler had an +interview with Cadorna, at the Villa Albani. It can hardly be said that a +convention was resolved on. It would be more true to write that the terms +of the conqueror were imposed on the vanquished, and, as a matter of +necessity, accepted. The soldiers were better treated than in such +circumstances could well be expected. They were allowed to march out of +Rome with the honors of war, bearing with them their colors, arms and +baggage. When once out of the city, however, they were all obliged to lay +down their arms and their colors, with the exception of the officers, who +were permitted to retain their swords, their horses and everything that +belonged to them. Such soldiers as were foreigners were to be sent to +their respective homes by the Italian government. The future position of +the Pope's native troops was to be taken into consideration. By the +articles of capitulation, it was settled that the Pope should be allowed +only the Vatican Palace and that part of Rome which is called the Leonine +city. Thus were carried into effect the views of those revolutionists of +Paris and Turin who claimed to be moderate. Their programme was that which +Prince Napoleon had concocted in 1861. + +It is deeply to be regretted that when so little resistance was required, +so many of the Pope's brave defenders should have fallen. Some were basely +murdered in the streets on the nights of the 20th and 21st September. +Without counting these, however, there were sixteen killed, of whom one +was an officer, and fifty-eight wounded. Among these last there were two +officers, two surgeons and a chaplain. The troops having been so hastily +dismissed to their foreign homes, to Civita Vecchia, etc., it is possible +that the list may be incomplete. The losses of the Piedmontese were never +made known. It is certain, at any rate, that one hundred wounded were +received at the hospital "de la Consolation" alone. + +Whilst Pius IX. neglected not to warn, remonstrate and use every fair and +loyal art of diplomacy, he failed not, at the same time, to have recourse +to the spiritual weapon of prayer. As the enemy approached his gates, he +repaired to the Lateran Basilica, and there most earnestly addressed his +supplications to the God of armies. Notwithstanding his great age, he +ascended, on his knees, all the time absorbed in prayer, the twenty-nine +steps of the _Scala Santa_, which, at the Palace of Pontius Pilate, was +consecrated by the footsteps of our suffering Saviour. On reaching the +chapel at the head of the holy stair, he poured forth a prayer by which +all who heard it were deeply moved. He beseeched our blessed Lord, whose +humble servant and representative he was, to turn aside the wrath of +heaven, to prevent the profanation of the holy places, to save his people. +He conjured our most loving Saviour, by virtue of His passion, by the pain +especially which He suffered when spontaneously ascending that same stair +in order to undergo the mockery of judgment by His erring creatures, to +have mercy on afflicted Rome, on His people, on His Church--His +well-beloved and stainless spouse, to save her temples from desecration +and her children from the sword. "Pardon," he concluded, "pardon my +people, who are also Thy people. If Thou desirest a victim, O God! take +Thy unworthy servant! Have I not lived long enough? Mercy! O God! have +mercy, I beseech Thee! But whatever may happen, Thy holy will be done!" + +As was always the case when Pius IX. appeared among his people, he was +received on this occasion with every demonstration of welcome. As soon as +the inhabitants of the locality became aware of his presence, they +thronged around his carriage in order to do him honor, and, urged by the +circumstances of the time, with that freedom and familiarity of manner +peculiar to the Romans, they added to their acclamations and cordial +_vivats_ words of encouragement and even advice. "Defend yourself. Holy +Father! defend us! courage! courage!" A parting benediction, and he left +his people of Rome to be with them no more. + +All the representatives of foreign States, with the exception of Von +Arnim, the Prussian Ambassador, remained with the Holy Father, protesting +by their presence against the flagrant violation of a solemn treaty which +the Florence government was committing. It is not known that Von Arnim was +instructed by his government to act as he did. But none are ignorant that +since that time it has dealt severely with him. The diplomatist who +rejoiced over the fall of Rome has himself incurred disgrace, and +undergoes the punishment of a banished man. + +Pius IX., complimenting the ambassadors, called to mind how they had +afforded him much comfort on a similar occasion. This was in 1848, and at +the Quirinal Palace. He informed them also that he had written to King +Victor Emmanuel, but did not know whether he had received his letter. At +any rate, he had little hope that it would have any result. His mention of +the notorious Bixio, who was with the Italian army, was not without +significance. This rabid red republican had threatened that if ever he +entered Rome he would throw the Pope and cardinals into the Tiber. "His +ideas," the Holy Father observed, "were now probably modified. He was with +a king. May it please Heaven to effect a complete transformation and +convert this Bixio and so many others." + +The students of the American College at Rome, the ambassadors were then +told, had offered to take up arms in the service of Pius IX. The Holy +Father would not allow them to serve otherwise than by attending to the +wounded. + +"I wish I could say that I count on you," said the Pope, addressing the +ambassadors, "and that one of you will have the honor, as formerly, to +extricate the Church and her Chief from difficulty. But the times are +changed. The aged Pope, in his misfortunes, cannot rely on any one in this +world. But the Church is immortal. Let this never be forgotten." + +General Kanzler now brought the intelligence that a breach was made, and +the assault on the point of commencing. The Pope having conferred a few +moments apart with Cardinal Antonelli, resumed his discourse: "I have just +given the order to capitulate. We might still defend ourselves. But to +what purpose? Abandoned by every one, I must yield sooner or later; and I +must not allow any useless shedding of blood. You are my witnesses, +gentlemen, that the foreigner enters here only by violence, and that if my +door is forced, it is by breaking it open. This the world shall know, and +history will tell it, one day, to the honor of the Romans, my children. I +speak not of myself, gentlemen; I weep not for myself, but for those +unfortunate young men who have come to defend me as their Father. You will +take care, each of you, of those of your country. There are some from all +countries. I recommend them all to you, in order that you may preserve +them from such maltreatment as others had to suffer ten years ago. I +absolve my soldiers from their oath of fidelity. I pray God to give me +strength and courage. Ah! it is not they who suffer injustice that are +most to be pitied." Having thus spoken, he took leave of the ambassadors, +with tears in his eyes. On the same day, Cardinal Antonelli, by his order, +intimated the sad tidings to the governments of all civilized nations. +Pius IX. also protested by an allocution to the cardinals. It only remains +to chronicle the shameful violation of the treaty, which bound the French +nation to protect the Holy Father, by the government temporarily +established in France. "The September agreement," wrote a representative +of the French republic, under the date of 22nd September, 1870, "virtually +ceases to exist by the proclamation of the French republic. I congratulate +the King of Italy, in the name of the French government and in my own +name, on the deliverance of Home and the final consecration of Italian +unity." Thus was disgrace added to the misfortunes of a great country. + +It was some time before order could be restored at Rome. From four +thousand to five thousand vagrants and bandits, chiefly Garibaldians, +entered the city at the heels of the invading force. The prisons were +thrown open, and swelled the ranks of these disorderly bands. During two +whole days that these lawless hordes were allowed to commit all kinds of +excesses, houses were fired, valuable property destroyed or carried off, +some eighty unoffending citizens put to death, and such of the Roman +soldiers as were recognized cut down or thrown into the Tiber. Nor was the +Italian general in any hurry to repress such proceedings. "_Lasciate il +popolo sfogarsir_," coolly said Cadorna to the parties who entreated him +to put an end to such horrors. This general and the men with whom he acted +were only robbers on a greater scale. Their commissioners lost not a +moment. When tranquillity was somewhat restored, and complaints were made +against housebreakers, it was found that everything was already +confiscated--libraries, archives, colleges, museums, etc. + +Victor Emmanuel had need of the mob which followed his troops. Anxious to +give a coloring of right to his brigandage, he resolved, according to the +fashion of his Imperial patron and accomplice, to hold a _plebiscitum_. In +the city of Rome, with the help of his numerous assemblage of vagrants, he +had forty thousand votes, whilst against him there were only forty-six. +Something similar was done in the landward part of the Roman State. +Better, surely, no right beyond what the sword could give, than such a +transparent semblance of right. No wonder that Victor Emmanuel's best +friends condemned such an impolitic and ridiculous proceeding. None could +be so simple as to believe that there were only forty-six voters against +him, when all the numerous officials, both civil and military, protested +against his aggression by resigning their offices. It is bad enough when +men in authority play fantastic tricks. When the play is badly played, the +trickery becomes ridiculous. + +It now remained to adhibit the seal of permanency to the _fait accompli_. +This was done by the following decree: + + + Art. 1st. Rome and the Roman Provinces constitute an integral + portion of the kingdom of Italy. + + Art. 2nd. The Sovereign Pontiff retains the dignity, + inviolability, and all the prerogatives of a sovereign. + + Art. 3rd. A special law will sanction the conditions calculated to + guarantee, even by territorial franchises, the independence of the + Sovereign Pontiff and the free exercise of the spiritual authority + of the Holy See. + + +Thus was sacrificed to Italian unity the city of the Popes. Was the +sacrifice essential? Florence might have well sufficed. It was of little +avail that the brigands who followed the Piedmontese army were compelled, +by superior power, to moderate their violence. Their robberies were, for +the most part, of a private nature, and committed on a small scale. Those +of their superiors--the Piedmontese usurpers--were grander and more +extensive. They astonished, if they did not terrify, by their magnitude +and the daring which achieved them. There were palaces at Rome and +soldiers' quarters which had satisfied all the requirements of Papal +grandeur. These were nothing to the republican simplicity of the new order +of things. No doubt the parliament which had just arrived from Florence +required ample space. The costly equipages and hunting studs of a +constitutional king were also to be provided for. Could not all this have +been done, especially in such a vast city, without expropriating convents, +desecrating churches, and even seizing for their purposes the refuges of +the sick? It was more than an idea that required such spoliation. But what +shall we say when we call to mind that the mere desire to modernize +everything threatened the destruction of all those monuments which +rendered Rome so dear to travellers from every clime? It had been hitherto +the city of the Consuls, of the Emperors, of the Popes. It must now become +a commonplace town, with straight lines, rectangles and parallelograms, +like Philadelphia, New York, or the _Haussmanized_ Paris of Napoleon III. +The Royal Palace of the Popes, the Quirinal, was unscrupulously seized, in +order to make a city mansion for the King of Italy. It was too +magnificent, apparently, for this gentleman prince. He seldom entered it. +It may be that he dreaded offending the revolution, to which he owed so +much, by too great an affectation of royal style. If the gratitude of such +a heartless thing could be relied on, he had no need to fear. Without the +sword of Piedmont the revolution never could have entered Rome. + +Meanwhile, the Pope was engaged in most anxious deliberation. At last, +considering the disturbed state of Europe generally, he concluded that it +was better for him to remain at Rome. A Pontifical ship, which had not +been included in the articles of capitulation, awaited his orders in the +waters of Civita Vecchia. This vessel was named the "Immaculate +Conception;" and two years later, by order of his Holiness, was laid up at +Toulon, under the protection of the flag of France. A French ship, the +"Orenoque," was then placed at the disposal of Pius IX., in case he should +wish, at any time, to leave Rome: and later, the "Kleber," which was +stationed in the waters of Bastia (Corsica). + +The Holy Father had made up his mind so early as the first days of +September, 1870, to remain in the city. His presence, he felt confident, +would so far prevent the evils which he feared. If he were gone, there +would be less restraint on the usurping power, when it might wish to +confiscate more convents, churches and church property generally. Almost +all the foreign ambassadors remained with him; and this circumstance +presented another cause why the new government would be more moderate and +circumspect in its attacks on property. + +A beautiful legend which the Holy Father recounted, at an interview with +Cardinal De Bonnechose, was well calculated to reconcile the Catholic +world to the stay of Pius IX. at Rome, even although he was there as a +prisoner of the victorious king. And a prisoner he really was; for he +could not have removed to any other country except by a successful +stratagem, so closely guarded were all the approaches to the city by the +myrmidons of the conqueror. Taking the cardinal aside, he informed him +that he wished to present him with a memorial. "The object in itself is of +little value. The intention with which I give it is all its worth." It was +a small plate of ivory, framed in gold, surmounted by the arms of the Holy +See, and representing in the most exquisite manner a moving scene in the +life of St. Peter. "You behold the subject of my frequent meditations for +many years. When the prince of the apostles, fleeing from persecution, +quitted Rome, he met, not far from the gate of Saint Sebastian, our Lord +Himself, carrying His cross and looking extraordinarily sad: '_Domine quo +radis?_' 'Lord, where are you going?' exclaimed Peter. 'I am going to +Rome,' replied our blessed Lord, 'In order to be there crucified anew to +die in your place, as your courage has failed you.' " "Peter understood," +continued the Holy Father, "and remained at Rome. I also remain. For if, +at this moment, I left the eternal city, it would seem to me as if our +Lord addressed to me the same words of reproach. The representation of +this scene I am anxious to leave with you as a memorial. It may, in +reality, be nothing more than a pious legend. But for me it in a decisive +instruction." Pius IX. then delivered the precious medallion to the +cardinal. + +GUARANTEES WHICH GUARANTEED NOTHING--L120,000 WITH WHICH NOTHING WAS +PAID--PETER'S PENCE WHICH PAID EVERYTHING. + +In order to give a coloring to his usurpation in the eyes of Christian +Europe, and to set at rest any scruples which may have remained in the +minds of his adherents, Victor Emmanuel caused a law to be enacted on the +13th March, 1871, which is known as _the law of guarantees_. This law +declared the person of the Sovereign Pontiff sacred and inviolable, +recognized his title and dignity of sovereign, assured to him an annual +endowment of 3,225,000 francs (L120,000), together with the possession of +the Vatican and Lateran Palaces, as well as the Pontifical Villa of Castel +Gandolfo, and provided for the complete liberty of all future Conclaves +and OEcumenical Councils. It requires two parties to every contract or +agreement. _The law of guarantees_ had no such condition, the Holy Father +not being a party to it. He could not accept the honors which the new +government pretended to confer, nor the money which it offered. It was not +a government by any other law than that of the sword--that of a war not +only undertaken against the unoffending, but also in violation of a solemn +treaty. Neither was the treasure which it proffered its rightful property. +It held it, indeed; but only as the robber holds the purse of his victim, +whilst he mocks him by an offer of alms. It was also the merest mockery to +pretend to recognize the Pope as a sovereign, whilst, in reality, he was +detained as a prisoner, who could not pass beyond the gate of his garden +without coming into the custody of the armed police or soldiery of the +usurper, By the provisions of this same law of guarantees, full liberty +was secured to the Sovereign Pontiff in the exercise of his spiritual +office. The persecutions to which the ministers of the Church were +frequently subjected, when they dared to obey the orders of the Pope in +fulfilling the duties of his and their ministry, show to what extent the +framers of the law were sincere. It need only be added, without further +comment, that article eighteen confiscated, by anticipation, all +ecclesiastical properties, under the pretence that they were to be +reorganized, preserved and administered. No wonder that the Pope +stigmatized such a law as hypocritical and iniquitous. In the supposition +that he could have derived any benefit from accepting it, he would still +have been at the mercy of a fickle king and parliament, to whom it was +competent, at any moment, to change the law which they had made. The +safety of the Holy Father, under Heaven, lay in this, that the newly +erected kingdom of Victor Emmanuel was most ambitious to figure as a State +among the States of Europe. To none of these would it have been pleasing +to see the venerable Pontiff forcibly driven from the city of the Popes. +It was necessary, as far as possible, to blindfold them. + +"I have, indeed, great need of money." said Pius IX., when the sum +appropriated by the law of guarantees was first presented for his +acceptance; "my children, everywhere, impose on themselves the most +serious sacrifices in order to supply my wants, at all times so great, but +to which you are daily adding. As it is a portion of the property that has +been stolen from me, I could only accept it as restitution money. I will +never sign a receipt which would appear to express my acquiescence in the +robbery." Every succeeding year the form, or rather the farce, of offering +the subsidy was renewed and as often rejected. That the offer of so large +a sum was hypocritical, and intended only for show, is well proved by the +circumstance that the liberal Italian government deprived of their incomes +and drove from their places of residence many bishops, whose wants were +supplied in their great distress from the resources of the Holy Father. + +Love is stronger than hate; and so well-beloved was Pius IX. throughout +Catholic Christendom, that contributions of money from every country where +there were any Catholics were poured into his treasury, in such abundance +as more than compensated for the loss of his Italian revenue. Not only +were these contributions, under the name of Peter's pence, sufficient to +maintain the venerable Pontiff during the remainder of his days, without +its being necessary to accept, as a royal benefaction, any portion of the +property that was stolen from him, they also sufficed to enable him to +continue their salaries to his former employees, who had almost all +remained faithful, as well as to those still required for his service and +for transacting the business of the Church. In addition to this, he +retained on half or quarter pay a number of the soldiers of his former +army, and maintained his establishment of Vigna Pia, together with the +hospital of Tata Giovanni, from which the new Roman municipality had +meanly withdrawn the subsidy, for no other reason than that in former +times it had been a favorite institution of Pius IX. This was not all. The +Holy Pontiff maintained, by means of popular schools, a necessary warfare +against both Protestant and Atheistic propagandism. The former had been +very active ever since the occupation of Rome by the Piedmontese. The +various Protestant societies actually spent L100,000 yearly in the vain +attempt to Protestantize the Romans. By 1st January, 1875, they had +erected three churches and founded twelve missionary residences in the +interest of divers denominations--Anglicans, Methodists, American +Episcopalians, Vaudois, Baptists, Anabaptists, etc. The Italians have +little taste for Protestantism in any of its forms. So there was no danger +of discordant and jarring sects coming to prevail. It cannot be denied, +however, that the movement increased the number of free-thinkers--a result +no less calculated to afflict tho Holy Father. + +When to these expenses are added those of sustaining the Sacred College, +the prelature, the guards, the museums, and bishops that were exiled for +the faith, there is shown a monthly expenditure of more than six hundred +thousand francs, which is equal to seven millions and a half yearly. These +expenses always increased as the elder bishops passed away. Pius IX. +appointed successors. But as none of these could, in conscience, ask the +royal _exequatur_, which, notwithstanding article sixteen of the notorious +guarantees, was still in force, Victor Emmanuel had no hesitation in +suppressing the revenues of the bishops. Pius IX. sent to the bishops who +were thus deprived of their legitimate incomes five hundred francs +monthly, and to archbishops from seven hundred to one thousand francs. He +also labored to establish foundations for the education of ecclesiastical +students whom a revolutionary and anti-Christian law made subject to +military service, thus rendering morally impossible the following out of +clerical vocations and the recruiting of the priesthood. From this and +such like proceedings, it can easily be seen that the revolutionary +_regime_, and the Italian government was nothing less, aimed at the +extirpation of Christianity, and that civilization, the only possible +civilization which follows in its train. + +Misfortune, meanwhile, was not neglected by the Holy Pontiff. He sent +vestments to the churches of Paris which had been pillaged by the Commune. +He provided, habitually, in like manner, for the churches of poor and +remote missions. In July, 1875, he sent twenty thousand francs to the +people who had suffered by inundations in the southwest of France, and +five thousand francs to such as had similarly suffered at Brescia, in +Upper Italy. He bestowed, likewise, large sums for the rebuilding of +churches--for instance, eight hundred francs for this pious purpose to the +Bishop of Sarsina, and two thousand to the Bishop of Osimo. Charitable +institutions were not overlooked, and the Princess Rospigliosi Champigny +de Cadore received fifty thousand francs towards the support of the house +of St. Mary Magdalen, the object of which was the preservation of young +women in the city of Rome. + +As regarded works of art or of public utility, the venerable Pontiff was +no less munificent. He completed the restoration of the Church of Saint +Ange in Peschiera, together with the magnificent contiguous portico called +Octavia, and rebuilt the altar with the marbles found by Visconti in the +emporium of the Emperors. The tomb of his illustrious predecessor Gregory +VII., at Salerno, having become dilapidated, he undertook to restore it at +his own cost, and renewed the fine epitaph which Pope Gregory himself had +caused to be engraved on the sepulchral stone; _Dileri justitiam et odici +iniquitatem, et ecce in exilio mortor_. (I loved righteousness and hated +iniquity, and lo! I die in exile.) + +Quite a number of people were employed in the manufacture of mosaics at +the Vatican. On this the Romans justly prided themselves. Pius IX. +continued to employ these artists, and, as in former times, presented +their works to his guests or to the churches of Italy. If he was not still +a king, he retained, at least, a truly royal prerogative--that of +conferring gifts in every way worthy of royalty. Nothing