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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:46:39 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:46:39 -0700 |
| commit | aca75c6a4c016e7e28b8c28c1c6f7c69991212b0 (patch) | |
| tree | cf227f430f7f86b09d3e1934c35413e2a37b4186 | |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/29048-h.zip b/29048-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ac3452 --- /dev/null +++ b/29048-h.zip diff --git a/29048-h/29048-h.htm b/29048-h/29048-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ed980e --- /dev/null +++ b/29048-h/29048-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,8016 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title> +The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Fabric of Civilization, by Unknown Author. +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> + p {margin-top: 0.5em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 0.5em;} + body {margin-left: 11%; margin-right: 10%;} + a {text-decoration: none;} + @media screen { + hr.ppg-pb {margin:30px 0; width:100%; border:none;border-top:thin dashed silver;} + .pagenum {display: inline; font-size: x-small; text-align: right; position: absolute; right: 2%; padding: 1px 3px; font-style: normal; font-variant:normal; font-weight:normal; text-decoration: none; background-color: inherit; border:1px solid #eee;} + .pncolor {color: silver;} + } + @media print { + hr.ppg-pb {border:none;page-break-after: always;} + .pagenum { display:none; } + } + sub {vertical-align: 0%;} + h3 {text-align:center; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1.4em} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .img {border:0;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + sup {vertical-align: 20%;} + .fnanchor {font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + .figcenter {margin: 2em auto 2em auto; text-align: center;} + .caption {font-size:.8em} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + img {border:0;} + h2 {text-align:center; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1.6em} + +</style> + +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fabric of Civilization, by Anonymous + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Fabric of Civilization + A Short Survey of the Cotton Industry in the United States + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: June 5, 2009 [EBook #29048] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FABRIC OF CIVILIZATION *** + + + + +Produced by Audrey Longhurst, ronnie sahlberg and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/001-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/001.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 458px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +</div> + +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 2.0em; margin-top:4.0em; margin-bottom:4.0em'> +The Fabric of Civilization +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em'> +A Short Survey +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em'> +of the Cotton Industry in the +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:4.0em'> +United States +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 1.4em; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em'> +Guaranty Trust Company of New York +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 1.0em; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:4.0em'> +140 Broadway +</p> +<table border='0' width='100%' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em;'> +<col style='width:5%;' /> +<col style='width:25%;' /> +<col style='width:30%;' /> +<col style='width:5%;' /> +<col style='width:25%;' /> + +<tr> +<td colspan='2' align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +FIFTH AVENUE OFFICE<br /> +Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street +</p> +</td> +<td></td> +<td colspan='2' align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +MADISON AVENUE OFFICE<br /> +Madison Avenue and 60th Street +</p> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +LONDON OFFICES<br /> +32 Lombard Street, E. C.<br /> +5 Lower Grosvenor Pl., S. W. +</p> +</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +LIVERPOOL OFFICE<br /> +27 Cotton Exchange Buildings +</p> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan='2' align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +PARIS OFFICE<br /> +1 and 3 Rue des Italiens +</p> +</td><td align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +HAVRE OFFICE<br /> +122 Boulevard Strasbourg +</p> +</td><td colspan='2' align='left'> +<p style='font-size: 0.8em'> +BRUSSELS OFFICE<br /> +158 Rue Royale +</p> +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em; margin-top:4.0em'> +COPYRIGHT, 1919 +</p> +<p style='text-align: center'> +</p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em; margin-bottom:4.0em'> +GUARANTY TRUST COMPANY OF NEW YORK +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<p style='margin-left:10em; margin-right:10%'> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">T</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">HE</span> +cotton industry touches the lives of the +vast majority of the peoples of the earth. +The ensuing survey does not pretend to cover the +field in all its diversity. It aims to give, in +brief compass, such general facts concerning the +industry in the United States as may enable the +reader quickly to familiarize himself with its +broader outlines. +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<p style='text-align: center'> +Contents +</p> +<table border='0' width='400' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='Contents' style='margin:1em auto;'> +<tr> + <td align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'><span style='font-size:small;'>CHAPTER</span></td> + <td></td> + <td align='right'><span style='font-size:small;'>PAGE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>I</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Importance and Power of Cotton </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#I_THE_IMPORTANCE_AND_POWER_OF_COTTON'>5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>II</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Where Cotton is Grown and Spun and Why </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#II_WHERE_COTTON_IS_GROWN_AND_SPUN_AND_WHY'>10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>III</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Raw Cotton Market </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#III_THE_RAW_COTTON_MARKET'>17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>IV</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Cloth Market </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#IV_THE_CLOTH_MARKET'>27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>V</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Financing Cotton and Cotton Cloth </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#V_FINANCING_COTTON_AND_COTTON_CLOTH'>33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>VI</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>American Cloth in Foreign Markets </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#VI_AMERICAN_CLOTH_IN_FOREIGN_MARKETS'>38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>VII</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>Some of the Grower’s Problems </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#VII_SOME_OF_THE_GROWER_S_PROBLEMS'>41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>VIII</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>In the Cotton Mill </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#VIII_IN_THE_COTTON_MILL'>45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign='top' align='right' style='padding-right:1em;'>IX</td> + <td valign='top' align='left'>The Finishing Operations </td> + <td valign='bottom' align='right'><a href='#IX_THE_FINISHING_OPERATIONS'>57</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<p><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_5' name='page_5'></a>5</span></p> +<p style='text-align: center; font-size: 2.0em; margin-top:4.0em'> +The Fabric of Civilization +</p> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='I_THE_IMPORTANCE_AND_POWER_OF_COTTON' id='I_THE_IMPORTANCE_AND_POWER_OF_COTTON'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> +<h3>The Importance and Power of Cotton</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">C</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">OTTON</span> +is the fabric of civilization. +It has built up peoples, and has +riven them apart. It has brought to the +world vast and permanent wealth. It has +enlisted the vision of statesmen, the genius +of inventors, the courage of pioneers, the +forcefulness of manufacturers, the initiative +of merchants and shipbuilders, and +the patient toil of many millions. +</p> +<p> +A whole library could be written on the +economic aspects of cotton alone. It +could be told in detail, how and why the +domination of the field of its manufacture +passed from India to Spain, to Holland, +and finally to England, which now shares +it chiefly with the United States. The +interdependence of nations which it has +brought about has been the subject of +numerous books and articles. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Genius that Served<br />The World’s Need +</p> +<p> +Nor is the history of the inventions +which have made possible to-day’s great +production of cotton fabrics less impressive. +From the unnamed Hindu genius of +pre-Alexandrian days, through Arkwright +and Eli Whitney, down to Jacquard and +Northrop, the tale of cotton manufacture +is a series of romances and tragedies, any +one of which would be a story worth telling +in detail. Yet, here is a work that is +by no means finished. Great inventors +who will apply their genius to the improvement +of cotton growing and manufacture +are still to be born. +</p> +<p> +The present purpose, however, is to explain, +as briefly as may be, the growth of +the cotton industry of the United States, +in its more important branches, and to endeavor, +on the basis of recognized authority, +to indicate its position in relation to +the cotton industries of the remainder of +the world. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +America the Chief<br />Source of Raw Material +</p> +<p> +For the present, and for the future, as far +as that may be seen, the United States +will have to continue to supply the greater +part of the world’s raw cotton. Staples of +unusual length and strength have been +grown in some foreign regions, and short +and inferior fibers have come from still +others. But the cotton belt of the Southern +States, producing millions of bales, is +the chief source of supply for all the +world. +</p> +<p> +The following table, taken from "The +World’s Cotton Crops, 1915," by J. A. +Todd, gives the comparative production +of the great cotton-growing areas, for the +1914-1915 season: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +America +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +16,500,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +bales +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +of +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +pounds +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +India +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +5,000,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Egypt +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +1,300,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Russia +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +1,300,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +China +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +4,000,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Others +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +1,300,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +----------- +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Total +</td> +<td style='text-align: right'> +29,400,000 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +500 +</td> +<td style='text-align: center'> +" +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The American crop is thus approximately +fifty-six per cent. of the world’s +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_6' name='page_6'></a>6</span> +total. The other producing countries +have shown since the beginning of the +century an interesting, if not a remarkable +growth, that of China being the largest +in quantity, and that of Russia, the +largest in proportion. The American increase +has been larger, absolutely, than +that of any other region, and there is little +indication that it will not continue to hold +first position. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +English Spinners<br />Dominate World Market +</p> +<p> +In the manufacture of cotton, Great +Britain’s supremacy, while not so great +proportionately as that of America in +growing it, is for the present not likely to +be challenged. The following table of the +number of spindles in the chief manufacturing +countries is based on English figures +compiled shortly before the outbreak of the +World War. The number of spindles is +the usual basis upon which the size of the +industry is judged. It is not a perfect +method, but it has fewer objections than +any other: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Great Britain +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +55,576,108 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +United States +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +30,579,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Germany +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +10,920,426 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Russia +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 8,950,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +France +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7,400,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +India +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 6,400,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Austria +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4,864,453 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Italy +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4,580,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Latin America +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3,100,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Japan +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,250,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Spain +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,200,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Belgium +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,468,838 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Switzerland +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,398,062 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Scattering +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,499,421 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +---------- +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Total Spindles 1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +42,186,308 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +Such figures can be only approximate. +The war has brought growth in the +United States and in Japan, but has certainly +reduced the numbers of spindles in +Germany, Austria, and Russia. It is +doubtful, moreover, how well the French +industry has been able to maintain itself. +But the tabulation is accurate enough to +show the relative standing of the various +countries. There are, as has been indicated, +other standards than the number +of spindles. The United States, through +the fact that it specializes, generally +speaking, on the coarser fabrics, uses +about 5,000,000 bales of cotton annually, +as compared with Great Britain’s 4,000,000. +The British product, however, sells +for much more. Thus the value of the +spindle standard is affirmed. England, +then, produces well in excess of one-third +of the cotton cloth of the world; the +United States considerably more than +one-fifth of it, with the other countries +trailing far behind, but prospering nevertheless. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Individuality<br />of the Cotton Fiber +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/002.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 233px;' class='img'/><br /> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>The cotton fiber—a highly magnified view, showing the twist</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is a curious ruling of fate which makes +the spinning of cotton fiber possible. +There are many other short vegetable +fibers, but cotton is the only one which +can profitably be spun into thread. Hemp +and flax, its chief vegetable competitors, +are both long fibered. The individuality +of the cotton fiber lies in its shape. +Viewed through the microscope, the fiber +is seen to be, not a hollow cylinder, but +rather a flattened cylinder, shaped in cross-section +something like the figure eight. +But the chief and valuable characteristic +is that the flattened cylinder is not +straight, but twisted. It is this twist +which gives its peculiar and overwhelming +importance to cotton, for without this +apparently fortuitous characteristic, the +spinning of cotton, if possible at all, would +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_7' name='page_7'></a>7</span> +result in a much weaker and less durable +thread. The twist makes the threads +"kink" together when they are spun, and +it is this kink which makes for strength +and durability. +</p> +<p> +Though the cotton plant seems to be +native to South America, Southern Asia, +Africa, and the West Indies, its cultivation, +was largely confined at first to India, +and later to India and the British West +Indies. At the beginning of the eighteenth +century, the West Indies, because +of their especial +fitness for growing +the longer staples +were supplying +about seventy per +cent. of the food of +the Lancashire spindles. +The United +States having made +unsuccessful attempts +to produce +cotton in the early +days of the colonies, +first became an important +producing +country toward the +end of the eighteenth +century. +American Upland +cotton, by reason +of its comparatively +short staple, and +the unevenness of +the fibers, as well +as the difficulty of +detaching it from +the seed, was decidedly inferior to some +other accessible species. The Southern +planters who grew it, moreover, found it +next to impossible to gin it properly, the +primitive roller gin of the time being unsuited +to the task, and the work of pulling +off the fibers by hand being both +tedious and expensive. In 1792, the +amount exported from the United States +was equivalent to only 275 bales. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<img src='images/003.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 747px;' class='img'/><br /> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Eli Whitney, the schoolmaster inventor of the cotton gin</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The next year, 1793, is the most important +in the history of cotton growing +in the United States. In the autumn of +1792, Eli Whitney, a young Massachusetts +man who had just been graduated +from Yale College, sailed from New York +to South Carolina where he intended to +teach school. On shipboard he met the +widow of Nathaniel Greene, the Revolutionary +general. Mrs. Greene invited +the youth to begin his residence in the +South on her plantation at Mulberry +Grove, Georgia. +Here one evening, +some officers, late of +General Greene’s +command, were discussing +the great +wealth which might +come to the South +were there a suitable +machine for +removing stubborn +Upland fiber from +its green seed. The +story goes that +while the discussion +was at its height, +Mrs. Greene said: +</p> +<p> +"Gentlemen, apply +to my young +friend, Mr. Whitney. +He can make +anything." +</p> +<p> +Whitney commenced +work on the +problem. A room +was set aside as his +workshop, and it was not long before he had +produced the beginnings of the gin. He +fixed wire teeth in a board, and found +that by pulling the fibers through with +his fingers he could leave the tenacious +seed behind. He carried this basic idea +further by putting the teeth on a cylinder +and by providing a rotating brush to +clean the fiber from the teeth. +</p> +<p> +The changes which followed immediately +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_8' name='page_8'></a>8</span> +upon the introduction of the cotton +gin were tremendous in scope and almost +innumerable. There was a time, before +cotton became a staple, when the South +led New England in manufacturing. +That time passed almost immediately. +Iron works and coal mines were abandoned, +and men turned their energies from the +culture of corn, rice, and indigo largely to +the raising of the cotton. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Expansion in<br />Production +</p> +<p> +The following figures, giving production +in the equivalent of 500 pound bales +for the year at the close of each ten-year +period, give some idea of the tremendous +expansion which ensued. +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<i>Year</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>500 Pound</i><br /><i>Bales</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1790 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3,138 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1800 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 73,222 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1810 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 177,824 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1820 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 334,728 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1830 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 732,218 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1840 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,347,640 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1850 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,136,083 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1860 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3,841,416 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1870 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4,024,527 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1880 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 6,356,998 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1890 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 8,562,089 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1900 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 10,123,027 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1910 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 11,608,616 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1917 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 11,302,375 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +By this table it will be seen that the +Civil War and the freeing of the slaves +held up production only temporarily. In +1914, the banner year, the crop reached +the tremendous total of 16,134,930 bales +of five hundred pounds each. +</p> +<p> +Some little spinning had been done in +the seventeenth century, but in 1787-88 the +first permanent factory, built of brick, and +located in Beverly, Massachusetts, on the +Bass river, was put into operation by a +group headed by John Cabot and Joshua +Fisher. This factory failed to justify itself +economically, chiefly because of the +crudeness of its machinery. But Samuel +Slater, newly come from England with +models of the Arkwright machinery in +his brain, set up a factory in Pawtucket +in 1790. From that time forth the growth +was steady and sure, if not always extremely +rapid. +</p> +<p> +The following table,<a name="FNanchor_A" id="FNanchor_A"></a><a href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> which covers the +whole country, relates particularly to New +England in the years before 1880, because +the cotton manufacturing industry until +then was largely concentrated there. It +shows how the manufacturing interests of +the country profited by the discovery that +brought wealth to the agricultural South: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%;'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: center; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> + <i>Year</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Number<br />of<br />Estab-<br />lish-<br />ments</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Number<br />of<br />Spindles</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Cotton<br />Used<br />in<br />Million<br />Pounds</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Number<br />of<br />Employes</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid'> +<i>Value of<br />Product in<br />Dollars</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1810 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 87,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1820 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 220,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1830 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 795 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,200,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 77.8 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 62,177 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $32,000,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1840 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1240 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,300,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 113.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 72,119 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 46,400,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1850 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1094 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 3,600,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 276.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 92,286 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 61,700,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1860 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1091 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 5,200,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 422.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 122,028 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 115,700,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1870 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 956 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 7,100,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 398.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 135,369 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 177,500,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1880 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 756 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 10,700,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 750.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 174,659 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 192,100,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1890 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 905 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 14,200,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,118.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 218,876 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 268,000,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1900 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 973 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 19,000,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,814.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 297,929 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 332,800,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1910 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1208 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 27,400,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,332.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 371,120 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 616,500,000 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + 1918 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + 34,940,830 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + 3,278.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double'> + +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<div class='footnote'><a name='Footnote_A' id='Footnote_A'></a><a href='#FNanchor_A'><span class='label'>[A]</span></a> +<p> +This tabulation includes spinning and weaving establishments only. +</p> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_9' name='page_9'></a>9</span></p> +<p> +The North, having this growing interest +in an industry struggling against the experience +and ability of the more firmly established +English market, sought naturally +for the protection given by a high +tariff. The South, having definitely +dropped manufacturing, pleaded with +Congress always for a low tariff, and the +right to deal in human chattels. +</p> +<p> +There is little need to go further into the +rift which began to develop almost immediately. +In 1861 the split occurred. The +war between the States caused hardly +more suffering than the blockade which +cut off the spinners of Manchester from +the vegetable wool which supplied them +the means of living. Cotton proved its +power and its domination. It was a beneficent +monarch, but it brooked no denial +of its overlordship. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Early Exports<br />to England Heavy +</p> +<p> +The invention of the Whitney Gin, as +we have just said, found the United +States able to use but a small part of the +cotton grown. What became of the remainder? +Obviously, it was exported to +provide the means for operating the English +mills. Here is a table which shows +how American cotton left the Southern +ports for England and the Continent in +the alternate decennial years beginning +in 1790, three years before the invention +of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney. The +figures are exclusive of linters. +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<i>Year</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Exports in<br />Equivalent of 500<br />Pound Bales</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1790 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 379 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1810 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 124,116 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1830 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 553,960 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1850 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,854,474 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1870 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,922,757 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1890 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 5,850,219 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1910 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 8,025,991 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1917 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4,587,000 +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p> +In 1910 American cotton made up almost +exactly three-quarters of the whole +amount imported into Great Britain. +The other countries of Europe have developed +a spinning industry by no means +inconsiderable. American cotton is sent +to almost all those European countries +which spin and weave. +</p> +<p> +Such a movement had of course a profound +effect upon the currents of world +trade. The cotton crop is the second in +value of all the crops produced in the +United States, and such a large part of it +is exported that the credit it gives to its +sellers enables them to buy in return +some of the most valuable of the products +manufactured in Europe. +</p> +<p> +The following table gives the amount of +cotton, expressed in the equivalent of 500 +pound bales, exported to the various countries +named in the decennial years: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid; border-top: double'> + <i>Year</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>United<br />Kingdom</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Germany</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>France</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Italy</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Russia</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid'> +<i>Netherlands</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-top: double; border-bottom: solid'> +<i>Belgium</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1821 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 175,438 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,496 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> +54,878 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,796 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 609 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 8,372 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1830 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 419,661 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,246 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 150,212 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 471 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 223 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 17,135 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1840 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 989,830 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 18,317 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 358,180 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 7,805 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 4,406 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 21,698 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 25,780 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1850 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 863,062 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 10,090 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 251,668 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 18,707 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 8,677 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 8,590 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 25,492 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1860 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,528,274 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 132,145 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 567,935 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 54,037 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 43,396 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 25,515 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 29,601 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1870 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,298,332 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 173,552 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 306,293 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 14,549 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 30,341 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 17,050 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3,452 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1880 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,433,255 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 308,045 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 359,693 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 59,126 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 204,500 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 65,325 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 17,896 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1890 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,905,152 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 837,641 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 484,759 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 129,751 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 193,163 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 17,438 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 93,588 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1900 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,302,128 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,619,173 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 736,092 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 443,951 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 54,950 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 74,635 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 148,319 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + 1910 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,444,558 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,887,657 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 968,422 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 393,327 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 67,203 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 18,823 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 102,346 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + 1917 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + 2,387,101 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + 658,553 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + 369,213 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + 15,945 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid'> + 10,098 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double'> + +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='II_WHERE_COTTON_IS_GROWN_AND_SPUN_AND_WHY' id='II_WHERE_COTTON_IS_GROWN_AND_SPUN_AND_WHY'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_10' name='page_10'></a>10</span> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>Where Cotton is Grown and Spun and Why</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">W</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">E</span> +have seen (page <a href='#page_5'>5</a>) that the +world’s cotton crop is produced +chiefly by the United States, with 56%; +India, with 17%; China, with +13-<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>%; +Egypt and Russia with +4-<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>%, +the remaining +4-<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>% +being made up by Brazil, +Mexico, Peru, Turkey, Persia, Japan, and +several other countries. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Primitive Methods of<br />Growing in India +</p> +<p> +India is the first country wherein, so +far as we have record, the growing of +cotton reached the stage of an industry. +There conditions are almost ideal, apparently, +for the production of a great +crop; yet, for many years the crop was a +small one, and was utilized locally in the +domestic manufacture of the light clothing +worn by the people. Nothing remotely +resembling the present modern factory +system developed during all the thousands +of years that the Indians had the field +practically to themselves. The plant +grown in India for a long time produced +a short, uncertain staple, difficult to gin +and still more difficult to spin. The greater +part of the cotton growing districts are +still given over to the short staple varieties +(about +<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> +inch) but in recent years certain +varieties of Egyptian and American cotton +have been produced with some success. +About 20,000,000 acres are given +over to the culture of the plant, but the +methods used are to a great extent primitive +in the extreme. Most of the crop, +being unsuited to the needs of the British +spinners, is either manufactured in Indian +mills, of which the number is constantly +growing, or exported to Japan. Before +the war, Germany was a large consumer +of Indian cotton. +</p> +<p> +The figures given as representing the +Chinese crop probably are not any more +accurate than the usual statistical figures +concerning China. The Chinese are still +largely in the domestic system of manufacture, +and much of their crop—probably +a larger proportion than in India—is spun +and woven in the neighborhood where it +is grown, without ever appearing in statistical +tables. The methods of growing +are equally primitive. The fiber is short, +and the mills of the country import more +raw cotton, yarn, and textiles than they +export. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Growing Importance<br />Of Egyptian Staples +</p> +<p> +The Egyptian crop is one of the most +interesting, both in the methods of culture, +and in the product. From the point +of view of statistics—remembering the uncertainty +of the size of the Chinese crop—Egypt +is the third cotton growing country +of the world. This is the more interesting +because it was not until about 1820 that +Egypt was considered as a source of supply. +The present area, under extremely +intensive cultivation, is about 1,800,000 +acres, and nine-tenths of this is in the +Nile delta. +</p> +<p> +Climatic conditions are radically different +from those of the United States. Little +rain falls during the growing season, but +an elaborate system of irrigation provides +a sufficient and probably more satisfactory +water supply, insomuch as the quantity +of water can be regulated, and there +is little danger of either too much or too +little moisture. The regions where the soil +is not composed exclusively of the black +delta mud, but is a mixture of sand and +mud, produce the best crops. The land, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_11' name='page_11'></a>11</span> +after being plowed, is thrown up into +ridges about three feet apart. Channels +for water are formed at right angles to the +ridges. The seeds, before being sown, in +March, are thoroughly soaked, and after +the seedlings appear there is frequent hoeing +and watering. The total water is +equivalent to a rainfall of about 35 inches. +There is little cultivation in the American +fashion, hand labor being employed almost +exclusively. The result of all this +intensive effort is an abundant crop of +long-stapled cotton with an extremely +strong fiber, bringing in the open market +a price second only to that of the American +Sea Island variety. Much of the +Egyptian cotton is used in the manufacture +of hosiery and other knit goods, +sateens, sewing thread, etc., but recently +it has also been found to be exceedingly +well fitted for the manufacture of the +fabric used in pneumatic tires, and for +the duck or filter cloth used in such industries +as the refining of sugar. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/004-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/004.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 431px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Pickers in Delta Field</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Russian cotton, so-called, is really +grown largely in Turkestan though a +small amount is produced in the Southern +Caucasus. The culture has been under +way since very early times, but had little +more than local significance until about +1875 when the Russian Government took +steps to foster it, distributing American +seed of the Upland variety, importing the +necessary equipment, and providing instructors, +frequently Americans. Railroads +to handle the crop were built, and, +with all this favorable assistance, progress +was rapid. About one-third of the +cotton used in the Russian mills up to the +time of the war was grown on Russian +soil, the remainder being brought largely +from the United States. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The American Crop<br />As the World’s Basis +</p> +<p> +But the bulk of the world’s supply is +the cotton grown in the United States. +The price for American Upland Cotton +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_12' name='page_12'></a>12</span> +governs the price of the other varieties. +The acreage devoted to the cultivation +of the cotton crop in the United States +is approximately 34,000,000. The increase +since 1839, when census figures +covering this point were first obtained, +has been about seventeen fold. The 1916 +acreage, of the various States, together +with figures giving the value of the crop +and the comparative rank, is here given: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: center; border-right: solid; border-bottom: solid; border-top: double'> +<i>States</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-right: solid; border-bottom: solid; border-top: double'> +<i>Acreage</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-right: solid; border-bottom: solid; border-top: double'> +<i>Gross<br />Equivalent<br />500 Pound Bales<br />Exclusive of<br />Linters</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-bottom: solid; border-top: double; border-right: solid; '> +<i>Approximate<br />Percentage</i> +</td><td style='text-align: center; border-bottom: solid; border-top: double'> +<i>Crop Value<br />Including<br />Seed<br />and Linters</i></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Alabama +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,977,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 517,890 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 4.6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $86,940,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Arizona +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 21,737 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 0.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 6,300,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Arkansas +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,740,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 973,752 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 8.6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 164,840,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + California +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 57,826 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 0.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 9,410,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Florida +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 183,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 37,858 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 0.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 10,260,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Georgia +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 5,195,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,883,911 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 16.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 322,600,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Louisiana +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,454,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 638,729 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 5.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 102,260,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Mississippi +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,788,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 905,554 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 8.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 152,270,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Missouri +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 345,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 60,831 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 0.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 10,100,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + North Carolina +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,515,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 617,989 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 5.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 103,940,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Oklahoma +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,783,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 959,081 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 8.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 150,270,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + South Carolina +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 2,837,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 1,236,871 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 10.9 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 207,220,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Tennessee +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 882,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 240,525 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 2.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 40,130,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Texas +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 11,092,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 3,125,378 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 27.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 495,590,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + Virginia +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 50,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid'> + 18,777 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; '> + 0.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3,140,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid'> + All Other States +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: solid'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: solid'> + 5,666 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: solid; border-right: solid; '> + 0.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: solid'> + 970,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + Totals +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + 33,841,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-right: solid; border-bottom: double'> + 11,302,375 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double; border-right: solid; '> + 100.00 +</td><td style='text-align: right; border-bottom: double'> + 1,866,240,000 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +There are generally speaking, two +kinds of cotton produced in the United +States—Upland cotton, and Sea Island +cotton. The former makes up the great +bulk of the crop, the relative percentages +in 1917 being 99.2 and .8. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Constant Search<br />For Long Staples +</p> +<p> +A few years ago the terms short-staple +and Upland were practically interchangeable, +but the great demand for long staple, +chiefly from the manufacturers of thread +and of pneumatic tire fabrics has led to +a successful attempt to grow the longer +fibers in the Upland districts, so that +now more than a million bales annually +are being produced in the Upland districts +of cotton with a staple length of +1-<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> +inches and more. The world’s total production +of long staple is in the neighborhood +of 2,250,000 bales. Egypt is the +chief producer outside the United States, +her product being approximately 1,000,000 +bales of 500 pounds every year. Although +the product is small, the best Sea +Island produced in the United States +grows upon the small islands off the coast +of South Carolina. The long-staple Upland +is grown chiefly in the Mississippi +delta, where the product is called "Peeler," +"benders," etc., though the percentage +of long-staple produced elsewhere is +steadily increasing. The success of certain +Arizona growers in producing long-staple +from Egyptian seed is being watched +with great interest. More than 3,000 +bales came from this source in 1916, the +fiber averaging +1-<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> +inches in length. +There has recently been developed there, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_13' name='page_13'></a>13</span> +the new and important Pima variety, +which is superior to the native Egyptian +cotton, being both longer and whiter, +and the growers are now planting Pima +almost exclusively. +</p> +<p> +The following table, taken from the +Encyclopedia Brittanica, gives the comparative +length of staple of the more important +varieties of cotton. The order in +which they are given represents, roughly, +their relative commercial value: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<span style='font-variant: small-caps'><br />Sea Island Cotton</span> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Length of Staple<br />in Inches</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Carolina Sea Island +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.8 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Florida Sea Island +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.8 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Georgia Sea Island +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.7 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Barbados Sea Island +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<span style='font-variant: small-caps'>Egyptian Cottons</span> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Yannovitch +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.5 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Abassi +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.5 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi) +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +1.2 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<span style='font-variant: small-caps'>American Cotton</span> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Good Middling Memphis +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.3 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Good Middling Texas +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.0 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Good Middling Upland +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.0 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<span style='font-variant: small-caps'>Indian Cottons</span> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Fine Tinnevelly +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .8 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Fine Bhaunagar +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.0 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Fine Amraoti +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.0 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Fine Broach +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .9 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Fine Bengal +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .9 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Fine ginned Sind +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .8 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + Good ginned Kumta +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.0 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The table of the number of spindles in +each country in the world, given on page +<a href='#page_6'>6</a>, gives some idea of the relative position +of the United States in the field of cotton +manufacturing. We have seen how the +English industry, having the prior start, +grew to imposing proportions and helped +to bring about a change almost as great +in its effects as the French Revolution, +which was occurring at almost the same +time. British supremacy in cotton manufacturing +has never been truly challenged, +but there has been an appreciable +growth in several other countries, and in +Germany and Japan, at least, the recent +development has been little short of phenomenal. +New figures will probably show +that in the future Japan will be the chief +competitor of England and the United +States for a share of the cotton trade of +the world. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/005-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/005.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 311px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Fall River, Massachusetts</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Home Market<br />Created An Industry +</p> +<p> +The chief factor in the growth of the +American industry was probably not the +nearness of the source of supply, cheap +fuel or labor, nor any of these factors +which operated in the case of England, +such as climate, geographical position, and +shipping control, but more than anything +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_14' name='page_14'></a>14</span> +else the presence of a market close at hand +which grew so rapidly, more rapidly indeed +than the industry could grow to +meet it. Aided to some extent by an import +tariff, the manufacturers have weathered +some short periods of depression, but +in the main the industry has grown in +direct ratio to the growth of the country. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/006-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/006.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 362px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>A typical Southern mill</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +New England As Home<br />Of American Spinning +</p> +<p> +The cotton mill, as we have seen, early +chose New England as its domicile. Mills +are scattered more or less throughout the +entire region, but there are several localities +which stand out beyond all others, +and almost deserve the title they have acquired +as the centers of the industry. Premier +place for a long time was held by +Fall River, and even now the race between +that city and New Bedford is +strong, with the lead slightly in favor of +the former city. +</p> +<p> +Bristol County, Mass., in which these +two centers, and Taunton, are located, +Providence, R. I., and Middlesex County, +Mass., together contained 10,086,686 spindles +in 1917, or 29.5% of the country’s +total of 34,221,252. +</p> +<p> +The growth in this one locality is due +probably to the advantages which come +with centralization, as well as to the natural +advantages they possessed. These +latter, which include particularly water +power and a moist climate, are not as important +now, With steam power and mechanical +humidifiers as they were a generation +ago. +</p> +<p> +In the Middle Atlantic States, the +number of plants and the spindlage have +remained about stationary over a long +period of years, and are even showing a +tendency to decrease. Small weaving establishments +which buy their yarn are particularly +numerous around Philadelphia, +and there are large cotton duck mills in +and near Baltimore. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Mills in the Midst of<br />Cotton Plantations +</p> +<p> +It has been in the South, however, that +the growth of the cotton manufacturing +industry in the last few decades has been +most phenomenal. In 1860 there were +324,052 spindles in the cotton growing +States compared with 8,632,087 in New +England. In 1917, the figures were: Northern +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_15' name='page_15'></a>15</span> +States (including Connecticut, Illinois, +Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, +Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont), +19,835,662 spindles devoted to the +spinning of cotton exclusively; Southern +States (including Georgia, Kentucky, +Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North +Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, +Texas, and Virginia), 14,292,918 spindles +devoted to cotton exclusively. +</p> +<p> +The census figures do not give the number +of spindles in each city except when +the confines of the city and of the county +happen to coincide. But the appended +table is presented as showing the spindlage +of counties having more than 100,000 spindles +devoted to the spinning of cotton. +</p> +<p> +About 1880, the Southerner saw the +opportunity that awaited him when he +should manufacture his own cotton. At +that time he was consuming only 188,748 +bales, while New England took 1,129,498. +In ten years, he was utilizing more than +half a million bales, while New England +had just passed the million and a half +figure. In 1905, the South consumed +2,140,151 bales, while New England had +climbed to only 1,753,282. The figures are +Scherer’s, who points out that the race +was won in twenty-five years. However, +as competition with the South increased, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_16' name='page_16'></a>16</span> +New England, following the earlier lead of +Old England, has tended always to produce +a finer and finer quality of cloth, +leaving the coarser grades of sheeting, +drills and ducks to the Southern mills. +Thus, while the South is consuming an +ever larger proportion of the cotton crop, +she is still far from receiving for her product +the money that comes to the New +Englander, who with a higher grade of +labor and greater variation of output is +constantly catering, with dress fabrics and +fine stuffs of various kinds, to a discriminating +well-to-do patronage. +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +<i>County</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Spindles<br />(Number)</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Bristol, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7,294,221 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Providence, R. I. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,709,713 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Middlesex, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,082,752 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Hillsborough, N. H. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 907,245 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Spartanburg, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 831,476 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Windham, Conn. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 780,232 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Worcester, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 766,110 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Greenville, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 758,144 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Essex, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 645,020 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Hampden, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 642,096 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Gaston, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 603,102 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Kent, R.I. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 594,380 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Anderson, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 582,464 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Berkshire, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 521,408 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +New London, Conn. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 512,170 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Oneida, N. Y. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 419,255 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +York, Me. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 408,600 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Androscoggin, Me. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 402,471 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Muscogee, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 346,740 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Pittsylvania, Va. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 346,320 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Union, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 330,656 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Strafford, N. H. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 318,160 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Cabarrus, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 315,810 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Mecklenburg, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 272,198 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Guilford, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 262,862 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Richland, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 244,660 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Essex, N. J. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 232,291 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Albany, N. Y. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 226,564 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Madison, Ala. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 225,168 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Greenwood, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 217,744 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Pickens, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 211,320 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Bristol, R. I. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 210,488 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Hampshire, Mass. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 198,792 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +York, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 198,404 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Fulton, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 198,016 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Aiken, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 193,989 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Laurens, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 193,312 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Richmond, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 192,914 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Rockingham, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 191,810 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Durham, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 172,532 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Newberry, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 168,040 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Chambers, Ala. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 164,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Cherokee, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 163,820 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Kennebec, Me. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 163,815 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Alamance, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 153,176 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Knox, Tenn. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 152,100 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Lancaster, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 151,768 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Richmond, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 149,748 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Chester, S. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 146,692 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Stanley, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 146,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Rutherford, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 143,400 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Calhoun, Ala. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 138,048 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Troup, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 136,204 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Floyd, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 126,264 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Cleveland, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 125,182 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Cumberland, Me. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 124,392 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Spalding, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 121,252 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Talladega, Ala. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 115,448 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Philadelphia, Pa. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 114,547 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Merrimack, N. H. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 113,316 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Davidson, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 110,564 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Baltimore City. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 106,008 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Halifax, N. C. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 104,116 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Hall, Ga. +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 102,588 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The wealth of the world—at least up +to the time of the Great War—was constantly +increasing and while there is little +likelihood that the demand for the coarser +grades of goods will fall off, the need for +finer stuffs, not only in the United States, +but abroad, is constantly growing. The +greatest development of the South is +probably still to come. +</p> +<p> +The locations of the world’s cotton +markets have been dictated by the location +of the growing fields and the manufacturing +centers. Thus we find that the +great raw cotton markets of the United +States are in New York and New Orleans. +In Europe they are at Liverpool, Bremen +and Havre. Because of conditions imposed +by the German government, the +Bremen market is largely dependent upon +New York and Liverpool. The other +great world market is that of Alexandria, +which, although it handles but a comparatively +small part of the world’s crop, +is important on account of the quality +of the staple which makes up the Egyptian +bale. +</p> +<p> +The two chief American markets, New +York and New Orleans, are sharply differentiated. +The New Orleans market +is a true trader’s market. The great bulk +of the sales made on the New Orleans +floor are bona-fide sales, in which cotton +actually changes hands. The New York +market on the other hand is a merchants’ +and manufacturers’ market, in which +business transactions are protected against +loss by the purchase or sale of +"futures", though, of course, there is +always a large amount of speculating. Delivery +is rarely demanded. The function +of the exchange, therefore, is largely that +of insurance. The intricacies of this market +will be discussed later. +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='III_THE_RAW_COTTON_MARKET' id='III_THE_RAW_COTTON_MARKET'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_17' name='page_17'></a>17</span> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> +<h3>The Raw Cotton Market</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">B</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">ECAUSE</span> +of the ramifications of the +cotton industry, the cotton itself, on +its devious way from planter to consumer, +is successively the concern of a series of +individuals and corporations. The immense +value of the product, the expense of +growing, handling, manufacturing, and +selling it all mean that great quantities of +capital are utilized in bringing it at last to +its final consumer. At any stage of the +process, cotton represents no inconsiderable +part of the nation’s wealth, and to +expedite its journey, merchandising and +financial methods of a highly specialized +technique have been developed. There +are two very clearly marked stages in this +process. The first has to do with the raw +cotton, as it goes from planter to mill. +The second has to do with the journey +from mill to consumer. The first is usually +called the Raw Cotton Market, and +the second the Cloth Market. +</p> +<p> +The planter begins his work early in the +spring. His crop is dependent upon his +ability to secure and pay for the labor to +work it, for the tools and machinery which +are used, and his own expenses. Small +planters are rarely sufficiently in funds to +enable them to go through the growing +season without financial assistance. They +must borrow money, and they usually borrow +it with the growing crop as a basis. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Local Grower<br />And the Charge Account +</p> +<p> +They may borrow from the country +merchant in the town near which their +plantations are located. Credit here is +usually furnished through the "charge account" +system, whereby the merchant +supplies the planter’s wants for the growing +season, even to the extent of giving +credit to his farm hands. Tenant farmers +live almost entirely on credit furnished +by the store-keepers of the vicinity. When +the picking season begins, in July, August, +or September, according to the region +concerned, the merchant, in lieu of +money, may take the cotton as it comes +from the gins, crediting the grower thereof +at the market price. The cotton thus accumulated +is sold to local buyers, or, occasionally, +to shippers or exporters. In +the case of the larger plantations, or +groups of plantations operated by syndicates +or corporations, the cotton is frequently +shipped direct to the mill or, more +often, to a warehouse. The larger producers, +instead of getting their credit from +the local stores, as their tenant farmers +do, are financed either by their banks, or +by their buyers, who in turn are financed +by their bankers. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Street Buyers<br />Of Texas Towns +</p> +<p> +In some districts, particularly in Texas, +there is the small or local buyer, usually +called a "street buyer," who operates in +the smaller towns, buying his cotton at +the gins in lots of from one to ten bales, +either from the small planters, or from +the country merchants. This buying +gives a certain concentration to the crop, +and enables the larger buyers to deal in +lots of comparatively uniform quality +from certain regions, the general type of +whose product is known. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_18' name='page_18'></a>18</span> +<a href='images/007-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/007.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 331px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Street buyer in a Southern town</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Cotton bought from the planters or +from the country merchants is almost invariably +paid for in cash. +</p> +<p> +Cotton is frequently sold at the compress +point, rather than at the gin, this +course being pursued in the case of large +producers, or when the original buyer is a +mere local operator. One of the most important +operations, commercially as well +as industrially, is the grading of cotton, +which takes place as a rule at the compress +point under the supervision of the +buyer, who employs experts for this purpose. +Cotton mills as a rule operate on +certain specified grades of cotton, and any +deviation from this grade means either a +readjustment of machinery or disgruntled +and dissatisfied employes, or, perhaps, an +inability to fill an order for cloth of certain +types. The manufacturer will usually +refuse to accept any grades save those he +has specifically commissioned the buyer +to obtain for him. The actual grades, and +the terms describing them have been established +by the United States Government, +and are rigidly adhered to by the +trade. Prices are established on the grade +known as "middling" as a basis, and variation +from this basis is taken up in the +price. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Standardization of<br />American Cotton Grades +</p> +<p> +The grades, for white cotton, as established +by usage and confirmed by Governmental +standardization are: +</p> +<table border='0' width='80%' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Middling Fair +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Low Middling +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Good Middling +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Low Middling +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Good Middling +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Good Ordinary +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Middling +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Good Ordinary +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Middling +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +For yellow tinged stock the grades are: +</p> +<table border='0' width='80%' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Good Middling +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Middling +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Good Middling +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Low Middling +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Strict Middling +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Low Middling +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +For yellow stained and blue stained +there are only three grades quoted, good +middling, strict middling, and middling, +the inference here being that stained cotton +below the basic grade, is unsuited for +most commercial purposes. +</p> +<p> +With cotton selling around thirty cents +a pound, the difference between the cost +per pound of middling fair, the highest +market grade of white cotton, and good +ordinary, the lowest market grade, may +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_19' name='page_19'></a>19</span> +amount to twelve or thirteen cents. The +value of the shipment, and its use as a +basis for credit, is dependent upon its +proper classification. +</p> +<p> +The large cotton buyers purchase for +the account of mills, for exporters, or for +clients abroad. They are usually firms +of strong financial standing, and as we +have seen, they are bankers or factors +themselves, financing growers or small +buyers during the growing of the crop, and +the first concentration of the cotton. But +when the large movement of cotton is on, +it is frequently necessary that they, like +the local banks, must be financed in order +that they may execute their orders, or, +as is frequently the case, accept cotton +sent to them on consignment. Cotton +sent on consignment must be stored until +a market is found for it, and in order that +proper storage facilities may be supplied, +the provision of suitable warehouse facilities +is an important matter. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Warehousing as<br />Industry’s Great Need +</p> +<p> +Until recently, warehousing in its relations +to the textile trade, had not been developed +to the extent which might have +been expected in those methods which +would make it of the greatest use and advantage +to textile interests. By means of +the facilities which could properly be afforded +by warehouses, manufacturers, or +merchants should be able, at times of +favorable markets, to lay in large stocks +of materials, and to finance them safely +and easily. +</p> +<p> +Today, this need is being met in constantly +increasing measure by the Independent +Warehouses, Inc., affiliated with +the Textile Banking Co., and having, like +the latter, the support of the Guaranty +Trust Company of New York, and the +Liberty National Bank of New York. +</p> +<p> +Modern warehouses of approved type, +with all requisite facilities, will be established +by this company at various ports +of entry throughout the country, as well +as at the important concentration points +in the cotton belt, and also in the great +textile manufacturing centers. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/008-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/008.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 546px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Weighing cotton on the compress platform</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Thus it is seen that the cotton merchant +has an important economic function to +perform. His is the duty of gathering up +the great aggregate of cotton, from all +parts of the cotton belt, and distributing +it in exactly the quantity and grade +needed to the cotton manufacturers of +the world. In the performance of this +function, and in order that the supply of +cotton may be fed out exactly as it is +needed by the manufacturers, the cotton +merchants have found it convenient, and +even necessary to establish great common +markets where they may meet and enter +into the transactions with each other and +the whole world which are necessary to +bring the cotton into the channels of commerce +and keep it moving to its multitudinous +destinations. These markets are +in addition to the numerous local markets +where the preliminary concentration takes +place, and to some extent they are subsidiary +to the latter, where the cotton of the +actual quantity and quality they are seeking +is to be had in the first instance. Yet +it is the great markets which establish the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_20' name='page_20'></a>20</span> +prices, for it is they which are in close and +immediate touch with all the other markets +of the world, and it is on their floors +that the merchants and brokers meet who +deal in great quantities. It is their connection +with the numerous sources of information +which gives these great markets +their importance, for it is they which register +immediately and most accurately the +resultant of the sum total of all the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_21' name='page_21'></a>21</span> +economic forces which determine the +price. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/009-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/009.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 668px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>The New York Cotton Exchange</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The great cotton markets of the world +are those of New York and New Orleans, +in the United States; Liverpool, in England; +Bremen, in Germany; Havre, in +France; Alexandria, in Egypt; and Bombay, +in India. There are differences between +these markets which give a greater +importance to some of them. Bremen, +which serves a large territory, operates +under governmental restrictions which +make it necessary for Bremen merchants +to deal in other markets as well. Havre +serves chiefly the needs of France, which +is not one of the large cotton consuming +countries. Alexandria deals only in Egyptian +cottons, and Bombay, whose dealings +are confined mostly to the native staples, +has neither the responsiveness nor the +completeness of the remaining markets. +Thus, by elimination, the three great markets +of the world, wherein cotton of all +kinds is dealt in, and all forms of transactions +in it are common are those of New +York, New Orleans, and Liverpool. To +these, the cotton world looks for guidance +from day to day. The prices established +on their several floors are the prices of the +world. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/010-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/010.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 337px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Cotton train going from gin to compress</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Liverpool Exchange, under different +names, has existed since 1841, having +taken approximately its present form in +1870, in the attempts to stabilize conditions +after the great speculative period +which resulted from the American Civil +War. The New York and New Orleans +Exchanges were both organized the following +year. The uniformity of rules and +practices in the trade which resulted from +the establishment of the exchanges have +been of inestimable benefit to the industry +and to the world, and this despite occasional +abuses, which have usually been +corrected as methods for correction have +been evolved. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Spot Markets and Those<br />Which Deal in "Futures" +</p> +<p> +The New Orleans Cotton Market, and +those of lesser cities, are largely spot markets, +that is, the dealings which takes +place in the Exchanges at those points involve +the actual transferring of cotton +which is on hand, or, at least, contracted +for. The New York market deals preponderantly +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_22' name='page_22'></a>22</span> +in what are known as contracts +for future delivery, or, in the language +of the Exchange, "futures." The +Liverpool Cotton Market is both a great +"spot" cotton market, and a great "futures" +market. The striking thing about +these "futures" contracts is that but few +of them are fulfilled by actual delivery. +</p> +<p> +The question then arises, what function +is fulfilled by the New York Exchange +that it should have such an important +place in the cotton market? To the uninitiated +the speculative features of the +market have often served to condemn it, +and at times of speculative fever, or of +manipulation such as has occurred on one +or two occasions, there has been public +agitation calling for legislation against +dealing in futures. Yet the New York +Exchange performs a very definite and +valuable service, and its trading methods +have served to stabilize the whole industry, +and to remove from it much of that +very speculation which is frequently +charged against the Exchange itself. +</p> +<p> +The justification of the Exchange is +found in the fact that the futures contracts +common on its floor afford the cotton +merchant and manufacturer a chance +to insure themselves against losses occasioned +by fluctuations in the market. The +method by which this is done is called +hedging. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Why the Merchant<br />Must Hedge His Sales +</p> +<p> +For the cotton merchant, the situation +as it develops is approximately this: buying, +as he must, all grades and quantities +of cotton, he may have an immediate market +with the spinners whom he serves for +only certain of these grades, and thus may +have left on his hands a large supply of +cotton of other grades which came to him +in his purchases which he has no call for +at the time. These "overs" are subject to +the risk of a decline in value unless the +merchant can find some way to protect +himself. Nor is this risk the only one run +by the cotton merchant. The spinners +frequently contract for months ahead for +the output of their mills, and it is part of +the merchant’s task to see that the cotton +is available at a contract price when the +spinners are in need of it. Such contracts +for future deliveries are not only common +but customary. If it were impossible for +the spinner to make such contracts, it +would, of course, be impossible for the +weaver to make future contracts for the +delivery of cloth. Such a condition unsettling +the distributing markets, would +be intolerable. Hence, the necessity of +future contracts between merchants and +spinners. The situation would otherwise +be a very difficult one for the merchant +whose supply of cotton, and the price he +must pay for it, are subject to the vagaries +of nature, which may grant a bountiful +crop one year, and a short and inferior +one the next, with consequent fluctuations +in price sufficient not alone to wipe out +his profit but his capital as well. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Hedge As a<br />Credit Transaction +</p> +<p> +Hedging, as has been said, affords the +protection, against serious loss which +these varying conditions make probable. +</p> +<p> +"It may almost be said," observes +Arthur R. Marsh, former President of the +New York Cotton Exchange, "that as the +main business of banks today is not dealing +in money, but in credits, so the main +business of the cotton exchanges is now in +credit transactions in cotton, toward +which the actual cotton ’on the spot’ +stands in much the same relation as the +money in the banks to the sum total of +their transactions in credit. It serves as +a reserve at once for the satisfaction of +unliquidated credit balances and for the +maintenance of sound credit values in all +the credit operations." +</p> +<p> +Elsewhere, Mr. Marsh describes the +hedging process in these words: "A hedge +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_23' name='page_23'></a>23</span> +is the purchase or sale of contracts for one +hundred or more bales of cotton for future +delivery, made not for the purpose of receiving +or delivering the actual cotton, +but as an insurance against fluctuations in +the market that might unfavorably affect +other ventures in which the buyer or seller +of the hedge is actually engaged." +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/011-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/011.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 454px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>The floor of the New York Cotton Exchange</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +How Merchants Secure<br />Protection by Hedging +</p> +<p> +The cotton merchant, in making a +hedge, would proceed in this fashion. +Having made an actual sale of cotton to +a spinner for future delivery, the price +being fixed according to current quotations +in New York for deliveries to be +made in the month specified in the contract, +he would buy futures for a corresponding +amount of cotton on the New +York Cotton Exchange. +</p> +<p> +If the price of cotton should have advanced +when the time for the delivery of +the actual cotton comes, he will be able to +sell his futures contract at a higher price, +thus offsetting the loss sustained upon the +deal in actual cotton. Or, if he prefers, he +may hold the "futures" contract until its +maturity and sell it at the then prevailing +figure. The first course would be the customary +one for a bona-fide merchant, +whose sole concern is protecting himself +against loss by fluctuations in price. +</p> +<p> +If, on the other hand, cotton should fall +before the merchant bought to fulfill his +actual contract, he would make a profit +upon his sales to the spinner. He would, +however, suffer a loss upon his futures +contract, for the seller would be able to +purchase the cotton to fulfill the contract +at a lower point than the contract called +for, and would consequently be able to +deliver to the merchant who made the +hedge, cotton which the latter would be +forced to accept at a price higher than +the then prevailing one, and thus again +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_24' name='page_24'></a>24</span> +the profit and loss would balance each +other. The usual custom is, not for the +merchant to accept delivery, but to pay +over to the seller of the futures contract +the difference between the contract price +and that prevailing. This would be just +the difference between his own purchasing +and selling price in his actual dealing +with the spinner, and so would eliminate +the profit, due to change in price, made in +that transaction. Thus, by the hedging +process, the merchant loses a possible +profit on a falling market, but at the +same time fails to suffer a loss when the +market is against him. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Hedging as Practiced<br />By Cotton Manufacturers +</p> +<p> +The manufacturer’s hedging is necessarily +somewhat different in practice, +though the same in principle. If he accepts +orders for cloth requiring more cotton +than is being held in his warehouse, he +may buy futures contracts to the amount +of the additional cotton he will need. +Then in the event that his actual purchase +of cotton may be at a figure which +would tend to reduce or eliminate his +profits on the sale of the cloth, already +fixed by contract, he may sell his futures +contract at a corresponding profit, thereby +preventing loss. Should the price of +cotton fall in the interim, his profit on +the sale of the cloth will be larger, but the +settlement of his futures contract will be +expensive to the same extent. Thus he +sacrifices the chance of a greater possible +profit in order to be insured against loss. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/012-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/012.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 443px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Compress bales bound for New Orleans</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is probably more common for the +cotton merchant to hedge than for the +manufacturer to adopt that proceeding. +The manufacturer, as a rule, has been accustomed +to buy his cotton during the +buying season, that is, in October, November, +December, and January, and he +makes his arrangements with his selling +agents on the basis of the price paid, +trusting to his own judgment, and the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_25' name='page_25'></a>25</span> +comparatively small fluctuations in the +price of cloth in normal times, to protect +him against loss. It is usually believed +that the Southern mills, being newer, and +frequently of a different financial standing, +have found it more desirable to have +recourse to this form of insurance than +their older competitors in the North. +Then, too, the rapid development of the +cotton warehousing system has made it +less necessary for the manufacturers to tie +their money up in great quantities of cotton, +as they can buy when the market +appears favorable. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Protection for Mills<br />Running for Stock +</p> +<p> +A very important point, however, and +one which all manufacturers would do +well to consider carefully is the protection +which a "futures" market gives to a +manufacturer making plain goods for +stock, particularly on a falling raw material +market, which, of course, would also +mean a falling goods market. To stop the +mill because values were falling would be +impossible without utter disorganization, +and its attendant heavy loss, while to keep +on manufacturing stock goods with a certainty +that they would be worth less each +succeeding month is a disheartening prospect +for the mill. +</p> +<p> +If, however, the manufacturer sells +"futures" for the succeeding months +to the extent of the cotton which he would +require each month to manufacture the +goods, he can run his machinery as usual +and have a perfectly free mind, as he has +safeguarded himself against any loss due +to a falling value of the raw material. +Suppose, for instance, the cotton market +fell off, say one cent a pound each month, +with a corresponding fall in the value of +the woven goods. In such an event, the +manufacturer could, as each month arrived, +buy a contract for an amount corresponding +to what he had sold, and at a +proportionately less price, thus making a +profit on the "futures" which he had sold +to an extent which would correspond, approximately, +to the smaller value which +his manufactured goods would then have +in the market. Thus the profit on the one +side would take care of the loss on the +other. If the market rose instead of falling, +he would make a loss in replacing his +futures contract, but his goods would then +command a higher value, and again no +loss would be experienced. +</p> +<p> +This method of hedging is the regular +and standard practice of the English cotton +mills, and, of course, of many of our +domestic mills, but there are some manufacturers +who, through their unfamiliarity +with the operations of the futures market, +are quite unaware of the protection +which they thus have at hand. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Responsiveness of<br />the Great Exchanges +</p> +<p> +The great exchanges, and the New York +Exchange in particular, are thus used by +cotton merchants and manufacturers in +every part of the world to protect themselves +in their buying and selling operations. +The value of middling cotton in +New York is kept upon par with the value +of the same cotton in any growing or +manufacturing point, such factors as +freight, insurance, brokerage, etc., being +allowed for in the quoted price. Quotations +on the Liverpool Exchange are thus +higher than quotations in New York by +the difference between the amount it costs +to deliver cotton in Liverpool and to deliver +it in New York. Thus the merchant +and manufacturer is able to buy and sell +hedge contracts on the New York Exchange, +knowing that operations at the +New York price in New York are on a +parity with operations at the Liverpool +price in Liverpool, or at the Havre price +in Havre. Thus the hedge contract which +a Southern merchant sells in Atlanta, +through his broker on the New York +Exchange, may be bought by a spinner in +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_26' name='page_26'></a>26</span> +Tokyo or Manchester, anxious to insure +his supply of cotton at a price which +would make his contracts profitable. +</p> +<p> +In normal times the selling of merchants +and the buying of manufacturing +engaged in actual and bona fide hedging +transaction has been estimated by competent +authorities to make up fully seventy-five +per cent. of the trading done +on the New York Exchange. The remaining +twenty-five per cent. may thus +be attributed to speculative operations, +that is operations entered into by outsiders +through brokers, on the chance of a +rise or a fall in the market. Nor is such +speculation without its value. It is the +speculators, as a rule, who are the first to +take advantage of crop reports or weather +conditions, or news likely to affect the +market favorably or unfavorably, and +buy or sell as their judgment dictates. +Their operations serve to discount such +changes to some extent, or at least to +make the breaks and rises more gradual +than they would otherwise be. +</p> +<p> +In abnormal times, that is times of great +scarcity and great demand, or bumper +crops and small demand, the speculative +element plays a larger part, for it is in +such times that the greatest fluctuations +in price take place. Merchants or manufacturers +holding hedging contracts are +under a greater incentive to buy or sell, +as they see their opportunities for profit +growing greater or less, as the case may +be, and in consequence more contracts are +made, and they pass from hand to hand +with greater rapidity, the gain or loss thus +being distributed among a greater number +of persons than would otherwise be the +case. It is the operations of speculators, +and the manipulation that once or twice +during its history has been possible by +unscrupulous traders which has brought +about at such times public agitation for +the abolition of the Exchange. Recent +changes in the form of the cotton contract +have made it almost impossible for such +operations, if repeated, to be successful, +and thus there is little likelihood that the +very important economic function of the +Exchange will be interfered with by +legislation. +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='IV_THE_CLOTH_MARKET' id='IV_THE_CLOTH_MARKET'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_27' name='page_27'></a>27</span> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h3>The Cloth Market</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">T</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">HE</span> +output of the manufacturer finds +its way to the ultimate consumer +through a variety of channels. What these +are will depend upon the manner in which +the various mills are organized, and their +respective policies as to the marketing of +their products. Some mills, usually very +large organizations, will have plants completely +equipped, in every department, +spinning, weaving, dyeing, printing, finishing, +etc., and will process all of their +goods themselves in every detail, offering +them on the market in their finished form. +Some of these may make a wide variety of +fabrics suitable for one class of trade, or +for many classes of trade, while others will +specialize on a few articles. A good many +concerns that are not of the largest size, +but which confine their production to a +few articles, may also put the goods +through every operation themselves. +</p> +<p> +Then there are a great number of cotton +mills, many of them of very large size, +which do no weaving at all, but confine +themselves to spinning, finding a market +for their yarns with the many weaving +mills which have no spinning plants. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Many Large Mills<br />Do No Finishing +</p> +<p> +Numerous mills, both large and small, +manufacturing, principally, goods of a +staple grade, which may either be of fine +or coarse character, sell their entire product +in the gray, or unfinished state, because +they do not wish to burden themselves +with the task of putting the goods +through the various finishing treatments +necessary to fit them for the market. This +method of disposing of the product appeals +to many for it reduces the manufacturing +operations to the spinning of +the yarn, and to the weaving of the cloth. +The owners or managers of the mills may +have had no experience outside of these +branches, and if they themselves were to +attempt to finish, or "convert," the goods +they would be entering strange fields. +</p> +<p> +Whatever method of merchandising +may be adopted, it is certainly obvious +that the product of large mills is so great +that it must be disposed of in a large way, +and hence various channels of outlet have +grown up to satisfy the requirements of +the case. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Dealing Direct With<br />Dry Goods Jobbers +</p> +<p> +A substantial portion of the output of +the mills (but nothing like what it was +years ago, and it grows relatively smaller +every year), is disposed of directly to dry +goods jobbing houses, and by them to +retail dealers, who sell it by the yard to +the consumer. This practice was formerly +more widespread, but has diminished +greatly in recent years. A further enormous +yardage passes eventually through +the cutting-up houses, which manufacture +garments of every kind, from overalls to +pajamas, or from raincoats to shirts, and +dispose of their products to distributors, +who eventually sell them to the public. +Then there are retailers whose requirements +for goods of particular kinds are so +considerable that their orders are of sufficient +magnitude to warrant the mills in +dealing with them direct. +</p> +<p> +Again, there are the great mail-order +houses, with a gigantic annual turnover, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_28' name='page_28'></a>28</span> +whose catalogues go to every part of the +land, and which handle great quantities of +piece goods, as well as made-up garments, +and whose custom is eagerly sought for. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/013-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/013.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 340px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Thousands of looms in a single room</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Other mills make fabrics suitable for +use in the military and naval establishments +of the country, and in other public +channels, and which, in selling these +fabrics, will deal directly with the Government, +or indirectly through intermediaries. +</p> +<p> +In addition to these, and other domestic +outlets, there is a great quantity of +goods produced for export, which are +handled through houses specially organized +for that trade. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Merchandising by<br />Dry Goods Jobber +</p> +<p> +One of the oldest established agencies +for handling mill products is the dry +goods jobber, and it is to be remarked +that many large retail houses do also a +substantial jobbing business, though generally +less so in cottons than in other +classes of fabrics. The jobber will buy +finished products from those mills which +sell goods in that state, and will also buy +large amounts of gray goods. These he +will sell principally to retail distributors, +but his transactions, in addition, will extend +into a multitude of channels, and, +he will deal with small garment manufacturers +and makers of all kinds of wares, +and will also sell considerable quantities +to the larger cutters when they are unable, +for one reason or another, to buy +direct from the mills or from the converters. +There are also numerous small +jobbing concerns which buy substantial +quantities from the larger jobbers as +occasion may require. +</p> +<p> +One of the greatest avenues of outlet +is through a class of dealers known as +converters, and there are converters +operating in every kind of fabric from +cotton to silk. In the last forty or fifty +years, this business has developed into +immense proportions, and the converter +performs a real and important service in +the trade. He is intimately acquainted +with the needs of his customers, and +possesses a fair knowledge of the kinds +of goods put out by the various mills +and the different constructions in which +they are sold, and is well acquainted +with all of the market dyeing, finishing, +bleaching, and printing concerns, having +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_29' name='page_29'></a>29</span> +also a fair understanding of the various +treatments accorded to the goods. He +buys his goods in the gray from the mills, +and sends them to the finishers, printers, +etc., to be treated, according to his +instructions. By a careful studying of +the fabric constructions, and of the subsequent +treatments, he is able to create +fabrics of a suitable and marketable +character, which are in some respects +different from those offered by any of his +competitors, and which are brought out +with an exact knowledge of the requirements +of the trade to which he is catering. +He is able to make a profit, and generally +a very substantial one, by handling the +goods in this way. +</p> +<p> +Considerable capital is required by the +converter, as goods bought in the gray +have to be paid for on practically a cash +basis, and he may have to carry them for +a time before they are finally marketed. +The converter sells to the cutting-up +houses, to jobbers, and to retailers, or, +in fact, to whatever trade he seeks. +Large and profitable businesses have thus +been built up. Many converters have +adopted their own distinctive trade marks, +and since the goods that they handle are +known by these trade marks, the identity +of the mill which made them originally is +often entirely unknown to the ultimate +consumer. The converter can give his +business to whatever mill, at the time, will +give him the best value for his money. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Jobbers Must Know<br />Status of Mills +</p> +<p> +These operations are facilitated by the +services of another class of intermediaries, +the cloth brokers. If a buyer, whether +he be retailer, jobber, converter, or what +not, wishes to secure goods of a certain +kind, he would have a very difficult task +if he had to canvass the entire market, +and ascertain what was being offered. +Hence he is likely to go to the cloth brokers. +They are in touch with all the principal +manufacturing sources of supply, +and will have daily quotations of the offerings +of the different mills; he will know +which mills are "sold up," and which are +open for business, and what class of goods +they desire to sell. Consequently the +cloth brokers are in a position to offer to +would-be purchasers a wide variety of the +different cloths which are available on the +market, and it is their business to buy +from the mills as cheaply as they can, +and so get the best possible price for their +customers. The transactions are handled +on a small commission, and the average +buyer, in many kinds of goods, is able to +do much better by working through a +broker than by opening negotiations +directly with the mill. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Most Mills Have<br />Offices in Chief Markets +</p> +<p> +Mills selling their products through +brokers in this manner may, or may not, +have a representative stationed in the +goods market, according to circumstances. +Mills, manufacturing a limited number of +plain fabrics, and which do not sell +through brokers, may also be without +representatives in the primary goods market, +and will dispose of their product +directly from the mills, partly by correspondence, +and partly through the efforts +of their travelers. The great mass +of the mills, however, are regularly and +efficiently represented in the great central +goods markets, principally New York, +though also in Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, +and elsewhere, and their selling +agencies are very highly organized institutions. +</p> +<p> +These establishments which have sufficient +capital to enable them to finance +themselves—with or without the assistance +of regular bankers’ loans—may +maintain their own selling offices, and +market their product in their own names +directly to their customers. The amount +of capital required to handle a business in +this way is proportionately very large, for +the concern must be able to keep itself sufficiently +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_30' name='page_30'></a>30</span> +supplied with raw materials, and +then to carry the expenses as these materials +pass through the slow stages of manufacture +until the goods are finally finished, +after which they may have to be +kept in stock for a time until the delivery +dates, and then, after shipment, the accounts +have to be carried until the bills +are paid, so that, from the time the manufacturer +pays for his raw material until +he finally receives pay for his goods is a +very long period. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Loans Made Upon<br />Warehouse Receipts +</p> +<p> +The financing of a business conducted +in this way can be assisted by loans from +warehouses upon stocks of raw material +stored there, by bank accommodation, +and by facilities which certain banks give +for the cashing of a substantial percentage +of those accounts on the books of the concern +which the customers have not discounted +themselves. Also, in handling +his merchandise in this way, the manufacturer +must have a thorough understanding +of the best means of marketing his +product, and this care of the selling end is, +of course, an added burden upon his +shoulders which, in many cases, he may +not feel competent to handle properly. +</p> +<p> +Therefore, the comparatively few concerns +which do have sufficient capital to +sell directly, in addition to the many from +great to small who have not, will market +their product through what are known as +dry goods commission houses, sometimes +referred to as factors, and simply as commercial +bankers. The commission house +system, as we have it here, does not exist +anywhere else, and its great growth in the +United States has been largely due to +certain peculiarities in our banking methods, +which have prevented mills—even +those with a reasonably sufficient supply +of capital—from obtaining the amount +of direct banking accommodation necessary +for their needs. +</p> +<p> +The commission house, in its usual +relations with its mills, undertakes to +conduct the sale of their products. Some +commission agents insist upon having +the entire selling control of all of the +goods the mill produces, or at any rate, +of all the goods of the kind which they +are equipped to sell. Others, again, will +take over a partial selling control of the +product of a mill, and various lines of the +same manufacturer may be found offering +through different channels. There are +some obvious disadvantages connected +with this latter procedure. +</p> +<p> +If the mill is a very large one, the selling +agent may handle no goods except the +product of that mill, but in the great +majority of cases, the factor will represent +a considerable number of mills. +</p> +<p> +Immediately on receipt of the invoices +of the goods consigned to the selling agent, +the mill can draw against them a percentage +of their value, previously agreed +upon, usually about two-thirds of their +net selling price, and upon these loans +interest at the rate of 6% is charged. The +difference between the rate at which the +commission house can borrow money, (in +normal times perhaps 4 to +4-<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>%), +and +the 6% which is usually charged to the +mills, constitutes a considerable part of +the profits of the factor’s business. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Factors Provide<br />Selling Facilities +</p> +<p> +The factor often provides a store, together +with a complete selling and office +force, and every facility for receiving, +storing, selling, and shipping the goods, +and for financing the business. The salesmen +of the house travel throughout the +country, reaching all the important markets, +and the managers of the different +departments, who thus understand the +needs of the market, are in a position to +advise the mill with intelligence and exactness +as to the kind of goods which should +be made to meet the requirements of the +trade. The cost of warehousing and of +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_31' name='page_31'></a>31</span> +insurance on the merchandise is also paid +by the commission agent. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/014-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/014.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 519px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Spinning room in a large mill. These are all ring spindles</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The prices at which the goods are to be +sold are fixed by the mill, but, of course, +they will finally sell at prices determined +by the market conditions. As the goods +are sold, the amounts which they bring +are credited to the mill, less whatever +has been advanced against them. The selling +agent also stands ready, no matter on +what time and terms the goods may be +sold, to credit the mill with the net value +of the sale, less 6% interest for the unexpired +time within which the customer may +pay, and from this interest charge also +he secures part of his return. Of course +if bank rates are very high, as they sometimes +are for short periods, the factor +may be out of pocket on the interest account, +instead of making profit. As the +goods are sold, so are the equities in them +released, and the balance is credited to the +mill. If, however, the goods sell at a loss +there will be no equities coming to the +mill, and, in fact, there are not infrequently +deficiencies to make up. +</p> +<p> +For these services, and according to the +nature of the goods being sold, various +commissions are charged, usually ranging +between the limits of 4 and 8% of the net +returns of the sales. Plain unfinished +goods which are marketed in large quantities +are charged for at a relatively low +figure, while fancy goods, sold in smaller +quantities and requiring more effort and +expense to sell them, are charged for at a +higher figure. +</p> +<p> +The selling agent also guarantees the +credits of the firms to which he sells, so +that no losses for bad debts can fall upon +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_32' name='page_32'></a>32</span> +the manufacturer, but, at the same time, +he will decline orders from any concerns +except those with whose credit he is entirely +satisfied. +</p> +<p> +Not infrequently when the manufacturer +conducts his own selling operations, +he will use the facilities afforded by the +commission house for the financial part of +the business only, taking advances on his +goods, having his sales cashed, and his +credits guaranteed, etc. For these lesser +services, of course, the commissions +charged are smaller. +</p> +<p> +When goods are charged out, the bills +are payable to the commission house, and +so, as far as the customer is concerned, the +commission house is the principal in the +transaction. In many cases certain modified +arrangements are made, but in most +instances the business is conducted as +herein described, and it may fairly be +said that the bulk of the dry goods of all +kinds produced in the United States finds +its way into the market through commission +house channels. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Making Plain Goods<br />for Future Orders +</p> +<p> +It is the policy of most cotton mills, and +certainly of those making plain goods, to +run steadily all the year round, and thus +the commission agent, whether he has secured +advance orders on the goods or not, +has constantly flowing into his hands an +assured stream of merchandise which +must eventually, when sold, pay him a +commission. Thus the securing of a good +account means an assured source of +revenue to the commission agent. +</p> +<p> +There are no more important selling +organizations for textiles than these dry +goods commission houses, many of them +having an immense and profitable turnover, +and their businesses are conducted +on a very high plane of efficiency, and +probity, although, in itself, there are +many evils attendant upon this method of +the distribution of merchandise, and +which exercise at times a most adverse influence +upon the well being of the mills +whose product is thus disposed of. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Strength of Agents<br />Makes "Paper" Acceptable +</p> +<p> +It is evident that no ordinary capital +would be sufficient for the supplying of +money on call to mills in the immense +quantity needed, and it is here that the +banker’s capital is called into use. The +commission house is usually a concern of +substantial means, sometimes very rich, +and nearly always of a financial standing, +which will give it, on its own account, an +assured credit. At certain times of the +year the calls for money from the mills are +greater than at other times, and as shipments +come forward, and advances are +required, the commission house, in order +to put itself in funds, will issue a series of +its own notes in convenient sized amounts, +$5,000 to $10,000 each, for instance, and +will offer these for sale, through its note +broker. +</p> +<p> +This paper, which commands an advantageously +low rate of interest, and +which is issued for convenient periods +of time, averaging perhaps four months, +is much sought after by banks and other +institutions in primary markets and +throughout the country wishing to invest +current funds in a safe and not unprofitable +medium. This paper is so acceptable +to banks not only because the credit of +the issuing firm is behind it, but also +because it is known that the money which +is obtained for the notes will be lent out +to mills on ample collateral. The issuing +house is in a position so entirely safe that +hardly ever can a question arise as to its +ability to take care of its borrowings. +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='V_FINANCING_COTTON_AND_COTTON_CLOTH' id='V_FINANCING_COTTON_AND_COTTON_CLOTH'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_33' name='page_33'></a>33</span> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> +<h3>Financing Cotton and Cotton Cloth</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">N</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">O</span> +industry shows better than the cotton +industry the economic importance +of banking service. No industry, perhaps, +utilizes to such a complete extent the +modern instruments of credit, nor is so +dependent upon these instruments for its +proper functioning. At no point in the +progress from seed to cloth is the capital +represented by the cotton necessarily or +even customarily tied up. And not only +may the cotton itself at any stage be the +basis of credit accommodation, but also, +the actual added value which the labor of +any factor in the chain may give to the +cotton may itself be realized upon in advance. +The credit possibilities of the industry +have grown with the admission of +acceptances to rediscount in the Federal +Reserve Banks, and this admissibility has +likewise played a part in the present +growth of the warehouse system, the lack +of which was a handicap to the industry +in past years. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Credit Necessary from Seed<br />to Finished Product +</p> +<p> +In considering the raw cotton and the +cloth market it was necessary to include +some account of the financial and banking +processes involved in the various commercial +transactions undertaken. It is perhaps +advisable, however, even at the risk +of some repetition, to give a quick survey +of the financial and credit aspects of the +industry as a whole from the time the +cotton is placed in the ground up to the actual +sale to the cutter-up or the jobber. +</p> +<p> +The utilization of credit begins, as we +have seen, with the very planting of the +crop. Many of the growers, even those +who own their farms, are men of limited +means, and are not able to pay for the +necessaries of life and of labor during the +long growing season. The country storekeeper, +accordingly, in return for a lien on +the crop, allows them credit at his store, +usually charging interest based on the +monthly statement of their ledger accounts. +He in turn receives the necessary +accommodation for his own purchases +from the local bank, or from the local +buyer or factor with whom he is affiliated. +The high prices prevailing during the past +few years have undoubtedly changed to +some extent the small grower’s financial +position. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Cash for the Grower<br />From the Local Bank +</p> +<p> +The larger growers, or the great corporations +which let out cotton lands to renters, +usually operate the stores in their villages +upon the same basis, credit being +advanced against the renter’s share of the +growing crop. Even these large corporations +are seldom able to meet the heavy +demands of the growing season without +recourse to the credit service of those to +whom they sell their cotton, or to the +local banks. The banks, or buyers, in +turn discount at least a proportion of the +commercial paper thus created with their +correspondent banks in New York, Boston, +or other financial centers. This credit +arrangement, it will be seen, is almost +entirely based on a moral risk, the lien +being made upon the growing cotton +which cannot be liquidated until it is +grown, picked, and ginned. +</p> +<p> +When the crop is picked, it is weighed +by the merchant before it is ginned, and +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_34' name='page_34'></a>34</span> +the farmer is credited on the merchant’s +books with the amount due him, the balance +in his favor being given him in cash. +His concern with the cotton is thus ended. +In the event that he is able to finance himself +through the season he takes the cotton +directly to the gin, and has it ginned and +baled there, paying the ginnery for the +operation, and selling the cotton directly +to a local buyer and the seed to an oil mill. +If the gin warehouse +is available, and he +desires to wait for a +more favorable opportunity +to sell, he +may store the cotton, +taking a gin receipt +for it, against +which the cotton +will eventually be +delivered. The gin +receipt may be collateral +for a loan +from a cotton factor, +or from a local +bank. +</p> +<p> +Thus, it will be +seen that the grower +receives accommodation +throughout +his season, and +is paid cash for his +product when it is +delivered. This arrangement +puts a +heavy strain upon +the cotton buyers, +particularly upon those who deal in large +lots for the mills. The method by +which the buyers pay the growers is thus +described: +</p> +<p> +The buyers make arrangements with +the local bankers where the gins are located +for the payment of the cotton, the +banks furnishing the actual cash against +tickets issued by the buyer’s representatives, +holding the tickets in question as +their collateral in the meantime. When a +sufficient amount of cotton has been accumulated +the local banker, at the request +of the buyer’s agent, delivers the +tickets in question to the local agent of the +railroad, who in turn issues a bill of lading +covering the shipment to the compress +point, which then is attached to the draft +drawn by the buyer’s agent upon the +buyer’s head office, which draft includes +the price paid for the cotton plus interest +and exchange +charged by the local +banker, who is +reimbursed for the +amount of the draft +thus drawn. When +this cotton is ready +for export (or for +shipment to the +mill in the United +States) local bills of +lading, covering +shipment from +point of origin to +compress point, are +exchanged by the +cotton buyer’s +banker for local +bills of lading to +port or for through +bills of lading. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/015-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/015.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 775px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +"<i>Picked 100 pounds today</i>"<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +When cotton is +bought at compress +points, compress +receipts instead of +tickets are delivered +to the local banker, +who pays for the cotton as purchased by +the buyer’s representative from time to +time. When a sufficient amount of cotton +is ready for shipment the compress receipts +are exchanged by the banker for +local bills of lading to port (or to mill), or +through bills of lading, as the case may be. +These bills of lading are attached to the +draft drawn by the representative on the +head office of the buyer, the local bank being +reimbursed for the amount thus drawn. +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_35' name='page_35'></a>35</span> +</p> +<p> +Buyers must necessarily hold great +quantities of cotton in storage, for they +buy whatever cotton is offered, and must +sell, as we have seen, certain grades and +qualities to the mills in order that they +may weave the cloth for which their orders +call. Cotton must, therefore, be held +in storage, either at the compress points, +which is usual, or at warehouses operated +by factors, or by independent corporations, +or in their own warehouses. +</p> +<p> +While the buyers by cash payments are +concentrating the cotton necessary to fill +their domestic or foreign orders, their +need for funds is a pressing one. Their +arrangements with local banks we have +seen. When the cotton is shipped, the +local bank, by means of drafts on the buyer’s +head office, is relieved of the burden +it has been carrying, but the cotton still +represents capital, and if that capital is +to continue to earn its wages it must be the +basis for credit. The factors and large +banks in New York or Boston, which have +been assisting the local bank, must now +assist the buyer and the warehouseman. +The methods by which this burden is +shifted to the larger banks are varied, and +we can consider only one or two of their +aspects. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Same Mills Pay Cash, Relieving<br />Factors of Burden +</p> +<p> +Some of the larger New England mills +pay cash for the cotton which is shipped +to them, buying sufficient in the season to +carry them through, or nearly through, +the year. Their buyers, therefore, need +support, if they need it at all, only during +the period of concentration. They may +have their private banking arrangements, +and may be able to utilize their warehouse +receipts or bills of lading, or their mere +notes based upon mixed collateral, for an +advance of sixty to seventy-five per cent. +of the value of the cotton, the line having +been arranged in advance. Credit may +be obtained by the buyer directly from the +warehouseman, who thus becomes a factor +in his own right, being supported by arrangements +previously made with his own +bank. Credit may also be obtained from a +bank, upon bills of lading which are exchanged +for warehouse receipts when the +cotton is delivered at the port or at any +warehousing point; or the credit obtained +from the bank may be settled and +a new credit opened with the warehouseman +when the cotton is shifted from cars +to storage. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Warehousemen as Factors of<br />Growing Importance +</p> +<p> +The growing importance of the warehouseman +has been mentioned. His services +have developed with the need of mills +for greater credit, and their unwillingness +to tie up their working capital in cotton +held in their own warehouses. Mills +which formerly bought all their year’s +supply during the buying season, so-called, +now take their cotton from warehouses as +they want it, buying it from their buyers, +and making payment according to the individual +standing arrangements. The advent +of the warehouseman who is either +a banker, or closely affiliated with a bank, +has undoubtedly done much to make the +financing of cotton a more elastic and +feasible proposition, distributing the risk +over a wider circle and making credit +more readily available at any point in +the succession. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/016-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/016.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 472px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Weighing gin bales in a ginnery yard</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter'> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_36' name='page_36'></a>36</span> +<a href='images/017-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/017.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 396px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Cotton warehouses in the South</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The mill, we have seen, frequently pays +cash for its raw stock, or else buys upon +short term notes. The average mill does +not have a working capital large enough +to enable it to tie up the thousands of +dollars necessary for such a proceeding, +as well as the funds which must constantly +be paid out for wages, for operation +expenses of all kinds, for upkeep, and +all other overhead. Mills, as a matter of +fact, are frequent borrowers, either from +general banks, or from textile banks or +factors, or from their selling agents, who, +as we have seen, combine their primary +and original function of selling with that +of supplying financial assistance. +</p> +<p> +Mills which purchase cotton from their +buyers and pay cash, or approximately +cash, for it, usually buy such cotton to +fill orders which they have already received +from their selling agents. They +may, in certain instances, obtain an advance +from their agents of a proportion of +the whole selling price of the order, and +out of that advance pay for the purchase +of cotton, or they may hold the cotton +in warehouses, using it only as needed, +and putting up the warehouse receipts as +collateral for loans. +</p> +<p> +The raw cotton itself, however, represents +only a portion of the mill’s operating +expenses and it cannot be the entire basis +for financial operations of the magnitude +often needed. These broader financial +wants may be met out of the prospective +selling price of the cloth by means of loans +from the selling agent; or, they may be +met by direct relations with a commercial +bank, which may make loans on ordinary +collateral, on acceptances, or, as frequently +happens in the case of mills of +undoubted integrity, on the mere note of +the company operating the mill. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Selling Agent May Shift<br />Burden to Banks +</p> +<p> +When the burden is assumed by the +selling agent, or factor, he in turn may +shift it to the bank, either by indorsing +the note of the mill, or by indorsing the +note of the purchaser of the cloth or by +borrowing directly from the bank on his +own paper. +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_37' name='page_37'></a>37</span> +</p> +<p> +The converter, as a rule, is not a factor, +but a merchant pure and simple, seeking +accommodations from a factor or a bank +as his needs may require it. Inasmuch as +he usually buys for cash or on short-term +notes, and sells to jobbers or retailers upon +more extended terms, his needs are frequently +heavy. His relation with his factor +may be, and frequently is, upon the +basis of accounts receivable, or he may +borrow upon his own collateral, or, if he +is counted an "A1" risk, upon his unsecured +note. +</p> +<p> +These, in brief are the financial steps +in the progress of cotton from the grower +to the jobber. A cursory view is all that +is possible, because in the words of a textile +banker of standing "every textile +banking transaction is a law unto itself." +Yet enough has been said to show the all-important +part which banking plays in +the cotton industry, and to indicate how +dependent are the turning of wheels and +the distribution of cotton and of cloth +upon the credit which banks and bankers +are able to provide. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Factors and Their Wide<br />Financial Service +</p> +<p> +Frequent use has been made of the +word factor, and no adequate definition +of its meaning has yet been given. The +factor is, briefly, the commercial banker +of the industry, and his duty is to provide, +at any stage of the cotton process, the +financial assistance which may be necessary, +either from his own resources or +through his affiliations with some large +bank. It is true, of course, that some +factors work only with those dealing in +raw stock, and some confine their services +to mills. Some factors are cotton buyers, +some are selling agents, some deal with +buyers and some deal with selling agents. +Some are employed only by the mills. +Recently, however, the tendency has +been to develop under one roof a unit +institution capable of handling every textile +banking transaction. It will be interesting +to enumerate here, briefly, the +various functions and facilities of one such +institution: +</p> +<table border='0' width='80%' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> +<col style='width:10%;' /> +<col style='width:10%;' /> +<col style='width:80%;' /> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +1. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It makes loans to cotton buyers and to mills<br /> +on cotton held in warehouses or in transit. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +2. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It checks the credit of the mill's prospective<br /> +customers. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +3. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It cashes accounts receivable. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +4. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It makes advances against merchandise for<br /> +the account of mill, converter, or jobber. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +5. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It finances merchandise and raw material requirements,<br /> +and current operations. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +6. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It deals in acceptances, specializing, of course,<br /> +upon paper arising out of transactions in the<br /> +textile industry. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +7. +</td><td colspan='2' style='text-align: left'> +It maintains an Industrial Department, which<br /> +includes: +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +(a) +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +the services of a consulting architect, expert<br /> +in mill construction. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +(b) +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +the services of a production engineer,<br /> +skilled in the laying out of plants in the line<br /> +of greatest efficiency, and in diagnosing<br /> +and correcting the production mistakes<br /> +of an inefficient mill. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +(c) +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +information as to the newest mill practice,<br /> +which it is ready to provide for its<br /> +clients and others. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +(d) +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +readiness to assist customers in the expansion<br /> +of their business either by financing<br /> +new mill construction or by providing<br /> +sales representatives in other countries. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +(e) +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +maintenance offices abroad, either for the<br /> +buying or selling of textiles or equipment,<br /> +or raw materials, or for the complete and<br /> +direct financing of such transactions. +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='VI_AMERICAN_CLOTH_IN_FOREIGN_MARKETS' id='VI_AMERICAN_CLOTH_IN_FOREIGN_MARKETS'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_38' name='page_38'></a>38</span> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> +<h3>American Cloth in Foreign Markets</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">W</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">E</span> +have seen that the American cotton +grower supplies more than half +of the world’s demand for raw cotton. The +cotton manufacturer in the United States +is in no such position. This is not to say +that American cotton goods are not exported +in very considerable amounts. +From the inception of the industry in this +country varying percentages of the total +product have been sent abroad. The following +table, taken from the United States +Statistical Abstract (1910) shows the +average annual exports of cotton goods +for the five year periods named, expressed +in millions of dollars: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Total</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Uncolored<br />Cloth</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Colored<br />Cloth</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Other</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1856-60 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $7.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $2.4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $2.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $2.8 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1861-65 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .9 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2.4 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1866-70 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .9 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .3 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2.8 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1871-75 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + .7 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1876-80 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 10.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 6.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2.6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.2 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1881-85 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 13.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 8.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2.9 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2.1 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1886-90 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 12.4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7.4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1.6 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1891-95 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 13.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2.5 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1896-1900 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 20.4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 11.6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4.4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4.3 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1901-05 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 31.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 17.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7.0 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1906-10 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 35.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 16.8 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 11.0 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The irregularity of the export trade, as +shown by these figures, has been explained +on several grounds, the chief factors being, +apparently, the fluctuations in the prosperity +and consequently in the buying +power of the home market, and the +pressure upon the home market exerted +by the rapid growth of cotton manufacturing +in the South. +</p> +<p> +The normal position of the United +States as an exporter of cotton goods is +shown by the following table, which gives +the exports of the chief manufacturing +countries in the year before the war (the +figures for 1915 are also given because +they show the changes which had already +begun): +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1913 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1915 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +United Kingdom +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $618,000,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + $418,000,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Germany +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 117,000,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 30,100,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +France +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 78,000,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 60,000,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Japan +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 58,000,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 95,800,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +United States +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 55,500,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 60,200,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Switzerland +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 50,300,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 65,800,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Italy +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 47,800,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 30,500,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +India +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 38,900,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 27,300,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Holland +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 30,900,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Austria Hungary +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 27,800,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Belgium +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 23,700,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Russia +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 22,500,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <a name="FNanchor_B" id="FNanchor_B"></a><a href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>19,700,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Spain +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 8,300,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 17,400,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +China +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,400,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,100,000 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<hr style='width: 10%; border:none; border-bottom:1px solid black; clear:both; margin: 2em auto 1em 0' /> + +<div class='footnote'><a name='Footnote_B' id='Footnote_B'></a><a href='#FNanchor_B'><span class='label'>[B]</span></a> +<p> +Eleven months. +</p> +</div> +<p> +Thus, despite the very remarkable +growth which had taken place between +1910 and 1913, the United States ranked +fifth among the nations exporting cotton +goods. The reasons for this might be summed +up in almost a word. The attractiveness +and rapid growth of the home market +provided an outlet for practically the +whole output of American mills. With +high prices prevailing in the home market, +the manufacturer was not called upon to +exert himself to stimulate sales in regions +where competition would inevitably be +keen and profits small. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Minor Handicaps to<br />Trade Development +</p> +<p> +Supporting this main objection there +have been others. Until recently the +banking facilities abroad were insufficient +to the needs of a greater commerce; and +shipping facilities, in pre-war days, were +not such as to make regular shipments +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_39' name='page_39'></a>39</span> +possible to many foreign markets. Over +these conditions manufacturers had not +direct control, but there were other matters +in which their own short-comings +were all too evident. There is little need +to list again the familiar complaints, +known to every reader of Commerce Reports +and the export magazines. Faulty +packing and insufficient attention to orders +were the most frequent. The former +was undoubtedly due to inexperience, and +the latter to the tendency of the manufacturer +or merchant to consider the foreign +market as a place for disposing of a +surplus unsalable at home. To this attitude +may also be attributed the frequency +with which shipments for which orders +had been accepted have been delayed or +overlooked altogether. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/018-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/018.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 389px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Compress bales awaiting export on a Savannah wharf</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The foreign market remained for the +American manufacturer a prize so distant +and of such questionable value that he was +simply not willing to make the effort and +spend the money that would be necessary +to compete with British, German, French, +and other sellers. He would have had to +know local customs and tastes, and all the +details that he had so arduously acquired +a knowledge of for the home market. The +time was not ripe. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +U. S. Export Trade<br />As Affected By War +</p> +<p> +The war served to disarrange the system +of cotton cloth distribution of the +whole world. It is now a commonplace +to say that the United States, by the cutting +off of the usual sources of supply, succeeded +for the first time in entering in +force markets which hitherto had been +closed. It would probably be truer to say +that foreign buyers, finding it impossible +to secure their customary supply from +their regular sources, came to the United +States and asked American manufacturers +to supply their imperative wants. +</p> +<p> +Just what this meant is found in the +statement that while in 1913 our total +exports of cotton goods amounted to +about 445,000,000 yards, in 1917 the figure +was about 690,000,000 yards, an increase +of fifty-five per cent. The increase, +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_40' name='page_40'></a>40</span> +moreover, has been in the colored cottons, +the uncolored cloths showing an actual +decrease. +</p> +<p> +The United Kingdom, during 1917, exported +nearly 5,000,000,000 yards of cloth, +so there is no immediate prospect that the +United States will be a dangerous competitor +for that country, except in a few limited +lines and in a few markets. The chief +gain to the American cotton industry +brought by the war was the opportunity it +gave merchants to introduce their goods +abroad at a time when loss was next to +impossible. Operating at an assured +profit they were able to learn the markets +without the long and discouraging fight +which would have been necessary had the +competitive power of the other nations +been at full force. If, as seems likely, the +economic forces which projected the +United States so suddenly and dramatically +into the world’s markets shall continue +to operate, then the future will see a +further development of our sales. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Future of Foreign Sales<br />And Probable Markets +</p> +<p> +Our best and most permanent markets +are probably to be found in such countries +as Cuba, Mexico, the Philippines, Central +and South America, and, to a certain +extent, Canada and Australia, and parts +of Asia and Africa. To be sure, competition +will have to be met both from European +countries and from Japan, whose +development in the cotton industry in recent +years has been nothing short of phenomenal. +She has practically doubled +the number of her spindles in the last ten +years, and her competition has already +been felt, for instance, in China, where +American gray goods have been practically +eliminated from the market. Other +growing markets for Japanese cotton +goods are South Africa, Australia, India, +and the west coast of South America. +</p> +<p> +In Cuba and the Philippine Islands, the +United States has the advantage of a preferential +tariff agreement and excellent +shipping facilities. In Canada and Australia +our cotton goods are popular but +the tariff duties are in favor of Great +Britain. In the Dutch East Indies there +is at present a good opportunity for getting +a foothold in the white goods trade. +Argentina has lately been our best market +for cotton goods, and as the imports +of cotton products into that country +amounted to $65,000,000 in 1916, this +trade is worth the intensive efforts which +are now being made to clinch it. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Future Development<br />Up to Merchants +</p> +<p> +On the west coast of South America, as +in the Manila market, there are established +American trading firms that are +doing extensive development work and +their efforts have produced favorable +results. In the other Latin-American +markets there are practically no local +American firms and in none of them have +the possibilities of the trade been more +than touched. +</p> +<p> +The general opinion seems to be that +if the United States is to keep what she +has gained by the war in the cotton goods +trade the same care and aggressiveness +will have to be shown in the foreign as in +the domestic trade. England’s position +today as the foremost exporter of cotton +manufactures is the result of careful +study of foreign markets and their requirements, +of catering to the tastes of +the people, of aggressive advertising, of +competent foreign salesmen, of reliability +in filling orders, of good packing, and of +more or less liberal credit terms. Manufacturers +in the United States will have +to follow the same procedure if this +country is to keep her present position +in international trade. +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='VII_SOME_OF_THE_GROWER_S_PROBLEMS' id='VII_SOME_OF_THE_GROWER_S_PROBLEMS'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_41' name='page_41'></a>41</span> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> +<h3>Some of the Grower’s Problems</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">E</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">ARLY</span> +in the spring, the farm hands +begin the work of getting the seed +beds ready. Upland fields have to be terraced, +ditched, and drained by an elaborate +process before the work is well +begun. Plowing and sub-soiling are the +least of the planter’s worries. He must +often chop last year’s stalks with a disc +harrow or with a stalk cutter. The spike +tooth or the disc harrow must work again +after the plowing is finished. It is customary +to plant cotton in a slightly raised +bed, in order that thinning may be more +easily done, and that the soil may be more +quickly warmed. Much planting is still +done by hand, one man dropping the +seeds in the long straight furrow and another +following close behind him with a +hoe, covering them up; but of late years +the one-horse planter and the two-horse +combined lister and planter have come +into vogue, and, now that the tractor is +both cheap and serviceable, it is possible +to plant two or more rows at a time. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Long Season of<br />Intensive Cultivation +</p> +<p> +When the tiny seedlings first appear above +the fragrant mellow soil, the planter’s +work is well begun, but it is only begun, +for then comes the season of cultivating +and thinning out. As soon as there are two +or three inches of growth, the first cultivation +takes place. How many times the +field is cultivated depends on the planter, +the nature of the soil, the availability of +labor and other factors. But the general +rule is, the more cultivations, the more +cotton. The first cultivation scrapes +away the soil from the plants, leaving +them on a small ridge, where the thinning-out +process can easily be done with a hoe. +The stalks are left from fifteen to twenty +inches apart in the hill, the rows being +usually about three and a half feet apart. +The next cultivation, usually with a +sweep, pushes the soil back against the +plants. Then begins the farmer’s fight +against the weeds, each of which seems +sturdier and harder to eradicate than its +predecessor. Usually cultivation must +take place about every three weeks. +</p> +<p> +In June, on the average, the bell-shaped +blossoms appear. On the first day they +are cream colored or white; on the second +day, they change to a beautiful wild-rose +pink, deepening toward evening to a +deeper magenta or carnation. On the +third day they fade completely, and the +development of the boll begins. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Many Enemies<br />of the Growing Boll +</p> +<p> +Of the plants upon which humanity +depends, the various species of the genus +Gossypium have probably more enemies, +and more relentless enemies, than any +other. Besides army worms, cut worms, +locusts, green flies, leaf bugs, blister mites, +and several others, nature has produced +and rendered extremely prolific and +hardy, these two particular pests, the +boll weevil and the boll worm. It is +said that the collective attacks of all +the insects which feed upon cotton cost +the country in the neighborhood of $60,000,000 +every year at pre-war prices. The +little gray beetle that the world knows as +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_42' name='page_42'></a>42</span> +the cotton boll weevil is responsible for +most of this. The mother weevil lays her +eggs in the bud. As the grubs from the +eggs develop, the bud drops. If a weevil +arrives on the scene after the bolls have +begun to form, she lays her eggs in those +with a fine indifference. These bolls will +not drop, but the grubs ruin the cotton +they contain. There +have been numerous +investigations and +experiments made +to develop a variety +of cotton impervious +to the weevil’s +attacks, as well as +to find another insect +willing to meet +him in combat and +overcome him. +Guatamalan cotton +is said to be immune +and efforts +are being made to +transplant it to the +United States. A +small ant-like creature +called a "kelep" +has also been found, +which attacks, kills +and devours the +weevil, but, unfortunately, +the kelep prefers a warmer +clime, and pines away and dies in even +the mild winters of the cotton belt. The +boll worm is very similar to the corn +worm with which all housewives are familiar, +and indeed corn is its favorite diet. +But cotton will do in a pinch, and, next +to the weevil, he ruins more cotton than +any other pest. The boll weevil cost the +country about $25,000,000 yearly, pre-war +prices, and the boll worm about $12,500,000 +yearly, enough to justify an even +greater expenditure for investigation and +eradication than has yet been made. +</p> +<p> +Despite the ravage of insects and diseases, +when a well-tended field of cotton +is ripening, one would think from the +number of bolls per plant, that the owner’s +fortune was surely made. Unfortunately, +the plants shed bolls as well as buds and +flowers, in great numbers. It has frequently +been noted that even well-fertilized +plants upon good, carefully cultivated +soil, will mature only fifteen to twenty +per cent. of the bolls +produced. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/019-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/019.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 669px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Cotton blossoms and bolls at various stages of growth</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The planter will +tell you that he +would be willing to +stand the boll weevil, +the dropped +bolls, the extra cultivations, +and all +the remainder of it, +if he could only be +sure that cotton +which did mature +would be picked +when it should be +picked, and picked +with rapidity and +care. Picking is the +most laborious, as +it is the most picturesque +operation +on the plantation. +Many types of machine +pickers have +been introduced, but there are few planters +who will admit that any of them suits his +particular needs. Now, as a hundred years +ago, the picking is done by hand. It is +a simple operation, so simple that children +ten years old can do it, and women +excel in it. But the best pickers rarely +average more than a hundred pounds a +day, and most of them pull much less. +Careless work plays its part, too, for cotton +is easily dropped from the boll and +soiled or lost altogether. Leaves and twigs +as well as the shell of the boll frequently +cling to the fiber, and are picked with it, +and all these things tend to dirty and discolor +it, and lessen its marketability. It +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_43' name='page_43'></a>43</span> +requires about three pounds of cotton +with the seed in it, as picked, to produce +one pound of ginned or lint cotton. +</p> +<p> +There were in the United States, in +1917, a total of 24,272 ginneries, of which +3,921 were idle. Each active gin produced +an average of 526 bales running bales of +cotton. The number of gins shows a tendency +to decrease every year, not rapidly, +but surely, and this despite the opposite +tendency of the crop. The Whitney gin +of the old days has been improved beyond +the dreams of its inventor. He boasted +that one man could do as much with his +machine as ten men without it. Today’s +gin averages about five bales a day—a +quantity which the negro of old would +find difficult to turn out in a year. +</p> +<p> +To the gin then, which is located either +on the plantation or in the immediate +neighborhood, the mule drawn wagons, +driven by negroes as a rule, bring their +loads of cotton. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/020-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/020.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 547px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Gin bale and compress bale showing reduced bulk of latter</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +As the downy lint, pulled from the tenacious +seeds, rolls into the receiving bin +of the gin, the huge compressors are put +to work. The coarse jute bagging is on +hand, and the steel straps spread out. +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_44' name='page_44'></a>44</span> +The gin balers as a rule turn out a bale +measuring approximately 28 by 56 by 42 +inches, and weighing approximately 500 +pounds including twenty pounds of bagging +and straps. The cotton, in being separated +from its seeds, has lost about two-thirds +of its weight. But the first process +in the long series that manufacturing entails +has been completed, and the cotton +is ready to begin its long journey to the +mill. It is usually carted to the nearest +railroad station, and from there shipped +to the compressing point. +</p> +<p> +The small farmer almost always gets +his money for the cotton as it leaves the +gin. His interest in it, therefore, is ended +when the buyer there pays him the current +price. The cotton is a market commodity +from that time forth. +</p> +<p> +The compress is a large and powerful +hydraulic press, whose function is to force +the loosely packed gin bale into a density +that will make its handling by the railroads, +ships, and warehouses more easy +and economical. The compresses are frequently +owned by the railroads. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Gin Bales and<br />Compress Bales +</p> +<p> +Before being compressed, the bales are +sorted according to grade, and are then +compressed into a smaller sized bale, +measuring approximately 28 by 56 by 18 +inches, with a density of from twenty-eight +to thirty pounds a square foot. It +is this bale which is handled from that +time forth, whether it be for export, for +consumption in Northern or Southern +mills, or whether, as sometimes happens, +it is shipped from place to place as market +conditions change, and the price offered +makes reshipment profitable. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Movement for<br />Improving the Bale +</p> +<p> +It is encouraging to note that the war +brought about, under Government auspices, +a very definite movement for the +improvement of the bale. The proposal +demands the installation of high pressure +baling machines at the gin, capable of producing +a bale with a density of thirty-five +pounds a cubic foot. The trading unit in +cotton is one hundred bales, and such a +compression would mean that one hundred +bales could be loaded into a single +freight car, and shipped directly to the export +point or warehouse. The present +practice requires three cars to carry the +ginnery bales to the compressor, and two +cars to carry the compressed bales to the +port, warehouse, or mill. The saving in +freight and handling is obvious. It needs +only a glance at the photograph of the two +bales side by side to see the possible saving +in waste and "city crop," or tare. The +obstacles in the way of such an improvement +are those which face any revolutionary +change in commercial methods. +Established practice, invested capital, and +the natural conservatism of human nature +militate against quick improvement. +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='VIII_IN_THE_COTTON_MILL' id='VIII_IN_THE_COTTON_MILL'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_45' name='page_45'></a>45</span> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<h3>In the Cotton Mill</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">T</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">HE</span> +manufacture of cotton cloth may +be divided into five departments: +</p> +<table border='0' width='80%' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> +<col style='width:10%;' /> +<col style='width:90%;' /> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +1. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Preparatory processes: Opening, carding,<br /> +combing, and drawing. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +2. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Spinning. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +3. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Spooling, warping, sizing, slashing, entering<br /> +or drawing-in. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +4. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Weaving. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +5. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Converting and finishing, including bleaching,<br /> +mercerizing, dying, printing, and finishing. +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +Before the cotton fiber can be spun into +the yarn from which the cloth is woven, +the bales must be broken open, the impurities +removed, and the fibers arranged +so that they are parallel and contain no +bunches or tangles. Care in these processes +has become more and more necessary +and important as the demand for a +higher quality of cloth, possessing greater +strength and evenness, has been developed. +Hence, some of the most elaborate, +complex, and admirable machinery in the +mill is that devoted to these preparatory +processes. The principle involved is always +that of thoroughly cleaning the material, +then opening it so that every fiber +shall be thoroughly separated from its +fellows, and then straightening out the +fibers, no matter what types of machines +may be used. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Conveying Fiber<br />By Air Blast +</p> +<p> +The heavy laps of cotton are first +thrown directly from the bale into the +breaker, and the cotton is then usually +blown through large pipes from the room +in which the bales are broken to the room +in which the openers are located. +</p> +<p> +The functions of the opener are two. +The first is to clean from the cotton the +dirt and bits of leaf, pod, and foreign substances, +which may have clung to the fiber +as it passed through the gin back on the +plantation. The second is to roll the cotton +into a more or less regular "lap," as +it is called. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Energetic<br />Opener At Work +</p> +<p> +As the cotton goes into the opener +(<a href="#LN_opener">see diagram on following page</a>), dusty +and dirty, it is seized by strong teeth +fastened upon a large cylinder (A), revolving +rapidly, and is flung by centrifugal +force against an iron grid (B) time after +time. Sometimes there is a strong current +of air blowing through the tangled mass, +helping to loosen the particles. The dirt +comes out through the grid and is carried +away, while the lint itself, after being carried +around an indefinite number of times, +gradually works its way along a channel, and +finally out between two large rollers (C), +which compress it once more, so that it is, +in effect, a sheet of batting. This sheet, +or lap, is rolled up in a large roll (G), which +may be two or three feet in diameter, and +is then ready for the first doubling or +blending process. In mills where strength +and evenness of yarn are at a premium, +the sheets from three or four laps may be +fed through another opener, usually called +a "scutcher," which breaks them all apart +again, mixes up the fibers, cleans out more +of the dirt, and produces a more even lap. +</p> +<p> +The cotton, as it comes from the opener +and the scutcher, is much cleaner and +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_46' name='page_46'></a>46</span> +more attractive. It begins to look like +the riches it contains. +</p> +<p> +<a id='LN_opener' name='LN_opener'></a> +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/021-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/021.