could exceed the +delicacy and graciousness with which he did so. Of this the two Russian +Grand Dukes, brothers of the reigning Emperor, were witnesses, when he +made a present to them of a splendid table, in mosaic, which they were +observed to admire among the more humble furniture of his apartment. The +funds must have been, indeed, abundant which could meet so many demands. +Although despoiled of his revenues and property, the Holy Father was a +richer monarch than the prince who robbed him. So liberally were Peter's +pence bestowed and so economically managed, that Pius IX. was able to +invest money for the benefit of his successor, although not to such an +extent as to render the collection of Peter's pence in the future +unnecessary. + +It has long been customary, on occasion of the august ceremony of the +coronation of the Popes, to address to them, with due solemnity, the +words: _Annos Petri tu non ridebis_. (Thou wilt not see the years of +Peter.) It is related that one of the Popes thus replied to the ominous +address: _Non est de fide_. (That is no article of faith.) Pius IX., +however, was the first who showed that the words were not strictly +prophetic. His Pontificate was prolonged beyond the years of Peter at +Rome. Already, on the 10th of June, 1871, when he was enabled to celebrate +the twenty-fifth anniversary of his election to the Pontifical chair, he +had enjoyed more than the years of Peter. The great apostle, it will be +remembered, spent two years after our Lord's ascension in preaching the +Gospel at Jerusalem and throughout Judea. After this, Antioch, at the time +the capital of the Eastern world, became the scene of his apostolic +labors. He was bishop there for seven years when he established the +central seat of Christendom at Rome, the metropolis of the known world. +The apostle remained there till his martyrdom under Nero, A. D. 67. Thus, +Peter was Pope thirty-four years or so, whilst he was Bishop of Rome only +twenty-five years and some days. A festival at Rome could not now be held +with the wonted circumstance of outward religious pomp. The remarkable +anniversary was not, however, less devoutly observed at the Basilicas of +St. Peter and St. John Lateran. These immense edifices were crowded with +people of all classes and of every age. Nor in this did the Romans stand +alone. Prayers and communions were offered up in every diocese of the +world, supplicating Heaven for a continuation of the years which had been +already so auspiciously granted to the venerable Pontiff. More than a +thousand congratulatory messages were flashed along the telegraph lines. +All the sovereigns of Europe, with scarcely an exception, paid their +dutiful compliments to Pius IX.; the telegram of Queen Victoria being the +first that reached him. From the New World as well as from the Old there +came numerous deputations. One day, in replying to them, the Holy Father +delivered no fewer than twelve discourses in Latin, French, Spanish and +Italian. To many of the addresses was appended a singularly great number +of signatures. The Bishop of Nevers presented one with two millions of +names. + +A few days later, 20th September, the Holy Father had to lament the death +of his brother, Count Gaetano Mastai. So little, however, was his grief +respected by Victor Emmanuel and his government, that their cannon were +heard booming joyously in honor of the violent occupation of the city. All +Rome was indignant. Patrician and plebeian, all citizens alike, hastened +to the Vatican, protesting and presenting addresses of condolence. The +_Riforma_ (a Roman journal) said, on the occasion: "After two years' +sojourn Italy was still as much a stranger as on the first day, so that +there was no appearance of friendliness, but rather of a city that still +groaned under a military occupation, which it bore with the greatest +impatience." + +MORE SPOLIATION AND DESECRATION--NO RECONCILIATION. + +Robbery, wholesale and sacrilegious, was now the order of the day at Rome. +Throughout the city convents were closed and sequestrated, libraries were +confiscated, and often dilapidated in transferring them from one place to +another. Religious men and religious women were driven from their homes +and brutally searched on their thresholds lest they should carry away with +them anything that belonged to them. These religious people obtained, +every month, as indemnification, twenty-five centimes each daily, and the +aged forty centimes; but they were paid only when the treasury was in a +condition to pay them, and this was not the case every month. The poor and +the infirm, no longer sustained by Catholic charity, encumbered the +hospitals or were associated with the knights of industry, who swarmed +from the prisons of Italy. It was in vain that the police were doubled. +Robberies increased in the same proportion. The people in such +circumstances could not but ask themselves what sacrifices were laid upon +himself by the usurping king, who was now the master of the domains of six +Italian princes who had never allowed their subjects to go without bread. +Before the end of the year 1873, the number of religious houses that were +taken, in whole or in part, from their legitimate proprietors, was over +one hundred. The intervention of diplomacy saved for a time the Roman +College, which was essentially international and not Roman, as formerly no +clerks of the city of Rome could attend it, and as it was endowed solely +by foreign kings and benefactors. The Italian government consented, not, +indeed, to renounce, but only to stay this new spoliation. It claimed all +the more credit for its pretended moderation, as it secretly caused the +newspapers in its interest to instigate it to listen to no terms. By means +of its gensd'armes and its police force, it was master of the secret +societies, and allowed them to raise a cry without allowing them to act, +whilst it chose its own time for the execution of its wicked purposes. + +Pius IX. was deeply grieved when beholding so many evil deeds which he +could not prevent. His sorrow found expression in one of his allocutions, +that of 1st January, 1873: + +"You are come," said he, to parties who had come to compliment him on New +Years day, "from divers distant lands in order to offer me your +congratulations and wish me a happy new year. The past year, alas! is far +from having been a happy one. Society is astray in evil courses. There are +people who think that peace prevails at Rome, and that matters are not so +bad there as is said. Some strangers, on arriving in the city, even ask +for cards of admission to religious ceremonies. I am persuaded that this +year also the same request will be made as regards the celebrations of +holy week. So long as the present state of things continues, alas! there +can be no such celebrations. The Church is in mourning. Rome has lost its +character of capital of the Christian world--so many horrible deeds are +done, so many blasphemies uttered. Let us beseech the Lord to put an end +to such a painful state of things." + +Victor Emmanuel, notwithstanding his extraordinary proceedings, appears to +have thought that there might be a reconciliation with the Pope. The +Emperor of Brazil, a man of science and a celebrated traveller, then at +Rome, accepted the office of mediator. One morning, in the year 1872, the +Brazilian monarch repaired to the Vatican. The hour of his visit was +inopportune, as its object also proved to be. It was seven o'clock in the +morning. The Holy Father had not yet finished his Mass when the Emperor +was announced. As soon as was possible his Holiness proceeded to receive +him. Whether fearing some design, or from dislike only to meet a prince +who came from the hostile usurper's court, Pius IX., with an unusual +coldness of manner, addressed the Emperor: "What does your Majesty +desire?" "I beg your Holiness will not call me Majesty. Here, I am only +the Count of Alcantara." The Holy Father then, without showing the least +emotion, said to him: "My dear Count, what do you desire?" "I am come, +your Holiness, in order to ask that you will allow me to introduce to you +the King of Italy." At these words the Pontiff rose from his seat, and, +looking indignantly at the Emperor, said to him with much firmness: "It is +quite useless to hold such language. Let the King of Piedmont abjure his +misdeeds and restore to me my States. I will then consent to receive him. +But not till then." + +CREATION OF CARDINALS--AUDIENCES AND ALLOCUTIONS--THE POPE REALLY A +PRISONER--THE PRINCE OF WALES--ENGLAND--IRELAND. + +A creation of cardinals was necessary. There were twenty-nine vacant hats. +Towards the close of 1873 Pius IX. resolved on twelve new creations. One +of these became the occasion of protesting anew against the Italian +government. The Society of Jesuits had always been a special object of its +hatred. They were the first whom it expelled from Rome, as has been the +case in more than one persecution. And now they were robbed, +notwithstanding the hopes that the European ambassadors were led to +entertain of the Roman College which was their property. The Holy Father +met this new brigandage by raising a member of the society to the dignity +of cardinal. Tarquini, professor of canon law at the Sapienza (Roman +College), was the favored member. Thus did the despoiled Pontiff condemn +the ignorance and rebuke the robbery of the new rulers of Rome. "I am +aware," said Pius IX. on this occasion, "that the Jesuits do not willingly +accept ecclesiastical dignities. I had not, therefore, thought, until now, +of conferring the purple on any of their members. But the unjust acts from +which your society is suffering at this moment have determined me. It +appeared to me to be necessary that I should make known in this way what I +think of the ignorant calumnies of which you are the victims, and at the +same time give proof to yourself and your brethren of my esteem and +friendship." + +If, ever since the violent seizure of Rome, it was customary to speak of +the Pope as "the prisoner of the Vatican," his enemies, on the other hand, +ceased not to insist that he was perfectly free, whilst he obstinately +persisted in remaining within the walls of his palace. It has been noticed +already that every approach to Rome and the Vatican was strictly guarded +by the soldiers of the usurping king. A circumstance which occurred on the +evening of the 20th June, 1874, further showed how close the imprisonment +was. It was the twenty-eighth anniversary of the coronation of Pius IX. +_Te Deum_ was celebrated in the Vatican Basilica, and, what rarely +happens, the spacious edifice was completely filled. More than one hundred +thousand people, as nearly as could be estimated, or two-thirds of all the +Romans who were able to leave their houses, were massed as well within the +church as on the places St. Peter and Risticucci. When _Te Deum_ was over, +all eyes instinctively turned towards a window of the second story of the +palace. It was the window of the Pope's apartment. Suddenly a white figure +appeared at this window, and immediately a cry arose from below. It was +the voice of the Roman citizens; a voice so grand that it might be said to +express the mind of a whole people, as they saluted their king, who was a +prisoner. It continued for some time, and, although the window was at once +closed, the prolonged acclamation of the faithful Romans rose louder and +louder, until the Piedmontese troops came on the ground and swept away the +crowd. The people departed without making any resistance. The police, +nevertheless, arrested some twelve persons, of whom six were ladies of the +best society of Rome. These ladies were at once set at liberty. But four +young men of the number of those arrested were detained and afterwards +condemned, one of them to two years, and the rest to several months' +imprisonment, for having cried, "Long live the Pontiff-King." This crime +they pretended not to deny. Could it be doubted any longer that the Pope +was a prisoner? It was not only on moral grounds that he could not leave +the Vatican. There were also bayonets and fire-arms between him and the +nearest streets of Rome. It was only in the beginning of the year 1875 +that Pius IX. could no longer refrain from visiting the Basilica of St. +Peter. He had not been within it for four years and a half. Every +necessary precaution was observed on occasion of his visit. The gates of +the temple were kept shut, and none were present but members of the +chapter and some other persons required for the service of the Church. The +Holy Father entered by the stair which forms direct communication between +his palace and the holy place. As may well be understood, he prayed for +some time with his accustomed earnestness, that it would please God to put +an end to the evils by which the Church was so sorely afflicted. + +Pius IX. was indefatigable in giving audiences and receiving deputations +from every country where there were members of the Catholic Church. On +such occasions he never failed to speak words of edification and +encouragement. It was even said that he spoke too much. They were not, +however, of the number of his friends who call him _il Papa verboso_. He +was endowed with a wonderful gift of speech, and he always used it +effectively. His discourses were invariably to the purpose, the subject of +them being suggested by the most recent events, by the nationality of his +visitors, or by the expressed pious intentions which brought them to his +presence. He made allusion very often to the Gospel of the preceding +Sunday, or to the festival of the day, and concluded by imparting his +benediction, which his hearers always received kneeling, and seldom +without tears. The addresses of Pius IX. delivered at the Vatican have +been preserved by the stenographic art, and fill many volumes. His ideas +sometimes found expression in conversations with distinguished visitors. +Such was the case on occasion of the visit, in 1872, of the Prince of +Wales, the heir apparent of the British Crown. His Royal Highness showed +his good taste by declining the use of Victor Emmanuel's equipages in +coming to the Vatican. The Princess also made manifest her respect for the +well-known sentiments of Pius IX. in regard to showy toilettes by +appearing in a plain dress. There was a striking contrast between the +placid old man, so near the close of his career, and the handsome young +couple, in the flower of their age. The Prince and the Pope appeared +delighted at meeting; and the eyes of the Princess, who looked alternately +at the animated figure of her husband and the benevolent countenance of +the venerable Pontiff, were suffused with tears. The Pope began the +conversation by expressing his great admiration for the character, both +public and private, of the Queen of Great Britain; and smiling +expressively, and not without a slight degree of Italian irony, he thanked +the British ministers who, more than once, had offered him, in the name of +the Queen, an asylum on British territory. "You see, Prince, I have not +left Rome quite as soon as some of your statesmen supposed I would." The +Holy Father then alluded to the existing state of things, adding: "In my +present condition I am assuredly more happy than those who consider +themselves more the masters of Rome than myself. I have no fear for my +dynasty. It is powerfully protected. God Himself is its guardian. He also +looks to my succession and my family. You are not unaware that these are +no other than the Church. I can speak without offence to the Prince of +Wales of the instability of Royal Houses, that which he represents being +firmly anchored in the affections of a wise people." "I am delighted," +replied the Prince, smiling expressively, "to find that your Holiness has +so good an opinion of our people." "Yes, indeed, I respect the English +people," continued the Holy Father, "because they are more truly +religious, both as regards feeling and conduct, than many who call +themselves Catholics. When, one day, they shall return to the fold, with +what joy will we not welcome that flock which is astray, but not lost!" +The Prince and Princess, being rather incredulous, received this +benevolent aspiration with a good-natured smile. "Oh! my children," +resumed the Pontiff, "the future has in store for mankind the most strange +surprises. Who could have imagined, two years ago, that we should see a +Prussian army in France? I hesitate not to say that your ablest statesmen +expected sooner to see the Pope at Malta than Napoleon III. in England. As +regards myself, you will observe I am, indeed, robbed of my States, but +God, who, at any moment, withdraws the possessions of this world, can also +restore them a hundred-fold. Is the dynasty of the Head of the Church, on +this account, less secure? I may, for a time, be driven from Rome. But +when your children and grandchildren shall come to visit the holy city, +they will see, as you see to-day--let the temporal power be more or less +considerable--an old man, clothed in white, pointing the way to heaven for +the good of hundreds of millions of human consciences. To compensate for +the absence of subjects immediately around him, he will have devoted +adherents at all times and everywhere." The conversation turning on +Ireland, the Holy Father spoke in the warmest terms of the fidelity of the +Catholics of that country. "You know, Prince, the results of persecution. +It does not make us any more Catholics. Your Royal Mother follows a policy +quite different from that of her predecessors, in regard to Ireland, and +you are, like her, aware that good Catholics are always good subjects." +That country, the Pope continued to observe, had need of the vigilant and +energetic superintendence of its devoted prelates, whom he praised in the +highest terms. "For," said he, "the wolf--I do not mean Protestantism--but +the wolf of anarchy and infidelity is abroad, I fear, in the regions of +the West." He referred to the organization called "the International," and +expressed his astonishment that "any princes should be still so blind as +to take pleasure in making war on the Church, at a period when the +foundations of civil society were threatened on every side." + +The chief cause of the Holy Father's grief and poignant sorrow, under his +calamities, was the loss of souls. "Ah!" said he, in a conversation with +Mgr. Langenieux, Archbishop of Rheims, "I could bear my misfortunes +courageously, and God would give me strength to withstand the evils which +afflict the Church. But there is one thing I cannot forgive those who +persecute us. They eradicate the faith of my people--they kill the souls of +the children of unfortunate Italy." The Pontiff, as he uttered these +words, moved his hand towards his breast, and as his fingers ruffled his +white robe, he exclaimed, in a tone that was truly heartrending: "They +tear away my heart!" + +"It was sublime," adds the archbishop, "the great soul of the Pope subdued +us, and, at the same time, inspired us with light and fortitude." + +RELATIONS OF PIUS IX. WITH FOREIGN STATES--SWITZERLAND--GERMANY. + +The party in Europe who desired the suppression of the Pope's temporal +rule professed to be actuated by zeal for promoting a more free and useful +exercise of his spiritual authority. It soon became manifest that this was +the merest sham. Switzerland, guided by that narrow kind of Protestantism +which has so often asserted its power, pretended to see only in the Pope +the Chief of the small Roman State; when deprived of that State, he was no +longer a prince or dignitary, with whom diplomatic relations could be +held. His legate at Berne, accordingly, was informed that he must take his +departure from the territory of the Swiss Confederation. It is well +understood that this ungracious measure was secretly advised and promoted +by Germany. That Power speedily followed the example, although not at +first in a very direct or open way. The German ministry appointed to the +Embassy of the Vatican Cardinal Hohenlohe, the only one of the cardinals +who proved unfaithful to Pius IX. in the hour of his great distress. The +Pope remonstrated against the appointment. The inflexible Prussian +minister, Bismarck, replied that he would send no other, suspended and +finally abolished diplomatic relations between the new Empire and the Holy +See. It is by no means matter for surprise that a man of Prince Bismarck's +views and character should have so acted, or even that he should have +become the promoter of the greatest and most unwarrantable persecution by +which any nation has been disgraced, or to which any portion of the Church +has been subjected in modern times. This minister, who may be truly +described as the political scourge of Germany, is as fanatical in religion +as he is coarse and sceptical in politics. He abandoned his party, and +became, or feigned to become, a liberal in order to gratify his hatred of +the Catholic Church. He belongs to that branch of Protestantism which is +called "orthodox" (_lucus a non lucendo_). On occasion of the debate, 14th +April, 1874, on the law which withdrew the salaries of the Catholic +clergy, a Protestant conservative member of the representative body, Count +de Malrahn, declared that he would vote for this law, because it would +affect only the Catholics, without interfering with the rights of the +Evangelical denomination. Bismarck, by his reply, not only showed an utter +absence of all political faith, but at the same time a degree of political +hypocrisy with which all true history will never cease to stigmatize him. +"I must express the great joy which I experience on hearing the +declaration of the preceding speaker. If, at the commencement of the +religious conflict, the conservatives had taken this ground, and sustained +the government in the name of the Evangelical religion, I never would have +been under the necessity of separating from the Conservative party." + +From Chancellor Bismarck's own words, therefore, it may be concluded that +it was excessive sectarian fanaticism which made him an infidel and +hypocrite in politics, a traitor to his party, and a savage persecutor of +the Church. When there was question in December, 1874, of obtaining an act +for the suppression of the Prussian legation to the Holy See, the +deep-rooted hatred of Prince Bismarck and his absolute want of conscience +became still more apparent. He audaciously accused the Court of Rome of +having been the ally of France, and even of the revolution in the war +against Prussia in 1870. He pretended that if the OEcumenical Council was +closed abruptly, it was in order to leave complete liberty of action to +Napoleon III.; and, as facts were necessary in order to support this +extraordinary and false assertion, he ascribed to Monsignor Meglia, at the +time nuncio at Munich, the words, "Our only hope is in the revolution." As +the chancellor uttered this odious calumny, he suddenly took ill. He +became pale, stammered, and had recourse, four or five times, to a glass +of water, which was beside him, in order to recover his spirits and find +the words which he should use. The whole parliament was struck with this +incident. The Abbe Majunke, editor of the Catholic journal _Germania_, +was, however, the only one who spoke of it publicly. Such an offence +against the omnipotent chancellor could not, of course, be overlooked. M. +Majunke was summoned to the police office, and thence consigned to prison, +notwithstanding his inviolability as deputy, and the protestations of the +_Reichstag_ (parliament). What a grand conception Chancellor Bismarck must +have had of constitutional government! + +The great success of William I. in the Franco-Prussian war appears to have +so elated that monarch that he considered there was nothing which he might +not successfully undertake. He had annexed to Prussia some of the lesser +States of Germany, and made a German Empire. The Church in Germany enjoyed +many privileges and immunities under his predecessors, who, for the most +part, were, like himself, Protestants. Whether it was that he desired to +show himself a better Protestant than his ancestors, or that he could not +emancipate himself from the control of the minister who had so long +guided, with singular success, the destinies of the empire, as well as his +own career, or that he believed it to be a political necessity to act +according to the views and carry out the principles of the German and +European "Liberals"--the party of revolution and unbelief--he resolved to +oppose no impediment to his chancellor and the liberal majority of +parliament in their endeavors to destroy the Catholic Church in Germany, +unless it chose to become as a mere department of the State, acting and +speaking in the name of the State, receiving its appointments from the +State, as well as the funds requisite for the support of its ministers, +accepting all its orders and instructions, even in the most spiritual +things, from the State; in fine, looking to the State as the sole source +of all its authority, honor, power and influence. There was nothing like +the German Empire. It had conquered in gigantic wars with two Powers that +were considered the greatest in continental Europe. It had attained a +degree of power and greatness, scarcely if at all inferior to that of the +first Napoleon, and, like Napoleon, it aimed at more. It sought, like him, +to have the Church, no less than the police courts, in every respect, in +all circumstances and on all occasions, completely at its orders. This +ill-judged ambition accounts for the long list of oppressive laws which +were enacted at Berlin for the enslavement of the Catholic Church. They +are known as the "May Laws," all of them having been passed, although not +in the same year, in the month of May. Dollinger, Hohenlohe and the rest +of the anti-Catholic Bavarian _coterie_, deluded the Emperor and his +minister with the idea of an independent German _alt_, or Old Catholic +Church. They sold their country to the new empire, politically. But they +could not sell its church. One of these _alt-Catholics_, Dr. Schulte, +recommended persecution as the surest means of eradicating the ancient +church. "Let his twenty thousand florins be withdrawn from such a one, his +twelve thousand thalers from such another; let the salaries of the bishops +and chapters be suppressed, and the result will soon be manifest. The +humbler clergy will rejoice. Since 18th July, 1870, there has been neither +belief in Christ nor religious conviction among the bearers of mitres and +tonsures." Thus was the Prussian minister led to imagine that he had only +to transfer the benefices of the Catholic dignitaries to the +_alt-Catholics_ in order to constitute an independent German Church, which +would unite the whole of Germany religiously, as he had already united it +politically. All Catholics, of course, would be members of this new +Church. The State Protestantism of Prussia would, in due time, join this +State Church, and there would be, if not one Faith and one Baptism, one +Church and one State. + +The calculations of Chancellor Bismarck were, however, at fault. He soon +discovered that the clergy were grossly calumniated, and that the +_alt-Catholic_ Church in which he trusted never counted more than thirty +priests; that this number increased not, and that the hundreds of +thousands of adherents of whom the pseudo bishop, Reinkens, boasted, were +only some twenty thousand to thirty thousand, scattered over all Germany. +These had no principle of cohesion. They could not agree as to any +fundamental point of religious doctrine or discipline. According to a +census made in 1876, they numbered only one hundred and thirty-six, in a +population of twenty-five thousand Catholics, at the city of Bonn, which +M. Reinkens had selected as the seat and centre of his episcopal +ministrations. Meanwhile, there was a considerable reaction in +prevaricating Bavaria. The Catholic minority was changed into a majority, +and the Prussian Catholic representation, which was called the fraction of +the centre, was strengthened at the elections of 1874 by an increase from +twenty-five to forty votes. The chancellor, although enlightened, was not +corrected. Nothing could divert him from his evil purpose. By a strange +confusion of ideas, he called _Kulturcampf_ (struggle for civilization) +the open war which he waged against the Church, the source of all +civilization and of liberty of conscience. The persecuting laws which, +with the aid of the so-called "liberal" party, or party of unbelief, he +succeeded in causing to be enacted were to the following effect. As was to +be expected of the blind political fanaticism of the party, the Jesuits +were the first objects of hostility, and the first victims of persecution. +The May laws required that these unoffending individuals should be +expelled without any form of trial, and deprived of their rights of +citizens. At the same time, certain religious orders which, it was +pretended, were affiliated with the Jesuits, were subjected to the like +treatment. + +All ecclesiastical seminaries were suppressed, the solons of legislation +pretending that it was necessary to oblige the candidates for the +priesthood to imbue their minds in lay schools, with the ideas and wants +of modern society. + +The new laws abolished articles fifteen, sixteen and eighteen of the +Prussian Constitution, which guaranteed the autonomy of the different +forms of worship; they bestowed on the State the nomination to +ecclesiastical functions, and went so far as to forbid bishops the use of +their right to declare apostates excluded from the Catholic communion. + +They suppressed the subsidies and allowances which the State, until that +time, paid to the diocesan establishments and the clergy generally, +notwithstanding that such subsidies were not gratuitously bestowed by the +government, but were nothing else than, as in France and Belgium, the +restitution, in part, of the debt due by the State to the Church. It was +provided, however, that such members of the clergy as should make their +submission should at once have their salaries restored. By a refinement of +cruelty, all collections and subscriptions, whether public or private, for +the requirements of public worship and the support of the clergy were +forbidden, and elective lay commissions were charged with the management +of all ecclesiastical property. Finally, all religious orders, as well of +men as of women, were suppressed, with the exception, and that +provisionally only, of such as were devoted to the care of the sick. + +If Chancellor Bismarck really believed, at any time, that the Catholic +clergy were without faith and conscience, ready to submit to any terms the +State might impose, in order to save their incomes and the institutions of +the Church, he must have been greatly surprised when he found them all, +without exception, prepared to welcome poverty, imprisonment and exile, +rather than abandon the inalienable rights of conscience. On the 26th May, +1873, the Bishops of Prussia signed a collective declaration, in which +they stated, with regret, that it was impossible for them to obey. "The +Church," said they, "cannot acknowledge the heathen state principle, +according to which the laws of the State are the source of all right, and +the Church possesses only such rights as it pleases the State to grant. By +so doing, it would deny its own Divine origin, and would make Christianity +wholly dependent on the arbitrary will of men." In regard to temporal +matters connected with the Church they could afford to be less strict: and +so they authorized their people to take part in the election of the new +lay managers of the properties of the churches. This wise policy was +attended with the most happy results. The chancellor's plans were +everywhere completely marred. He had reckoned that the Catholics would +abstain from voting, and so allow a "liberal" (infidel) minority, however +small, to dispose of the churches and presbyteries. + +In reviewing the news of the day, we have been accustomed to think of only +one or two more eminent prelates suffering under the lash of persecution. +The truth is, that the whole Church suffered. The persecution was as cruel +as an age which does not permit the shedding of blood would tolerate. The +bishops were crushed with fines on account of each act which they +performed of their spiritual office. Such fines they refused to pay, lest +they should acknowledge the justice of their condemnation. Their movable +property, accordingly, was seized and sold at auction, and they themselves +were immured in the prisons, where they were mixed up with felons +condemned to the same labors, and designated, like them, by numbers. It +was all in vain. Nothing could shake their constancy. At Berlin was +erected a sort of ecclesiastical tribunal, which arrogated to itself the +power of deposing from sees, and which actually pretended to depose the +Archbishop of Posen, the Bishop of Paderborn, the Prince-Bishop of +Breslau, and several other prelates. The fortresses of Germany were filled +with priests, whose only crime was that they _obeyed God rather than men_. +The public ways were crowded with priests who had been deprived, +afterwards _interned_, and finally banished. Numerous religious people, +both men and women, were in the like sad position, thronging the road of +exile. The people, in tears, escorted these victims of heathenish rage. +They chanted, as they went, the psalm, "_Miserere_," and the canticle, +"_Wir sind ini waren Christenthum_" ("we are in true Christianity"), until +they reached the railway depots. The Prussian gensd'armes, who were often +no more than two or three in number, were astonished to find that they +could so easily conduct their prisoners, whom thousands and tens of +thousands of other men, the greater number of whom were veteran soldiers, +accompanied, as they passed, expressing their regrets and good wishes. + +Persecution is impolitic no less than it is cruel and immoral. The German +people, to say the least, were shocked by the tyranny of their government. +Nothing could prevent them from showing what they felt and thought, on +occasion of the release of the prisoners at the end of their two years' +term of imprisonment. They took every possible means of expressing their +satisfaction. Thus, at Munster, when Bishop Warendorf returned, the +inhabitants paid no attention to the prohibition of the burgomaster, who, +by order of the government, intimated that he would repress, by force, +every external and public demonstration. The whole city rushed to the +gate, St. Mauritius, by which the released prisoner was to enter. Count +Droste-Erhdroste proceeded to receive him in a magnificent carriage, drawn +by four horses, which was followed by four more carriages in charge of his +servants, who were in complete gala dress. An immense crowd strewed +flowers along the route as the bishop advanced, and ceased not to hail him +with joyous acclamations until he reached his residence, where the first +families of the country were in attendance to receive him. In the evening, +the whole town, with the exception of the public buildings, was +illuminated. The citizens of Posen were preparing a like triumphal +reception for their archbishop, Cardinal Ledochowski, on occasion of his +release in February, 1876, from the fortress of Ostrowo, where he had been +incarcerated for two years, when he was carried off in the nighttime and +transported beyond the limits of his diocese, in which he is forbidden +ever again to set foot. Two suffragan bishops were left behind. They also +were imprisoned at Gnesten, one for having administered the Sacrament of +Confirmation without special leave from the government, the other for +having consecrated the holy oils on Maunday Thursday, 1875. By such acts, +which evidently belonged to the spiritual order, they were held to be +guilty of sedition and a violation of the rights of the State. + +The whole Catholic world was deeply moved by this modern and unprovoked +persecution. All could not speak, indeed; but all were in sympathy with +the clergy and faithful people of Germany. The bishops of France would +have brought war upon their country by uttering a word of disapproval. The +irascible chancellor actually sought to raise a quarrel with that country +on account of a slight and inoffensive allusion which fell from the lips +of two of the bishops. Could he not see that he will be branded throughout +the ages as a persecutor and a short-sighted politician? Great Britain and +America could speak without fear or hindrance. And they were not slow to +send their words of consolation and encouragement to their suffering +brethren of Germany. The Cardinal-Archbishop of Westminster wrote in a +strain which may be described as apostolical, to the Archbishop of +Cologne, the Primate of Germany, greeting "with the greatest affection +both himself and his brethren, the other bishops who are in prison for +having defended the authority and liberty of the Church." This letter was +reproduced by all the newspapers, and could not have escaped the notice of +the Prussian minister. Nevertheless, he was silent. Although sensitive in +the extreme, as regarded France and Belgium, his knowledge of geography +and naval statistics, no doubt, enabled him to possess his soul in +patience. + +Pius IX. could not but feel for his afflicted children of Germany. He was +moved, accordingly, to address a very earnest remonstrance to the Emperor, +William I. This was done so early as August, 1873. He could not believe +that such cruel measures proceeded from a prince who had so often given +proof of his Christian sentiments. He had even been informed that his +Majesty did not approve of the conduct of his government, and condemned +the laws which were enacted against the Catholic religion. "But, if it be +true that your Majesty does not approve of these measures (and the letters +which you formerly addressed to me appear to me to prove sufficiently that +you do not think well of what is actually taking place),--if, I say, it is +not with your sanction that your government continues to extend more and +more those repressive measures against the Christian religion which so +grievously injure that religion, must you not come to the conclusion that +such measures can have no other effect than to undermine your throne?" He +may possibly have thought so, when, a little later, his life was attempted +by parties who are known to seek the destruction of religion and civil +government at the same time. Be this as it may, his reply to Pius IX. was +not in his usual kindly style. It was scarcely polite, and appeared to be +the work of the savage chancellor rather than of the good-natured monarch. + +The appeal of Pius IX. produced no result. The Emperor's government added +to the harshness of his refusal by advising him to address a letter of +congratulation to the new bishop of the _alt-Catholics_. This was done, as +was expressed, "on account of his complete deference to the State and his +acknowledgment of its rights." In another letter, which was also made +public, William I. recalled to mind those ancient Emperors of Germany who +were the irreconcilable enemies of the spiritual supremacy of the Popes, +and intimated that he was resuming the work of Frederick Barbarossa and +Henry IV. The association was unfortunate. The chancellor's commentary was +more so. "We shall never," he boasted, "go to Canossa!" These words, +spoken before the assembled parliament, were a defiance of Divine +Providence. Was it forgotten that there were other snows than those of +Canossa, in which Emperors could perish? The first Napoleon pursued, in +regard to the Church, the same policy that Germany was now pursuing. He +defied the religious power, and contemptuously asked _whether the arms +could be made to fall from the hands of his soldiers_! They did so fall, +nevertheless, when the demented Emperor led his legions into the snows of +Russia. + +Pius IX. could not behold without concern the deep distress of his +brethren in Germany. He addressed an Encyclical letter, under date of 5th +February, 1875, to the Bishops of Prussia, lamenting the persecution which +tried them so severely, dwelling at great length on the evils of the _May +laws_, praising the constancy of the clergy, and exhorting them to +continued patience and perseverance. The whole doctrine of the Encyclical +may be said to be expressed in the following words: + +"Let those who are your enemies know that you do no injury to the royal +authority, and that you have no prejudice against it when you refuse to +give to Caesar what belongs to God; for it is written, '_We must obey God +rather than men_.' " + +This eloquent letter, like everything else that was done in order to +mitigate the most trying persecution of modern times, remained without any +other result than to afford some comfort to the clergy of the afflicted +Church of Germany. + +Pius IX., in order to show still further his appreciation of the constancy +under persecution of the German clergy, conferred the dignity of Cardinal +on Archbishop Ledochowski, who courageously accepted the proffered honor. +The persecuting government prevented him from ever enjoying it in his +diocese, by condemning him to perpetual banishment. This was, at least, an +approach to the cruelty practised on Fisher, the illustrious English +Confessor, who was consigned to the Tower of London because he would not +sanction the divorce of Henry VIII., and acknowledge the Royal Supremacy +in questions of religion. The Pope of the time sent him a cardinal's hat. +But the enraged king took care that he should never wear it by cutting off +his head. The time was past when blood could be shed in hatred of the +truth, even by so hard a tyrant as the Prussian minister. In the +nineteenth century, however, as well as in the sixteenth, there would not +be wanting those who would resist unto blood for religion's sake. + +It was comparatively an easy matter to deprive and banish the legitimate +pastors, but not quite so easy to find priests so unprincipled as to +become their successors. The politic chancellor, apparently, had not +thought of this beforehand. In the course of five years he could find only +two ecclesiastics who would consent to accept benefices at his hands. All +those on whom he might have counted for establishing a schism in the +Church had already joined, with all the encouragement which the minister +could bestow, the _alt-Catholic_ sect, which, as has been shown, was +destined to prove a failure. It is almost superfluous to say that the +parishioners studiously avoided all communication in things spiritual with +the nominees of the State. Meanwhile, the faithful people were not left +destitute. Zealous young priests from the seminaries visited them +privately at their houses, and ministered to their religious wants. Such +as so acted were arrested and conducted to the frontier. They returned by +the next railway train. They were then cast into prison. As soon as they +were free they returned to the post of duty. There was in Germany a +revival of the Primitive Church--of the zeal and self-sacrifice of the +apostolic age. All this was met by the closing of the seminaries, the +severest blow that had, as yet, been struck against the cause of religion. +The chancellor, nevertheless, was not successful. The newspapers in his +interest, which he designated as the _reptile press_, laughed at his +short-sightedness. He had counted on accomplishing his purpose by some six +months of persecution. Generations would not suffice. The endurance of the +Church is unconquerable. It is as an anvil which wears out many hammers. +That which Chancellor Bismarck applied, so vigorously, will prove to be no +exception.(11) Southern Germany, it is a pleasure to record, abhors the +ridiculous _Kulturkampf_ of Chancellor Bismarck. Louis II., of Bavaria, +would fain follow in his wake. But, as is shown by the large Catholic +majorities at the elections, he is not seconded, even passively, as in +Prussia, by the Bavarian people. The persecution, attended by its +essential results, is rendering all Germany more Catholic than ever. When +its work shall have been accomplished, what will remain? The Church or the +_Kulturkampf_? + +In the meantime many innocent persons must suffer: many time-honored +institutions will have been swept away: in the pursuit of an ideal +civilization, and by means of cruelties unworthy of an enlightened age, +many monuments which owed their origin to the superior civilizing power of +Christianity will have disappeared forever. In addition to all this, +feelings hostile to the Church, and prejudices hurtful as they are +groundless, are everywhere created. Pius IX. complained of this +unfortunate state of things, when he said (10th January, 1875): "The +revolution, not satisfied with persecuting Catholics in Prussia, excites, +on both sides of the Alps, those governments which profess to be Catholic, +but which have only too plainly led the way, in the shameful career of +religious oppression. It excites them to persist, more boldly than ever, +in the work of persecution, and these governments execute its behests. God +will arise, some day, and, addressing the Protestant oppressor, he will +say to him: Thou hast sinned--grievously sinned; but the Catholic +governments, on all hands, have still more grievously sinned. _Majus +peccatum habent._" + +ITALY--EDUCATION. + +At the time of the Piedmontese invasion, there were in the city of Rome, +one hundred and sixty-eight colleges or public schools. + +The number of schools was twenty thousand, whilst the whole population of +the city was two hundred and twenty thousand. The pupils are classed as +follows, according to the statistics of his Eminence the Cardinal-Vicar, +in 1870: + +Students, boarding in seminaries and colleges: 703 +Students, day scholars, gratuitously taught in the schools: 5,555 +Students, day scholars, who paid a small fee: 1,603 +Total: 7,941 + +Girls, boarding in _refuges_: 2,986 +Girls, day scholars, gratuitously taught: 6,523 +Girls, day scholars, who paid a small fee: 2,871 +Total: 11,380 + +General total: 19,321 + +Thus, including the orphans of both sexes, at _St. Michael de Termini_ and +other asylums, pupils are in the proportion of one to ten inhabitants. +This is not inferior to Paris, and surpasses Berlin, so much spoken of as +a seat of education. This Prussian (now German capital) reckoned, in 1875, +only eighty-five thousand scholars for a population of nine hundred and +seventy-four thousand souls, or ten scholars to one hundred and fourteen +citizens. The Godless schools, established by the new rulers, have +impeded, only to a certain extent, the development given to education by +the Government of Pius IX. In the poorer quarters of the city some parties +have been either intimidated by the threats of the _Department of +Charity_, or gained by the offer of bounties to themselves and a +gratuitous breakfast to their children. But, generally, the people of Rome +still resist, and several Christian schools have considerably increased +since 1870, the number of their pupils. This is all the more remarkable, +as the ruling faction showed a strong determination to put an end entirely +to Christian education. By the end of 1873, the usurping government had +confiscated more than one hundred monasteries, convents, and other +establishments of public education. A Lyceum was set up in place of the +celebrated Roman College, from which its proprietors, the Rev. Fathers of +the Society of Jesuits, were finally expelled in 1874. The better to show +their _animus_ on the occasion, the new Rulers tore down a magnificent +piece of sculpture, in marble, which adorned the gate, and on which was +engraved the blessed name of the Saviour, replacing it by the escutcheon +in wood of Victor Emmanuel. + +As if to give zest to robbery, the Godless tyrants proposed that the +professors of the Roman College should continue their lessons, as +functionaries of the Italian government, and after having qualified by +accepting diplomas from a lay university. It would, indeed, have been +comical to see such men as Secchi, Franzelin, Tarquini, and many, besides, +the first professors in the world, seated on scholars' benches, to be +examined by the semi-barbarous officials, whether civil or military, of +the Piedmontese King. Pius IX., although pressed by many wants, provided +an asylum for science. He called together the Jesuit Fathers who had been +dispersed, in the halls of the American and German Colleges. There, +although somewhat pinched for room, they continued their international +courses, the most extensive that ever were known. + +The new Rulers, however, it is only proper to observe, never dared to +drive Father Secchi from his observatory. + +There ought never to have been any difficulty in Italy as regards +education. The Italians were, and are still, of one mind, and not divided, +like us, into numerous denominations, all of which have to be considered +without prejudice to their religious views. The usurping Italian +government allotted one million of francs (L40,000) per annum, for +elementary education at Rome. Not one half of the children for whom this +bounty is intended, avail themselves of it--a fact which shows that the +popular want has not been met. The outlay only burdens the ratepayers +without advancing the end for which it is designed--elementary education. +Private persons supply the need according to the popular desire, by means +of regionary schools, supported