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 217px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Cross-section diagram of opener</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +To convey the heavy opener-lap from +the opener to the carding room, the more +modern mills are doing away rapidly with +hand-power, and carry the lap on a sort of +travelling mono-rail conveyor. +</p> +<p> +The fibers of the lap which comes from +the opening room are by no means parallel, +but lie in all directions just as they +happened to come from the grid of the +opener. The function of the card is to +straighten them, and at the same time +to remove those which are knotted or +immature and of a length below that required +for the yarn to be spun, and to +take out practically all of the impurities +which may have escaped +in the opening +operations. +</p> +<p> +The principle of +carding is one of the +oldest of textile mechanical +principles, +and all the improvements +that have +been made have +been in developments +rather than +in basic ideas. Hargreaves, +inventor of +the jenny, and Sir +Richard Arkwright +both expended their ingenuity upon it, +the latter seeming to have been the first +to provide a carding machine operated +by other than hand-power. The basic +principle involved is the straightening +out of the fibers by combing or brushing +them with wire brushes or cards. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/022-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/022.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 483px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>"Scutchers" at work</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In the revolving flat card, which dominates +the field today, there are, as a rule, +three principal cylinders. The lap passes +first under the smallest of the three, called +the taker-in, which is covered with very +fine saw-teeth all in one long strip of steel, +wound and fixed spirally in the surface of +the cylinder. The taker-in receives the cotton +from a feed-roller (C) that turns above +a smooth iron plate (D) called the feed +plate. The saw-teeth +comb the fibers +which are imbedded, +so to speak, in the +lap, and deliver the +loose ones to the second +cylinder, which +is the largest of the +group. This main +cylinder is covered +with wire teeth all +bent at exactly the +same angle. The +cotton clings to +them, and is carried +around to the top +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_47' name='page_47'></a>47</span> +of the cylinder, where it is engaged by +teeth on the revolving-flat card which +are bent in the opposite direction. This +"card-clothing" arranged in strip, crosswise +on a travelling lattice, moves in the +same direction as the cylinder but moves +very slowly, and so the fibers are carded +between the two sets of wire points, the +short and immature fibers remaining on +the card wires of the lattice and the +perfect and now almost entirely parallel +ones being carried over from the main +cylinder to the doffer cylinder, the third +of the trio. From this they are removed +by an oscillating comb (F), coming off in +a light, fleecy lap, which is condensed +through a funnel into a soft untwisted +roping, or sliver, about the diameter of +a man’s thumb, and is then coiled into a +can, usually about 45 inches high by 8 +inches diameter. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/023-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/023.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 397px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>View of Modern Motor-Driven Opener Picker</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The conveying of the sliver (pronounced +with a long or short i) into the can is in +itself an exceedingly ingenious operation, +although a very simple one. The device +is attached directly to the card, and is +called a coiler. The sliver passes into it +from the funnel. The hole from which +the sliver emerges is off the center of a +steel plate which revolves slowly, so that +the sliver, as it comes out, has an eccentric +motion which causes it to fall into the can +in regular coils. Tangling is thus prevented, +and ease of handling secured. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Combing Necessary in<br />Spinning Fine "Counts" +</p> +<p> +Combing is necessary in the preparation +of cotton for the spinning of fine "counts" +or coarser yarns where great smoothness +and regularity are desired. They are +now quite extensively used in the United +States, and it is significant of the trend +of the industry here that the number is +rapidly growing. The first cotton comber +was invented by a Frenchman of Alsace +named Heilmann. The patent was issued +in 1845. Now there are on the market +other machines, both English and American, +similar in principle but improved +in many ways. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_48' name='page_48'></a>48</span> +<a href='images/024-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/024.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 501px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Revolving flat cards</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The first of these +preliminary processes +is that which +is done by the sliver-lapper. +The +slivers from 14 to +20 cans are drawn +along side-by-side, +passing between +three pairs of drawing +rollers which +will be described +later. From the +drawing rollers the +slivers now reduced +in size, pass between +two pairs of +calendar rollers +from which they emerge, not as a sliver, of +course, but once more as a lap about a +foot wide. These laps are usually passed +to a ribbon lapper, where six of them are +placed end-to-end, and unrolled simultaneously, +passed between four pairs of drawing +rollers, and then superimposed, one +upon the other, and, calendered once more, +issued as a lap a little less than a foot wide. +This process may be repeated as many +times as the quality of the yarn desired +may require, for +each drawing process +served to +straighten the fibers +and so to render the +thread more even +and capable of finer +spinning. +</p> +<p> +Combing is exactly +what its name +implies. The lap is +actually raked by a +fine-tooth comb +with needle-like +teeth of steel ranging +from 16 to 90 +per inch. This involves +breaking the +lap again and the intricacy of the comber +rests in the mechanism which it employs +for joining the separated ends. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/025-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/025.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 340px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Cross-section diagram of revolving flat card</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Six or eight laps go through the machine +at once, and the product is combined, +condensed, formed into a continuous sliver, +and deposited once more into cans. The +process is not a fast one at best, and the +chief contribution of American inventors +is in the direction of speed. Each nip +combs only +<sup>4</sup>/<sub>16</sub> +to +<sup>4</sup>/<sub>10</sub> +of an inch of fiber. +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_49' name='page_49'></a>49</span> +The Heilman machine made about 85 or +90 nips per minute. The American improvement +makes 130 to 135. The width +of the lap in the American machine is likewise +increased, and the saving in labor, +therefore, is considerable. English improvements +have been in the same direction, +the resultant saving being almost as +great. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/026-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/026.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 437px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Ribbon lappers</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Though many of the processes already +described might be called drawing, in a +sense, insomuch as they involve a continual +lengthening and straightening of the +lap or sliver, yet drawing in the strictest +sense has not yet begun. It may be done +only once, for coarse and cheap yarn, or it +may be repeated a half dozen or more +times to produce the finer and more expensive +products. The frame for each +repetition is slightly different, but several +types may be isolated. They are, in the +order of their use, the drawing frame, the +fly frame, or slubber, the intermediate +frame, and the roving and jack frames. +</p> +<p> +For fine counts the slivers from the +comber, and for other grades that which +comes directly from the card, are taken, +then to the drawing frame. The slivers +from the cans, six or eight in number, are +fed through one aperture, and pass, thus +combined, between several (usually four) +pairs of rollers, so arranged that each succeeding +pair revolves at a more rapid rate +than that which preceded it. The last +pair in the series revolve probably six or +eight times as fast as the first pair. This +combination of rollers pulls constantly on +the more or less irregular slivers, rendering +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_50' name='page_50'></a>50</span> +them always more nearly uniform in diameter +and density, the thickness of one of +the entering slivers serving to counterbalance +the thinness of the other. The drawing +frame consists usually of four or five +"heads," and the sliver, after it passes +through one of these "heads," is put +through a second one, along with other +slivers, so that the doubling and redoubling +goes on constantly. There is an electric +device to stop the machine when a +sliver breaks, either at the back or the +front of the frame. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/027-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/027.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 522px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Combers at work in a mill spinning fine counts</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +From the last head of the drawing +frame, the sliver passes to the fly frame or +slubber, which not only continues the +drawing and doubling, usually between +three pairs of rollers, but through the aid +of a device which gives the sliver a slight +twist and winds it, for the first time, upon +a spindle. This device is known as the +flyer, and is, roughly, a U-shaped piece of +metal, which, revolving, inverted, over the +spindle, gives the thread a slight lateral +twist as it coils upon the spindle. The +latter also revolves, but with a diminishing +motion so that the amount of twist +may be kept uniform as the diameter of +the coil upon the spindle increases. The +sliver, now being twisted, is called a sliver +no longer, but the slubbing. +</p> +<p> +The slubbing is passed between the rollers +in pairs, the emerging product being +less in diameter than the diameter of a +single slubbing. The machine combines +the fourfold process of combination, attenuation, +twisting and winding. There +are more spindles upon this frame than +upon the slubber. +</p> +<p> +The last drawing frame, except for very +fine yarns spun from Egyptian or Sea +Island staples, is the roving frame, similar +in principle to the last two but containing +still more spindles. It receives the rovings +from the intermediate frame, combines +two of them into one, twists them a +little more, and winds them upon the spindle +tubes. The Jack frame is similar except +that its product is finer and smoother. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/028-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/028.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 495px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Sliver lappers in a Northern mill</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is interesting to note, however, that +the majority of improvements have been +the fruit of the brains, not of Americans, +but of Englishmen. Copeland points out +that this may be due to the English desire +to save in the consumption of cotton, but +that more probably it is due to the development +of fine spinning in England, +in which most of the machines here described +are chiefly valuable; and he ventures +the prediction that now that American +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_51' name='page_51'></a>51</span> +mills have definitely gone in for the +finer counts, it may be expected that engineers +here will apply themselves to the +improvement of this machinery. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/029-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/029.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 355px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Drawing frames, turning slivers into roving</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The "Mule" Versus<br />the Ring Spindle +</p> +<p> +Spinning is the final process which turns +the cotton into firm, coherent yarn, sufficiently +twisted, and ready for the loom. +The twist given to the thread by the previous +machines has been only enough to +make the fibers hold together. They are +still comparatively loose and fluffy, and +their tensile strength is slight. +</p> +<p> +There are, in general, two types of spinning +machines. The first, the mule, an +English product. The second, radically +different, is entirely American. It was +invented in 1828 by James Thorpe, and +immediately found some favor, but it was +not until the Civil War that it was received +on equal terms with the mule. Today, +however, it dominates in the United +States, the comparative figures in 1917 +being: ring spindles 30,264,074; mule +spindles 3,634,761. The disparity is growing +greater every year, and the use of the +ring is firmly established in other countries +as well. The figures for 1907 were: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: center'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Mule</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Ring</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +England (1909) +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 39,800,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 7,900,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Germany +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 5,740,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 3,722,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +France +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 4,122,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,481,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Austria +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 2,307,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,277,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Italy +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,015,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,852,000 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +Russia +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,031,000 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 1,320,000 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The mule, by reason of the great size +to which it has been developed, and the +impressiveness of its large, rhythmic +motion, is one of the most formidable of +all cotton machines, as indeed it is one of +the most complex. It received its name +from the fact that, performing two principal +functions—drawing and spinning—it +was regarded as a hybrid, just as the mule +is a hybrid cross between the horse and +the donkey. +</p> +<p> +In the mule (see diagram on page <a href='#page_53'>53</a>), +which is a long and wide machine, carrying +sometimes, in new models, as many as +1,300 spindles, the drawing and twisting +are not continuous but consecutive. The +rovings (B) are held on a creel (A) at the +back of the machine, usually in three or +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_52' name='page_52'></a>52</span> +four tiers, or on long beams or spools. They +pass from the creel, or spools, between +three pairs of drawing rollers (C.) Coming +out of the rollers, they are fed to the spindles +on the carriage which backs away +from the creel and recedes somewhat faster +than the rovings are unwound. This receding +is the essential motion of the mule, +for thus the cotton receives its final drawing. +The spindles, meanwhile, are revolving +rapidly, spinning the yarn. The twist +goes first to the thin places where the least +resistance is offered. Then, as the carriage +carrying the whirling spindles continues +to back away, the thicker parts of +the thread, being comparatively untwisted +are pulled down to the average diameter +and are twisted in turn. The carriage +usually runs back about sixty-three inches. +At the termination of its run, or stretch, +the spindles increase their speed until the +twisting is completed and the carriage +starts on its return trip. This reverses +the spindles, and the thread which has +been wound upon them is unwound, the +slack being taken up by one guide wire (D) +while the other guides the thread to the +winding point, and winds it up in the opposite +direction on the cone-shaped cops +on the spindles. The rollers do not feed +out more roving as the carriage returns. +Hence, there is no slack when the round +trip is completed. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/030-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/030.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 539px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Slubbers, showing the U-shaped flyers</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Except for the use of drawing rollers, +there is little similarity between the mule +and the ring frame. The latter has no +movable carriage, none of the splendid +sweep of motion that makes the mule so +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_53' name='page_53'></a>53</span> +fascinating to watch. The ring-frame is +simple and business-like, and its speed is +amazing. The bobbins holding the roving +are placed directly over the spindles. +Around each of the latter is a steel ring. +There are at least 112 spindles on each +machine, and all the machine rings for +the spindles are fixed in a single frame. +The upper edge of the ring is flanged, like +a miniature railroad track, and snapped +over the flange is a small but important +C-shaped steel ring, called the traveler. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +How Thread is Spun<br />on the Ring Spindle +</p> +<p> +When the machine is in operation (See +diagram on page <a href='#page_56'>56</a>) each roving (H) +leaving its bobbin, runs through the +usual drawing rollers (G) then through a +guiding wire to the ring, where it is passed +through its traveler (B) which is always at +the winding point on the spindle. As the +spindle and the rollers revolve, the roving +is fed out at a considerably slower rate +than the spindle takes it up, so that there +is always a tension on the thread. The +whirling spindle thus pulls on the traveler, +drawing it round and round on its flanged +track (A). It revolves just a little more +slowly than the spindle and thus the yarn +receives its twist. Meanwhile, the frame +(C) on which the rings are fixed moves +slowly up and down, so that the winding +is properly regulated. +</p> +<p> +It is possible to operate the spindles at +a remarkable speed. So perfect are the +bearings which have been evolved that +the average speed is ten thousand revolutions +a minute, and on fine yarns it is +sometimes 12,000 to 13,000 revolutions. +The speed is limited by only two factors: +the first is the ability of the operator to +make splicings when threads break, and the +second is the tendency of the traveler to +fly off when the speed is too high. The +number of travelers consumed is high at +best, and in a mill which has long been in +operation the floor in the front of the +frame is likely to be paved with the little +steel rings which have fallen and been +ground into the planks by the heels of the +worker. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/031-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/031.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 279px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Diagram of mule</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The battle between the advocates of the +ring frame and those who favor the mule +is still on. For the American spinner the +ring has undoubtedly many advantages. +Because it spins continuously, and not intermittently, +it turns out about a third +more yarn per operator. It is usually +admitted, however, that the thread from +the mule is more even in diameter. Advocates +of the mule say, moreover, that the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_54' name='page_54'></a>54</span> +thread from the mule is softer and "loftier", +and that cloth woven from it has a more +"clothy" feel. But others say they can +produce soft yarn with the ring. In the +United States, where the labor cost is a +vital item, the ring-spindle has an assured +place. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/032-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/032.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 370px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Mules at work</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The yarn is now a finished product. It +may be sold by the spinner to the weaver +or it may be woven in the mill in which +it is spun. Before it is ready for the loom, +however, there are +a number of operations +which must be +completed. +</p> +<p> +The yarn from +the ring frame, or +mule, is wound in a +large cop, or on a +bobbin. It must be +put upon spools +before it can be +warped. The spooler +is a simple machine, +but one that +requires constant +attendance. In the +spooler, bobbins are placed upon holders +or spindles, and the thread is passed over +a series of guides to the spool, up above. +The spool revolves at a high rate of speed, +and the thread is wound evenly upon it. +The operator must watch for broken +threads, retie them, replace the empty +bobbins by full ones and see that the +empty ones are gathered up uninjured. +She—the operator is usually a girl or +woman—must be alert and active, and +especially nimble +fingered. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/033-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/033.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 476px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>"Close-up" of Ring Spindle in American mill</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +One of the most +important inventions, +one that was +received with acclaim +by the American +manufacturer, +and one which +actually reduced his +labor cost on spooling +no less than ten +per cent. at one +clip, is a tiny little +thing that is held +in the palm of the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_55' name='page_55'></a>55</span> +hand. This is the Barber knotter. When +a thread breaks, the attendant places the +two ends together in the machine and by +the mere pressure of her thumb ties the +knot much better than she could do it +without the knotter. The economies +which it effects extend beyond the mere +spooling, for better knots mean fewer +breaks in the warping process, and a +better cloth at the end of weaving. +</p> +<p> +The spools from the spooler are placed +on a large frame, called a creel. The +creels have an average capacity of about +600 spools, and there are usually 16 to +20 in one tier. The threads from the +spools are drawn between the dents of an +adjustable reed, then under and over a +series of rollers. From here they are led +down to the beam, upon which they are +wound. The revolving of the beam unwinds +the yarn from the spools and winds +it regularly and evenly upon the beam +itself. There is a device for measuring +the length of the warp wound, and stop +motions for arresting the operation should +a thread break or other accident occur. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/034-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/034.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 427px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Each operator at these spoolers has a Barber knotter on her hand</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The yarn of the warp must usually be +impregnated with a sizing which will +smooth out and stick down its furry surface +and add as well to the tensile strength +so that the strain of weaving may be +withstood. For this the most effective +and most generally used machine is the +slasher, the chief feature of which is a roller, +whose lower side is immersed in the sizing +solution. Threads from the warp beam +are run around this roller through the +solution and then dried, after which it is +finally wound on another beam for the +loom. A considerable number of loom +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_56' name='page_56'></a>56</span> +beams can be filled from one set of the +warper beams mounted in the slasher. +</p> +<p> +The lengthwise threads of a fabric are +called the warp. The crosswise threads +are called the weft or filling. To make +cloth, the warp and +weft must be interlaced +with each other +in a suitable manner. +The operation is +called weaving, the +machine in which it +is performed is, of +course, the loom. The +principal operations +of weaving are as +follows: +</p> +<table border='0' width='80%' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> +<col style='width:10%;' /> +<col style='width:90%;' /> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +1. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Shedding, or the raising +and lowering of +the alternate threads +of the warp, so that +the weft may pass +under and over them. +This is done by means +of the harnesses and +their heddles. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +2. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Picking, or placing a +thread of the weft between +the warp +threads so raised and +lowered by means of the shuttle. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +3. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Beating-up, or pushing, each thread of the +weft into its position close against the thread +which has preceded it by means of the reed. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +4. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Letting-off, or permitting the warp to unwind +from the beam only just as fast as is +needed by the speed of the weaving. This +is accomplished by friction bands and weights +on the warp beam. +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left' valign='top'> +5. +</td><td style='text-align: left'> +Taking-up, or winding upon a roller the cloth +as it is manufactured. +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +In addition to these primary operations, +the loom has attachments +for performing +several other functions, +such as stop-motions +for stopping +the loom when warp +or filling threads +break, or when the +shuttle fails to cross +the loom completely; +temples for holding +out the cloth laterally +as the weaving +proceeds; a mechanism—in +the most +modern looms—for +changing the shuttles, +or the cops in +the shuttles, as the +weft thread on the +cops becomes exhausted, +etc. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/035-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/035.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 726px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Diagram of ring spindle</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The modern cotton +loom, which automatically +removes the filling bobbins without +stopping the loom, is rapidly displacing +the older types, and one weaver can +now attend to a surprisingly large number +of looms, being greatly assisted also +by the automatic warp and filling "stop +motions." +</p> +<hr class='ppg-pb' /> +<div style='margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em'> +<a name='IX_THE_FINISHING_OPERATIONS' id='IX_THE_FINISHING_OPERATIONS'></a> +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_57' name='page_57'></a>57</span> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> +<h3>The Finishing Operations</h3> +</div> + +<p> +<span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:4px;padding-bottom:1px;">F</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">OLLOWING</span> +the manufacture of the +cloth, come the operations necessary to +prepare it for the market. These involve +such treatments as bleaching, printing, +mercerizing, dyeing, and finishing (in the +narrow sense). +</p> +<p> +The number of machines involved in +these various processes rivals the number +which are used in the actual spinning and +weaving operations. +</p> +<p> +Modern bleaching is a highly technical +science, conceived and planned by engineers, +and carried out with elaborate +machinery by skilled workers. +</p> +<p> +Gray cloth, as it comes from the loom, +is of an unattractive color, a dirty grayish +yellow, and contains not only those impurities +which it has picked up on its +journey through the mill but those inherent +in its natural state as well, all +totalling some five per cent. more or less, +of the total weight. In addition there +may be numerous bits of leaf from the +boll which have clung to the fibers through +all the processing, and which appear finally +in the cloth as little brownish specks, +known to the trade as motes. Finally, +there is the sizing which was put into the +warp. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/036-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/036.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 518px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Warping—The creel in the rear</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Bleaching an Intricate<br />Chemical Process +</p> +<p> +In the bleaching of cotton, there is a +series of operations which have for their +object the elimination of the waxy, fatty +matters embodied in the fiber, as well as +any dirt which it may have acquired. +Then, there is the actual whitening and +the bleaching of the cloth which destroys +any coloring matter which it may contain +and finally there are treatments designed +to neutralize the effect of the chemicals +used in the bleaching. Thus, the sequence +of treatments might be: first, boiling in +plain water, which removes certain soluble +substances; next, an extended boiling +in a strong alkaline solution, which saponifies +the waxy, fatty matters in the fiber, +and thus removes them from the cloth +or yarn. Third, a steeping in a bleaching +solution—a solution of chloride of lime +being largely employed for this purpose, +and which treatment is known as the +chemic. Next, after another thorough +washing there is a treatment in diluted +sulphuric acid to neutralize the effects +of the chemic, and finally this is followed +again by another thorough washing with +possibly an additional mild alkaline treatment. +The nature and the method of all +these treatments varies considerably, +and depends upon the character of the +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_58' name='page_58'></a>58</span> +goods being treated, but, at the conclusion, +if all has gone well, the cloth should +be a good white and should not be impaired +in strength. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Singeing Necessary<br />in Some Finishes +</p> +<p> +For a certain class of goods, where a +clean, smooth surface is required, it is +desirable to singe the goods before the +bleaching. This is accomplished by passing +the cloth, stretched out at full width, +very rapidly over heated plates, or +through gas flames, so that the fine hairs +or fuzz are singed off, but the fabric itself +has not had time to take fire. Both sides +may be singed and the goods may be +passed more than once through the flame. +When yarns are singed, the threads are +passed through the flame very rapidly, +being unwound from one set of bobbins +and wound up on another. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/037-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/037.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 600px; height: 454px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 600px;'> +<i>Front view of an automatic loom</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In the dyeing operation the cotton +piece goods pass through a series of machines, +the goods being in rope form as +already explained, so that a number of +pieces can be put into each machine, side +by side. The wash boxes, dye vats, etc. +are equipped with overhead rollers, by +means of which the goods, which have +been sewn end to end, so as to make a +continuous string of them, pass out of the +dye, over the roller and down into the +bath on the other side, continuing to +circulate around thus until the desired +results have been obtained. In addition +to the preparatory washing and boiling, +mordanting and dyeing, there are subsequent +washings to free the goods from +loose coloring matter, and other special +treatments are frequently accorded them. +</p> +<p> +Finishing in its special and restricted +sense, implies a series of treatments, such +as stretching, starching, dampening, drying, +pressing, smoothing, lustreing, glazing, +stiffening, softening, and whatnot, +which are given to them according to +the use to which they are to be put. +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_59' name='page_59'></a>59</span> +</p> +<p> +The printing press is constructed with a +large main cylinder (D), the size being dictated +by the number of colors which it +must take care of. As the printing operation +is a continuous one, there must be a +continuous feeding of the cloth, a continuous +inking of the engraved rollers (C), +and a continuous cleaning off of the unengraved +surface after the inking. +</p> +<p> +Under each roller, where it is fixed in its +place in the press, is a long copper trough +or pan carrying the coloring material, and +in the pan under the roller, and extending +into the coloring matter, is an intermediate +roller known as the "furnisher" +roller, and, as the press revolves, this +covers the surface of the copper roller +with a heavy film of coloring. The surplus +coloring is scraped off as the roller revolves, +by a long, sharp blade or knife, +known as "the doctor," and after the +roller passes this it is quite clean, no coloring +remaining on it except that in the +engraved portion. +</p> +<p> +Each roller has its color pan with its own +color in it. Then, as the cloth (A) passes +between the main cylinder, properly covered +by suitable intervening materials and +the series of rollers, each roller in turn +prints its own color, and, collectively, the +finished pattern is produced. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/038-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/038.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 556px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Diagram of cloth printing machine</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The goods then pass into a drying room +and are afterwards introduced into a +steaming chamber, where they are given a +good steaming at a slight pressure. This +steaming develops the colors and causes +them to impregnate the fibers more thoroughly. +Subsequently, for good work, the +goods should be washed to get rid of the +thickening matters that are mixed with +the coloring, and then the printing appears +in all its beauty. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Printing on<br />Full Ground Colors +</p> +<p> +The foregoing briefly describes the processes +of direct printing. In this case, the +penetration of the colors to the opposite +side of the goods is not very good. If a +solid and full ground color is needed both +on the face and back of the goods, it can +be had either by the "Resist" or "Reserve" +method, or by the "Extract" or +"Discharge" method. In the "Resist" +method, when a white figure is wanted on +a black or colored ground, the goods are +first printed with some substance which +will resist the action of the dye stuffs. +Then, when the goods are dyed, the +treated part does not take the color and +the substance used as a resist is washed +out, and thus a white figure is obtained on +a solid colored ground. +</p> +<p> +In the "Discharge" method, the goods +are first dyed in a solid color, and are +then treated with certain chemicals which +destroy the dyed color wherever they +touch the fabric, these chemicals being +subsequently washed out where they +have been applied, and thus again a white +figure can be had in the colored ground. +By the "Discharge" method, moreover, +colored figures can also be printed on +colored grounds, as certain colorings have +been developed which are not affected by +the discharge materials used, hence, a +whole series of beautiful colors can be +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_60' name='page_60'></a>60</span> +printed on goods previously dyed with +black or colored grounds, each color being +mixed with a suitable chemical for discharging +the ground color, and thus the +colors of the printed pattern come out as +desired. +</p> +<p> +Another important process which is applied +to both cotton yarn and cotton +fabrics is that known as mercerization, +called after "Mercer" an English chemist +who introduced the process. Cotton when +subjected to the action of strong, caustic +alkali contracts violently, but when again +stretched and straightened it is found to +have acquired a distinct silkiness of appearance, +and under the microscope the +twisted ribbon-like fibers of the material—already +referred to—will be found to +have become straight, glossy and rodlike, +just as a bicycle tire would appear after +air was blown into it. +</p> +<p> +Cotton may be mercerized either in the +yarn, warp, skein, or in the piece, the +first being more effective. The best and +most satisfactory results are achieved +when the material treated is made of fine +long staple cotton, either Sea Island or +Egyptian, the shorter cottons being relatively +much less improved by the treatment. +The mercerizing does not diminish +the strength of the material, and gives to +it a greater affinity for dye stuffs. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Internal Organization<br />of Cotton Mills +</p> +<p> +The foremen are specialists in their particular +departments. The warehouseman, +at one end, is a judge of cotton stock, and +the foreman of the weaving room at the +other knows how many automatic looms +may safely be trusted to each weaver on +his staff. +</p> +<p> +In between these two there are, according +to the individual mill, a dozen or more +other foremen, all reporting regularly to +the superintendent, all captains of their +own companies of workers, and all keen, +in the interests of their own reputations, +to operate their departments as intelligently, +as efficiently, and with as little +friction with their individual operators as +possible. For it is generally recognized +throughout the cotton industry that +profitable business depends as much upon +the whole-hearted cooperation of the +wage-earners, as upon any other single +factor. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +The Question of<br />Individual Efficiency +</p> +<p> +As for the operators themselves, they +are so varied, there are so many problems +which they have to face, and such difficulties +which those who employ and direct +them have to solve, that anything like +adequate consideration is impossible. +From the impersonal viewpoint, leaving +out of account the human elements, the +problems of wages, and the correlated +problem of trade organization, there remains +the question of individual efficiency. +It is that which we have chiefly +to consider. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/039-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/039.