entirely at their own expense, and with a +laudable degree of self-sacrifice. The same state of things prevails, +generally, throughout Italy, as is shown by a circular of the minister of +public instruction. The new government aims at nothing less than the +subversion of religious principle. This the Italians resist, and will +continue to resist. The government schools for secular and irreligious +education, among the upper classes, are like those for elementary +teaching, very thinly attended, parents preferring to send their children +abroad, and, when this cannot be afforded, to such ecclesiastical colleges +and seminaries as are still in existence. The State schools have already a +monopoly in the conferring of degrees and the consequent civil advantages. +It is proposed to go still further, and, actually, to close by force, all +the higher schools in which religion is recognized, even as the school +established by the Pope in the city of Rome, was recently put down. It is +thus that these emancipators of mankind understand liberty! + +As regards female education, especially, the people will never, willingly, +give up the schools that are conducted by "Sisters" or "Nuns." The +education which such schools afford is universally appreciated--among +ourselves who are divided, but more particularly among the Italians, who +are all Catholics. It is in vain _to kick against the goad_, and this the +Italian government will learn, some day, when it is cast forth as a rotten +institution by the people, whose dearest wishes it ignores. It is of no +use to suppose that Italy is advanced to a state of irreligion, and so +requires a system of Godless education. The contrary is well known. State +systems, based, not on statistical facts, but, on idle suppositions, must +needs come to nought. + +ITALY--RELIGION. + +"A free Church in a free State"--the great idea of such Italian liberals as +had any conception of a church at all, was surely to be realized when the +fellow-countrymen of Count de Cavour came to rule at Rome. What was the +case? There was neither a free church nor a free State? That State is not +free, wherein the people are not fairly represented. The new Italian State +could not claim any such representation. It was held in such contempt that +the great majority of the Italian people, unwisely, indeed, we who are +accustomed to constitutional government would say, declined to take part +in the elections. Thus the entire control of the country was left in the +hands of two comparatively small factions--the _moderate_ and the _extreme_ +radicals. It is of little importance to the mass of the Italian people +which of these factions holds sway for the moment. They both legislate and +execute the laws in opposition to the will of the nation, and in the sense +and for the benefit of the prevailing faction. They are both alike +characterized by hatred of the Christian faith and all religious +institutions. This feeling impels them to war against everything connected +with Christianity, and to substitute what the Germans of the same school +call _Kulturkampf_, or, _a struggle for culture_, on principles the very +opposite of those on which is founded the high civilization of the +nineteenth century. No doubt these apostles of _Kulturkampf_ have a much +higher civilization in store for mankind. But it must be admitted that +they follow a strange way of bringing about the much-desired consummation. +Robbery and sacrilege they believe, or profess to believe, will promote +the great object of their ambition, and so they practice, to their heart's +content, robbery and sacrilege. Have they forgotten that, according to +their code, it is a _Jesuitical_ teaching, that evil may be done in order +to produce good. These legislators and administrators of laws claim to be +superior to the _effete_ errors of the age. Why then should they still +cling to those of the despised _Jesuits_? Because, no doubt, it serves the +purpose of the moment, and affords some relief to, if it does not satisfy, +an insatiable passion. On approaching Rome they affected much reverence +for the Holy Father and the institutions of religion. They could do +nothing less, accordingly, than enact their now famous _law of +guarantees_, which assured complete protection to the Pope and the +institutions over which he presided. Let us enquire for a moment how this +law was enforced. It surpassed, in generosity to the church, the +legislation of the most chivalrous monarchs. It gave up the royal rights +of former kings in regard to nominating and proposing to ecclesiastical +offices. It dispensed with the oath of bishops to the king, and formally +abolished (see articles fifteen and sixteen) the _exequatur_, as it is +called, authorizing the publication and execution of all notable acts of +ecclesiastical authority. Such clear and apparently solemn regulations +appeared to be inviolable. Nevertheless, whilst one hundred and fifty +bishops were named by Pius IX., from the commencement of the Piedmontese +invasions till the month of August, 1875, no fewer than one hundred and +thirty-seven of this number were not acknowledged by the civil power, +because they did not apply for and obtain the _exequatur_. The ministry +was not satisfied with this. It pushed its tyranny to such an extreme as +to refuse in future, to grant the _exequatur_ and to expel from their +residences all bishops who should not possess it. Not only did the +government withhold the incomes of the bishops, and confiscate the +revenues which the piety of the people had devoted for their support, it +also employed its gensd'armes and police agents in seizing the prelates at +their homes and casting them into the streets. The new rulers went further +still, and displayed their financial genius in a way peculiar to +themselves. They actually subjected to the tax on moveable property, the +alms which the bishops received from the Sovereign Pontiff, who, like +themselves, was robbed of his proper income. Thus did the beggarly +government make money out of the small resources of those who, when the +exchequer failed to fulfil its duties, endeavored themselves, as best they +could, to make up for this dereliction. + +Military conscription is essentially tyrannical. It is particularly so +when used as an arm of offence against the church. It was applied to +ecclesiastical students, and even to such as were in holy orders, +expressly for the purpose of depriving the church of recruits from the +seminaries. None could now be found to renew the ranks of the clergy, +except such as were invalids or of weak constitutions, or who, by miracle, +persevered in their vocation, after four years' service in military +barracks. + +The public robbers, notwithstanding their professions and guarantees, +audaciously laid sacrilegious hands on the properties of the Basilicas of +St. Peter and St. John Lateran, which they themselves had expressly +reserved for the use of the Holy See. They hesitated not even to seize the +funds of the celebrated missionary college--Propaganda. These properties +they did not simply annex, as they did so many, besides, that belonged to +the Church. They created a liquidating junta or commission, as they called +it, which should change all immovable ecclesiastical properties that were +not already confiscated into national rent. Such national rent, as is well +known, had only an ephemeral value. It was, at best, variable; and Italy, +which was partially bankrupt when it reduced the interest due to its +creditors, will, sooner or later, according to the opinion of the ablest +writers, land in complete bankruptcy. The rents substituted by force, +instead of real property, will then possess the value of the _assignats_ +of the first French revolution. + +The endowments of Propaganda, appointed by Christian generosity, at +different epochs, were not designed for the use of Rome or Italy, or any +Catholic country whatever. Their object was the support of remote +missions. This was well understood. The very name of the institution shows +that it was. In vain did Cardinal Franchi apply to the tribunals. The +properties of the great universal institution, as well as those of the +Chapters, were sold at public auction, and the confiscation, although not +immediate, was in course of being accomplished. The state of things did +not improve on the advent to power of Messrs. Nicotera and Depretis, the +former a radical of the most extreme views, and the latter, very little, +if at all, better. These revolutionists having gained the object of their +ambition, might have been inclined to halt in their mad career; but, their +party driving them onward, they proceeded to still more rigid and cruel +measures. It is not too much to say that such men are digging a grave for +the House of Savoy and Italian unity. + +The measures aiming at the destruction of religion may be summarized as +follows: + +1st. They have introduced civil registration of births, as an equivalent +and alternative to Christian baptism. + +2nd. They have permitted and encouraged civil interment instead of +Christian burial. + +3rd. They have abolished oaths in courts of law. + +4th. They have systematically encouraged the profanation of the Sunday and +the great festivals of Christmas, Easter, etc., by ordering the +prosecution of the government buildings and other public works on Sundays; +by ostentatiously holding their sessions on those days: by ordering public +lectures in the universities and higher schools on Sundays as on week +days, etc. + +5th. They have established civil marriage as an equivalent before the law +for Christian marriage, and as necessary, in all cases, besides the +religious ceremony. + +6th. They have established a recognized system of public immorality by +indemnities, and deriving from this shameful source a revenue which is +applied to augment the secret service funds. + +It is easily observed that in every detail of this enumeration, religion +and morals are directly attacked. The Pope, who is the chief of religion +and the great preacher of morality, cannot give any countenance to such +things. Far less can he identify himself with such anti-Christian +legislation. This is the insuperable impediment to his reconciliation with +the present Rulers of "United Italy." He can resist evil, and resist unto +blood, as so many of his sainted predecessors have done. But when there is +question of accepting it, his only word must be, as it has always been, +_non possumus_. What would men say, if He, who is the Head of the Church, +and the chief guardian of the truth confided to Her keeping, could be +brought by the threats or caresses of ephemeral worldly Powers, _to call +good evil, and evil good_! + +ITALY--CRIME. + +Religion, when persecuted in any country, fails not to wreak vengeance on +the persecuting power. In such countries, virtue, generally, respect for +law, order and authority, as well as public security, rapidly diminish, +and the State discovers, although too late, that, in aiming at the Church, +it has struck against itself a deadly blow. + +Since the inauguration of the much vaunted _Kulturkampf_, socialism has +increased to such a degree in Germany as to appal even Chancellor +Bismarck, whilst Italy, at the same time that it closed its convents and +Catholic colleges, was obliged to multiply not only its military barracks, +but also its prisons. In no part of Italian territory have these +preventives of crime, if, indeed, they may be so-called, proved +sufficient. So rapid has been the increase of crime, that, according to +official statistics, in the Province of Rome alone, seven thousand two +hundred and ninety-three cases were ascertained and brought before the +tribunals, in 1874. This is just double what appeared in the criminal +courts under the Pontifical government. In the whole kingdom there were +eighty-four thousand prisoners, or criminals under restraint. This is +thirty-five thousand more than in France, the general population of which +is greater by one-third, and four times more than in Great Britain, the +population of which is about the same as that of united Italy. This state +of crime is not surprising when it is considered that the rulers +themselves have never ceased to set the example of the most unscrupulous +and merciless theft and robbery. The new civil code, besides, appears to +have had no other object in view than to obliterate all idea of right, and +to legitimatize all robberies, past, present and future, in the +unfortunate kingdom of Italy. Article seven hundred and ten of this code +declares, plainly, _that property is acquired by possession_. + +At Rome, barristers, judges, and even the most revolutionary journalists +are assassinated by private vengeance, in broad day, in the street, or in +their offices, and no one dare molest the murderers. In Romagna it was +found necessary to bring to justice an association of assassins, who were, +for the most part, persons of good education and men of property. In +Sicily matters were still worse. There, a society of Brigands, called +_Maffia_, holds the island in a state of perpetual terror. Numerous +Garibaldians who have been without employment since 1870, and were long +tolerated, on account of former complicity, added to the ranks of this +fraternity. The _Maffia_ rid themselves of another society, the _Kamorra_, +by the successive assassination at Palermo alone, of twenty-three of its +chiefs. All these crimes remain unpunished, none daring to bear witness +against the guilty. + +In the departments of government there is not less moral disorder. The +finances are mismanaged and dilapidated. Notwithstanding the enormous and +oppressive increase of taxation, together with the forcible appropriation +of ecclesiastical property, deficits are the order of the day, and the +nation has been, more than once, and probably is still, on the verge of +bankruptcy. Truly, may the Italians, who are twenty-three to one, exclaim, +in their distress: _Quo usque tandem abuteris patientia nostra?_ "How +long, O disastrous revolution! wilt thou abuse our patience?" + +Nor are the better thinking Italians without blame. Why did they not take +part--why do they not still take part in the elections, and return, as they +well may, a majority to the would-be constitutional parliament? Their +numbers would, undoubtedly, be imposing and influential. So much so, +indeed, that they must finally obtain admission, without burdening their +conscience with an obnoxious oath. What did not Daniel O'Connell, +Ireland's liberator, accomplish, by causing himself alone to be elected +for an Irish constituency, and by proceeding to demand the seat to which +he was elected in the British parliament, without uttering an oath which +shocked his conscience? + +RUSSIA AND THE EAST. + +The cruel and sanguinary persecution of Catholics in the Russian Empire +was a cause of intense sorrow to Pius IX. He could do nothing towards +alleviating the sufferings of those unfortunate people. The Tsar, +Alexander II., shows in his treatment of his Ruthenian subjects of the +united Greek Church, that he is wholly unworthy of the reputation for +enlightenment and benevolence with which he has been credited. The +Empress, indeed, is blamed, together with her fanatical favorite, Melle. +Bludow, the Minister of Public Instruction, Tolstoy, and Gromeka, Governor +of Siedlce, for having urged him to use the power of the empire in forcing +conversions to Russo-Greek _orthodoxy_. That the heads of a semi-barbarous +nation should so advise is not surprising. The Tsar, who is an absolute +monarch, cannot be excused. There is every reason, besides, for holding +him personally responsible. When he was at Warsaw, a peasant woman, +bearing a petition, succeeded in obtaining admission to his presence. As +soon as he learned that the petition begged toleration for the united +Greek Church, he replied by inserting in all the newspapers a confirmation +of the orders formerly given for the extinction of that church. Count +Alexandrowicz de Constantinovo was repeatedly warned by the Russian +authorities that he had no right to attend the Latin churches, which, +being less persecuted, were a refuge for the united Greeks, when, indeed, +as was rarely the case, they were allowed to enjoy it. The Count, hoping +to be more liberally dealt with by the enlightened Tsar, who was said to +surpass in all that was great and noble, his tolerant predecessor, +Alexander I., proceeded to St. Petersburgh. The Tsar made a reply to his +representation, which, in the case of an ordinary mortal, would be taken +for a proof of stupidity, or of impenetrable ignorance. "The Orthodox +religion is pleasing to me. Why should it not please you also?" It +remained only for the Count to sell his properties and abandon his +country. More humble members of the obnoxious church could not so easily +escape. The savage treatment to which they were subjected can only be +briefly alluded to here. A persecution which has lasted more than a +hundred years, and is not yet at an end, is more a subject for the general +history of the church than for the life of Pius IX. A few facts, +therefore, must suffice. + +In the important diocese of Chelm, particularly, the most ingenious +devices were had recourse to, in order to delude the Catholic people, and +induce them to comply with the requirements of the Russo-Greek Church. All +these failing, force was had recourse to, and it was used, assuredly, +without stint or measure. Seizure of property, imprisonment, the lash and +exile to Siberia, proved equally unavailing, as persecution, in every +form, must always be. Greater excesses were then had recourse to. + +They who dared to perform a pilgrimage, take part in a religious +procession, or enter a Catholic Church, were shot down like the wild game +of the forests, by the fanatical myrmidons of the Tsar. In January, 1874, +the people of Rudno were forced to abandon their dwellings and take refuge +in the woods. At Chmalowski, several united Greeks, of whom three were +women, were flogged to death by Cossack troops. At Pratulin, in the +district of Janow, when a number of people assembled in a cemetery, were +guarding the door of the church against apostate priests, a German +colonel, who commanded three companies of Cossacks, ordered his troops to +fire. Nine of the people fell dead on the spot. A great many more were +mortally wounded. Of these four died within the day. "Thus does the Tsar +punish rebels," said the savage colonel to the mayors of the neighboring +villages, whom he had forced to witness the execution. At Drylow, five men +were slain on the same day, and in the same cruel way as at Pratulin. So +recently as August, 1870, a body of peasants, returning from a pilgrimage, +were attacked by Russian soldiers. They defended themselves bravely, as +best they could, with no better weapons than their walking canes. Six of +the troops fell, and thirty, one of whom was an officer, were wounded. +Reinforcements coming to the aid of the military, the peasants were +defeated, and a great number of them killed and wounded. Among the latter +were many women, and seven children. Two hundred arrests were made, the +next and following days. The prisoners were at first immured in the +Citadel of Warsaw. It is not probable that they will ever be allowed to +visit their kindred or their native villages. + +Pius IX., being partially informed of such cruelties, which it was utterly +beyond his power to prevent, wrote to the United Greek Archbishop of +Lemberg, Sembratovicz, conjuring him to send to the sorely persecuted +people all the help in his power, both spiritual and material. He +declared, at the same time, by the Bull, "_omnem sollicitudinem_" dated +13th May, 1874, that the Liturgies proper to the Eastern Churches, and +particularly that of the United Greeks, which was settled by the Council +of Tamose, in 1720, were always held in high esteem by the Holy See, and +ought to be carefully preserved. Hearing that a Bull which concerned them +had arrived from Rome, the Ruthenian peasants sent secretly to Lemberg, in +order to procure it. Their envoys entering Galicia without passports, +incurred the risk of being sent to Siberia. When the Bull was once +obtained, the people assembled in groups, in remote places, and any one +who could read, read it to the rest of the company. It was held in honor +as a relic. When the Russians discovered that the Bull was known to the +people, they did their best to cause it to be misunderstood, both among +the clergy and the laity. They insisted, even, that the Pope had discarded +the Greek rite; that henceforth, they who adhered to Rome, could not +celebrate either the Mass of St. John Chrysostom or that of St. Basil, and +that the marriage of secular priests, together with the Sclavonic +language, would cease to be tolerated. + +It has been attempted to conceal from the civilized world the more +atrocious circumstances of the Russian persecution. But the darkest deeds +of the darkest despotism cannot be always done in the dark. The press of +continental Europe has informed the public mind. If anything were wanting +to satisfy English readers, generally, it would be found in the despatch +of Mr. Marshall Jewell, Minister of the United States, at St. Petersburgh, +to Mr. Secretary Fish. This document is dated at the United States +Legation at St. Petersburgh, 23rd February, 1874. The minister begins by +stating that he took great pains to be correctly informed, regarding the +state of matters, before writing his report. This, he adds, was not done +without difficulty, as the affair was kept very quiet at St. Petersburgh. +Certain repressive measures for the conversion of the Ruthenian Catholics +having proved inadequate, "new and more stringent orders were given a few +weeks later. In consequence of these orders, several priests (thirty-four, +I have been told) who persisted in performing the former services, were +arrested. In some localities the peasants refused to go to the churches +when the Orthodox priests officiated, until they were forced to go by the +troops. In other localities they assembled in crowds, shut the churches, +and prevented the priests from performing the offices. In one case, it is +said, a priest was stoned to death. Conflicts arose between the peasants +and the armed force. On such occasions many persons were maltreated, and +in the case of the village of Drelow--28th February--thirty peasants were +slain, and many more wounded. It is said, even, that several soldiers were +killed. It is reported that the prisons at Lublin and Kielce are crammed +with prisoners. The peasants have also been flogged, men receiving fifty, +women twenty-five, and children ten lashes each. Some women, more +determined and outspoken than the rest, were punished with a hundred +lashes. Like troubles, it is said, have occurred at Pratulin and other +localities, with loss of life.... Last summer, the peasants of divers +villages, in the Government of Lublin, were constantly obliged to submit +to examination, and to appear before the courts. It was, in consequence, +impossible for them to cultivate their fields; and, hence, they have been +reduced almost to a state of famine. (Signed.) MARSHALL JEWELL." + +THE EAST--CHURCH IN THE TURKISH EMPIRE. + +It is comparatively an easy undertaking to create trouble and disturbance +in the church. It is not so easy, however, to establish a schism. The +Prussian chancellor learned this fact when he beheld the failure of his +_alt-Catholic_ scheme in Germany. Having tried the same game in Turkey, +his projects, notwithstanding the aid and countenance of the Mussulman +Power, proved abortive. The government of the sublime Porte had been very +tolerant hitherto, as regarded its Catholic subjects. In the early days of +Pius IX. it had concurred with the Holy See in establishing a Catholic +bishop at Jerusalem; it protected pilgrimages and processions; it favored +colleges and institutions for ecclesiastical education; and to such a +degree that, under its auspices and through its care, there are several +flourishing seminaries which renew the intellectual life of the people who +follow the Latin rite. A united Bulgarian church has been founded and is +daily gaining strength. The Maronites are almost completely restored after +the disaster of 1860. The number of Greek Catholics or Melchites, has been +almost doubled, so great is the number of conversions. The same may be +said of the Chaldean or Armenian Catholics. These last are probably the +best informed and the most influential of the Christian populations under +the Sultan's rule. Prussian intrigue, and a momentary renewal of Mussulman +fanaticism, have done much to check, if not wholly to destroy this happy +state of things. One Kupelian, aspiring to be patriarch of Armenia, was +put forward by rich and influential parties as the administrator of their +nation, and they succeeded in obtaining from the Porte his investiture, as +the only true Head of the Armenian Catholics. The legitimate chief, +Hassoum, Patriarch of Cilicia, protested. In vain, however, as France was +no longer able to maintain his right. The last ambassador of that country +representing Napoleon III., had even supported the pretensions and favored +the machinations of the Kupelianites. The Porte was induced to treat +Hassoum as a seditious person, and banished him from the country. The +exile found his way to Rome, where he was kindly received by Pius IX. He +did not return to Constantinople till 1876. Meanwhile, persecution was +cruelly carried on. Bishops were expelled from their sees, rectors from +their parishes, churches, monasteries and hospitals were seized by force +of arms. At Damascus, Broussa, Sinope, Mardyn, Mossoul, all the principal +towns of the Ottoman Empire, Armenian Catholics were forcibly driven from +their churches, in order to make room for mere handfuls of Kupelianists. +The persecution extended as far as Cairo. At Augora, twelve thousand +Armenian Catholics were dispossessed in favor of twelve dissenters, one of +these twelve being an apostate monk, the delegate of Kupelian. At Adana, +the church, the school, and the residence of the Catholic Armenian bishop, +with all the revenues attached thereto, became the prey of two +individuals, a priest and a lay person. At Trebizonde, the bishop was +expelled by Russian bayonettes, and died of grief. The value of property +taken from Catholics is estimated at one hundred millions of livres. For +what, it may be asked, was the power of an empire exercised, and so much +robbery perpetrated? In favor, at least, one would say, of some important +sect? No such thing. It was all for the would-be Kupelian schism, seven +hundred strong. It is needless here to say how soon the degenerate Sultan, +Abdul Aziz, and his prevaricating empire met their reward, whilst the +legitimate Armenian patriarch, Hassoum, so long the victim of persecution, +has been restored, is honored by the government of his country and held in +the highest esteem by the Chief Pastor of the Christian fold. All this was +foretold by Pius IX., although, indeed, the Holy Pontiff pretended not to +utter a prophecy. In a letter intended for the consolation of the banished +Archbishop of Mardyn, in Mesopotamia, and the Armenian Catholics, he says: +"It behooves us not to lose courage, nor to believe that the triumph of +iniquity will be of long continuance. For, does not the Scripture say: +'The wicked man is caught in his own perversity; he is bound by the chains +of his crimes, and he who digs a pit for others will fall into it himself: +he who casts a stone into the path of his neighbor, will strike against it +and stumble; finally, he who lays a snare for another will be caught +therein himself.' This war, venerable, brother, is waged, not so much +against men as against God. It is because of hatred to his name that his +ministers and faithful people are persecuted. Persecution constitutes +their merit and their glory. God will at length arise and vindicate his +cause. Whilst I applaud your firmness, I most earnestly exhort you never +to let it fail you, but to possess your soul in patience, to wait +confidently, and, at the same time, courageously, for you rely not on your +own strength, but on the power of God, whose cause you maintain. Your +constancy will confirm that of your brethren of the clergy and of the +flock confided to your care. It will lead to a moral victory, assuredly +more brilliant and more solid than the ephemeral success of violence." + +It was not long till the news of the day bore that many distinguished +persons were returning to the one fold. A moral victory for the Armenian +Catholics was following fast in the wake of successful force. The number +of Kupelianists was diminishing. The churches and church properties of +Adana and Diabekir, were abandoned by them in 1876, and the schism was in +course of being extinguished. + +The Chaldean patriarch, Audon, rashly undertook to establish a schism. +Towards the end of February, 1873, he was reconciled to Pius IX., and +relieved from the censures which he had incurred. The Chaldean Catholics +gave a great deal of trouble. However anxiously Pius IX. labored for their +salvation, they are insignificant in point of numbers, scarcely as many as +would constitute a parish in any of our cities. Any further historical +notice of them may, therefore, be very properly dispensed with. + +CHINA--INDIA--JAPAN--WONDERFUL CHANGE. + +China, where the light of Christianity has sought so long to penetrate and +dispel the dismal gloom of heathen darkness, may now, at length, be said +to enjoy the greatest possible degree of religious liberty. The European +Powers, Great Britain and France, whilst securing the freedom of trade, +and generally that intercourse which is customary between civilized +nations, neglected not, at the same time, to establish such relations as +render safe and available the labors of Christian missionaries. If, in +Tonquin, there occurred a fearful massacre of Christians, it was due to +the indiscretion of a French officer who exceeded his orders, and excited +against his fellow-countrymen and the Christian populations, generally, +the anger of the pagan Mandarins. The vengeance of these chiefs was +prompt, sweeping and cruel. In the localities inhabited by Christians only +some women and little children were spared. Not a house was left. The +French government probably, from unwillingness to recognize, in any way, +the action of its officer, refrained from punishing these atrocities. A +treaty, placing the whole country of Tonquin under the protection of +France, was concluded with the Emperor of Aunam, who is the Liege Lord of +Tonquin, and thus liberty to preach the Gospel secured for the future. + +In India and Western China, liberty of conscience has long prevailed. Pius +IX. was, in consequence, enabled to increase the number of +vicariates-apostolic in those countries, as well as in China proper, in +proportion to the growth of the faithful people, however inconsiderable it +was, as yet in the midst of countless numbers of heathens and Mahometans. + +The Pontificate of Pius IX. would be for ever memorable, if only on +account of the new era which appears, at length, to have dawned for the +long benighted empire of Japan. That empire was as a sealed book to all +Christian nations. As is well known, no traveller or merchant from any +Christian land could set foot on its territory without first performing +the revolting ceremony of trampling on the chief emblem of the Christian +faith. At one time, nevertheless, there were many Christians in Japan, +and, as will be seen, heathen prejudice and persecution had not been able +to extinguish the Divine light. It may be conceived how searching and +cruel the persecution was when it is remembered that, in the early part of +the seventeenth century, there were two millions of Christians, and, about +the same time, almost as many martyrs. All missionaries who, since 1630, +landed on the inhospitable shores of Japan, were immediately seized, +tortured, and put to death. It was generally believed that the Christian +people were totally exterminated. Pius IX., notwithstanding, as if +actuated by some secret inspiration, the very first year of his +Pontificate, created a vicariate-apostolic of Japan. Several endeavors to +enter into communication with the Japanese were made; but, for a long +time, to no purpose. The sealed-up empire, at length, opened its ports to +Great Britain and the United States of America. Such was the power of +trade. The other civilized nations could no longer be excluded. Japan +concluded a treaty with France by virtue of which the subjects of the +latter State were secured in the free exercise of their religion among the +Japanese. Mgr. Petitjean, who was, at the time, the vicar-apostolic, +availed himself of such favorable relations to erect a church at Yokohama, +and establish his residence at Nagasaki. All this was happily accomplished +under the encouraging auspices of Pius IX. One day, as the vicar-apostolic +had concluded the celebration of Mass, some inhabitants of a large village +named Ourakami, near the city, came to him with countenances, expressive, +at the same time, of joy and fear. Addressing him, they said: "Have you +and your priests renounced marriage, and do you honor in your prayers the +Mother of Christ?" The missionary replying in the affirmative, the +Japanese fell on their knees and exclaimed: "You are, indeed, the +disciples of Saint Francis Xavier, our first apostle. You are the true +brethren of our former Jesuit Fathers. At last, after a lapse of two +hundred years, we behold, once more, the priests of the true faith!" They +gave thanks to God, shedding abundance of tears, with which mingled those +of the good missionary; "religion," they added, "is free only to +strangers. The law has not ceased to punish us Japanese Catholics with +death. No matter; receive us, nevertheless, and instruct us. The lapse of +time and the want of books have, perhaps, disfigured in our memories the +teachings of truth. There will happen to us whatever it shall please God +to appoint." + +Four thousand families, comprising fourteen thousand individuals, had +secretly persevered, clinging to the Catholic faith since the days of the +Apostolic Xavier. Notwithstanding all the prudence of the missionaries, +the secret of their relations with the natives became known to the local +police, and more than four thousand inhabitants of Ourakami were arrested, +bastinadoed, imprisoned or transported to the North. Their punishment +lasted four years. One-third of their number died of want, but few of them +gave way. The survivors of these persecuted people were finally restored +to their country, and through the representations of the European consuls, +religious liberty was granted, at least, provisionally, to natives as well +as strangers. Thus did Pius IX., at length, enjoy the consolation to +behold, established in peace, the church which St. Francis Xavier had +planted in the Empire of Japan, and which was so celebrated in the annals +of Christian heroism. + +PERSECUTION IN BRAZIL. + +Gonsalvez de Oliveira, Bishop of Olinda, had found it necessary to warn +his diocesans against the machinations of certain secret societies, which +were alike hostile to the Church and to the State. They had obtained so +much influence with the latter as to be able to attack, with impunity, the +Sisters of Charity, and the priests of the Lazarist congregation, as well +as all other zealous priests who sought to restore the discipline of the +church. Whilst, on the one hand, the bishop was sustained by the +congratulations and encouragement of the Holy See, and by the deference to +ecclesiastical authority of many Catholics who had been accustomed to +consider the secret societies as most inoffensive associations, he was +urged, on the other hand, by the fury of the chiefs of those societies, +who, alone, know all that they aim at and hold secret. + +The Emperor, Don Pedro II., influenced by his free-thinking _entourage_, +judged that the pastoral letter should be denounced to the Council of +State. The councillors declared that it was an illegal document, not +having received the Imperial _placet_ "required by the Constitution of the +Empire." Now commenced the most heartless, and, as is always the case, +unavailing persecution. By order of the ministry, the procurator-general +summoned the Bishop of Olinda before the Supreme Court of Rio Janeiro. The +intrepid prelate replied by a letter, in which he declared that he could +not, in conscience, appear before the Supreme Court, because it was +impossible to do so, without acknowledging the competence of a civil court +in matters purely religious. On 3rd January, 1874, the bishop was ordered +to go to prison. He intimated that he would yield only to force. The chief +of police, accordingly, accompanied by two army officers, repaired to the +Episcopal palace, and conducted Mgr. de Oliveira to the port where a ship +of war was in attendance, to transport him to the maritime arsenal of Rio +Janeiro, one of the most unwholesome stations in Brazil. There the +illustrious prisoner was visited by Mgr. Lacerda, Bishop of Rio Janeiro, +who took off his pectoral cross, which was a family keep-sake, and placing +it around the neck of Mgr. Oliveira, said: "My Lord, you have full +jurisdiction throughout this land to which you are brought as a captive. +My clergy, the chapter of my cathedral, all will be most happy to obey +your orders. Have the goodness to bless us all. The blessing of those who +suffer persecution in the cause of Christ is a pledge of salvation." +Bishop Lacerda, before retiring, handed to the prisoner a large sum of +money, in order that he should want for nothing, and promised to renew his +visit as often as the gaolers would permit. Almost all the bishops of +Brazil sent congratulatory telegrams to the imprisoned bishop. One of them +went so far as to identify himself with the action of the Bishop of +Olinda, by doing in like manner. It was the Bishop of Para, who was +speedily transferred from his Episcopal palace to prison. The +administrator who filled his place, having refused to remove the interdict +which had been pronounced against certain confraternities which admitted +members of the secret societies, was condemned on 25th April, 1875, to six +years of forced penal labor. Four years of the like torture were decreed +against the administrator of Olinda for a similar offence. So much for the +humanitarian Emperor of Brazil and his enlightened advisers. + +It was not long till new elections raised to power, men who had more +respect for the Episcopal office, and the wretched Brazilian persecution +came to an end. + +The Bishop of Olinda was no sooner set at liberty than he repaired to +Rome, in order to give an account of his conduct to Pius IX. The Holy +Father gave him every proof of the warmest affection. + +The lesser States of South America, which, on being emancipated from the +yoke of Spain, had chosen the republican form of government, became a +source of intense anxiety to the Holy Father. Venezuela, Chili, the +Argentine Republic, and, even Hayti, appear to have been seized with the +spirit of the time. They had become too great, one would say, to accept +humbly the teachings of religion. Even Chili, where comparative moderation +prevailed, made an attempt to subordinate in all things, spiritual as well +as temporal, the Church to the State. The bishops, as in duty bound, +protested; and, being unanimously supported by the people, the attack of +Chilian free-thinkers, on public peace and liberty, was abandoned. The +trouble in Hayti arose more from a desire, on the part of the negroes, to +have native priests than any real hostility to religion. The government +ignorantly assumed the right to appoint the chief administrators of the +Church. The people were painfully affected by this unwarrantable +encroachment on the spiritual power. It was hardly to be supposed that +Peru should be out of the fashion. Pius IX. appears, however, to have +settled the difficulties of the Peruvians, by granting to their presidents +the same right of patronage which was formerly enjoyed by the Kings of +Spain. The religious troubles of Mexico were not so easily composed. The +civil authorities of that sadly unsettled republic, urged, it is believed, +by the secret societies, aimed at nothing less than the total suppression +of religion. On 24th November, 1874, they decreed that no public +functionary or body of officials, whether civil or military, should attend +any religious office whatsoever. "The Sunday or Sabbath day," they +impiously ruled, "shall henceforth be tolerated only in as far as it +affords rest to public employees." Religious instruction, together with +all practices of religion, was prohibited in all the establishments of the +federation of the States and the municipalities. No religious act could be +done except in the churches, and there, only, under the superintendence of +the police. No religious institution was authorized to acquire real estate +or any capital accruing from such property. Article nineteen of this +detestable legislation, and which was carried by one hundred and thirteen +to fifty-seven votes, interdicted the Sisters of Charity from living in +community and wearing publicly their costume. Thus were expelled from +Mexico four hundred sisters, who performed their charitable offices in the +hospitals, schools and asylums of the country. Public opinion was roused, +but to no purpose. The good sisters were allowed to embark for France, +bearing with them the fate of thousands of the unfortunate. They may, +perhaps, be replaced by the Prussian chancellor's deaconesses; of this +sisterhood, the best suited for the Mexican climate, would, no doubt, be +that portion which fled from Smyrna on the approach of an epidemic. + +ECUADOR. + +In the midst of so many discontented, turbulent, persecuting, +semi-barbarous States, there was one where there was neither discontent, +nor turbulence, nor persecution. This favored Republic of Ecuador was in +close communion with Pius IX., and its president discarding all the +fine-spun views and chimerical theories of the time, ruled, as became the +chief of a free State, according to the wishes and the generally accepted +principles of his people. A republic, so governed, provided it remain +uncorrupt, cannot fail to enjoy the highest degree of prosperity +compatible with its position and material resources. Not only did Ecuador +itself enjoy the fruits of its truly free and rationally republican +government, it was able also to extend the blessings of its Christian and +liberal civilization to neighboring tribes. Moved by the example and the +representations of the good people of Ecuador, nine thousand savages of +the Province of Oriente were induced to adopt the habits of Christian +civilization. The government of the enlightened president, Garcia Moreno, +was so abundantly blessed that, in twelve years, the trade of Ecuador was +doubled, as were also the number of its schools and the sum of its public +revenues. + +So bright an illustration of the good-working of sound principles was not +to be tolerated. The love of a grateful and prosperous people could not +protect their great and successful fellow-citizens against the weapons of +secret conspirators. Political fanatics, who were strangers in Ecuador, +and who, according to their own declaration, bore no personal ill-will to +the president, struck the fatal blow. "I die," said the illustrious +victim, as he expired, "but God dieth not!" The assassins were they who +hold that God has no business in this world. "_Dixit insipicus; non est +Deus_." + +Pius IX. lamented the death of Garcia Moreno, as he had lamented some +seven-and-twenty years before, the untimely fate of his own minister, +Count Rossi. He extolled the President of Ecuador in several allocutions, +as the champion of true civilization and its martyr. He caused his +obsequies to be solemnized in one of the Basilicas of Rome, over which he +still held authority, and ordered that his bust should be placed in one of +the galleries of the Vatican. + +In the estimation of a certain class of politicians, Moreno was behind the +age. In reality he was far in advance of it. The mania for Godless +government, Godless education, Godless manners, and generally a Godless +state of society, is only a passing phase on the face of the world. If, +indeed, it be anything more, woe to mankind! Despair only can harbor the +idea of its long continuance. The social and political chaos which darkens +the age, must, surely, a little sooner or a little later, give way to that +order which is heaven's first law. Moreno beheld, through the storms that +raged around his infant State, the early dawn of this better day. This +light led him onwards. History will place him, not only among heroes and +sages, but also among the most renowned initiators of great movements. His +death is a glorious protest against the Godless, reckless, revolutionary +sects. His high career will be as a monument throughout the centuries, +constantly reminding mankind that, in this age, which may well be called +the age of chaos and confusion--confusion in politics, confusion in the +social State, confusion of ideas--there was, at least, one favored spot, +where truth, order and justice reigned, and there was a contented and +happy people. + +STATES OF EUROPE--SWITZERLAND. + +The Protestant and free-thinking majority in Switzerland were jealous of +the prosperity of the Catholic Church. They must, therefore, if possible, +divide, and by dividing, weaken, if not destroy, the Catholic body. The +most efficient means they could think of was the establishment of an old +or _alt-Catholic_ Church on the model of that of Germany. The idea was at +hand, and the elements were not far to seek. Among the Swiss Catholic +clergy there were none so weak as to betray their church. In the +coterminous country--France, where there are fifty thousand parochial +priests, some thirty were found already in disgrace among their brethren, +who were ready to form the nucleus of the proposed schismatical church. +The pretext was the pretended novelties introduced by the OEcumenical +Council of the Vatican, which, they insisted, changed the character of the +ancient Catholic Church. The schism once on foot, the majority in the +State affected to treat the real Catholics as dissenters, and the handful +of schismatics as the Catholic Church of Switzerland. Founding on this +idea, persecution was speedily inaugurated. First came the secularization +of several abbeys, which the revolution of the sixteenth century had +respected, in the northern cantons, and the confiscation of the Church of +Zurich, which was handed over to the _alt-Catholics_. Their next measure +was the expulsion of Mgr. Mermillod, Bishop of Hebron and Coadjutor of +Geneva. Mgr. Lachat, Bishop of Bale, was then deprived, and, on a purely +theological pretext, his public adhesion to the Council of the Vatican. +The sixty-nine parish priests of Bernese Jura, having declared in writing +that they remained faithful to the Bishop of Bale, were, in their turn, +suspended from their offices and driven, at first, from their parishes, +and afterwards from the country. As there was not a sufficient number of +foreign priests to replace the dispossessed clergy, the number of parishes +was arbitrarily reduced from seventy-six to twenty-eight. It was regulated +that nominations should, henceforth, be made by the government alone, and +by a single stroke of the pen were suppressed, both the Concordat +concluded with Rome, in 1828, and the act of re-union of 1815, by which, +when Bernese Jura, formerly French, was incorporated with Switzerland, an +engagement was made with France to respect, in every way, the liberty of +Catholic worship. France was not in a position, at the time, to enforce +the terms of the treaty. They who dared to call it to mind, accordingly, +were sent to prison or heavily fined. + +Almost all the Bernese clergy, when banished from their churches and +presbyteries, sought shelter and protection on the hospitable soil of +France. From that country they returned often, under cover of night, to +their forsaken parishes, in order to administer the sacraments and perform +other religious offices for the consolation of their flocks, hastening +back to the land of liberty and safety before the approach of day. The +persecution was carried to such extremes that the Catholics were not only +deprived of their churches, but forbidden, under severe penalties, to +assemble for Divine worship, even in barns or such-like places. "As an +official of the State of Bearn," wrote a school inspector to a school +mistress, "you are bound to strive, with all your might, that the purposes +of the said State, as regards attendance at public worship, be carried +out. If your conscience does not admit of your attending the Church which +is recognized and approved by the government, I leave you at liberty to +refrain from attending any worship, but I forbid you to go to the barn, +where the deprived parish priest officiates, because I would not have you +set a bad example to your children." + +No encouragement or word of consolation that Pius IX. could bestow, was +wanting to his persecuted children of Switzerland. In addressing Bishop +Lachat, whom he received with every mark of friendship, when he came to +represent the sad condition to which he was reduced, the Holy Father said: +"To you also it is now given to experience the greatest happiness that can +fall to the lot of an apostolic man. This happiness is thus expressed in +the New Testament: _Ibant gaudentes, quoniam digni habiti sunt pro nomine +Jesu contumeliam pati._ They went away rejoicing, because they were +thought worthy to suffer reproach for the name of Jesus." + +The Prussian chancellor, as devoid of humanity as he was short-sighted in +statesmanship, forbad the exiled clergy of Switzerland to set foot in the +annexed Province of Alsace. The brutal conduct of the chancellor could, +however, only injure himself. It stigmatizes him as a persecutor +throughout the ages, as long as history shall be read, whilst the +sufferers to whom he refused shelter and bread, found abundant +compensation in the generous hospitality of the French nation. + +_Mentita est iniquitas sibi._ The persecution brought little benefit to +either the Protestant or infidel party in the Bernese Legislature, by whom +it was inaugurated, whilst the moral power of the Catholics was greatly +increased. Travellers relate that "the Catholics of Jura treat with a +degree of contempt, as immense as is their faith, the apostate priests who +banished the true ministers of God. They assembled in barns and all sorts +of out-buildings, all remaining faithful to God, the Holy Church and their +parish priests. Faith which slept in some souls is reawakened and endowed +with new life. Bernese Jura is more Catholic than ever." + +The Central Council of the Swiss Confederation, at length, became ashamed +of the inglorious name which the Canton of Bearn was making for the common +country--the country of William Tell so highly famed for its love of +liberty and its noble hospitality. Perhaps, also, they were not +unconcerned to find that travellers from other lands protested, in their +way, against the barbarous persecution, and left their money in more +favored lands. + +The Bernese government was advised, either to proceed legally and +regularly against the parish priests, or to recall them. There being +nothing on which to found legal proceedings, the exiles returned to their +country at the end of 1875. The persecution was not, however, at an end. +Neither churches, nor presbyteries, nor liberty, were restored. The +faithful clergy, rich in the fidelity of their devoted flocks, fulfilled +the duties of their ministry in the darkness of night, using every +precaution in order to escape the snares of the police, and to avoid fines +and imprisonment, which were now the punishment instead of exile. + +GREAT BRITAIN AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. + +Taking leave of the dark and dreary pages which bear the melancholy record +of persecution, we turn, with a feeling of relief, to the more cheering +picture presented by those countries where the great principle of +religious liberty has come, at length, to be fully understood. It was a +great day for the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, when the +legal disabilities which weighed so long on the Catholic people, were +removed. It was the noble and powerful protest of a mighty empire against +the narrow and irrational spirit of persecution, which still disgraces so +many of the European nations. If ever the Catholics, by superiority of +numbers, which is far from being an impossible state of things, should +come to sway the destinies of that empire, the glorious fact will be +remembered and bear its fruit. England, Ireland and Scotland, already +enjoy an abundant measure of their reward, in the increase of piety and of +that righteousness which exalteth a nation. This is manifest in many ways. +It is particularly shown forth by the more friendly feeling towards the +Catholics of the empire which now universally prevails. We may not be +supposed to know much, here in Canada, about the state of sentiment or +opinion in England. But when we appeal to the testimony of so eminent an +Englishman as Cardinal Newman, what we affirm cannot be easily gainsaid. +In a discourse recently delivered at Birmingham, on the growth of the +Catholic Church in England, the very learned cardinal noted the striking +contrast between the feeling towards Catholics in Cardinal Wiseman's time +and that of the present day, and accounted for the improvement by showing +that there is now a much better knowledge of the Catholic religion among +Protestants. "What I wish to show," said his Eminence, "and what I believe +to be the remarkable fact is, that whereas there have been many +conversions to the Catholic Church during the last thirty years, and a +great deal of ill-will felt towards us, in consequence, nevertheless, that +ill-will has been overcome, and a feeling of positive good-will has been +created instead in the minds of our very enemies, by means of those +conversions which they feared from their hatred of us. How this was, let +me now say: The Catholics in England, fifty years ago, were an unknown +sect amongst us. Now there is hardly a family but has brothers or sisters, +or cousins or connections, or friends and acquaintances, or associates in +business or work, of that religion, not to mention the large influx of +population from the sister island: and such an interpenetration of +Catholics with Protestants, especially in our great cities, could not take +place without there being a gradual accumulation of experience, slow, +indeed, but therefore the more sure about individual Catholics, and what +they really are in character, and, whether or not, they can be trusted in +the concerns and intercourse of life; and I fancy that Protestants, +spontaneously, and before setting about to form a judgment, have found +them to be men whom they could be drawn to like and to love quite as much +as their fellow-Protestants--to be human beings in whom they could be +interested and sympathize with, and interchange good offices with, before +the question of religion came into consideration." + +The increase in the number of Catholics and of Catholic institutions in +Great Britain, has kept pace with the growth of friendly sentiments in +their regard. That island, "the mother of nations," appears to be destined +to unite by means of her ever spreading language, the immense family of +mankind. For what end and purpose none can tell. The hidden ways of Divine +Providence are known to God alone. We may, nevertheless, in view of +certain well-known facts, presume to draw the veil of mystery aside, and +discover so far the secret of God's mercy. In Pius the Ninth's time the +number of Catholics has been doubled in Great Britain, as well as in the +United States of America, Canada, Australia, remote India and the Cape of +Good Hope. + +At the time of the election of Pius IX., there were in England and +Scotland eight hundred and twenty Catholic priests. There are now two +thousand and eighty-eight.(12) The number of churches and chapels had +grown from six hundred and twenty-six to one thousand three hundred and +fifteen. Within the last twenty years religious houses for men had +increased from twenty-one to seventy-three, and convents for religious +sisters, from ninety-seven to two hundred and thirty-nine. Catholic +schools and colleges had more than doubled their number, being now one +thousand three hundred, whilst a little over twenty years ago it was five +hundred. + +In the British colonies, generally, including British America, Australia, +India, and the West Indies, there were, in 1855, no more than forty-four +Episcopal Sees, several of which owed their erection to Pius IX. By the +year 1876, the solicitude of the same venerable Pontiff had raised to +eighty-eight, the number of archbishops and bishops who exercised the +duties of their sacred office, throughout the Colonial Empire of Great +Britain. In the whole empire there cannot be fewer than one hundred and +twenty-five prelates, whether vicars-apostolic, archbishops, bishops, or +prefects-apostolic. + +In no country have the benefits of religious liberty been more abundantly +enjoyed than in Canada. In 1869, the two Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, +formerly Canada West and Canada East, counted ten dioceses and seven +hundred and seventy-nine churches. Including Sherbrooke, Chicoutimi, and +the vicariate-apostolic of Northern Canada, there are now thirteen +dioceses in the two provinces, whilst, during the seven years anterior to +1876, there was an increase of one hundred and seventy-three churches, +making, in all, one thousand one hundred and seventy-one. In the same +period religious houses had increased from seventy-three to one hundred +and ninety-six. Education of a religious character is, at the same time, +amply provided for. There are, in the Province of Quebec, three thousand +one hundred and thirty-nine parochial, and altogether three thousand six +hundred and thirty elementary schools, for a population of one million +eight hundred and eighty-two thousand souls. These schools, without +including educational institutions of a more private kind, which are very +numerous in Lower Canada (Quebec), allow one school to every six hundred +people. It may be doubted whether Prussia, even, which possesses greater +facilities for education than any other European country, comes up to this +standard. The increase of Catholic people everywhere, throughout the +country, keeps pace with the building of churches and the establishing of +Catholic schools and other religious institutions. This increase is +particularly noticeable in the towns and cities, where the growth of the +Catholic population is remarkably rapid. + +In all the British dependencies, liberty, as understood by the British +people, prevails; and, wherever it is held in honor and exercises its +legitimate influence, religion nourishes. Contrast, for instance, +Australia, when a penal colony, and when liberty was unknown with +Australia, as it is to-day. In 1804 two priests were permitted, by the +civil power, to perform the duties of their sacred office. Their labors +sufficed for the very limited spiritual wants of the colony. By 1827 these +wants had so slightly increased that two priests were still able to meet +them all. One of these was Dr. Ullathorne, now Bishop of Birmingham, +assisted by another priest and a lay teacher. So late as 1842, matters +were little better, Hobart-town having one priest, but no church. +Australia, meanwhile, was growing in importance, and it came to possess, +as became an important British colony, constitutional government. This was +a new era for the cause of religion. Australia has now, 1880, two +archbishoprics and ten other episcopal sees. In three of the dioceses, +Melbourne, Sandhurst and Perth, there are no fewer than one hundred and +thirty-five priests. + +THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. + +At the epoch of Independence, 1776, the number of Catholics in the new +republic was estimated at twenty-five thousand. The spiritual wants of +this comparatively small body were ministered to by nineteen priests, who +were under the jurisdiction of the bishop Vicar-Apostolic of London, +England. By 1790, the number of priests was doubled, and a bishop was +appointed. In 1840, there were in the United States one million five +hundred thousand Catholics. By 1855, they had grown to two millions. In +the twenty-one years from 1855 to 1876 the increase was from two millions +to six million five hundred thousand. This extraordinary growth, though +rapid, was, nevertheless, vigorous and healthy. There was a corresponding +increase in the numbers of the clergy, as well as of religious and +educational institutions. For the instruction and spiritual comfort of so +great a flock, there were, in 1879, no fewer than five thousand three +hundred and fifty-eight priests, with fifty-six bishops and archbishops, +five thousand and forty-six churches, three thousand seven hundred and +eleven oratories and missionary stations. Religious houses have also +increased in due proportion. In 1855, there were only fifteen religious +houses for men in all the United States. There are now ninety-five. +Communities of religious sisters, who chiefly devote themselves to works +of charity and instruction, also flourish. In 1855 there were only fifty +such communities. There are now two hundred and twenty-five. Educational +institutions of a religious character also abound. In 1800, there was only +one Catholic academy for girls in all the United States. At the present +day they number more than four hundred. Catholic colleges have increased +from two to sixty-four. + +The number of parochial schools is not so great, in proportion to the +population, as in the Province of Quebec. This is accounted for by the +still defective state of religious liberty in the United States. There is +a sort of State fanaticism there in favor of common or national schools. +Whilst Catholics cannot avail themselves of such institutions, which +provide only a Godless education, they are, nevertheless, heavily taxed +for their support. Being so burdened, it is surely much to the credit of +the Catholics of the United States that they, in addition, support two +thousand two hundred and forty-four parochial schools, besides six hundred +and sixty-three colleges or academies, and twenty-four seminaries, for +higher and ecclesiastical education. Notwithstanding the drawback alluded +to, Pius IX. entertained a high idea of the North American Republic, and +he showed that he did so when he declared that it was almost the only +country wherein he could exercise, without hindrance, the duties of his +sublime office. He further evinced his appreciation by raising several +American bishops to the dignity of archbishop, and one to that of +cardinal. The Archbishop of New York is the first American who has enjoyed +the high position of cardinal. He was formally thanked for this +well-merited honor by the President of the United States, and all America +concurred in extolling the wisdom of the choice which gave the dignity to +the Most Rev. Archbishop McCloskey, of New York. + +HIERARCHY OF SCOTLAND. + +One of the latest labors of Pius IX. was that which he undertook, on the +urgent request of the Catholics of Scotland, in connection with the +restoration of the ancient Scottish hierarchy. The venerable Pontiff, now +so far advanced in years, did not live to complete this important work. +The late reverend and learned Dr. Grant, President of the Scotch College +at Rome, ceased not, meanwhile, to promote, as representing the Catholics +of Scotland, the institution of the hierarchy. His knowledge of the +country and historical research eminently qualified him for the task. The +work, so happily commenced under the auspices of Pius IX., was brought to +a conclusion soon after the accession of his successor, Leo XIII. The Most +Rev. John Strain, well known as a sound theologian and eminently practical +preacher, was appointed Archbishop of St. Andrews and Edinburgh. The +learned prelate thus became the successor of the ancient Archbishops of +St. Andrews and Primate of Scotland. The other Episcopal Sees erected were +Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dunkeld, Galloway, Argyll and the Isles. Glasgow, in +consideration of its former honors, was made an archbishopric, but without +suffragans. The archbishop is a member of the Synod of St. Andrews and +Edinburgh. To the undying honor of the people of Scotland, there is +nothing more to record. There were no commotions, no eloquent appeals for +the purpose of allaying groundless fears and calming the popular mind, to +burden the tale of the historian. An unsuccessful attempt at riot, by some +rowdies, in a city of six hundred thousand souls, confirms rather than +derogates from the absolute truth of this statement. + +There are already in the Archdiocese of St. Andrews and Edinburgh several +important religions institutions. Among these may be mentioned four +communities of religious sisters. The sisters, called "Ursulines of +Jesus," have two establishments in the city of Edinburgh, and devote +themselves entirely to education and charity. There are fifty-four +churches, chapels and stations. The missions, properly so-called, are +twenty-eight in number, and forty-three priests, of whom thirteen are +members of religious societies, perform all the missionary duty and +minister to the spiritual wants of the congregations. It cannot be said +that education is neglected, and such education as recognizes religious +principle; there being, in addition to the convent schools, thirty-six +congregational or parochial schools. + +In the Archdiocese of Glasgow, one hundred and twenty-one priests, of whom +twenty-four are members of religious societies, attend to the spiritual +wants of the missions and congregations. The Glasgow missions count +fifty-nine, with seventy-eight churches, chapels and stations. The +congregational or parochial schools number one hundred and eighty-six, in +addition to religious educational institutions. + +Aberdeen has forty-seven priests, of whom seven are members of the +Benedictine Order. It has thirty-two missions, with fifty-one churches, +chapels and stations. Colleges, convents, and congregational schools, are +in proportion to the Catholic population. + +Dunkeld contains within its borders the important seaport town of Dundee, +and the ancient city of Perth, where may still be seen the Church of St. +John, against which the Knox Iconoclasts cast the first stone--the sad +prelude to their furious onslaught on all the sacred edifices of the land. +At Dundee there is a numerous Catholic population. In the whole diocese +there are thirty-three priests, of whom twelve are members of the +religious Society of Redemptorists. There are religious communities of +Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, and Ursulines of Jesus. The +Marist Brothers and Redemptorists have their monasteries, and there is a +creditable number of congregational schools. + +The ancient See of Whithorn (Candidacasa) is now known as the diocese of +Galloway. It dates from St. Ninian, the apostle of the Southern Picts, by +whom it was founded in 397. It was destroyed in the time of the +Scandinavian invasions, and remained extinct from 808 till 1189. It fell +again at the epoch of the Reformation, and had no bishop from the death of +Andrew Durie, in 1558, till the appointment of Bishop McLachlan by Leo +XIII. The residence of the bishop is at Dumfries, where there is a +numerous congregation and an elegant church. + +Argyll and the Isles is a diocese full of promise. The traditions of its +piety in ancient days are a rich inheritance. It has already thirty-eight +churches, chapels and stations, together with some numerous congregations. + +INCREASE AND NUMBER OF CATHOLICS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD IN THE TIME OF PIUS +IX. + +About the time of the accession of Pius IX., the Catholic population of +the world was estimated by scientific men at two hundred and fifty-four +million six hundred and fifty-five thousand (see the _Scientific +Miscellany_ of the time). Since that time there has been a very +considerable increase. How great it has been we may judge from the +statistics with which we are most familiar, those of Great Britain and the +British Colonies, as well as those of the United States of America. The +eminent statisticians, Drs. Behm and Wagner, hold that the number of +Protestants has more than doubled in the same period. Some thirty-five +years ago, according to the _Scientific Miscellany_, the Protestant +population of the world was forty-eight million nine hundred and +eighty-nine thousand. Without saying that the learned men alluded to are +wrong in estimating them now at one hundred and one million, it may be +claimed that Catholics have enjoyed at least as great an increase. The +tendency of the latter, in the present age, is to spread and to spread +rapidly, whilst among Protestants, according to their own ablest writers, +there exists no such expansive power. An opinion prevails among those who +are not friendly to the Catholic Church, that such an institution can only +take root and grow in an age of ignorance, or among ignorant people. This +opinion enjoys not the sanction of the most distinguished Protestant +authors and preachers. Baron Macaulay writes: "We often hear it said that +the world is constantly becoming more and more enlightened, and that the +enlightenment must be favorable to Protestantism and unfavorable to +Catholicism. We wish that we could think so. But we see great reason to +doubt whether this is a well-founded expectation. We see that during the +last two hundred and fifty years the human mind has been in the highest +degree active; that it has made great advances in every branch of natural +philosophy; that it has produced innumerable inventions, tending to +promote the convenience of life; that medicine, surgery, chemistry, +engineering, have been very greatly improved; that government, police and +law, have been improved, though not to so great an extent as the physical +sciences. Yet we see that during these two hundred and fifty years +Protestantism has made no conquests worth speaking of. Nay, we believe +that as far as there has been change, that change has been in favor of the +Church of Rome. We cannot, therefore, feel confident that the progress of +knowledge will necessarily be fatal to a system which has, to say the +least, stood its ground in spite of the immense progress made by the human +race in knowledge since the time of Queen Elizabeth." If, then, +Protestantism, as regards increase and development, has been at a +stand-still for the last two(13) hundred and fifty years, whilst it is +admitted on all hands that Catholicism has been growing rapidly, it is +not, surely, unreasonable to claim that the increase of Catholics keeps +pace with that of Protestants. The claim, however, must be waived, as it +would give a greater expansion to the Catholic Church than Catholics can +suppose it is entitled to. If the number of Catholics had doubled within +the last five-and-thirty or forty years, as that of Protestants is alleged +by the learned statisticians to have done, they would now count five +hundred and nine million three hundred thousand. Behm and Wagner estimate +them at two hundred and seventy million. + +Judging by the facts alluded to, this estimate is certainly below the +mark, and we shall still be considered as determining for a low figure +when we reckon the Catholic population of the whole world at three hundred +million. + +The heathen masses are still the most numerous. But, if the statement +recently made by the Secretary of the Chinese Legation, at Washington, may +be relied on, they are not overwhelmingly so. This statement reduces the +population of China from the fabulous number of four hundred million to +one hundred million. It is not, surely, reasonable to suppose, as the +world has so long supposed, that one nation, China, has a population +double that of all the nations of India. The whole heathen world, +therefore, cannot count more than six hundred and fifty million souls--too +many to be still in darkness and the shadow of death. But let each +believer labor to convert a heathen, and there will be light at last. The +believing portion of mankind is not so far behind, in point of numbers, at +least. It consists of (according to Drs. Behm and Wagner): + +300,000,000 Catholics. +90,000,000 members of the Greek Church. +101,000,000 Protestants. +7,000,000 Jews. + +ANNIVERSARY OF THE EPISCOPAL CONSECRATION OF PIUS IX. + +The 3rd of June, 1877, was a great day for Rome and the Catholic world. Of +all the _fetes_ which Plus IX. was favored to celebrate, there was none +more honored than the anniversary of his episcopal consecration. One would +say that the faithful Catholic people everywhere had resolved to make it +an occasion of protesting against the treatment to which the venerable +Pontiff was subjected, and the false principles which governed the Italian +faction, by which he was so cruelly persecuted. Pilgrims came from all +lands and crowded the streets of the Papal city; for such it still was. +Notwithstanding all the efforts of the usurping government, the Roman +people acknowledged no other ruler at Rome than the Holy Father. During +six months of the year 1877, the devoted Catholics of every nation ceased +not to throng the streets, the approaches to and from the halls of the +Vatican Palace. Nor did they come empty-handed. They were literally laden +with gold and silver, together with an endless variety of other rich and +appropriate gifts. A month before the anniversary day, there were already +five hundred chalices, as well as other church plate, jewellery, +vestments, altar linens, etc., deposited in the Vatican. An eye-witness +beheld these precious offerings suitably laid out in one of the largest +galleries, forming an immense treasury, from which the benevolent Pontiff +supplied the poorer missions throughout the world. Congratulatory +addresses were constantly presented, and Pius IX. was indefatigable in +receiving these proofs of the faith and love of his spiritual children. +Day after day he made replies to deputations, and often, four times a day +without appearing fatigued or giving any sign that his bodily strength or +vigor of mind was failing him. Day after day, throughout the whole summer +of 1877, the faithful people ceased not to astonish the new masters of +Rome, who flattered themselves with the belief that faith was dead in the +world, and would no longer be an impediment to their domination. They +beheld pilgrims from every clime in vast numbers, of which they could form +no estimate. They also heard their voice, and wondered at their admirable +unanimity. "All of us, whoever we are, Christians of every nation and of +every tongue," said the Bishop of Poitiers, speaking in the name of his +fellow-Catholics, "we have all been brought here by the desire, the +necessity we are under, to offer our tribute of regret and love to the +venerated Pontiff, whom the whole world honors with all the veneration of +filial duty. After having placed at his feet our presents and our +respectful homage, we come to offer, in this sanctuary, our thanksgiving +and our prayers--our thanksgiving, for Pius IX. has been preserved to us +beyond the term of all preceding Pontificates--our prayers for his +remaining in this life is, at present, our only pledge of safety."(14) + +On occasion of the memorable anniversary, Pius IX. proclaimed a jubilee, +and thus afforded to all his children throughout the universe an +opportunity of uniting with those of Rome in one common prayer and act of +thanksgiving. Numberless communions, in every Catholic land, on the very +day of the anniversary--3rd June--bore witness to the lively faith which +universally prevailed, and made it plain as noon-day to the unbelieving +that the body of the Church is united by the bond of charity, even as is +the family by the ties of blood. The power of such a celebration was +widely felt. And the revolutionists of Italy believed that something must +be done in order to counteract its influence. They could not propose, as +they had done six years before on occasion of the anniversary of Pius the +Ninth's exaltation to the Popedom, to display on all the public edifices +of Rome the flag of revolutionized Italy in fraternal union with that of +the Pontiff and the Church. It must, therefore, be unfurled in direct +opposition to the cause of the Holy Father. A festive commemoration of the +"constitutional statute" was ordered to be held on the 3rd June, the day +of the Papal celebration. The scheme proved to be more than a failure. It +was intended as an insult to the Pope and protest against the Christian +faith. In reality it became a testimony which redounded to the honor of +the Holy Father and the glory of religion. What cared the Romans, or the +people of the Roman territory, for the "constitutional statute" of Charles +Albert? Their _vivats_ were all for Pius IX. and his more constitutional +constitution. + +"Long live Pius IX.!--Pius IX., our only King!" No other cry was heard in +the streets of Rome, or in the wide campagna. The populations of the +country as well as of the city were alike devoted to Pius IX., and would +have no other to rule over them. The usurping revolutionists must needs +retaliate. In doing so, they still more degraded their _fete_ of the +"constitutional statute." + +On occasion of royal _fetes_, favors are liberally dispensed. This order +of things was now reversed. Parties convicted of illuminating their +houses, of displaying white and yellow colors, or of expressing in words +their loyalty to Pius IX., were sentenced to imprisonment. + +DEATH OF ANTONELLI AND PATRIZI. + +Shortly before the anniversary celebration, Pius IX. had to lament the +death of his faithful Secretary of State, Cardinal Antonelli. This +intrepid statesman had done battle courageously during six-and-twenty +years for the Church, the Holy See and the temporal sovereignty of the +Roman Pontiff, who had been threatened in his life, his priestly honor and +his character for integrity. The devoted cardinal defied both the poniard +and the tongue of the calumniator. Although able to unmask the most secret +intrigues of the revolutionists, he could not avert the blow which it was +permitted that they should strike against the time-honored institutions of +his country. They appear to have been destined to reign for a time. Their +success did not appal Antonelli nor shake his fidelity. In evil report and +good report he stood by his sovereign, and shared his exile as well as the +honor which he enjoyed in the more auspicious days of his glorious +Pontificate. + +Three weeks later, Cardinal Patrizi, who was Vicar of Rome and chief +counsellor of Pius IX. in all matters connected with the government of the +church, was called from this earthly scene. Thus was the aged Pontiff +destined to be tried by new afflictions. The success of his enemies and of +the enemies of the Church, the privation and humiliation to which he was +subjected, were rendered more severe by the death of his dearest friends +who were also his ablest supporters. He was grieved, but could not be +crushed by so many calamities. He remained until his health utterly failed +equal to his high position. + +An additional cause of sorrow to the Holy Father was the enactment of the +Italian Legislature, known as the _Mancini law_. This law was in downright +opposition to the _law of guarantees_. It made it a crime to preach the +Gospel. On pretence of repressing the abuses of the clergy, their offences +against the laws and institutions of the State, it forbade all apostolic +preaching. It was too late. Nero, even, was not in time, and all the fury +of persecution could not uproot the belief in virtue which prevailed. The +clergy shall no longer say that fraud, robbery, lying, violence and +assassination are sins. But _cui bono_? The world has already its +convictions--prejudices, the philosophy of _Kulturkampf_ may call them--in +regard to all such things, and no law that an infidel parliament can enact +will suffice to eradicate them. It could only sadden the heart of the +Chief Pastor to see the power which ruled in his country and in his stead +laboring so strenuously but ineffectually to demolish the edifice of the +church, which, for so many ages, had been assailed in vain. It was the +height of presumption, surely, when a few modern Italians, a miserable +minority of their own nation, undertook a task which defied all the power +of Imperial Rome. In a country where liberty is better understood, a +powerful voice was raised in condemnation of the _Mancini law_. The +British _Catholic Union_ protested against the cruel enactment as an +attack not only on the liberty of the Church but also on the very +existence of the Christian faith in Italy. This purpose was, indeed, +avowed by many of its supporters in the Italian parliament. + +Pius IX. could not fail to protest against such an attack on that liberty +which is the birthright of every Christian. In a Consistorial Allocution +of 12th March, 1877, he exposed the plot which the revolutionists had +prepared in order to prevent the Holy Father from accomplishing his +appointed mission--that of instructing and edifying the whole flock of +Christ. That his protest was fully justified and demanded by the +circumstances of the case was abundantly shown by the rage which it +excited among the ruling faction. Their press did its best to dissemble, +and affected to treat with contempt the Pope's address. It contained only +"lame and doubtful reasonings--such arguments as are termed paralogisms or +involuntary sophisms, which escape the notice of their authors." The +government, in unison with the press, sought to stifle the importunate +voice of the Pontiff. The council of ministers went so far as to resolve +on prosecuting any journals that should dare to publish the Papal +allocution. But they found it was too late. The obnoxious document was +already printed in France, and, consequently, open to the civilized world. +So the wrath of the ministry was allowed to cool. It sought, nevertheless, +to be revenged. The minister of justice, accordingly, addressed a circular +to the procurators-general, in which he denounced the language of Pius IX. +as "excessive and violent." The Pope himself he railed was a factious +person, as a fomenter of sedition and revolt. He also charged him with +ingratitude. For what was he ungrateful? Had they not robbed him of his +sovereignty and his property? Did they not now hold him closely guarded in +the Vatican? They spared his life, indeed, but made him understand that he +was their prisoner, as, in reality, he was. To have gone farther would +have been to outrage all Italy, which they were so anxious to conciliate, +and the great Powers, whose forbearance they so much needed. Cardinal +Simeoni, who had succeeded Antonelli as Secretary of State, in a circular +addressed to the Papal nuncios, pointed out the weakness and gross +injustice of Mancini's letter. The secret societies, on the other hand, +congratulated their most dear and most active _brother_, and expressed the +hope _that he would not stop until he reached the end to which he so nobly +tended_. The minister of justice fully acceded to the wishes of the +_brethren_, and they could rely upon it that he would persevere until he +compassed the destruction of the Papacy. Such good resolutions deserved a +reward. They awarded him, accordingly, what they called a _diploma of +honor_. + +The _Mancini law_, notwithstanding all the efforts of its supporters, +never became law. There is not much in this history to be placed to the +credit of Victor Emmanuel. Nevertheless, he, all of a sudden, opposed the +enactment of the odious law which he had allowed to be prepared and +presented in his name to the representative chamber. By expressing his +repugnance to it, he caused it to fail in the Senate. It is related that +it was on the representation of his daughter, the Princess Clotilde, that +he so acted. + +PLAN FOR ELECTING A POPE. + +One of the most daring enterprises of the Italian ministry was their +scheme, in conjunction with the Prussian chancellor, for the election of a +Pope on the demise of Pius IX. Hitherto, when the Popes enjoyed their +temporal sovereignty, the Cardinal Camerlingo, or high chamberlain, +directed everything from the time of the Pope's decease until the election +of a successor. It was the purpose of the ministry to arrogate to +themselves the attributes of this high dignitary, who acted, temporarily, +as the Sovereign of Rome. For the attainment of their end, fraud, lying +and forgery were freely had recourse to. It being understood that there +existed a Bull relating to the election of Pius the Ninth's successor, and +that it was in the custody of Mgr. Mercurelli, the Secretary of Pontifical +briefs, a high price was offered to any one who should treacherously +deliver it into the hands of the revolutionists. Such a temptation was not +to be resisted. A cunning scribe, who could imitate the handwriting of +Mercurelli, made a copy of an ancient Bull of Pius VI., adapting it to the +circumstances of the time. To the great confusion of the astute chancellor +and his associates, the Italian ministers, the forgery was discovered, and +the sage statesmen befooled in the sight of all Europe by a common felon. +Nothing, however, was to be left undone that was calculated, as the +conspirators conceived, to secure the election of a Pope who would reject +the decisions of the Vatican Council. For this end it was proposed to take +military possession of the Vatican Palace, and appoint a commissioner to +superintend the election and carry out the views of the faction. This +iniquitous plot appears to have been overthrown by a vigorous article +which was published in the _Osservatore Romano_. It is said to have been +inspired by Pius IX. It stated, among other things, that "the Vatican +changes not with the changes of the times, and the Lord, who has protected +it in the past, and given visible proofs of His continued protection, will +protect it in the future, and defend it against all, whatever artifices, +whether secret or open, its enemies may employ, in order to conquer and +overthrow it." The revolutionary journals, whose constant cry was "war to +the knife" on the Church and the Papacy, could not refrain from expressing +their astonishment, it ought to be said their admiration, of this masterly +document. "It is impossible," said the _Republique Francaise_ of 28th +July, 1877, "not to be struck by the tone of authority, the vehemence and +the menaces, the ardent and deep-rooted faith which prevail from beginning +to end of this extraordinary production." + +ILLNESS OF THE POPE--VICTOR EMMANUEL AT THE VATICAN. + +In the autumn of 1877, the health of Pius IX. began to fail. He caught +cold and had a renewal of rheumatic attacks. He was obliged, in +consequence, to discontinue giving audiences. Finally, by the advice of +his physicians, he kept his bed continuously for three weeks, from 20th +November. The Pope's indisposition appears to have been quite a God-send +to the ever-busy press of the hostile faction. There were, of course, +spasms, fainting fits, mortification of the extremities, etc. The Pope is +dying--the Pope is dead!--and the enemy rejoiced, as over a hard-won +victory. But the end was not yet. The Holy Father recovered, and was able +to hold a Consistory and deliver an allocution on the 28th of December. + +There was one at Rome who felt differently from the party with whom he +acted in regard to the illness and possible death of the Pope. This was no +other than King Victor Emmanuel. The dethroned Pontiff was still a power +that helped to stem the tide of red republican revolution which rolled so +angrily against the tottering throne of united Italy. The barrier was in +danger. Only the slender thread of an exhausted life saved it from giving +way. The king was awe-struck, and sought comfort in the Palace of the +Vatican.(15) + +What passed at the extraordinary interview none will ever know. All that +can be found on record is that the King of Italy retired with a lightened +heart from the mansion of the Sovereign Pontiff. Pardon, benediction, +renewal of promises--what may there not have been? That the meeting was not +without result, an event which was not at that time far distant clearly +shows. + +The restoration of Pius IX. to comparative health was matter for +thanksgiving and congratulation. A consistory was held, accordingly, on +the 28th of December, 1877. The cardinals having assembled, the Holy +Father thus addressed them: "We rejoice in the Lord at having experienced +how faithfully you sustain the burden of the apostolic ministry; and, at +the same time, for having enjoyed the sweet consolation to find the +sorrows of our soul alleviated by your virtue and the constant affection +of your charity." The venerable Pontiff concluded this address, which was +destined to be his last in solemn consistory, by inviting the members of +the Sacred College "to offer up their prayers assiduously to the throne of +Divine mercy for himself and for the Church," representing that the +strength of Christians is in prayer, in the power of God, which the prayer +of His creature, made in his image, causes to be exerted. And who is +stronger than God? _Quis ut Deus?_ + +The aged Pontiff, whom the revolutionists of Italy and other countries +cried out against with such vehemence of hatred and malediction, asked no +other favor for himself of the Supreme Giver than the pleasure to impart +once more his benediction from the Vatican to the city and the whole +world. On occasion of some foreign ladies resident at Rome coming to +present him with a rich canopy for decorating the Vatican lodge, at the +benediction he gave utterance to the following prayer: "Lend new strength, +O Lord, to Thy Vicar on earth; give new vigor to his voice and to his arm, +in order that, in the present crisis, it may be permitted him, as a sign +of reconciliation and peace to bless once more solemnly the whole Catholic +people, and that thus, through Thy assistance, society may be restored to +a state of tranquillity and the practice of all the Christian virtues." He +adored, without knowing it, the Divine will, which was not that he should +ever again impart his apostolic benediction from the Vatican. This he knew +not, and could not pretend to know. But he was comforted in the firm +belief that the benediction would never cease to be dispensed. On the same +day, he said, addressing the Roman ladies who presented a carpet for the +solemn benediction: "At this time of darkness and tribulation, when we are +in the power of our enemies, you may say to me: 'We have exerted ourselves +so much, we have offered up so many prayers, shed so many tears, and, +notwithstanding, all to no purpose.' The time will come when this present +will be made use of. _Tota nocte laborantes_.... The Romans have, indeed, +prayed. They have given signal proof of their fidelity and their piety, +amid the gloom and trouble of our national catastrophes, and why have +they, as yet, obtained nothing? But what do I say? Are those evidences of +affection which every day reach the Holy See to be reputed as nothing? Is +that earnestness of prayer which prevails at Rome and throughout the +Catholic world to no purpose? In the most desert regions and remotest +countries vows and prayers are offered up for our deliverance. Your +prayers and communions are so many petitions, laid at the foot of the +altar, which cannot fail to be heard. As our Lord, who was pleased to show +Peter where to cast his nets, in order to have an abundant draught of +fish, teaches us also how we shall escape from the abyss of calamity into +which our sins, perhaps, have thrown us.... Although I, who, at present, +am the Vicar of Christ, may not, one of my successors will, see Rome, +which is our city, restored to its pristine state, tranquil and +flourishing as it was some months ago. He will also behold all the rights +of this Holy See completely recovered." + +By one of two things only, as far as man can see, is it possible that +Italy should be emancipated from its present bondage, and governed +according to the wishes of its people. A constitutional monarchy, such as +Pius IX. sought so long to establish, would be the most secure and +permanent guarantee for peace and liberty in the south of Europe. A remedy +for present evils may also be found in a thoroughly representative system +of government, which the system that prevails for the moment in Italy has +no claim to be. There cannot, however, be representative government so +long as the Italian people allow a reckless faction, which is only a small +minority of the nation, to control the elections, monopolize the votes, +and constitute themselves the legislature of the country. Patience is a +virtue. But it may be abused. It certainly has been so in the case of +Italy, and by a base conspiracy. When will the people arise in their +might, and, by their immense superiority in numbers as well as +intelligence, cast off the yoke of the conspirators--the incubus which +crushes and degrades them in the eyes of mankind? + +KING VICTOR EMMANUEL SANCTIONS ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE FUNERAL OF PIUS +IX.--DEATH OF VICTOR EMMANUEL. + +On the 29th December, 1877, King Victor Emmanuel came to Rome on business +of the State, as if the city of the Popes were _de jure_ as well as _de +facto_ his capital. On the 31st of the same month, his ministers induced +him to affix his royal signature to some new acts of brigandage and +usurpation, which they had prepared, but which could not be accomplished +until the death of Pius IX. At the same time, a decree regulating the +funeral of the Pope was drawn up and signed by the king. Royal honors were +to be restored, but only when they could not be enjoyed. The Holy Father, +although stripped of his sovereignty in life, was to be honored when dead +as a sovereign prince. It was appointed that mourning should be worn +throughout all the Kingdom of Italy. Court liveries, even, were got ready, +and also the minutest details of mourning apparel. Nothing was wanting but +death--and death came--but not the death that was so ardently desired. +Scarcely had Victor Emmanuel signed the funeral decree, which was intended +to be, at the same time, the death-warrant of the Papacy and the Church, +when he was taken suddenly ill. He was anxious to leave Rome, where his +stay was always as short as possible, but was detained by the receptions +of New Year's day, and in order to attend a diplomatic dinner on the 6th +of January. On that very day, a three-fold malady laid him on his +deathbed. He became at once the victim of pleuro-pneumonia, together with +the fatal malaria and miliary fevers. There was no hope of his recovery. +To leave Rome was impossible. "Carry me hence, at any rate," cried the +dying king, in an agony of horror; "I must not die at the Quirinal." It +was too late. The physicians would not allow him to be moved. Unhallowed +force placed him in the sacred palace of the Conclave. Greater force held +him there. The prince who said, "We are at Rome and at Rome we shall +remain," was doomed to die at Rome. After death, too, he must remain at +Rome, notwithstanding the wishes of all his kindred and of his son and +successor. The new king expressed to a deputation of the municipality of +Turin with what pain he made the sacrifice which policy required. The +policy of the revolutionary faction would not allow Victor Emmanuel to +have his last resting-place with his ancestors at the Superga. Policy +forbade that death even should liberate him who was called the liberator +of Italy. Policy hoped to perpetuate usurpation, by holding the usurper in +the usurped capital. The dead king remained in death, as he had ever been +in life, the captive of the faction. + +As soon as Pius IX. became aware of the critical state of King Victor +Emmanuel, he sent to him his own chaplain, Bishop Marinelli, with full +authority to reconcile the dying monarch to the church on his expressing +repentance and retracting. This dignitary went thrice to the palace, and +was as often repelled by the watchful ministers, who strictly guarded the +person of the king. They dreaded lest so public a retractation as he was, +at the time, able to make, and as would have been required, should prove +injurious to their schemes. Later, when there was no hope of recovery, +anxious that the king should have the credit of being at peace with the +Church, they allowed his own chaplain, the Rev. Signor Azenio, to approach +his bed-side. This worthy priest, being fully authorized, heard the +confession of King Victor Emmanuel, and administered to him the Sacraments +of the Church. As the most Holy Sacrament was borne to the monarch's +deathbed, Prince Humbert, Princess Margaret, and, together with them, ten +ministers and dignitaries of the Court, bearing lighted torches, +accompanied the priest: and as Victor Emmanuel received the Viaticum and +Extreme Unction, they all fell upon their knees. (9th January, 1878.) This +conclusion, so consoling to the departing soul, was gall and wormwood to +the worldly ministers. The founder of United Italy, before he could have +the benefit of the last sacred rites, prayed to be pardoned all his crimes +against the Sovereign Pontiff and the Church. By acknowledging and +condemning his faults, he also condemned the unhallowed work which was +forwarded by so much usurpation and sacrilege. The Christian-like end of +Victor Emmanuel did not meet the views of the ministers. (_Osservatore +Romano_ of 10th January.) Accordingly, they endeavored immediately to +lessen its effect on the public mind. Their journals, unable to deny the +truth, even acknowledging the benefit they had by the king's confession +and communion, cunningly labored to counteract the same by the grossest +misrepresentation. They related that the king, at the moment of his death, +had spoken both as a Christian and an infidel revolutionist. They made him +thus retract his retractation. "In all that I have done, I am conscious of +having always fulfilled my duties as a citizen and a prince, and of having +done nothing against the religion of my ancestors." As his conscience was +thus at ease, for what did he beg pardon of the Sovereign Pontiff and the +Church? Of what could he repent who acknowledged no sin? + +_L'Osservatore Romano_, in reply, reiterated all that it had already +stated on the highest authority. "Let there be an end, once for all," said +this excellent journal, "to the profane language which dares rashly to +intervene between the dying man and his God, of whom the priest is the +representative. The Church, appealed to on so short a notice, and in the +awful hour of the death agony, mercifully extends her hand to him who is +about to approach the presence of the Sovereign Judge, and opens to him, +as far as possible, the way of salvation; but she strictly sees to it that +her holy laws be fully observed." Policy makes laws which it violates as +easily as it makes them. The Church can never break her laws, which are of +Divine origin. Victor Emmanuel, accordingly, must have submitted to the +laws of the Church, in order to be reconciled to the Church, to Pius IX. +and to God. + +At the death of the king the revolutionists were struck with +consternation. "Victor Emmanuel is no more!" said the _Liberta_, "and +Italy is like a warrior without his sword." They all felt as if the +edifice which they had raised were falling to pieces. They took no blame +to themselves, however. They ascribed not to their folly or their +wickedness the danger which threatened them. "God is unjust," said one of +the party, as he announced to the Romans the king's death. Considering the +term of human life, it was no doubt unjust, to remove from this world a +man at the advanced age of eight-and-fifty years! Another, as the remains +of the "father of his country" were borne to the Pantheon, blasphemously +exclaimed: "That everlasting Pantheon! so long the altar of inanimate +gods--now the temple of a hostile _Deity_!" + +Although Pius IX., with his usual goodness and consistency, authorized the +clergy to take part in the funeral of the deceased king, thus according +what was due to the honor of a Christian who had been reconciled to God +and the Church, the ceremony which, otherwise, would have been so solemn, +was sadly marred by processions of secret societies, Grand Orients and +Garibaldians, which followed the funeral car to the Church of St. Mary of +the Martyrs.(16) + +The Pantheon was not too grand for so great a king. It was only fitting +that he who had lent himself to the baleful work of paganizing modern Rome +should have his final resting-place in the temple that was so long sacred +to Rome's heathen _deities_. + +The Holy Father had so well recovered from his illness, and his health was +so good during the months of December and January, 1877-78, that he was +able to transact business daily with the cardinals, heads of congregations +and other prelates. It was for him the revival--the lucid interval--which so +often precedes the final scene. Notwithstanding the pompous obsequies +which the late king had prepared for Pius IX., the venerable Pontiff still +lived, and was able to protest against the pretensions of the successor of +that king, and to defend against his usurpation the Church and her +inalienable rights. The proclamation of King Humbert was met by a protest +addressed to all the Powers from the Cardinal-Secretary of State, and Pius +IX. himself raised his voice in order to vindicate publicly those writers +who had spoken the truth concerning the deceased prince. The whole world +was moved by the solicitude of the Holy Father in laboring so as that +Victor Emmanuel should die as became a Christian, and in providing that +his funeral should be conducted according to the consoling ceremonial of +the Church. It now became his duty to take care lest the irreconcilable +enemies of religion should succeed in availing themselves of these +circumstances in order to deceive and induce mankind to believe that the +Godless revolution was in sympathy with Pius IX. and the Church. The +venerable Pontiff was still able to take to task the indiscreet writers +who, from mistaken zeal, maintained that such an incongruous coalition had +taken place or was possible. + +A very great number of people of all ranks conceived the happy idea of +celebrating the seventy-fifth anniversary of Pius the Ninth's first +communion. This afforded another great occasion for uniting in prayer all +over the wide extent of the Catholic Church. The _fete_ occurred on the +2nd of February, "Candlemas day," or the purification of the Blessed +Virgin. The Holy Father was able, all exhausted as he was, to leave his +couch, celebrate Mass, and even repair to the throne-room of the Vatican, +where he performed the ceremony of distributing blessed tapers to the +cardinals, bishops and heads of religious orders. He spoke also with his +accustomed eloquence to those whom it gave him so much pleasure to see +gathered around him. He addressed himself particularly to the parish +priests of Rome, recommending above all things to their pastoral +solicitude, the children of the city who bore so important a part in the +celebration of the anniversary. He expatiated on the value of Christian +education, and exhorted the pastors to stir up the zeal of parents. His +apostolate had begun with children in the happy days of _Tata Giovanni_. +It was only fitting that his last exhortation should be all in their +interest and for their happiness. + +All, in expressing his gratitude for the prayers that were offered in his +behalf, he asked was that they should be continued, hoping always "that He +who had commenced a good work would not fail to bring it to a successful +termination." But it is not given to man to complete or perfect anything +in this life; and that pontificate of thirty-two years, which was still +more astonishing by its acts and labors than by its long duration, was +destined to leave its good work incomplete. It will be continued, +nevertheless, and men will be made to understand that it is not alone +Mastai's work, or any man's work, but the cause of Him who guides, with +irresistible power, the destinies of mankind. + +Pius IX., however, had accomplished his appointed task. He had celebrated, +and with a wonderful renewal of health, his last festival and his last +anniversary. Four days later, in the evening of the 6th February, he was +seized with a slight attack of fever, which caused no alarm. It was the +prelude, however, to more serious attacks, which shortly succeeded one +another in rapid succession till the moment of his death. At four o'clock +in the morning a potion was administered, in order to soothe the feverish +agitation of the patient. Its good effect was only of short duration. As +his physician entered, "this time," said he, "my dear doctor, all is +over." He did not share the hopes of those who attended the celebration of +Candlemas day. He understood that his last hour on earth was near at hand, +and he requested that the Holy Viaticum and Extreme Unction should be +administered. + +As soon as the doleful tidings reached the city, the people were bid to +prayer by a general ringing of the bells. Great numbers of the faithful +sought the approaches to the Vatican. Many entered and crowded the halls +and ante-chambers of the palace, offering up their prayers, with abundance +of tears, as Bishop Marinelli, whom, only one month before, Pius IX. had +sent to assist King Victor Emmanuel, conveyed the Viaticum to the chamber +of death and administered the Sacraments. As the malady increased it +attacked the lungs (not the brain, as the infidel newspapers falsely +represented),(17) rendering difficult and painful the breathing of the +patient. Nevertheless, Pius IX. calmly and distinctly repeated the prayers +for the dying, which Cardinal Bilio had begun to recite. At the end of the +Act of Contrition, he said, with great humility and confidence, "_Col +rostro adjuto_"(18) and expressed his Christian hope, saying, "_In Domumm +Domini ibimus._"(19) As the cardinal, bathed in tears, hesitated to +pronounce the words of final adieu--"_Proficiscere anima +Christiana_"(20)--the Holy Father inspired the courage so necessary at the +hour of separation, be, himself uttering the words, "_Si Proficiscere_." +He must bless, once more, the Sacred College, the members of which were +all kneeling around him. Cardinal Bilio, in their name, asked him to +impart his blessing. Extending his right hand, he blessed them for the +last time. Scarcely had the hand that had been so often raised in blessing +mankind fallen on the couch when the eyes became dim. A little before four +o'clock the death agony commenced. A few moments before six Pius IX. +ceased to live. + +"Eternal rest give to him, O Lord," devoutly said the cardinal, "and may +perpetual light shine upon him." These words conveyed the mournful fact +that Pius IX. lived no more. They were, at the same time, the occasion of +an outburst of love and devotedness, which showed that this wonderful Pope +still commanded in death that affection which, in his lifetime, had been +often so gloriously manifested. + +Cardinals, prelates, nobles, people of Rome, guards and servants, +struggled and crowded on each other, in order to press, once more, +forehead and lips on those sacred hands which could never more be raised +to bless them. It was a singularly affecting scene. The wail of sorrow and +the unfeigned expression of esteem and love arose also as the tidings +spread throughout the wide extent of the Catholic world. + +The deceased Pontiff needs no eulogium. His memory will be as green +throughout the centuries to come as on the day of his decease. It is +impossible, however, to avoid calling to mind the words of Saint Cyprian, +spoken in praise of Pope Cornelius, and most appropriately applied by the +pious and learned Bishop of Poitiers to Pius IX: "After a promotion which +he had neither desired nor sought, but which was due to him alone who +makes Pontiffs, what activity from the first moment he was in office! what +boldness of initiative! And, what we must chiefly consider and praise, +what strength of faith and what courage in having perseveringly and +intrepidly held the sacerdotal chair at Rome, at a time when, through +opposition to the priesthood, were uttered such fearful threats, and when +the Powers of the world were more inclined to undergo any kind of reverse +rather than that the Priest of God should occupy at Rome a throne which +was the rival of their earthly throne. If, in the midst of so much +agitation, the power of the Lord evidently protected the priest whom he +had chosen, that priest, nevertheless, in resisting, suffered all that it +was possible to suffer, and overcame, by his priestly energy, those for +whom were in store other and ulterior defeats." + +ST. CYPRIAN, Epist. LII, _ad Antonianum_. + +The death of Pius IX., long so ardently desired by the Italian ministry, +came upon them unawares at last. They had no scheme or plot in readiness, +to thwart the action of the cardinals in the election of a successor to +the Pontificate.(21) The Conclave, accordingly, assembled in due course, +and, on the third day of its meeting, elected to the Chair of Peter +Cardinal-Archbishop Pecci, Bishop of Perugia, who will be known in history +as LEO XIII. + +--FINIS.-- + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + M1 Further violence.--Attack on the Holy Father.--Murder of Monsignore + Palma. + + 1 In 1855 the Bonaparte family were without a name in that Europe + where they had possessed so many thrones. One man had compassion on + them, and acted generously, Pius VIII. welcomed them to his States. + A member of this family, Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, + having always shown great faithfulness to the Holy See, Pius VIII. + conferred upon him the title of a Roman Prince and the principality + of Canino. Lucien's son has not been gifted to walk in the footsteps + of his honorable father. Balleydier, in his history of the Roman + revolution, thus portrays him: "Versed in dissimulation, Charles + Bonaparte had, under the preceding Pontificate, acted two very + opposite characters. In the morning attending in the ante-chambers + of the Cardinals, in the evening at the Conciliabula of the secret + Societies, he labored to secure, by a double game, the chances of + the present and the probabilities of the future. He had often been + seen going piously to the Vatican even, to lay at the feet of + Gregory XVI. homage which his heart belied." No doubt, in 1847 and + 1848, he thought himself an abler man than his father, as he + marched, poignard in hand, at the head of the malcontents of Rome. + + M2 The Pope abandoned by his people. The Pope protests against the + Socialist ministry and its acts. + M3 Unsettled state of the European nations. + M4 Pius IX. retires to Gaeta. + M5 Treacherous conduct of sworn servants of the Papacy. + M6 Sentiments and declarations of the Revolutionists. + M7 What the world thought of the proceedings at Rome. + M8 The Catholic Powers resolve to reinstate the Pope. + M9 Dutiful conduct of Ferdinand of Naples, towards the exiled Pope. + M10 Action of the Powers delayed. Prince Louis Napoleon repudiates the + conduct of the Prince of Canino.--Declares for the temporal + sovereignty. + M11 Several Powers undertake to restore the Pope. France sends an army + to Rome. Treachery of the Roman populace. Determination to besiege + Rome. The siege delayed by diplomatic manoeuvres. + M12 Excesses of the Revolutionists. + M13 The King of Naples and the Spaniards offer to assist the French. + M14 Rome surrenders to the French. + M15 Colonel Niel despatched to Gaeta with the keys of the city. + M16 Letter of Pius IX. to General Oudinot. + M17 General Oudinot repairs to Gaeta and invites the Pope to return to + his Capital. + M18 The French Republic tries to coerce the Pope.--Letter to Colonel + Edgar Ney. + M19 Address of Montalembert to the National Assembly of France. + M20 The Municipality of Rome invites the Pope to return. + M21 The Pope returns to Rome. + M22 State of religion in countries affected by the Photian schism and + the Mahometan imposture. + + 2 This danger is past. + + M23 French colonies and foreign missions--Africa. + M24 German associations of Pius IX.--State of religion in Germany. + M25 Degeneracy of Spain and Portugal, and their colonies--Restoration + under the auspices of Pius IX. + M26 State of the Catholic Church in England prior to 1850. + M27 Pius IX. restores the English Hierarchy. + M28 Numbers and names of the new Sees. + M29 Dr. Wiseman and thirteen other eminent persons raised by Pius IX. to + the dignity of Cardinal. + M30 Success of the English Hierarchy. + M31 Increase of Catholics during the decade--1840-1850. + M32 Wonderful growth of the Catholic Church in England during the + Pontificate of Pius IX. + M33 State of the Catholic Church in Holland anterior to the restoration + of its Hierarchy in 1853. + M34 Persecution in New Granada. Pius IX. remonstrates. + M35 Persecution ceases at last in the Scandinavian countries. + M36 Pius IX. sends a Catholic pastor to Stockholm. + M37 Denmark--600 conversions. + M38 Pius IX. establishes a Metropolitan See at Athens. + M39 Germany--Wars against the Church. + M40 An archbishop and other priests cruelly persecuted. Sustained by + Pius IX. and finally by the people. + M41 Pius IX. laments the state of religion in Sardinia.--Condemns the Act + secularizing marriage. + M42 Pius IX. puts an end to the celebrated Goa Schism in 1851. + M43 Encyclical on the Immaculate Conception--1849. + M44 Pius IX. solemnly promulgated the Dogma of the Immaculate + Conception. + M45 Disputes concerning the study of the ancient classics happily + terminated by Pius IX. + M46 Accident at St. Agnes. Narrow escape of Pius IX. and many eminent + persons. + M47 Piedmont seeks a French alliance against the Pope. + M48 Pius IX. encourages Science and the Fine Arts--"Vindex antiquitatis." + M49 Lord Clarendon rebukes Count Cavour. + M50 "_Motu proprio_." + M51 Donoso Cortez, in the Spanish Parliament, supports the Papal + Sovereignty. + M52 Lord Lansdowne, together with all the statesmen and States of + Christendom, recognize the principles laid down in Pius the Ninth's + "_motu proprio_." + M53 Canonizations at Rome.--Two American Saints. Pius IX. erects four + Metropolitan Sees in the United States. + M54 New See of Laval.--Rennes becomes Metropolitan.--Restoration of the + Chapter of St. Denis. + M55 Napoleon desires to be crowned by the Pope. Pius IX. sponsor for + Napoleon's son.--Golden rose sent to the Empress. + M56 Pius IX. godfather to Alphonso XII. of Spain. + M57 Concordat with Austria. + M58 Difficulties in Spain and Spanish countries. Errors of Gunther. + M59 Pius IX. makes a progress through his States.--His popularity. + M60 The Mortara case. + M61 New Sees erected by Pius IX. in America. + M62 Several names added to the number of the Saints. + M63 Count Orsini attempts to murder the Emperor Napoleon III. + M64 The war of 1859.--The legations severed from the states of the + Church. + + 3 Mr. Perkins, in his letter to the _Times_, makes out that they + forced open the houses of the inhabitants to make them give up their + wine, and that they got drunk. + + M65 The peace of Villafranca. + M66 How the treaty was observed. + + 4 Protocol, March 18th. + + 5 "If we were to sift the pretensions of all our public men, to + discover that one person who is necessarily best informed of the + past and present state of Italy, and the causes and means that have + produced the anarchy which now prevails over the greater part of + that unfortunate peninsula, Lord Normanby would inevitably be the + man for our purpose. His long residence in Italy, his intimate + acquaintance with all that is there distinguished for literature, + science, art and statesmanship, and his unquestionable liberality of + sentiment, as a politician, give him a paramount claim to our + respectful attention, and even to our confidence, when he comes + forward to enlighten his countrymen, with respect to Italian + affairs--a claim to which no other member of the legislature can have + the slightest pretensions. He has, too, throughout a long public + career, always maintained such an independence of character, and so + nobly and generously subordinated his personal interests to his + sense of public duty, as to entitle him as a right to our + confidence, when he unbosoms himself either in print or in speech, + of that knowledge which he has acquired by long study and experience + in official and non-official life, and tells us important truths + which it is necessary for us to know, in order to be able to form a + correct judgment upon momentous passing events."--_Weekly Register_, + _February 11, 1860_. + + M67 The French Emperor connives at the violation of the Treaty. + M68 A European Congress proposed for settling the affairs of Italy. + M69 Diplomatic doctrine of non-intervention. + M70 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the Legations finally annexed to + Piedmont. Price of the spoil. + M71 Results of Revolutionary Government. + M72 Garibaldi reappears. + M73 Revolutionary reforms in Sicily, Naples, Lombardy, Modena, the + Pontifical States, &c. + M74 Revival of Peter's pence. + M75 The Pope forms an army.--Lamoriciere commands. + M76 Duplicity of the French Government.--The Emperor of Austria + restrained by his Council.--Lamoriciere's force cut to pieces by the + Piedmontese at Castelfidaro. + M77 Further expression of opinion.--The Great Powers. + M78 A Plebiscitum.--Umbria and the Marches of Ancona annexed to Sardinia. + M79 The pamphlet La France, Rome et l'Italie.--Cardinal Antonelli's + reply. + M80 First Italian Parliament. Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of Italy. + M81 Death of Count de Cavour. + M82 The Lebanon Massacres.--Generosity of Pius IX. + M83 Conversion of the Bulgarians. + M84 The annexation to Piedmont of Umbria and the Marches publicly + sanctioned by Napoleon III. + M85 Piedmont seeks to reign at Rome. + M86 The Piedmontese Government fills its coffers by plundering the + church. + M87 The Emperor Napoleon induced to modify his Italian policy. + + 6 Whoever thinks to devour the Pope will die of indigestion. These + words, though not very polite, proved to be prophetic. + + M88 Garibaldi defeated at Aspromonte. + M89 Canonization of the Martyrs of Japan. + M90 The Pope's consistorial allocution to the assembled bishops. He + denounces the errors of the time. + M91 The Church in Poland persecuted. Pius IX. raises his voice in its + behalf. + M92 The revolutionists admire the courage of Pius IX. + M93 The Russian Envoy insults the Pope. + M94 Pius IX. insists on protecting the ex-King of Naples, and takes + Napoleon severely to task. + M95 An Emperor and Empress visit the Pope. + M96 A Papal Nuncio sent to remind Maximilian of his promises made at + Rome. + M97 A further step towards the abolition of the Papal sovereignty. + M98 The Syllabus. + M99 Successful efforts of Napoleon III. to humble Austria. + M100 Pius IX. devoted to the duties of his spiritual office. + M101 Canonization, 1859. John Baptist de Rossi. + M102 John Sarcander. + M103 Benedict Joseph Labre. + M104 Mixed schools--Ireland. + M105 Troubles of the Church in Mexico. + M106 Revolutionary aggression.--Treachery of the Italian Government. + M107 Garibaldi invades the Papal states. + M108 Murder of the Zouave music band. + M109 French army ordered to Rome. + M110 Character of Garibaldians--No sympathy with them. + M111 The Maistre--Muller. + M112 Garibaldian fanaticism. + M113 Two murderers executed. + M114 Pius IX. visits the wounded rebels. + + 7 If Russia were a little more within the pale of civilization, it + would be noted as an exception. Its bishops were not allowed to + proceed to Rome. + + 8 The number of prelates at Rome attending the council was never, for + any length of time, the same. And writers give the numbers according + to the time at which they noted them. + + 9 The _left arm_ looking from the door of the Basilica, the _right_ + looking from the high altar. As was fitting, it was the Gospel side. + + 10 According to the best statistics that can be found. + + 11 There appeared at Munich, in 1874, an ingenious caricature. It + represented the Prussian chancellor, endeavoring, with a Krupp gun, + which he used as a lever, to overthrow a church emblem of + Catholicism. Satan comes on the scene, and says: "What are you + doing, my friend?" Bismarck, "This church embarrasses me; I want to + upset it." Satan, "It embarrasses me, too. I have been laboring 1800 + years to demolish it. If your Excellency succeeds, I pledge myself + to resign my office in your favor." + + 12 A later estimate than at page 120. + + 13 The late celebrated preacher, Dr. Cumming, also admitted the + expansive power which is characteristic of the Catholic Church. And + in doing so, he bore witness to its actual growth in his time. In a + lecture delivered at Brentford, England, in 1860, he said: "He would + do the priests of the Church of Rome the justice to say that a more + earnest, energetic, a more industrious body he did not know in any + portion of our church; they were laboring incessantly for what they + believed to be the truth, and he would that he could say without + success, but he was sorry to say _with great success_. He saw going + over to the Church of Rome a section of the nobility and many + ministers of our church. These were well instructed, and ought to + have known better. In England, account for it as they could, it had + made progress to such an extent, during the last twenty years, that + it had doubled its churches and doubled its priests."--Lecture at + Brentford. England, 1860. + + 14 Discourse delivered in the Church of St. Peter _ad vincula_, 1st + June, 1877, by the Bishop of Poitiers. + +_ 15 La Captivite de Pie IX. par Alexander de St. Albin. Paris_, 1878. + Pages 513 and 514. + + 16 That _was_ the Pantheon, or temple of all the Gods. It is now the + Church called _St. Mary of the Martyrs_ (_Sae Mariae ad Martyres_). + + 17 Their purpose is sufficiently manifest. But the calumny did not + avail them. Pius the Ninth's last illness was of such a character as + to render impossible congestion of the brain. He possessed to the + end his mental faculties. And when the power of speech failed, he + was still able to express his thoughts, which were clear and + distinct, by looks and gestures. + + 18 "With the aid of Thy grace." + + 19 "We shall enter into the House of the Lord." + + 20 "Depart, Christian soul." + + 21 The crisis in the Eastern question, the attitude of the Holy Father + on the occasion of Victor Emmanuel's sudden demise, the consequent + devolution of the crown to a new sovereign, the scandal of the Prime + Minister's (Orispi's) notorious criminality before the law + necessitating his unwilling resignation and the fall of the + ministry, the suddenness of the Holy Father's decease; all these + events and conditions, in their several degrees and kinds, made the + moment at which it had to meet astonishingly propitious for the + holding of the Conclave in the Vatican itself. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PIUS IX. 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