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 490px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Inspecting finished cloth</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The number of men, women, and children +employed in the cotton mills of the +country has increased at a very high rate, +but there has been an interesting diminution +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_61' name='page_61'></a>61</span> +in the proportionate percentage of +women and children under sixteen years +of age employed. +</p> +<p> +The United States Census of Manufacturers +gives the following figures: +</p> +<p> +AVERAGE NUMBER OF EMPLOYES IN +AMERICAN COTTON MILLS +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Men</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Women</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Children</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +<i>Total</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1870 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 42,790 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 69,637 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 22,942 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 135,369 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1880 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 59,685 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 84,539 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 28,320 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 172,544 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1890 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 88,837 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 106,607 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 23,432 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 218,876 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1900 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 134,354 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 123,709 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 39,866 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 297,929 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1910 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 190,531 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 141,728 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 38,861 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 371,120 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +In percentages these figures express +themselves as follows: +</p> +<table border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' style='margin:0em; margin-left: 10%'> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Men</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Women</i> +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + <i>Children</i> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1870 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 31.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 51.4 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 17.1 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1880 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 34.6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 49.0 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 16.4 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1890 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 40.6 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 48.7 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 10.7 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1900 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 45.1 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 41.5 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 13.4 +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style='text-align: left'> +1910 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 51.3 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 38.2 +</td><td style='text-align: right'> + 10.5 +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The question of nationality has had an +important bearing upon the development +of the industry in the United States. The +constant influx into the country of successive +waves of immigration from the +different countries of Europe has often +served in a decade to change the whole +complexion of the labor question. In the +original New England mills, the employees +were of almost pure English stock. The +sons and daughters of the Yankee farmers +entered the mills, not as a permanent +occupation, but merely as a means of +getting a start in life. +</p> +<p> +Just before the Civil War, the Irish began +to come rapidly, and the actual advent +of that struggle saw a great number of +the remaining natives leaving for the +army, or thrown out of work. When the +fighting was over they did not return, but +the Irish came in even greater numbers. +The next decade saw the arrival of the +French Canadians in the New England +states, and there also came, in quick succession, +natives of Italy, and of the various +states of eastern Europe. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/040-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/040.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 477px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Baled cloth being put aboard waiting freight cars</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This change in the national complexion +had two very important results. It brought +into the country a constant stream of cheap +labor, polyglot, and lacking in homogeneity, +and consequently slow at first to +unionize and strike. This characteristic +brought another in its train—a lack of +stability, and a proneness to transiency. +The second result was hardly less important. +It meant that though labor was +relatively plentiful, much of it was unskilled. +This lack of skill put a premium +upon quantity production, and led to +efforts to develop automatic machinery +and labor-saving devices of all kinds. It +compelled most American manufacturers +to specialize upon the coarser kinds of +yarns and cloths, made in simple weaves +and patterns, in the making of which the +minimum amount of skilled labor was required. +</p> +<p style='text-align: left; margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:0.5em'> +Native Stock<br />in Southern Mills +</p> +<p> +Conditions in the South were somewhat +different. From the beginning, the employes +here have been almost entirely of +native stock. They came from a class +which previously had little opportunity +for any employment of a regular character +<span class='pagenum pncolor'><a id='page_62' name='page_62'></a>62</span> +outside of farming. When the mills +were built these folks were given, for the +first time, an opportunity for continuous +employment. Whole families entered the +mills, fathers, mothers and children serving +in different or in the same departments. +The South at first specialized on +ducks, twills, denims, and such coarse +work. Now, however, there is a growing +tendency to diversify the product. The +reason is found in the increasing capability +of the workers, many of whom have by +now spent many years of their lives in +the mills, and whose fathers before them +were operatives. Unless present conditions +change and the South becomes the +mecca of immigrants—a development +probably less likely now than in the years +before the war—there seems to be a strong +possibility that a class of operatives, rivalling +eventually in skill those of the English +mill towns, will be developed. The +stock is the same, and the latent capabilities +are all there. The determining factors +will probably be the economic changes +of the next few years. +</p> +<p> +A remaining factor in the organization +of the mill is the size of the individual +plant, the number of spindles and looms it +contains, the number of workers employed, +etc. It is in just this particular +that some of the most characteristic developments +of the American industry are +found. About the time of the Civil War, +the average New England mill had less +than ten thousand spindles. Today the +average is probably between fifty and one +hundred thousand, and perhaps nearer the +latter figure than the former. Some of the +mills have nearly, if not quite, a full million +spindles in several buildings. The +average in the South is much less than the +New England average. The industry in +the older section is definitely localized, +even to the extent of having whole towns +devoted almost exclusively to the manufacture +of single grades of cloth. In the +South the mills are more widely scattered, +advantage having been taken of labor supply, +water power, and other conditions. +Local pride has sometimes caused the establishment +of mills in regions economically +unfitted for them. Such mills do not +long survive. The advantage of large +scale production has thus been seized +chiefly by the New England mills, but the +generally lower wages of the South have +tended to equalize the situation. +</p> +<div class='figcenter'> +<a href='images/041-fs.jpg'> +<img src='images/041.jpg' alt='' title='' style='width: 500px; height: 432px;' class='imglink'/><br /> +</a> +<p class='caption' style='margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;width: 500px;'> +<i>Original Whitney cotton gin, preserved in Smithsonian Institute in Washington</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<!-- generated by ppgen.rb version: 2.74 --> +<!-- timestamp: Wed Jun 03 18:29:29 +1000 2009 --> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fabric of Civilization, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FABRIC OF CIVILIZATION *** + +***** This file should be named 29048-h.htm or 29048-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/0/4/29048/ + +Produced by Audrey Longhurst, ronnie sahlberg and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4715eb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/29048-h/images/041-fs.jpg diff --git a/29048-h/images/041.jpg b/29048-h/images/041.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b70caf --- /dev/null +++ b/29048-h/images/041.jpg diff --git a/29048.txt b/29048.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e26bc93 --- /dev/null +++ b/29048.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3368 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fabric of Civilization, by Anonymous + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Fabric of Civilization + A Short Survey of the Cotton Industry in the United States + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: June 5, 2009 [EBook #29048] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FABRIC OF CIVILIZATION *** + + + + +Produced by Audrey Longhurst, ronnie sahlberg and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration: GUARANTY TRUST CO'S COTTON PRICE CHART. +_Spot Prices, New York, Middling Uplands_] + + + + +The Fabric of Civilization + + + + + +A Short Survey +of the Cotton Industry in the +United States + + +Guaranty Trust Company of New York +140 Broadway + +FIFTH AVENUE OFFICE MADISON AVENUE OFFICE +Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street Madison Avenue and 60th Street + + LONDON OFFICES LIVERPOOL OFFICE + 32 Lombard Street, E. C. 27 Cotton Exchange Buildings + 5 Lower Grosvenor Pl., S. W. + +PARIS OFFICE HAVRE OFFICE BRUSSELS OFFICE +1 and 3 Rue des Italiens 122 Boulevard Strasbourg 158 Rue Royale + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1919 + +GUARANTY TRUST COMPANY OF NEW YORK + + + + + The cotton industry touches the lives of + the vast majority of the peoples of the + earth. The ensuing survey does not pretend + to cover the field in all its diversity. It + aims to give, in brief compass, such + general facts concerning the industry in + the United States as may enable the reader + quickly to familiarize himself with its + broader outlines. + + + + +Contents + +CHAPTER PAGE + I The Importance and Power of Cotton 5 + II Where Cotton is Grown and Spun and Why 10 + III The Raw Cotton Market 17 + IV The Cloth Market 27 + V Financing Cotton and Cotton Cloth 33 + VI American Cloth in Foreign Markets 38 + VII Some of the Grower's Problems 41 + VIII In the Cotton Mill 45 + IX The Finishing Operations 57 + + + + +The Fabric of Civilization + + + + +CHAPTER I + +The Importance and Power of Cotton + + +Cotton is the fabric of civilization. It has built up peoples, and has +riven them apart. It has brought to the world vast and permanent wealth. +It has enlisted the vision of statesmen, the genius of inventors, the +courage of pioneers, the forcefulness of manufacturers, the initiative of +merchants and shipbuilders, and the patient toil of many millions. + +A whole library could be written on the economic aspects of cotton alone. +It could be told in detail, how and why the domination of the field of +its manufacture passed from India to Spain, to Holland, and finally to +England, which now shares it chiefly with the United States. The +interdependence of nations which it has brought about has been the +subject of numerous books and articles. + + +Genius that Served +The World's Need + +Nor is the history of the inventions which have made possible to-day's +great production of cotton fabrics less impressive. From the unnamed +Hindu genius of pre-Alexandrian days, through Arkwright and Eli Whitney, +down to Jacquard and Northrop, the tale of cotton manufacture is a series +of romances and tragedies, any one of which would be a story worth +telling in detail. Yet, here is a work that is by no means finished. +Great inventors who will apply their genius to the improvement of cotton +growing and manufacture are still to be born. + +The present purpose, however, is to explain, as briefly as may be, the +growth of the cotton industry of the United States, in its more important +branches, and to endeavor, on the basis of recognized authority, to +indicate its position in relation to the cotton industries of the +remainder of the world. + + +America the Chief +Source of Raw Material + +For the present, and for the future, as far as that may be seen, the +United States will have to continue to supply the greater part of the +world's raw cotton. Staples of unusual length and strength have been +grown in some foreign regions, and short and inferior fibers have come +from still others. But the cotton belt of the Southern States, producing +millions of bales, is the chief source of supply for all the world. + +The following table, taken from "The World's Cotton Crops, 1915," by J. +A. Todd, gives the comparative production of the great cotton-growing +areas, for the 1914-1915 season: + + America 16,500,000 bales of 500 pounds + India 5,000,000 " " 500 " + Egypt 1,300,000 " " 500 " + Russia 1,300,000 " " 500 " + China 4,000,000 " " 500 " + Others 1,300,000 " " 500 " + ----------- + Total 29,400,000 " " 500 " + +The American crop is thus approximately fifty-six per cent. of the +world's total. The other producing countries have shown since the +beginning of the century an interesting, if not a remarkable growth, that +of China being the largest in quantity, and that of Russia, the largest +in proportion. The American increase has been larger, absolutely, than +that of any other region, and there is little indication that it will not +continue to hold first position. + + +English Spinners +Dominate World Market + +In the manufacture of cotton, Great Britain's supremacy, while not so +great proportionately as that of America in growing it, is for the +present not likely to be challenged. The following table of the number of +spindles in the chief manufacturing countries is based on English figures +compiled shortly before the outbreak of the World War. The number of +spindles is the usual basis upon which the size of the industry is +judged. It is not a perfect method, but it has fewer objections than any +other: + + Great Britain 55,576,108 + United States 30,579,000 + Germany 10,920,426 + Russia 8,950,000 + France 7,400,000 + India 6,400,000 + Austria 4,864,453 + Italy 4,580,000 + Latin America 3,100,000 + Japan 2,250,000 + Spain 2,200,000 + Belgium 1,468,838 + Switzerland 1,398,062 + Scattering 2,499,421 + ----------- + Total Spindles 142,186,308 + +Such figures can be only approximate. The war has brought growth in the +United States and in Japan, but has certainly reduced the numbers of +spindles in Germany, Austria, and Russia. It is doubtful, moreover, how +well the French industry has been able to maintain itself. But the +tabulation is accurate enough to show the relative standing of the +various countries. There are, as has been indicated, other standards than +the number of spindles. The United States, through the fact that it +specializes, generally speaking, on the coarser fabrics, uses about +5,000,000 bales of cotton annually, as compared with Great Britain's +4,000,000. The British product, however, sells for much more. Thus the +value of the spindle standard is affirmed. England, then, produces well +in excess of one-third of the cotton cloth of the world; the United +States considerably more than one-fifth of it, with the other countries +trailing far behind, but prospering nevertheless. + + +The Individuality +of the Cotton Fiber + +[Illustration: _The cotton fiber--a highly magnified view, showing the +twist_] + +It is a curious ruling of fate which makes the spinning of cotton fiber +possible. There are many other short vegetable fibers, but cotton is the +only one which can profitably be spun into thread. Hemp and flax, its +chief vegetable competitors, are both long fibered. The individuality of +the cotton fiber lies in its shape. Viewed through the microscope, the +fiber is seen to be, not a hollow cylinder, but rather a flattened +cylinder, shaped in cross-section something like the figure eight. But +the chief and valuable characteristic is that the flattened cylinder is +not straight, but twisted. It is this twist which gives its peculiar and +overwhelming importance to cotton, for without this apparently fortuitous +characteristic, the spinning of cotton, if possible at all, would result +in a much weaker and less durable thread. The twist makes the threads +"kink" together when they are spun, and it is this kink which makes for +strength and durability. + +Though the cotton plant seems to be native to South America, Southern +Asia, Africa, and the West Indies, its cultivation, was largely confined +at first to India, and later to India and the British West Indies. At the +beginning of the eighteenth century, the West Indies, because of their +especial fitness for growing the longer staples were supplying about +seventy per cent. of the food of the Lancashire spindles. The United +States having made unsuccessful attempts to produce cotton in the early +days of the colonies, first became an important producing country toward +the end of the eighteenth century. American Upland cotton, by reason of +its comparatively short staple, and the unevenness of the fibers, as well +as the difficulty of detaching it from the seed, was decidedly inferior +to some other accessible species. The Southern planters who grew it, +moreover, found it next to impossible to gin it properly, the primitive +roller gin of the time being unsuited to the task, and the work of +pulling off the fibers by hand being both tedious and expensive. In 1792, +the amount exported from the United States was equivalent to only 275 +bales. + +[Illustration: _Eli Whitney, the schoolmaster inventor of the cotton +gin_] + +The next year, 1793, is the most important in the history of cotton +growing in the United States. In the autumn of 1792, Eli Whitney, a young +Massachusetts man who had just been graduated from Yale College, sailed +from New York to South Carolina where he intended to teach school. On +shipboard he met the widow of Nathaniel Greene, the Revolutionary +general. Mrs. Greene invited the youth to begin his residence in the +South on her plantation at Mulberry Grove, Georgia. Here one evening, +some officers, late of General Greene's command, were discussing the +great wealth which might come to the South were there a suitable machine +for removing stubborn Upland fiber from its green seed. The story goes +that while the discussion was at its height, Mrs. Greene said: + +"Gentlemen, apply to my young friend, Mr. Whitney. He can make +anything." + +Whitney commenced work on the problem. A room was set aside as his +workshop, and it was not long before he had produced the beginnings of +the gin. He fixed wire teeth in a board, and found that by pulling the +fibers through with his fingers he could leave the tenacious seed behind. +He carried this basic idea further by putting the teeth on a cylinder and +by providing a rotating brush to clean the fiber from the teeth. + +The changes which followed immediately upon the introduction of the +cotton gin were tremendous in scope and almost innumerable. There was a +time, before cotton became a staple, when the South led New England in +manufacturing. That time passed almost immediately. Iron works and coal +mines were abandoned, and men turned their energies from the culture of +corn, rice, and indigo largely to the raising of the cotton. + + +Expansion in +Production + +The following figures, giving production in the equivalent of 500 pound +bales for the year at the close of each ten-year period, give some idea +of the tremendous expansion which ensued. + + _500 Pound + _Year_ Bales_ + 1790 3,138 + 1800 73,222 + 1810 177,824 + 1820 334,728 + 1830 732,218 + 1840 1,347,640 + 1850 2,136,083 + 1860 3,841,416 + 1870 4,024,527 + 1880 6,356,998 + 1890 8,562,089 + 1900 10,123,027 + 1910 11,608,616 + 1917 11,302,375 + +By this table it will be seen that the Civil War and the freeing of the +slaves held up production only temporarily. In 1914, the banner year, the +crop reached the tremendous total of 16,134,930 bales of five hundred +pounds each. + +Some little spinning had been done in the seventeenth century, but in +1787-88 the first permanent factory, built of brick, and located in +Beverly, Massachusetts, on the Bass river, was put into operation by a +group headed by John Cabot and Joshua Fisher. This factory failed to +justify itself economically, chiefly because of the crudeness of its +machinery. But Samuel Slater, newly come from England with models of the +Arkwright machinery in his brain, set up a factory in Pawtucket in 1790. +From that time forth the growth was steady and sure, if not always +extremely rapid. + +The following table,[A] which covers the whole country, relates +particularly to New England in the years before 1880, because the cotton +manufacturing industry until then was largely concentrated there. It +shows how the manufacturing interests of the country profited by the +discovery that brought wealth to the agricultural South: + + =======+=======+============+=========+=============+============== + |_Number| |_Cotton | | + | of | _Number | Used | _Number | _Value of + _Year_ | Estab-| of | in | of | Product in + | lish- | Spindles_ | Million | Employes_ | Dollars_ + | ments_| | Pounds_ | | + -------+-------+------------+---------+-------------+-------------- + 1810 | | 87,000 | | | + 1820 | | 220,000 | | | + 1830 | 795 | 1,200,000 | 77.8 | 62,177 | $32,000,000 + 1840 | 1240 | 2,300,000 | 113.1 | 72,119 | 46,400,000 + 1850 | 1094 | 3,600,000 | 276.1 | 92,286 | 61,700,000 + 1860 | 1091 | 5,200,000 | 422.7 | 122,028 | 115,700,000 + 1870 | 956 | 7,100,000 | 398.3 | 135,369 | 177,500,000 + 1880 | 756 | 10,700,000 | 750.3 | 174,659 | 192,100,000 + 1890 | 905 | 14,200,000 | 1,118.0 | 218,876 | 268,000,000 + 1900 | 973 | 19,000,000 | 1,814.0 | 297,929 | 332,800,000 + 1910 | 1208 | 27,400,000 | 2,332.2 | 371,120 | 616,500,000 + 1918 | | 34,940,830 | 3,278.2 | | + =======+=======+============+=========+=============+============== + + [A] This tabulation includes spinning and weaving + establishments only. + +The North, having this growing interest in an industry struggling against +the experience and ability of the more firmly established English market, +sought naturally for the protection given by a high tariff. The South, +having definitely dropped manufacturing, pleaded with Congress always for +a low tariff, and the right to deal in human chattels. + +There is little need to go further into the rift which began to develop +almost immediately. In 1861 the split occurred. The war between the +States caused hardly more suffering than the blockade which cut off the +spinners of Manchester from the vegetable wool which supplied them the +means of living. Cotton proved its power and its domination. It was a +beneficent monarch, but it brooked no denial of its overlordship. + + +Early Exports +to England Heavy + +The invention of the Whitney Gin, as we have just said, found the United +States able to use but a small part of the cotton grown. What became of +the remainder? Obviously, it was exported to provide the means for +operating the English mills. Here is a table which shows how American +cotton left the Southern ports for England and the Continent in the +alternate decennial years beginning in 1790, three years before the +invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney. The figures are exclusive of +linters. + + _Exports in + Equivalent of 500 + _Year_ Pound Bales_ + + 1790 379 + 1810 124,116 + 1830 553,960 + 1850 1,854,474 + 1870 2,922,757 + 1890 5,850,219 + 1910 8,025,991 + 1917 4,587,000 + +In 1910 American cotton made up almost exactly three-quarters of the +whole amount imported into Great Britain. The other countries of Europe +have developed a spinning industry by no means inconsiderable. American +cotton is sent to almost all those European countries which spin and +weave. + +Such a movement had of course a profound effect upon the currents of +world trade. The cotton crop is the second in value of all the crops +produced in the United States, and such a large part of it is exported +that the credit it gives to its sellers enables them to buy in return +some of the most valuable of the products manufactured in Europe. + +The following table gives the amount of cotton, expressed in the +equivalent of 500 pound bales, exported to the various countries named in +the decennial years: + + ======+=========+=========+========+=======+========+========+========= + |_United | | | | |_Nether-| + _Year_| Kingdom_|_Germany_|_France_|_Italy_|_Russia_| lands_ |_Belgium_ + ------+---------+---------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + 1821 | 175,438| 1,496| 54,878| 1,796| 609 | 8,372| + 1830 | 419,661| 2,246| 150,212| 471| 223 | 17,135| + 1840 | 989,830| 18,317| 358,180| 7,805| 4,406 | 21,698| 25,780 + 1850 | 863,062| 10,090| 251,668| 18,707| 8,677 | 8,590| 25,492 + 1860 |2,528,274| 132,145| 567,935| 54,037| 43,396 | 25,515| 29,601 + 1870 |1,298,332| 173,552| 306,293| 14,549| 30,341 | 17,050| 3,452 + 1880 |2,433,255| 308,045| 359,693| 59,126|204,500 | 65,325| 17,896 + 1890 |2,905,152| 837,641| 484,759|129,751|193,163 | 17,438| 93,588 + 1900 |2,302,128|1,619,173| 736,092|443,951| 54,950 | 74,635| 148,319 + 1910 |2,444,558|1,887,657| 968,422|393,327| 67,203 | 18,823| 102,346 + 1917 |2,387,101| | 658,553|369,213| 15,945 | 10,098| + + + + +CHAPTER II + +Where Cotton is Grown and Spun and Why + + +We have seen (page 5) that the world's cotton crop is produced chiefly by +the United States, with 56%; India, with 17%; China, with 13-1/2%; Egypt +and Russia with 4-1/2%, the remaining 4-1/2% being made up by Brazil, +Mexico, Peru, Turkey, Persia, Japan, and several other countries. + + +Primitive Methods of +Growing in India + +India is the first country wherein, so far as we have record, the growing +of cotton reached the stage of an industry. There conditions are almost +ideal, apparently, for the production of a great crop; yet, for many +years the crop was a small one, and was utilized locally in the domestic +manufacture of the light clothing worn by the people. Nothing remotely +resembling the present modern factory system developed during all the +thousands of years that the Indians had the field practically to +themselves. The plant grown in India for a long time produced a short, +uncertain staple, difficult to gin and still more difficult to spin. The +greater part of the cotton growing districts are still given over to the +short staple varieties (about 3/4 inch) but in recent years certain +varieties of Egyptian and American cotton have been produced with some +success. About 20,000,000 acres are given over to the culture of the +plant, but the methods used are to a great extent primitive in the +extreme. Most of the crop, being unsuited to the needs of the British +spinners, is either manufactured in Indian mills, of which the number is +constantly growing, or exported to Japan. Before the war, Germany was a +large consumer of Indian cotton. + +The figures given as representing the Chinese crop probably are not any +more accurate than the usual statistical figures concerning China. The +Chinese are still largely in the domestic system of manufacture, and much +of their crop--probably a larger proportion than in India--is spun and +woven in the neighborhood where it is grown, without ever appearing in +statistical tables. The methods of growing are equally primitive. The +fiber is short, and the mills of the country import more raw cotton, +yarn, and textiles than they export. + + +The Growing Importance +Of Egyptian Staples + +The Egyptian crop is one of the most interesting, both in the methods +of culture, and in the product. From the point of view of +statistics--remembering the uncertainty of the size of the Chinese +crop--Egypt is the third cotton growing country of the world. This is +the more interesting because it was not until about 1820 that Egypt was +considered as a source of supply. The present area, under extremely +intensive cultivation, is about 1,800,000 acres, and nine-tenths of this +is in the Nile delta. + +Climatic conditions are radically different from those of the United +States. Little rain falls during the growing season, but an elaborate +system of irrigation provides a sufficient and probably more satisfactory +water supply, insomuch as the quantity of water can be regulated, and +there is little danger of either too much or too little moisture. The +regions where the soil is not composed exclusively of the black delta +mud, but is a mixture of sand and mud, produce the best crops. The land, +after being plowed, is thrown up into ridges about three feet apart. +Channels for water are formed at right angles to the ridges. The seeds, +before being sown, in March, are thoroughly soaked, and after the +seedlings appear there is frequent hoeing and watering. The total water +is equivalent to a rainfall of about 35 inches. There is little +cultivation in the American fashion, hand labor being employed almost +exclusively. The result of all this intensive effort is an abundant crop +of long-stapled cotton with an extremely strong fiber, bringing in the +open market a price second only to that of the American Sea Island +variety. Much of the Egyptian cotton is used in the manufacture of +hosiery and other knit goods, sateens, sewing thread, etc., but recently +it has also been found to be exceedingly well fitted for the manufacture +of the fabric used in pneumatic tires, and for the duck or filter cloth +used in such industries as the refining of sugar. + +[Illustration: _Pickers in Delta Field_] + +Russian cotton, so-called, is really grown largely in Turkestan though a +small amount is produced in the Southern Caucasus. The culture has been +under way since very early times, but had little more than local +significance until about 1875 when the Russian Government took steps to +foster it, distributing American seed of the Upland variety, importing +the necessary equipment, and providing instructors, frequently Americans. +Railroads to handle the crop were built, and, with all this favorable +assistance, progress was rapid. About one-third of the cotton used in the +Russian mills up to the time of the war was grown on Russian soil, the +remainder being brought largely from the United States. + + +The American Crop +As the World's Basis + +But the bulk of the world's supply is the cotton grown in the United +States. The price for American Upland Cotton governs the price of the +other varieties. The acreage devoted to the cultivation of the cotton +crop in the United States is approximately 34,000,000. The increase since +1839, when census figures covering this point were first obtained, has +been about seventeen fold. The 1916 acreage, of the various States, +together with figures giving the value of the crop and the comparative +rank, is here given: + + ================+==========+==============+========+=============== + | | _Gross | | _Crop Value + | |Equivalent 500|_Approx-| Including + _States_ | _Acreage_| Pound Bales | imate | Seed + | | Exclusive of |Percent-| and Linters_ + | | Linters_ | age_ | + ----------------+----------+--------------+--------+--------------- + Alabama | 1,977,000| 517,890 | 4.6 | $86,940,000 + Arizona | | 21,737 | 0.1 | 6,300,000 + Arkansas | 2,740,000| 973,752 | 8.6 | 164,840,000 + California | | 57,826 | 0.5 | 9,410,000 + Florida | 183,000| 37,858 | 0.3 | 10,260,000 + Georgia | 5,195,000| 1,883,911 | 16.7 | 322,600,000 + Louisiana | 1,454,000| 638,729 | 5.7 | 102,260,000 + Mississippi | 2,788,000| 905,554 | 8.0 | 152,270,000 + Missouri | 345,000| 60,831 | 0.5 | 10,100,000 + North Carolina | 1,515,000| 617,989 | 5.5 | 103,940,000 + Oklahoma | 2,783,000| 959,081 | 8.5 | 150,270,000 + South Carolina | 2,837,000| 1,236,871 | 10.9 | 207,220,000 + Tennessee | 882,000| 240,525 | 2.1 | 40,130,000 + Texas |11,092,000| 3,125,378 | 27.7 | 495,590,000 + Virginia | 50,000| 18,777 | 0.2 | 3,140,000 + All Other States| | 5,666 | 0.1 | 970,000 + +----------+--------------+--------+-------------- + Totals |33,841,000| 11,302,375 | 100.00 | 1,866,240,000 + ================+==========+==============+========+============== + +There are generally speaking, two kinds of cotton produced in the United +States--Upland cotton, and Sea Island cotton. The former makes up the +great bulk of the crop, the relative percentages in 1917 being 99.2 and +.8. + + +The Constant Search +For Long Staples + +A few years ago the terms short-staple and Upland were practically +interchangeable, but the great demand for long staple, chiefly from the +manufacturers of thread and of pneumatic tire fabrics has led to a +successful attempt to grow the longer fibers in the Upland districts, so +that now more than a million bales annually are being produced in the +Upland districts of cotton with a staple length of 1-1/8 inches and more. +The world's total production of long staple is in the neighborhood of +2,250,000 bales. Egypt is the chief producer outside the United States, +her product being approximately 1,000,000 bales of 500 pounds every year. +Although the product is small, the best Sea Island produced in the United +States grows upon the small islands off the coast of South Carolina. The +long-staple Upland is grown chiefly in the Mississippi delta, where the +product is called "Peeler," "benders," etc., though the percentage of +long-staple produced elsewhere is steadily increasing. The success of +certain Arizona growers in producing long-staple from Egyptian seed is +being watched with great interest. More than 3,000 bales came from this +source in 1916, the fiber averaging 1-1/2 inches in length. There has +recently been developed there, the new and important Pima variety, which +is superior to the native Egyptian cotton, being both longer and whiter, +and the growers are now planting Pima almost exclusively. + +The following table, taken from the Encyclopedia Brittanica, gives the +comparative length of staple of the more important varieties of cotton. +The order in which they are given represents, roughly, their relative +commercial value: + + _Length of Staple + Sea Island Cotton in Inches_ + Carolina Sea Island 1.8 + Florida Sea Island 1.8 + Georgia Sea Island 1.7 + Barbados Sea Island 2. + + Egyptian Cottons + Yannovitch 1.5 + Abassi 1.5 + Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi) 1.2 + + American Cotton + Good Middling Memphis 1.3 + Good Middling Texas 1.0 + Good Middling Upland 1.0 + + Indian Cottons + Fine Tinnevelly .8 + Fine Bhaunagar 1.0 + Fine Amraoti 1.0 + Fine Broach .9 + Fine Bengal .9 + Fine ginned Sind .8 + Good ginned Kumta 1.0 + +The table of the number of spindles in each country in the world, given +on page 6, gives some idea of the relative position of the United States +in the field of cotton manufacturing. We have seen how the English +industry, having the prior start, grew to imposing proportions and helped +to bring about a change almost as great in its effects as the French +Revolution, which was occurring at almost the same time. British +supremacy in cotton manufacturing has never been truly challenged, but +there has been an appreciable growth in several other countries, and in +Germany and Japan, at least, the recent development has been little short +of phenomenal. New figures will probably show that in the future Japan +will be the chief competitor of England and the United States for a share +of the cotton trade of the world. + +[Illustration: _Fall River, Massachusetts_] + + +The Home Market +Created An Industry + +The chief factor in the growth of the American industry was probably not +the nearness of the source of supply, cheap fuel or labor, nor any of +these factors which operated in the case of England, such as climate, +geographical position, and shipping control, but more than anything else +the presence of a market close at hand which grew so rapidly, more +rapidly indeed than the industry could grow to meet it. Aided to some +extent by an import tariff, the manufacturers have weathered some short +periods of depression, but in the main the industry has grown in direct +ratio to the growth of the country. + +[Illustration: _A typical Southern mill_] + + +New England As Home +Of American Spinning + +The cotton mill, as we have seen, early chose New England as its +domicile. Mills are scattered more or less throughout the entire region, +but there are several localities which stand out beyond all others, and +almost deserve the title they have acquired as the centers of the +industry. Premier place for a long time was held by Fall River, and even +now the race between that city and New Bedford is strong, with the lead +slightly in favor of the former city. + +Bristol County, Mass., in which these two centers, and Taunton, are +located, Providence, R. I., and Middlesex County, Mass., together +contained 10,086,686 spindles in 1917, or 29.5% of the country's total of +34,221,252. + +The growth in this one locality is due probably to the advantages which +come with centralization, as well as to the natural advantages they +possessed. These latter, which include particularly water power and a +moist climate, are not as important now, With steam power and mechanical +humidifiers as they were a generation ago. + +In the Middle Atlantic States, the number of plants and the spindlage +have remained about stationary over a long period of years, and are even +showing a tendency to decrease. Small weaving establishments which buy +their yarn are particularly numerous around Philadelphia, and there are +large cotton duck mills in and near Baltimore. + + +Mills in the Midst of +Cotton Plantations + +It has been in the South, however, that the growth of the cotton +manufacturing industry in the last few decades has been most phenomenal. +In 1860 there were 324,052 spindles in the cotton growing States compared +with 8,632,087 in New England. In 1917, the figures were: Northern +States (including Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and +Vermont), 19,835,662 spindles devoted to the spinning of cotton +exclusively; Southern States (including Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, +Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, +and Virginia), 14,292,918 spindles devoted to cotton exclusively. + +The census figures do not give the number of spindles in each city except +when the confines of the city and of the county happen to coincide. But +the appended table is presented as showing the spindlage of counties +having more than 100,000 spindles devoted to the spinning of cotton. + +About 1880, the Southerner saw the opportunity that awaited him when he +should manufacture his own cotton. At that time he was consuming only +188,748 bales, while New England took 1,129,498. In ten years, he was +utilizing more than half a million bales, while New England had just +passed the million and a half figure. In 1905, the South consumed +2,140,151 bales, while New England had climbed to only 1,753,282. The +figures are Scherer's, who points out that the race was won in +twenty-five years. However, as competition with the South increased, New +England, following the earlier lead of Old England, has tended always to +produce a finer and finer quality of cloth, leaving the coarser grades of +sheeting, drills and ducks to the Southern mills. Thus, while the South +is consuming an ever larger proportion of the cotton crop, she is still +far from receiving for her product the money that comes to the New +Englander, who with a higher grade of labor and greater variation of +output is constantly catering, with dress fabrics and fine stuffs of +various kinds, to a discriminating well-to-do patronage. + + _Spindles + _County_ (Number)_ + Bristol, Mass. 7,294,221 + Providence, R. I. 1,709,713 + Middlesex, Mass. 1,082,752 + Hillsborough, N. H. 907,245 + Spartanburg, S. C. 831,476 + Windham, Conn. 780,232 + Worcester, Mass. 766,110 + Greenville, S. C. 758,144 + Essex, Mass. 645,020 + Hampden, Mass. 642,096 + Gaston, N. C. 603,102 + Kent, R.I. 594,380 + Anderson, S. C. 582,464 + Berkshire, Mass. 521,408 + New London, Conn. 512,170 + Oneida, N. Y. 419,255 + York, Me. 408,600 + Androscoggin, Me. 402,471 + Muscogee, Ga. 346,740 + Pittsylvania, Va. 346,320 + Union, S. C. 330,656 + Strafford, N. H. 318,160 + Cabarrus, N. C. 315,810 + Mecklenburg, N. C. 272,198 + Guilford, N. C. 262,862 + Richland, S. C. 244,660 + Essex, N. J. 232,291 + Albany, N. Y. 226,564 + Madison, Ala. 225,168 + Greenwood, S. C. 217,744 + Pickens, S. C. 211,320 + Bristol, R. I. 210,488 + Hampshire, Mass. 198,792 + York, S. C. 198,404 + Fulton, Ga. 198,016 + Aiken, S. C. 193,989 + Laurens, S. C. 193,312 + Richmond, Ga. 192,914 + Rockingham, N. C. 191,810 + Durham, N. C. 172,532 + Newberry, S. C. 168,040 + Chambers, Ala. 164,000 + Cherokee, S. C. 163,820 + Kennebec, Me. 163,815 + Alamance, N. C. 153,176 + Knox, Tenn. 152,100 + Lancaster, S. C. 151,768 + Richmond, N. C. 149,748 + Chester, S. C. 146,692 + Stanley, N. C. 146,000 + Rutherford, N. C. 143,400 + Calhoun, Ala. 138,048 + Troup, Ga. 136,204 + Floyd, Ga. 126,264 + Cleveland, N. C. 125,182 + Cumberland, Me. 124,392 + Spalding, Ga. 121,252 + Talladega, Ala. 115,448 + Philadelphia, Pa. 114,547 + Merrimack, N. H. 113,316 + Davidson, N. C. 110,564 + Baltimore City. 106,008 + Halifax, N. C. 104,116 + Hall, Ga. 102,588 + +The wealth of the world--at least up to the time of the Great War--was +constantly increasing and while there is little likelihood that the +demand for the coarser grades of goods will fall off, the need for finer +stuffs, not only in the United States, but abroad, is constantly growing. +The greatest development of the South is probably still to come. + +The locations of the world's cotton markets have been dictated by the +location of the growing fields and the manufacturing centers. Thus we +find that the great raw cotton markets of the United States are in New +York and New Orleans. In Europe they are at Liverpool, Bremen and Havre. +Because of conditions imposed by the German government, the Bremen market +is largely dependent upon New York and Liverpool. The other great world +market is that of Alexandria, which, although it handles but a +comparatively small part of the world's crop, is important on account of +the quality of the staple which makes up the Egyptian bale. + +The two chief American markets, New York and New Orleans, are sharply +differentiated. The New Orleans market is a true trader's market. The +great bulk of the sales made on the New Orleans floor are bona-fide +sales, in which cotton actually changes hands. The New York market on the +other hand is a merchants' and manufacturers' market, in which business +transactions are protected against loss by the purchase or sale of +"futures", though, of course, there is always a large amount of +speculating. Delivery is rarely demanded. The function of the exchange, +therefore, is largely that of insurance. The intricacies of this market +will be discussed later. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +The Raw Cotton Market + + +Because of the ramifications of the cotton industry, the cotton itself, +on its devious way from planter to consumer, is successively the concern +of a series of individuals and corporations. The immense value of the +product, the expense of growing, handling, manufacturing, and selling it +all mean that great quantities of capital are utilized in bringing it at +last to its final consumer. At any stage of the process, cotton +represents no inconsiderable part of the nation's wealth, and to expedite +its journey, merchandising and financial methods of a highly specialized +technique have been developed. There are two very clearly marked stages +in this process. The first has to do with the raw cotton, as it goes from +planter to mill. The second has to do with the journey from mill to +consumer. The first is usually called the Raw Cotton Market, and the +second the Cloth Market. + +The planter begins his work early in the spring. His crop is dependent +upon his ability to secure and pay for the labor to work it, for the +tools and machinery which are used, and his own expenses. Small planters +are rarely sufficiently in funds to enable them to go through the growing +season without financial assistance. They must borrow money, and they +usually borrow it with the growing crop as a basis. + + +The Local Grower +And the Charge Account + +They may borrow from the country merchant in the town near which their +plantations are located. Credit here is usually furnished through the +"charge account" system, whereby the merchant supplies the planter's +wants for the growing season, even to the extent of giving credit to his +farm hands. Tenant farmers live almost entirely on credit furnished by +the store-keepers of the vicinity. When the picking season begins, in +July, August, or September, according to the region concerned, the +merchant, in lieu of money, may take the cotton as it comes from the +gins, crediting the grower thereof at the market price. The cotton thus +accumulated is sold to local buyers, or, occasionally, to shippers or +exporters. In the case of the larger plantations, or groups of +plantations operated by syndicates or corporations, the cotton is +frequently shipped direct to the mill or, more often, to a warehouse. The +larger producers, instead of getting their credit from the local stores, +as their tenant farmers do, are financed either by their banks, or by +their buyers, who in turn are financed by their bankers. + + +The Street Buyers +Of Texas Towns + +In some districts, particularly in Texas, there is the small or local +buyer, usually called a "street buyer," who operates in the smaller +towns, buying his cotton at the gins in lots of from one to ten bales, +either from the small planters, or from the country merchants. This +buying gives a certain concentration to the crop, and enables the larger +buyers to deal in lots of comparatively uniform quality from certain +regions, the general type of whose product is known. + +[Illustration: _Street buyer in a Southern town_] + +Cotton bought from the planters or from the country merchants is almost +invariably paid for in cash. + +Cotton is frequently sold at the compress point, rather than at the gin, +this course being pursued in the case of large producers, or when the +original buyer is a mere local operator. One of the most important +operations, commercially as well as industrially, is the grading of +cotton, which takes place as a rule at the compress point under the +supervision of the buyer, who employs experts for this purpose. Cotton +mills as a rule operate on certain specified grades of cotton, and any +deviation from this grade means either a readjustment of machinery or +disgruntled and dissatisfied employes, or, perhaps, an inability to fill +an order for cloth of certain types. The manufacturer will usually refuse +to accept any grades save those he has specifically commissioned the +buyer to obtain for him. The actual grades, and the terms describing them +have been established by the United States Government, and are rigidly +adhered to by the trade. Prices are established on the grade known as +"middling" as a basis, and variation from this basis is taken up in the +price. + + +Standardization of +American Cotton Grades + +The grades, for white cotton, as established by usage and confirmed by +Governmental standardization are: + + Middling Fair Strict Low Middling + Strict Good Middling Low Middling + Good Middling Strict Good Ordinary + Strict Middling Good Ordinary + Middling + +For yellow tinged stock the grades are: + + Strict Good Middling Middling + Good Middling Strict Low Middling + Strict Middling Low Middling + +For yellow stained and blue stained there are only three grades quoted, +good middling, strict middling, and middling, the inference here being +that stained cotton below the basic grade, is unsuited for most +commercial purposes. + +With cotton selling around thirty cents a pound, the difference between +the cost per pound of middling fair, the highest market grade of white +cotton, and good ordinary, the lowest market grade, may amount to twelve +or thirteen cents. The value of the shipment, and its use as a basis for +credit, is dependent upon its proper classification. + +The large cotton buyers purchase for the account of mills, for exporters, +or for clients abroad. They are usually firms of strong financial +standing, and as we have seen, they are bankers or factors themselves, +financing growers or small buyers during the growing of the crop, and the +first concentration of the cotton. But when the large movement of cotton +is on, it is frequently necessary that they, like the local banks, must +be financed in order that they may execute their orders, or, as is +frequently the case, accept cotton sent to them on consignment. Cotton +sent on consignment must be stored until a market is found for it, and in +order that proper storage facilities may be supplied, the provision of +suitable warehouse facilities is an important matter. + + +Warehousing as +Industry's Great Need + +Until recently, warehousing in its relations to the textile trade, had +not been developed to the extent which might have been expected in those +methods which would make it of the greatest use and advantage to textile +interests. By means of the facilities which could properly be afforded by +warehouses, manufacturers, or merchants should be able, at times of +favorable markets, to lay in large stocks of materials, and to finance +them safely and easily. + +Today, this need is being met in constantly increasing measure by the +Independent Warehouses, Inc., affiliated with the Textile Banking Co., +and having, like the latter, the support of the Guaranty Trust Company of +New York, and the Liberty National Bank of New York. + +Modern warehouses of approved type, with all requisite facilities, will +be established by this company at various ports of entry throughout the +country, as well as at the important concentration points in the cotton +belt, and also in the great textile manufacturing centers. + +[Illustration: _Weighing cotton on the compress platform_] + +Thus it is seen that the cotton merchant has an important economic +function to perform. His is the duty of gathering up the great aggregate +of cotton, from all parts of the cotton belt, and distributing it in +exactly the quantity and grade needed to the cotton manufacturers of the +world. In the performance of this function, and in order that the supply +of cotton may be fed out exactly as it is needed by the manufacturers, +the cotton merchants have found it convenient, and even necessary to +establish great common markets where they may meet and enter into the +transactions with each other and the whole world which are necessary to +bring the cotton into the channels of commerce and keep it moving to its +multitudinous destinations. These markets are in addition to the numerous +local markets where the preliminary concentration takes place, and to +some extent they are subsidiary to the latter, where the cotton of the +actual quantity and quality they are seeking is to be had in the first +instance. Yet it is the great markets which establish the prices, for it +is they which are in close and immediate touch with all the other markets +of the world, and it is on their floors that the merchants and brokers +meet who deal in great quantities. It is their connection with the +numerous sources of information which gives these great markets their +importance, for it is they which register immediately and most accurately +the resultant of the sum total of all the economic forces which +determine the price. + +[Illustration: _The New York Cotton Exchange_] + +The great cotton markets of the world are those of New York and New +Orleans, in the United States; Liverpool, in England; Bremen, in Germany; +Havre, in France; Alexandria, in Egypt; and Bombay, in India. There are +differences between these markets which give a greater importance to some +of them. Bremen, which serves a large territory, operates under +governmental restrictions which make it necessary for Bremen merchants to +deal in other markets as well. Havre serves chiefly the needs of France, +which is not one of the large cotton consuming countries. Alexandria +deals only in Egyptian cottons, and Bombay, whose dealings are confined +mostly to the native staples, has neither the responsiveness nor the +completeness of the remaining markets. Thus, by elimination, the three +great markets of the world, wherein cotton of all kinds is dealt in, and +all forms of transactions in it are common are those of New York, New +Orleans, and Liverpool. To these, the cotton world looks for guidance +from day to day. The prices established on their several floors are the +prices of the world. + +[Illustration: _Cotton train going from gin to compress_] + +The Liverpool Exchange, under different names, has existed since 1841, +having taken approximately its present form in 1870, in the attempts to +stabilize conditions after the great speculative period which resulted +from the American Civil War. The New York and New Orleans Exchanges were +both organized the following year. The uniformity of rules and practices +in the trade which resulted from the establishment of the exchanges have +been of inestimable benefit to the industry and to the world, and this +despite occasional abuses, which have usually been corrected as methods +for correction have been evolved. + + +Spot Markets and Those +Which Deal in "Futures" + +The New Orleans Cotton Market, and those of lesser cities, are largely +spot markets, that is, the dealings which takes place in the Exchanges at +those points involve the actual transferring of cotton which is on hand, +or, at least, contracted for. The New York market deals preponderantly +in what are known as contracts for future delivery, or, in the language +of the Exchange, "futures." The Liverpool Cotton Market is both a great +"spot" cotton market, and a great "futures" market. The striking thing +about these "futures" contracts is that but few of them are fulfilled by +actual delivery. + +The question then arises, what function is fulfilled by the New York +Exchange that it should have such an important place in the cotton +market? To the uninitiated the speculative features of the market have +often served to condemn it, and at times of speculative fever, or of +manipulation such as has occurred on one or two occasions, there has been +public agitation calling for legislation against dealing in futures. Yet +the New York Exchange performs a very definite and valuable service, and +its trading methods have served to stabilize the whole industry, and to +remove from it much of that very speculation which is frequently charged +against the Exchange itself. + +The justification of the Exchange is found in the fact that the futures +contracts common on its floor afford the cotton merchant and manufacturer +a chance to insure themselves against losses occasioned by fluctuations +in the market. The method by which this is done is called hedging. + + +Why the Merchant +Must Hedge His Sales + +For the cotton merchant, the situation as it develops is approximately +this: buying, as he must, all grades and quantities of cotton, he may +have an immediate market with the spinners whom he serves for only +certain of these grades, and thus may have left on his hands a large +supply of cotton of other grades which came to him in his purchases which +he has no call for at the time. These "overs" are subject to the risk of +a decline in value unless the merchant can find some way to protect +himself. Nor is this risk the only one run by the cotton merchant. The +spinners frequently contract for months ahead for the output of their +mills, and it is part of the merchant's task to see that the cotton is +available at a contract price when the spinners are in need of it. Such +contracts for future deliveries are not only common but customary. If it +were impossible for the spinner to make such contracts, it would, of +course, be impossible for the weaver to make future contracts for the +delivery of cloth. Such a condition unsettling the distributing markets, +would be intolerable. Hence, the necessity of future contracts between +merchants and spinners. The situation would otherwise be a very difficult +one for the merchant whose supply of cotton, and the price he must pay +for it, are subject to the vagaries of nature, which may grant a +bountiful crop one year, and a short and inferior one the next, with +consequent fluctuations in price sufficient not alone to wipe out his +profit but his capital as well. + + +The Hedge As a +Credit Transaction + +Hedging, as has been said, affords the protection, against serious loss +which these varying conditions make probable. + +"It may almost be said," observes Arthur R. Marsh, former President of +the New York Cotton Exchange, "that as the main business of banks today +is not dealing in money, but in credits, so the main business of the +cotton exchanges is now in credit transactions in cotton, toward which +the actual cotton 'on the spot' stands in much the same relation as the +money in the banks to the sum total of their transactions in credit. It +serves as a reserve at once for the satisfaction of unliquidated credit +balances and for the maintenance of sound credit values in all the credit +operations." + +Elsewhere, Mr. Marsh describes the hedging process in these words: "A +hedge is the purchase or sale of contracts for one hundred or more bales +of cotton for future delivery, made not for the purpose of receiving or +delivering the actual cotton, but as an insurance against fluctuations in +the market that might unfavorably affect other ventures in which the +buyer or seller of the hedge is actually engaged." + +[Illustration: _The floor of the New York Cotton Exchange_] + + +How Merchants Secure +Protection by Hedging + +The cotton merchant, in making a hedge, would proceed in this fashion. +Having made an actual sale of cotton to a spinner for future delivery, +the price being fixed according to current quotations in New York for +deliveries to be made in the month specified in the contract, he would +buy futures for a corresponding amount of cotton on the New York Cotton +Exchange. + +If the price of cotton should have advanced when the time for the +delivery of the actual cotton comes, he will be able to sell his futures +contract at a higher price, thus offsetting the loss sustained upon the +deal in actual cotton. Or, if he prefers, he may hold the "futures" +contract until its maturity and sell it at the then prevailing figure. +The first course would be the customary one for a bona-fide merchant, +whose sole concern is protecting himself against loss by fluctuations in +price. + +If, on the other hand, cotton should fall before the merchant bought to +fulfill his actual contract, he would make a profit upon his sales to the +spinner. He would, however, suffer a loss upon his futures contract, for +the seller would be able to purchase the cotton to fulfill the contract +at a lower point than the contract called for, and would consequently be +able to deliver to the merchant who made the hedge, cotton which the +latter would be forced to accept at a price higher than the then +prevailing one, and thus again the profit and loss would balance each +other. The usual custom is, not for the merchant to accept delivery, but +to pay over to the seller of the futures contract the difference between +the contract price and that prevailing. This would be just the difference +between his own purchasing and selling price in his actual dealing with +the spinner, and so would eliminate the profit, due to change in price, +made in that transaction. Thus, by the hedging process, the merchant +loses a possible profit on a falling market, but at the same time fails +to suffer a loss when the market is against him. + + +Hedging as Practiced +By Cotton Manufacturers + +The manufacturer's hedging is necessarily somewhat different in practice, +though the same in principle. If he accepts orders for cloth requiring +more cotton than is being held in his warehouse, he may buy futures +contracts to the amount of the additional cotton he will need. Then in +the event that his actual purchase of cotton may be at a figure which +would tend to reduce or eliminate his profits on the sale of the cloth, +already fixed by contract, he may sell his futures contract at a +corresponding profit, thereby preventing loss. Should the price of cotton +fall in the interim, his profit on the sale of the cloth will be larger, +but the settlement of his futures contract will be expensive to the same +extent. Thus he sacrifices the chance of a greater possible profit in +order to be insured against loss. + +[Illustration: _Compress bales bound for New Orleans_] + +It is probably more common for the cotton merchant to hedge than for the +manufacturer to adopt that proceeding. The manufacturer, as a rule, has +been accustomed to buy his cotton during the buying season, that is, in +October, November, December, and January, and he makes his arrangements +with his selling agents on the basis of the price paid, trusting to his +own judgment, and the comparatively small fluctuations in the price of +cloth in normal times, to protect him against loss. It is usually +believed that the Southern mills, being newer, and frequently of a +different financial standing, have found it more desirable to have +recourse to this form of insurance than their older competitors in the +North. Then, too, the rapid development of the cotton warehousing system +has made it less necessary for the manufacturers to tie their money up in +great quantities of cotton, as they can buy when the market appears +favorable. + + +Protection for Mills +Running for Stock + +A very important point, however, and one which all manufacturers would do +well to consider carefully is the protection which a "futures" market +gives to a manufacturer making plain goods for stock, particularly on a +falling raw material market, which, of course, would also mean a falling +goods market. To stop the mill because values were falling would be +impossible without utter disorganization, and its attendant heavy loss, +while to keep on manufacturing stock goods with a certainty that they +would be worth less each succeeding month is a disheartening prospect for +the mill. + +If, however, the manufacturer sells "futures" for the succeeding months +to the extent of the cotton which he would require each month to +manufacture the goods, he can run his machinery as usual and have a +perfectly free mind, as he has safeguarded himself against any loss due +to a falling value of the raw material. Suppose, for instance, the cotton +market fell off, say one cent a pound each month, with a corresponding +fall in the value of the woven goods. In such an event, the manufacturer +could, as each month arrived, buy a contract for an amount corresponding +to what he had sold, and at a proportionately less price, thus making a +profit on the "futures" which he had sold to an extent which would +correspond, approximately, to the smaller value which his manufactured +goods would then have in the market. Thus the profit on the one side +would take care of the loss on the other. If the market rose instead of +falling, he would make a loss in replacing his futures contract, but his +goods would then command a higher value, and again no loss would be +experienced. + +This method of hedging is the regular and standard practice of the +English cotton mills, and, of course, of many of our domestic mills, but +there are some manufacturers who, through their unfamiliarity with the +operations of the futures market, are quite unaware of the protection +which they thus have at hand. + + +The Responsiveness of +the Great Exchanges + +The great exchanges, and the New York Exchange in particular, are thus +used by cotton merchants and manufacturers in every part of the world to +protect themselves in their buying and selling operations. The value of +middling cotton in New York is kept upon par with the value of the same +cotton in any growing or manufacturing point, such factors as freight, +insurance, brokerage, etc., being allowed for in the quoted price. +Quotations on the Liverpool Exchange are thus higher than quotations in +New York by the difference between the amount it costs to deliver cotton +in Liverpool and to deliver it in New York. Thus the merchant and +manufacturer is able to buy and sell hedge contracts on the New York +Exchange, knowing that operations at the New York price in New York are +on a parity with operations at the Liverpool price in Liverpool, or at +the Havre price in Havre. Thus the hedge contract which a Southern +merchant sells in Atlanta, through his broker on the New York Exchange, +may be bought by a spinner in Tokyo or Manchester, anxious to insure his +supply of cotton at a price which would make his contracts profitable. + +In normal times the selling of merchants and the buying of manufacturing +engaged in actual and bona fide hedging transaction has been estimated by +competent authorities to make up fully seventy-five per cent. of the +trading done on the New York Exchange. The remaining twenty-five per +cent. may thus be attributed to speculative operations, that is +operations entered into by outsiders through brokers, on the chance of a +rise or a fall in the market. Nor is such speculation without its value. +It is the speculators, as a rule, who are the first to take advantage of +crop reports or weather conditions, or news likely to affect the market +favorably or unfavorably, and buy or sell as their judgment dictates. +Their operations serve to discount such changes to some extent, or at +least to make the breaks and rises more gradual than they would otherwise +be. + +In abnormal times, that is times of great scarcity and great demand, or +bumper crops and small demand, the speculative element plays a larger +part, for it is in such times that the greatest fluctuations in price +take place. Merchants or manufacturers holding hedging contracts are +under a greater incentive to buy or sell, as they see their opportunities +for profit growing greater or less, as the case may be, and in +consequence more contracts are made, and they pass from hand to hand with +greater rapidity, the gain or loss thus being distributed among a greater +number of persons than would otherwise be the case. It is the operations +of speculators, and the manipulation that once or twice during its +history has been possible by unscrupulous traders which has brought about +at such times public agitation for the abolition of the Exchange. Recent +changes in the form of the cotton contract have made it almost impossible +for such operations, if repeated, to be successful, and thus there is +little likelihood that the very important economic function of the +Exchange will be interfered with by legislation. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +The Cloth Market + + +The output of the manufacturer finds its way to the ultimate consumer +through a variety of channels. What these are will depend upon the manner +in which the various mills are organized, and their respective policies +as to the marketing of their products. Some mills, usually very large +organizations, will have plants completely equipped, in every department, +spinning, weaving, dyeing, printing, finishing, etc., and will process +all of their goods themselves in every detail, offering them on the +market in their finished form. Some of these may make a wide variety of +fabrics suitable for one class of trade, or for many classes of trade, +while others will specialize on a few articles. A good many concerns that +are not of the largest size, but which confine their production to a few +articles, may also put the goods through every operation themselves. + +Then there are a great number of cotton mills, many of them of very large +size, which do no weaving at all, but confine themselves to spinning, +finding a market for their yarns with the many weaving mills which have +no spinning plants. + + +Many Large Mills +Do No Finishing + +Numerous mills, both large and small, manufacturing, principally, goods +of a staple grade, which may either be of fine or coarse character, sell +their entire product in the gray, or unfinished state, because they do +not wish to burden themselves with the task of putting the goods through +the various finishing treatments necessary to fit them for the market. +This method of disposing of the product appeals to many for it reduces +the manufacturing operations to the spinning of the yarn, and to the +weaving of the cloth. The owners or managers of the mills may have had no +experience outside of these branches, and if they themselves were to +attempt to finish, or "convert," the goods they would be entering strange +fields. + +Whatever method of merchandising may be adopted, it is certainly obvious +that the product of large mills is so great that it must be disposed of +in a large way, and hence various channels of outlet have grown up to +satisfy the requirements of the case. + + +Dealing Direct With +Dry Goods Jobbers + +A substantial portion of the output of the mills (but nothing like what +it was years ago, and it grows relatively smaller every year), is +disposed of directly to dry goods jobbing houses, and by them to retail +dealers, who sell it by the yard to the consumer. This practice was +formerly more widespread, but has diminished greatly in recent years. A +further enormous yardage passes eventually through the cutting-up houses, +which manufacture garments of every kind, from overalls to pajamas, or +from raincoats to shirts, and dispose of their products to distributors, +who eventually sell them to the public. Then there are retailers whose +requirements for goods of particular kinds are so considerable that their +orders are of sufficient magnitude to warrant the mills in dealing with +them direct. + +Again, there are the great mail-order houses, with a gigantic annual +turnover, whose catalogues go to every part of the land, and which +handle great quantities of piece goods, as well as made-up garments, and +whose custom is eagerly sought for. + +[Illustration: _Thousands of looms in a single room_] + +Other mills make fabrics suitable for use in the military and naval +establishments of the country, and in other public channels, and which, +in selling these fabrics, will deal directly with the Government, or +indirectly through intermediaries. + +In addition to these, and other domestic outlets, there is a great +quantity of goods produced for export, which are handled through houses +specially organized for that trade. + + +Merchandising by +Dry Goods Jobber + +One of the oldest established agencies for handling mill products is the +dry goods jobber, and it is to be remarked that many large retail houses +do also a substantial jobbing business, though generally less so in +cottons than in other classes of fabrics. The jobber will buy finished +products from those mills which sell goods in that state, and will also +buy large amounts of gray goods. These he will sell principally to retail +distributors, but his transactions, in addition, will extend into a +multitude of channels, and, he will deal with small garment manufacturers +and makers of all kinds of wares, and will also sell considerable +quantities to the larger cutters when they are unable, for one reason or +another, to buy direct from the mills or from the converters. There are +also numerous small jobbing concerns which buy substantial quantities +from the larger jobbers as occasion may require. + +One of the greatest avenues of outlet is through a class of dealers known +as converters, and there are converters operating in every kind of fabric +from cotton to silk. In the last forty or fifty years, this business has +developed into immense proportions, and the converter performs a real and +important service in the trade. He is intimately acquainted with the +needs of his customers, and possesses a fair knowledge of the kinds of +goods put out by the various mills and the different constructions in +which they are sold, and is well acquainted with all of the market +dyeing, finishing, bleaching, and printing concerns, having also a fair +understanding of the various treatments accorded to the goods. He buys +his goods in the gray from the mills, and sends them to the finishers, +printers, etc., to be treated, according to his instructions. By a +careful studying of the fabric constructions, and of the subsequent +treatments, he is able to create fabrics of a suitable and marketable +character, which are in some respects different from those offered by any +of his competitors, and which are brought out with an exact knowledge of +the requirements of the trade to which he is catering. He is able to make +a profit, and generally a very substantial one, by handling the goods in +this way. + +Considerable capital is required by the converter, as goods bought in the +gray have to be paid for on practically a cash basis, and he may have to +carry them for a time before they are finally marketed. The converter +sells to the cutting-up houses, to jobbers, and to retailers, or, in +fact, to whatever trade he seeks. Large and profitable businesses have +thus been built up. Many converters have adopted their own distinctive +trade marks, and since the goods that they handle are known by these +trade marks, the identity of the mill which made them originally is often +entirely unknown to the ultimate consumer. The converter can give his +business to whatever mill, at the time, will give him the best value for +his money. + + +Jobbers Must Know +Status of Mills + +These operations are facilitated by the services of another class of +intermediaries, the cloth brokers. If a buyer, whether he be retailer, +jobber, converter, or what not, wishes to secure goods of a certain kind, +he would have a very difficult task if he had to canvass the entire +market, and ascertain what was being offered. Hence he is likely to go to +the cloth brokers. They are in touch with all the principal manufacturing +sources of supply, and will have daily quotations of the offerings of the +different mills; he will know which mills are "sold up," and which are +open for business, and what class of goods they desire to sell. +Consequently the cloth brokers are in a position to offer to would-be +purchasers a wide variety of the different cloths which are available on +the market, and it is their business to buy from the mills as cheaply as +they can, and so get the best possible price for their customers. The +transactions are handled on a small commission, and the average buyer, in +many kinds of goods, is able to do much better by working through a +broker than by opening negotiations directly with the mill. + + +Most Mills Have +Offices in Chief Markets + +Mills selling their products through brokers in this manner may, or may +not, have a representative stationed in the goods market, according to +circumstances. Mills, manufacturing a limited number of plain fabrics, +and which do not sell through brokers, may also be without +representatives in the primary goods market, and will dispose of their +product directly from the mills, partly by correspondence, and partly +through the efforts of their travelers. The great mass of the mills, +however, are regularly and efficiently represented in the great central +goods markets, principally New York, though also in Boston, Philadelphia, +Baltimore, and elsewhere, and their selling agencies are very highly +organized institutions. + +These establishments which have sufficient capital to enable them to +finance themselves--with or without the assistance of regular bankers' +loans--may maintain their own selling offices, and market their product +in their own names directly to their customers. The amount of capital +required to handle a business in this way is proportionately very large, +for the concern must be able to keep itself sufficiently supplied with +raw materials, and then to carry the expenses as these materials pass +through the slow stages of manufacture until the goods are finally +finished, after which they may have to be kept in stock for a time until +the delivery dates, and then, after shipment, the accounts have to be +carried until the bills are paid, so that, from the time the manufacturer +pays for his raw material until he finally receives pay for his goods is +a very long period. + + +Loans Made Upon +Warehouse Receipts + +The financing of a business conducted in this way can be assisted by +loans from warehouses upon stocks of raw material stored there, by bank +accommodation, and by facilities which certain banks give for the cashing +of a substantial percentage of those accounts on the books of the concern +which the customers have not discounted themselves. Also, in handling his +merchandise in this way, the manufacturer must have a thorough +understanding of the best means of marketing his product, and this care +of the selling end is, of course, an added burden upon his shoulders +which, in many cases, he may not feel competent to handle properly. + +Therefore, the comparatively few concerns which do have sufficient +capital to sell directly, in addition to the many from great to small who +have not, will market their product through what are known as dry goods +commission houses, sometimes referred to as factors, and simply as +commercial bankers. The commission house system, as we have it here, does +not exist anywhere else, and its great growth in the United States has +been largely due to certain peculiarities in our banking methods, which +have prevented mills--even those with a reasonably sufficient supply of +capital--from obtaining the amount of direct banking accommodation +necessary for their needs. + +The commission house, in its usual relations with its mills, undertakes +to conduct the sale of their products. Some commission agents insist upon +having the entire selling control of all of the goods the mill produces, +or at any rate, of all the goods of the kind which they are equipped to +sell. Others, again, will take over a partial selling control of the +product of a mill, and various lines of the same manufacturer may be +found offering through different channels. There are some obvious +disadvantages connected with this latter procedure. + +If the mill is a very large one, the selling agent may handle no goods +except the product of that mill, but in the great majority of cases, the +factor will represent a considerable number of mills. + +Immediately on receipt of the invoices of the goods consigned to the +selling agent, the mill can draw against them a percentage of their +value, previously agreed upon, usually about two-thirds of their net +selling price, and upon these loans interest at the rate of 6% is +charged. The difference between the rate at which the commission house +can borrow money, (in normal times perhaps 4 to 4-1/2%), and the 6% which +is usually charged to the mills, constitutes a considerable part of the +profits of the factor's business. + + +Factors Provide +Selling Facilities + +The factor often provides a store, together with a complete selling and +office force, and every facility for receiving, storing, selling, and +shipping the goods, and for financing the business. The salesmen of the +house travel throughout the country, reaching all the important markets, +and the managers of the different departments, who thus understand the +needs of the market, are in a position to advise the mill with +intelligence and exactness as to the kind of goods which should be made +to meet the requirements of the trade. The cost of warehousing and of +insurance on the merchandise is also paid by the commission agent. + +[Illustration: _Spinning room in a large mill. These are all ring +spindles_] + +The prices at which the goods are to be sold are fixed by the mill, but, +of course, they will finally sell at prices determined by the market +conditions. As the goods are sold, the amounts which they bring are +credited to the mill, less whatever has been advanced against them. The +selling agent also stands ready, no matter on what time and terms the +goods may be sold, to credit the mill with the net value of the sale, +less 6% interest for the unexpired time within which the customer may +pay, and from this interest charge also he secures part of his return. Of +course if bank rates are very high, as they sometimes are for short +periods, the factor may be out of pocket on the interest account, instead +of making profit. As the goods are sold, so are the equities in them +released, and the balance is credited to the mill. If, however, the goods +sell at a loss there will be no equities coming to the mill, and, in +fact, there are not infrequently deficiencies to make up. + +For these services, and according to the nature of the goods being sold, +various commissions are charged, usually ranging between the limits of 4 +and 8% of the net returns of the sales. Plain unfinished goods which are +marketed in large quantities are charged for at a relatively low figure, +while fancy goods, sold in smaller quantities and requiring more effort +and expense to sell them, are charged for at a higher figure. + +The selling agent also guarantees the credits of the firms to which he +sells, so that no losses for bad debts can fall upon the manufacturer, +but, at the same time, he will decline orders from any concerns except +those with whose credit he is entirely satisfied. + +Not infrequently when the manufacturer conducts his own selling +operations, he will use the facilities afforded by the commission house +for the financial part of the business only, taking advances on his +goods, having his sales cashed, and his credits guaranteed, etc. For +these lesser services, of course, the commissions charged are smaller. + +When goods are charged out, the bills are payable to the commission +house, and so, as far as the customer is concerned, the commission house +is the principal in the transaction. In many cases certain modified +arrangements are made, but in most instances the business is conducted as +herein described, and it may fairly be said that the bulk of the dry +goods of all kinds produced in the United States finds its way into the +market through commission house channels. + + +Making Plain Goods +for Future Orders + +It is the policy of most cotton mills, and certainly of those making +plain goods, to run steadily all the year round, and thus the commission +agent, whether he has secured advance orders on the goods or not, has +constantly flowing into his hands an assured stream of merchandise which +must eventually, when sold, pay him a commission. Thus the securing of a +good account means an assured source of revenue to the commission agent. + +There are no more important selling organizations for textiles than these +dry goods commission houses, many of them having an immense and +profitable turnover, and their businesses are conducted on a very high +plane of efficiency, and probity, although, in itself, there are many +evils attendant upon this method of the distribution of merchandise, and +which exercise at times a most adverse influence upon the well being of +the mills whose product is thus disposed of. + + +Strength of Agents +Makes "Paper" Acceptable + +It is evident that no ordinary capital would be sufficient for the +supplying of money on call to mills in the immense quantity needed, and +it is here that the banker's capital is called into use. The commission +house is usually a concern of substantial means, sometimes very rich, and +nearly always of a financial standing, which will give it, on its own +account, an assured credit. At certain times of the year the calls for +money from the mills are greater than at other times, and as shipments +come forward, and advances are required, the commission house, in order +to put itself in funds, will issue a series of its own notes in +convenient sized amounts, $5,000 to $10,000 each, for instance, and will +offer these for sale, through its note broker. + +This paper, which commands an advantageously low rate of interest, and +which is issued for convenient periods of time, averaging perhaps four +months, is much sought after by banks and other institutions in primary +markets and throughout the country wishing to invest current funds in a +safe and not unprofitable medium. This paper is so acceptable to banks +not only because the credit of the issuing firm is behind it, but also +because it is known that the money which is obtained for the notes will +be lent out to mills on ample collateral. The issuing house is in a +position so entirely safe that hardly ever can a question arise as to its +ability to take care of its borrowings. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +Financing Cotton and Cotton Cloth + + +No industry shows better than the cotton industry the economic importance +of banking service. No industry, perhaps, utilizes to such a complete +extent the modern instruments of credit, nor is so dependent upon these +instruments for its proper functioning. At no point in the progress from +seed to cloth is the capital represented by the cotton necessarily or +even customarily tied up. And not only may the cotton itself at any stage +be the basis of credit accommodation, but also, the actual added value +which the labor of any factor in the chain may give to the cotton may +itself be realized upon in advance. The credit possibilities of the +industry have grown with the admission of acceptances to rediscount in +the Federal Reserve Banks, and this admissibility has likewise played a +part in the present growth of the warehouse system, the lack of which was +a handicap to the industry in past years. + + +Credit Necessary from Seed +to Finished Product + +In considering the raw cotton and the cloth market it was necessary to +include some account of the financial and banking processes involved in +the various commercial transactions undertaken. It is perhaps advisable, +however, even at the risk of some repetition, to give a quick survey of +the financial and credit aspects of the industry as a whole from the time +the cotton is placed in the ground up to the actual sale to the cutter-up +or the jobber. + +The utilization of credit begins, as we have seen, with the very planting +of the crop. Many of the growers, even those who own their farms, are men +of limited means, and are not able to pay for the necessaries of life and +of labor during the long growing season. The country storekeeper, +accordingly, in return for a lien on the crop, allows them credit at his +store, usually charging interest based on the monthly statement of their +ledger accounts. He in turn receives the necessary accommodation for his +own purchases from the local bank, or from the local buyer or factor with +whom he is affiliated. The high prices prevailing during the past few +years have undoubtedly changed to some extent the small grower's +financial position. + + +Cash for the Grower +From the Local Bank + +The larger growers, or the great corporations which let out cotton lands +to renters, usually operate the stores in their villages upon the same +basis, credit being advanced against the renter's share of the growing +crop. Even these large corporations are seldom able to meet the heavy +demands of the growing season without recourse to the credit service of +those to whom they sell their cotton, or to the local banks. The banks, +or buyers, in turn discount at least a proportion of the commercial paper +thus created with their correspondent banks in New York, Boston, or other +financial centers. This credit arrangement, it will be seen, is almost +entirely based on a moral risk, the lien being made upon the growing +cotton which cannot be liquidated until it is grown, picked, and ginned. + +When the crop is picked, it is weighed by the merchant before it is +ginned, and the farmer is credited on the merchant's books with the +amount due him, the balance in his favor being given him in cash. His +concern with the cotton is thus ended. In the event that he is able to +finance himself through the season he takes the cotton directly to the +gin, and has it ginned and baled there, paying the ginnery for the +operation, and selling the cotton directly to a local buyer and the seed +to an oil mill. If the gin warehouse is available, and he desires to wait +for a more favorable opportunity to sell, he may store the cotton, taking +a gin receipt for it, against which the cotton will eventually be +delivered. The gin receipt may be collateral for a loan from a cotton +factor, or from a local bank. + +Thus, it will be seen that the grower receives accommodation throughout +his season, and is paid cash for his product when it is delivered. This +arrangement puts a heavy strain upon the cotton buyers, particularly upon +those who deal in large lots for the mills. The method by which the +buyers pay the growers is thus described: + +The buyers make arrangements with the local bankers where the gins are +located for the payment of the cotton, the banks furnishing the actual +cash against tickets issued by the buyer's representatives, holding the +tickets in question as their collateral in the meantime. When a +sufficient amount of cotton has been accumulated the local banker, at the +request of the buyer's agent, delivers the tickets in question to the +local agent of the railroad, who in turn issues a bill of lading covering +the shipment to the compress point, which then is attached to the draft +drawn by the buyer's agent upon the buyer's head office, which draft +includes the price paid for the cotton plus interest and exchange charged +by the local banker, who is reimbursed for the amount of the draft thus +drawn. When this cotton is ready for export (or for shipment to the mill +in the United States) local bills of lading, covering shipment from point +of origin to compress point, are exchanged by the cotton buyer's banker +for local bills of lading to port or for through bills of lading. + +[Illustration: "_Picked 100 pounds today_"] + +When cotton is bought at compress points, compress receipts instead of +tickets are delivered to the local banker, who pays for the cotton as +purchased by the buyer's representative from time to time. When a +sufficient amount of cotton is ready for shipment the compress receipts +are exchanged by the banker for local bills of lading to port (or to +mill), or through bills of lading, as the case may be. These bills of +lading are attached to the draft drawn by the representative on the head +office of the buyer, the local bank being reimbursed for the amount thus +drawn. + +Buyers must necessarily hold great quantities of cotton in storage, for +they buy whatever cotton is offered, and must sell, as we have seen, +certain grades and qualities to the mills in order that they may weave +the cloth for which their orders call. Cotton must, therefore, be held in +storage, either at the compress points, which is usual, or at warehouses +operated by factors, or by independent corporations, or in their own +warehouses. + +While the buyers by cash payments are concentrating the cotton necessary +to fill their domestic or foreign orders, their need for funds is a +pressing one. Their arrangements with local banks we have seen. When the +cotton is shipped, the local bank, by means of drafts on the buyer's head +office, is relieved of the burden it has been carrying, but the cotton +still represents capital, and if that capital is to continue to earn its +wages it must be the basis for credit. The factors and large banks in New +York or Boston, which have been assisting the local bank, must now assist +the buyer and the warehouseman. The methods by which this burden is +shifted to the larger banks are varied, and we can consider only one or +two of their aspects. + + +Same Mills Pay Cash, Relieving +Factors of Burden + +Some of the larger New England mills pay cash for the cotton which is +shipped to them, buying sufficient in the season to carry them through, +or nearly through, the year. Their buyers, therefore, need support, if +they need it at all, only during the period of concentration. They may +have their private banking arrangements, and may be able to utilize their +warehouse receipts or bills of lading, or their mere notes based upon +mixed collateral, for an advance of sixty to seventy-five per cent. of +the value of the cotton, the line having been arranged in advance. Credit +may be obtained by the buyer directly from the warehouseman, who thus +becomes a factor in his own right, being supported by arrangements +previously made with his own bank. Credit may also be obtained from a +bank, upon bills of lading which are exchanged for warehouse receipts +when the cotton is delivered at the port or at any warehousing point; or +the credit obtained from the bank may be settled and a new credit opened +with the warehouseman when the cotton is shifted from cars to storage. + + +Warehousemen as Factors of +Growing Importance + +The growing importance of the warehouseman has been mentioned. His +services have developed with the need of mills for greater credit, and +their unwillingness to tie up their working capital in cotton held in +their own warehouses. Mills which formerly bought all their year's supply +during the buying season, so-called, now take their cotton from +warehouses as they want it, buying it from their buyers, and making +payment according to the individual standing arrangements. The advent of +the warehouseman who is either a banker, or closely affiliated with a +bank, has undoubtedly done much to make the financing of cotton a more +elastic and feasible proposition, distributing the risk over a wider +circle and making credit more readily available at any point in the +succession. + +[Illustration: _Weighing gin bales in a ginnery yard_] + +[Illustration: _Cotton warehouses in the South_] + +The mill, we have seen, frequently pays cash for its raw stock, or else +buys upon short term notes. The average mill does not have a working +capital large enough to enable it to tie up the thousands of dollars +necessary for such a proceeding, as well as the funds which must +constantly be paid out for wages, for operation expenses of all kinds, +for upkeep, and all other overhead. Mills, as a matter of fact, are +frequent borrowers, either from general banks, or from textile banks or +factors, or from their selling agents, who, as we have seen, combine +their primary and original function of selling with that of supplying +financial assistance. + +Mills which purchase cotton from their buyers and pay cash, or +approximately cash, for it, usually buy such cotton to fill orders which +they have already received from their selling agents. They may, in +certain instances, obtain an advance from their agents of a proportion of +the whole selling price of the order, and out of that advance pay for the +purchase of cotton, or they may hold the cotton in warehouses, using it +only as needed, and putting up the warehouse receipts as collateral for +loans. + +The raw cotton itself, however, represents only a portion of the mill's +operating expenses and it cannot be the entire basis for financial +operations of the magnitude often needed. These broader financial wants +may be met out of the prospective selling price of the cloth by means of +loans from the selling agent; or, they may be met by direct relations +with a commercial bank, which may make loans on ordinary collateral, on +acceptances, or, as frequently happens in the case of mills of undoubted +integrity, on the mere note of the company operating the mill. + + +Selling Agent May Shift +Burden to Banks + +When the burden is assumed by the selling agent, or factor, he in turn +may shift it to the bank, either by indorsing the note of the mill, or by +indorsing the note of the purchaser of the cloth or by borrowing directly +from the bank on his own paper. + +The converter, as a rule, is not a factor, but a merchant pure and +simple, seeking accommodations from a factor or a bank as his needs may +require it. Inasmuch as he usually buys for cash or on short-term notes, +and sells to jobbers or retailers upon more extended terms, his needs are +frequently heavy. His relation with his factor may be, and frequently is, +upon the basis of accounts receivable, or he may borrow upon his own +collateral, or, if he is counted an "A1" risk, upon his unsecured note. + +These, in brief are the financial steps in the progress of cotton from +the grower to the jobber. A cursory view is all that is possible, because +in the words of a textile banker of standing "every textile banking +transaction is a law unto itself." Yet enough has been said to show the +all-important part which banking plays in the cotton industry, and to +indicate how dependent are the turning of wheels and the distribution of +cotton and of cloth upon the credit which banks and bankers are able to +provide. + + +Factors and Their Wide +Financial Service + +Frequent use has been made of the word factor, and no adequate definition +of its meaning has yet been given. The factor is, briefly, the commercial +banker of the industry, and his duty is to provide, at any stage of the +cotton process, the financial assistance which may be necessary, either +from his own resources or through his affiliations with some large bank. +It is true, of course, that some factors work only with those dealing in +raw stock, and some confine their services to mills. Some factors are +cotton buyers, some are selling agents, some deal with buyers and some +deal with selling agents. Some are employed only by the mills. Recently, +however, the tendency has been to develop under one roof a unit +institution capable of handling every textile banking transaction. It +will be interesting to enumerate here, briefly, the various functions and +facilities of one such institution: + + 1. It makes loans to cotton buyers and to mills + on cotton held in warehouses or in transit. + + 2. It checks the credit of the mill's prospective + customers. + + 3. It cashes accounts receivable. + + 4. It makes advances against merchandise for + the account of mill, converter, or jobber. + + 5. It finances merchandise and raw material requirements, + and current operations. + + 6. It deals in acceptances, specializing, of course, + upon paper arising out of transactions in the + textile industry. + + 7. It maintains an Industrial Department, which + includes: + + (a) the services of a consulting architect, expert + in mill construction. + + (b) the services of a production engineer, + skilled in the laying out of plants in the line + of greatest efficiency, and in diagnosing + and correcting the production mistakes + of an inefficient mill. + + (c) information as to the newest mill practice, + which it is ready to provide for its + clients and others. + + (d) readiness to assist customers in the expansion + of their business either by financing + new mill construction or by providing + sales representatives in other countries. + + (e) maintenance offices abroad, either for the + buying or selling of textiles or equipment, + or raw materials, or for the complete and + direct financing of such transactions. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +American Cloth in Foreign Markets + + +We have seen that the American cotton grower supplies more than half of +the world's demand for raw cotton. The cotton manufacturer in the United +States is in no such position. This is not to say that American cotton +goods are not exported in very considerable amounts. From the inception +of the industry in this country varying percentages of the total product +have been sent abroad. The following table, taken from the United States +Statistical Abstract (1910) shows the average annual exports of cotton +goods for the five year periods named, expressed in millions of dollars: + + _Uncolored _Colored + _Total_ Cloth_ Cloth_ _Other_ + 1856-60 $7.5 $2.4 $2.3 $2.8 + 1861-65 3.7 .4 .9 2.4 + 1866-70 4.1 .9 .3 2.8 + 1871-75 3.1 1.7 .6 .7 + 1876-80 10.0 6.1 2.6 1.2 + 1881-85 13.0 8.0 2.9 2.1 + 1886-90 12.4 7.4 3.2 1.6 + 1891-95 13.3 7.7 3.0 2.5 + 1896-1900 20.4 11.6 4.4 4.3 + 1901-05 31.3 17.2 7.0 7.0 + 1906-10 35.1 16.8 7.2 11.0 + +The irregularity of the export trade, as shown by these figures, has been +explained on several grounds, the chief factors being, apparently, the +fluctuations in the prosperity and consequently in the buying power of +the home market, and the pressure upon the home market exerted by the +rapid growth of cotton manufacturing in the South. + +The normal position of the United States as an exporter of cotton goods +is shown by the following table, which gives the exports of the chief +manufacturing countries in the year before the war (the figures for 1915 +are also given because they show the changes which had already begun): + + 1913 1915 + + United Kingdom $618,000,000 $418,000,000 + Germany 117,000,000 30,100,000 + France 78,000,000 60,000,000 + Japan 58,000,000 95,800,000 + United States 55,500,000 60,200,000 + Switzerland 50,300,000 65,800,000 + Italy 47,800,000 30,500,000 + India 38,900,000 27,300,000 + Holland 30,900,000 + Austria Hungary 27,800,000 + Belgium 23,700,000 + Russia 22,500,000 19,700,000[B] + Spain 8,300,000 17,400,000 + China 1,400,000 2,100,000 + +----- + [B] Eleven months. + +Thus, despite the very remarkable growth which had taken place between +1910 and 1913, the United States ranked fifth among the nations exporting +cotton goods. The reasons for this might be summed up in almost a word. +The attractiveness and rapid growth of the home market provided an outlet +for practically the whole output of American mills. With high prices +prevailing in the home market, the manufacturer was not called upon to +exert himself to stimulate sales in regions where competition would +inevitably be keen and profits small. + + +Minor Handicaps to +Trade Development + +Supporting this main objection there have been others. Until recently the +banking facilities abroad were insufficient to the needs of a greater +commerce; and shipping facilities, in pre-war days, were not such as to +make regular shipments possible to many foreign markets. Over these +conditions manufacturers had not direct control, but there were other +matters in which their own short-comings were all too evident. There is +little need to list again the familiar complaints, known to every reader +of Commerce Reports and the export magazines. Faulty packing and +insufficient attention to orders were the most frequent. The former was +undoubtedly due to inexperience, and the latter to the tendency of the +manufacturer or merchant to consider the foreign market as a place for +disposing of a surplus unsalable at home. To this attitude may also be +attributed the frequency with which shipments for which orders had been +accepted have been delayed or overlooked altogether. + +[Illustration: _Compress bales awaiting export on a Savannah wharf_] + +The foreign market remained for the American manufacturer a prize so +distant and of such questionable value that he was simply not willing to +make the effort and spend the money that would be necessary to compete +with British, German, French, and other sellers. He would have had to +know local customs and tastes, and all the details that he had so +arduously acquired a knowledge of for the home market. The time was not +ripe. + + +U. S. Export Trade +As Affected By War + +The war served to disarrange the system of cotton cloth distribution of +the whole world. It is now a commonplace to say that the United States, +by the cutting off of the usual sources of supply, succeeded for the +first time in entering in force markets which hitherto had been closed. +It would probably be truer to say that foreign buyers, finding it +impossible to secure their customary supply from their regular sources, +came to the United States and asked American manufacturers to supply +their imperative wants. + +Just what this meant is found in the statement that while in 1913 our +total exports of cotton goods amounted to about 445,000,000 yards, in +1917 the figure was about 690,000,000 yards, an increase of fifty-five +per cent. The increase, moreover, has been in the colored cottons, the +uncolored cloths showing an actual decrease. + +The United Kingdom, during 1917, exported nearly 5,000,000,000 yards of +cloth, so there is no immediate prospect that the United States will be a +dangerous competitor for that country, except in a few limited lines and +in a few markets. The chief gain to the American cotton industry brought +by the war was the opportunity it gave merchants to introduce their goods +abroad at a time when loss was next to impossible. Operating at an +assured profit they were able to learn the markets without the long and +discouraging fight which would have been necessary had the competitive +power of the other nations been at full force. If, as seems likely, the +economic forces which projected the United States so suddenly and +dramatically into the world's markets shall continue to operate, then the +future will see a further development of our sales. + + +Future of Foreign Sales +And Probable Markets + +Our best and most permanent markets are probably to be found in such +countries as Cuba, Mexico, the Philippines, Central and South America, +and, to a certain extent, Canada and Australia, and parts of Asia and +Africa. To be sure, competition will have to be met both from European +countries and from Japan, whose development in the cotton industry in +recent years has been nothing short of phenomenal. She has practically +doubled the number of her spindles in the last ten years, and her +competition has already been felt, for instance, in China, where American +gray goods have been practically eliminated from the market. Other +growing markets for Japanese cotton goods are South Africa, Australia, +India, and the west coast of South America. + +In Cuba and the Philippine Islands, the United States has the advantage +of a preferential tariff agreement and excellent shipping facilities. In +Canada and Australia our cotton goods are popular but the tariff duties +are in favor of Great Britain. In the Dutch East Indies there is at +present a good opportunity for getting a foothold in the white goods +trade. Argentina has lately been our best market for cotton goods, and as +the imports of cotton products into that country amounted to $65,000,000 +in 1916, this trade is worth the intensive efforts which are now being +made to clinch it. + + +Future Development +Up to Merchants + +On the west coast of South America, as in the Manila market, there are +established American trading firms that are doing extensive development +work and their efforts have produced favorable results. In the other +Latin-American markets there are practically no local American firms and +in none of them have the possibilities of the trade been more than +touched. + +The general opinion seems to be that if the United States is to keep what +she has gained by the war in the cotton goods trade the same care and +aggressiveness will have to be shown in the foreign as in the domestic +trade. England's position today as the foremost exporter of cotton +manufactures is the result of careful study of foreign markets and their +requirements, of catering to the tastes of the people, of aggressive +advertising, of competent foreign salesmen, of reliability in filling +orders, of good packing, and of more or less liberal credit terms. +Manufacturers in the United States will have to follow the same procedure +if this country is to keep her present position in international trade. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +Some of the Grower's Problems + + +Early in the spring, the farm hands begin the work of getting the seed +beds ready. Upland fields have to be terraced, ditched, and drained by an +elaborate process before the work is well begun. Plowing and sub-soiling +are the least of the planter's worries. He must often chop last year's +stalks with a disc harrow or with a stalk cutter. The spike tooth or the +disc harrow must work again after the plowing is finished. It is +customary to plant cotton in a slightly raised bed, in order that +thinning may be more easily done, and that the soil may be more quickly +warmed. Much planting is still done by hand, one man dropping the seeds +in the long straight furrow and another following close behind him with a +hoe, covering them up; but of late years the one-horse planter and the +two-horse combined lister and planter have come into vogue, and, now that +the tractor is both cheap and serviceable, it is possible to plant two or +more rows at a time. + + +The Long Season of +Intensive Cultivation + +When the tiny seedlings first appear above the fragrant mellow soil, the +planter's work is well begun, but it is only begun, for then comes the +season of cultivating and thinning out. As soon as there are two or three +inches of growth, the first cultivation takes place. How many times the +field is cultivated depends on the planter, the nature of the soil, the +availability of labor and other factors. But the general rule is, the +more cultivations, the more cotton. The first cultivation scrapes away +the soil from the plants, leaving them on a small ridge, where the +thinning-out process can easily be done with a hoe. The stalks are left +from fifteen to twenty inches apart in the hill, the rows being usually +about three and a half feet apart. The next cultivation, usually with a +sweep, pushes the soil back against the plants. Then begins the farmer's +fight against the weeds, each of which seems sturdier and harder to +eradicate than its predecessor. Usually cultivation must take place about +every three weeks. + +In June, on the average, the bell-shaped blossoms appear. On the first +day they are cream colored or white; on the second day, they change to a +beautiful wild-rose pink, deepening toward evening to a deeper magenta or +carnation. On the third day they fade completely, and the development of +the boll begins. + + +The Many Enemies +of the Growing Boll + +Of the plants upon which humanity depends, the various species of the +genus Gossypium have probably more enemies, and more relentless enemies, +than any other. Besides army worms, cut worms, locusts, green flies, leaf +bugs, blister mites, and several others, nature has produced and rendered +extremely prolific and hardy, these two particular pests, the boll weevil +and the boll worm. It is said that the collective attacks of all the +insects which feed upon cotton cost the country in the neighborhood of +$60,000,000 every year at pre-war prices. The little gray beetle that the +world knows as the cotton boll weevil is responsible for most of this. +The mother weevil lays her eggs in the bud. As the grubs from the eggs +develop, the bud drops. If a weevil arrives on the scene after the bolls +have begun to form, she lays her eggs in those with a fine indifference. +These bolls will not drop, but the grubs ruin the cotton they contain. +There have been numerous investigations and experiments made to develop a +variety of cotton impervious to the weevil's attacks, as well as to find +another insect willing to meet him in combat and overcome him. Guatamalan +cotton is said to be immune and efforts are being made to transplant it +to the United States. A small ant-like creature called a "kelep" has also +been found, which attacks, kills and devours the weevil, but, +unfortunately, the kelep prefers a warmer clime, and pines away and dies +in even the mild winters of the cotton belt. The boll worm is very +similar to the corn worm with which all housewives are familiar, and +indeed corn is its favorite diet. But cotton will do in a pinch, and, +next to the weevil, he ruins more cotton than any other pest. The boll +weevil cost the country about $25,000,000 yearly, pre-war prices, and the +boll worm about $12,500,000 yearly, enough to justify an even greater +expenditure for investigation and eradication than has yet been made. + +Despite the ravage of insects and diseases, when a well-tended field of +cotton is ripening, one would think from the number of bolls per plant, +that the owner's fortune was surely made. Unfortunately, the plants shed +bolls as well as buds and flowers, in great numbers. It has frequently +been noted that even well-fertilized plants upon good, carefully +cultivated soil, will mature only fifteen to twenty per cent. of the +bolls produced. + +[Illustration: _Cotton blossoms and bolls at various stages of growth_] + +The planter will tell you that he would be willing to stand the boll +weevil, the dropped bolls, the extra cultivations, and all the remainder +of it, if he could only be sure that cotton which did mature would be +picked when it should be picked, and picked with rapidity and care. +Picking is the most laborious, as it is the most picturesque operation on +the plantation. Many types of machine pickers have been introduced, but +there are few planters who will admit that any of them suits his +particular needs. Now, as a hundred years ago, the picking is done by +hand. It is a simple operation, so simple that children ten years old can +do it, and women excel in it. But the best pickers rarely average more +than a hundred pounds a day, and most of them pull much less. Careless +work plays its part, too, for cotton is easily dropped from the boll and +soiled or lost altogether. Leaves and twigs as well as the shell of the +boll frequently cling to the fiber, and are picked with it, and all these +things tend to dirty and discolor it, and lessen its marketability. It +requires about three pounds of cotton with the seed in it, as picked, to +produce one pound of ginned or lint cotton. + +There were in the United States, in 1917, a total of 24,272 ginneries, of +which 3,921 were idle. Each active gin produced an average of 526 bales +running bales of cotton. The number of gins shows a tendency to decrease +every year, not rapidly, but surely, and this despite the opposite +tendency of the crop. The Whitney gin of the old days has been improved +beyond the dreams of its inventor. He boasted that one man could do as +much with his machine as ten men without it. Today's gin averages about +five bales a day--a quantity which the negro of old would find difficult +to turn out in a year. + +To the gin then, which is located either on the plantation or in the +immediate neighborhood, the mule drawn wagons, driven by negroes as a +rule, bring their loads of cotton. + +[Illustration: _Gin bale and compress bale showing reduced bulk of +latter_] + +As the downy lint, pulled from the tenacious seeds, rolls into the +receiving bin of the gin, the huge compressors are put to work. The +coarse jute bagging is on hand, and the steel straps spread out. The gin +balers as a rule turn out a bale measuring approximately 28 by 56 by 42 +inches, and weighing approximately 500 pounds including twenty pounds of +bagging and straps. The cotton, in being separated from its seeds, has +lost about two-thirds of its weight. But the first process in the long +series that manufacturing entails has been completed, and the cotton is +ready to begin its long journey to the mill. It is usually carted to the +nearest railroad station, and from there shipped to the compressing +point. + +The small farmer almost always gets his money for the cotton as it leaves +the gin. His interest in it, therefore, is ended when the buyer there +pays him the current price. The cotton is a market commodity from that +time forth. + +The compress is a large and powerful hydraulic press, whose function is +to force the loosely packed gin bale into a density that will make its +handling by the railroads, ships, and warehouses more easy and +economical. The compresses are frequently owned by the railroads. + + +Gin Bales and +Compress Bales + +Before being compressed, the bales are sorted according to grade, and are +then compressed into a smaller sized bale, measuring approximately 28 by +56 by 18 inches, with a density of from twenty-eight to thirty pounds a +square foot. It is this bale which is handled from that time forth, +whether it be for export, for consumption in Northern or Southern mills, +or whether, as sometimes happens, it is shipped from place to place as +market conditions change, and the price offered makes reshipment +profitable. + + +Movement for +Improving the Bale + +It is encouraging to note that the war brought about, under Government +auspices, a very definite movement for the improvement of the bale. The +proposal demands the installation of high pressure baling machines at the +gin, capable of producing a bale with a density of thirty-five pounds a +cubic foot. The trading unit in cotton is one hundred bales, and such a +compression would mean that one hundred bales could be loaded into a +single freight car, and shipped directly to the export point or +warehouse. The present practice requires three cars to carry the ginnery +bales to the compressor, and two cars to carry the compressed bales to +the port, warehouse, or mill. The saving in freight and handling is +obvious. It needs only a glance at the photograph of the two bales side +by side to see the possible saving in waste and "city crop," or tare. The +obstacles in the way of such an improvement are those which face any +revolutionary change in commercial methods. Established practice, +invested capital, and the natural conservatism of human nature militate +against quick improvement. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +In the Cotton Mill + + +The manufacture of cotton cloth may be divided into five departments: + + 1. Preparatory processes: Opening, carding, + combing, and drawing. + + 2. Spinning. + + 3. Spooling, warping, sizing, slashing, entering + or drawing-in. + + 4. Weaving. + + 5. Converting and finishing, including bleaching, + mercerizing, dying, printing, and finishing. + +Before the cotton fiber can be spun into the yarn from which the cloth is +woven, the bales must be broken open, the impurities removed, and the +fibers arranged so that they are parallel and contain no bunches or +tangles. Care in these processes has become more and more necessary and +important as the demand for a higher quality of cloth, possessing greater +strength and evenness, has been developed. Hence, some of the most +elaborate, complex, and admirable machinery in the mill is that devoted +to these preparatory processes. The principle involved is always that of +thoroughly cleaning the material, then opening it so that every fiber +shall be thoroughly separated from its fellows, and then straightening +out the fibers, no matter what types of machines may be used. + + +Conveying Fiber +By Air Blast + +The heavy laps of cotton are first thrown directly from the bale into the +breaker, and the cotton is then usually blown through large pipes from +the room in which the bales are broken to the room in which the openers +are located. + +The functions of the opener are two. The first is to clean from the +cotton the dirt and bits of leaf, pod, and foreign substances, which may +have clung to the fiber as it passed through the gin back on the +plantation. The second is to roll the cotton into a more or less regular +"lap," as it is called. + + +The Energetic +Opener At Work + +As the cotton goes into the opener (see diagram on following page), dusty +and dirty, it is seized by strong teeth fastened upon a large cylinder +(A), revolving rapidly, and is flung by centrifugal force against an iron +grid (B) time after time. Sometimes there is a strong current of air +blowing through the tangled mass, helping to loosen the particles. The +dirt comes out through the grid and is carried away, while the lint +itself, after being carried around an indefinite number of times, +gradually works its way along a channel, and finally out between two +large rollers (C), which compress it once more, so that it is, in effect, +a sheet of batting. This sheet, or lap, is rolled up in a large roll (G), +which may be two or three feet in diameter, and is then ready for the +first doubling or blending process. In mills where strength and evenness +of yarn are at a premium, the sheets from three or four laps may be fed +through another opener, usually called a "scutcher," which breaks them +all apart again, mixes up the fibers, cleans out more of the dirt, and +produces a more even lap. + +The cotton, as it comes from the opener and the scutcher, is much cleaner +and more attractive. It begins to look like the riches it contains. + +[Illustration: _Cross-section diagram of opener_] + +To convey the heavy opener-lap from the opener to the carding room, the +more modern mills are doing away rapidly with hand-power, and carry the +lap on a sort of travelling mono-rail conveyor. + +The fibers of the lap which comes from the opening room are by no means +parallel, but lie in all directions just as they happened to come from +the grid of the opener. The function of the card is to straighten them, +and at the same time to remove those which are knotted or immature and of +a length below that required for the yarn to be spun, and to take out +practically all of the impurities which may have escaped in the opening +operations. + +The principle of carding is one of the oldest of textile mechanical +principles, and all the improvements that have been made have been in +developments rather than in basic ideas. Hargreaves, inventor of the +jenny, and Sir Richard Arkwright both expended their ingenuity upon it, +the latter seeming to have been the first to provide a carding machine +operated by other than hand-power. The basic principle involved is the +straightening out of the fibers by combing or brushing them with wire +brushes or cards. + +[Illustration: _"Scutchers" at work_] + +In the revolving flat card, which dominates the field today, there are, +as a rule, three principal cylinders. The lap passes first under the +smallest of the three, called the taker-in, which is covered with very +fine saw-teeth all in one long strip of steel, wound and fixed spirally +in the surface of the cylinder. The taker-in receives the cotton from a +feed-roller (C) that turns above a smooth iron plate (D) called the feed +plate. The saw-teeth comb the fibers which are imbedded, so to speak, in +the lap, and deliver the loose ones to the second cylinder, which is the +largest of the group. This main cylinder is covered with wire teeth all +bent at exactly the same angle. The cotton clings to them, and is carried +around to the top of the cylinder, where it is engaged by teeth on the +revolving-flat card which are bent in the opposite direction. This +"card-clothing" arranged in strip, crosswise on a travelling lattice, +moves in the same direction as the cylinder but moves very slowly, and so +the fibers are carded between the two sets of wire points, the short and +immature fibers remaining on the card wires of the lattice and the +perfect and now almost entirely parallel ones being carried over from the +main cylinder to the doffer cylinder, the third of the trio. From this +they are removed by an oscillating comb (F), coming off in a light, +fleecy lap, which is condensed through a funnel into a soft untwisted +roping, or sliver, about the diameter of a man's thumb, and is then +coiled into a can, usually about 45 inches high by 8 inches diameter. + +[Illustration: _View of Modern Motor-Driven Opener Picker_] + +The conveying of the sliver (pronounced with a long or short i) into the +can is in itself an exceedingly ingenious operation, although a very +simple one. The device is attached directly to the card, and is called a +coiler. The sliver passes into it from the funnel. The hole from which +the sliver emerges is off the center of a steel plate which revolves +slowly, so that the sliver, as it comes out, has an eccentric motion +which causes it to fall into the can in regular coils. Tangling is thus +prevented, and ease of handling secured. + + +Combing Necessary in +Spinning Fine "Counts" + +Combing is necessary in the preparation of cotton for the spinning of +fine "counts" or coarser yarns where great smoothness and regularity are +desired. They are now quite extensively used in the United States, and it +is significant of the trend of the industry here that the number is +rapidly growing. The first cotton comber was invented by a Frenchman of +Alsace named Heilmann. The patent was issued in 1845. Now there are on +the market other machines, both English and American, similar in +principle but improved in many ways. + +[Illustration: _Revolving flat cards_] + +The first of these preliminary processes is that which is done by the +sliver-lapper. The slivers from 14 to 20 cans are drawn along +side-by-side, passing between three pairs of drawing rollers which will +be described later. From the drawing rollers the slivers now reduced in +size, pass between two pairs of calendar rollers from which they emerge, +not as a sliver, of course, but once more as a lap about a foot wide. +These laps are usually passed to a ribbon lapper, where six of them are +placed end-to-end, and unrolled simultaneously, passed between four pairs +of drawing rollers, and then superimposed, one upon the other, and, +calendered once more, issued as a lap a little less than a foot wide. +This process may be repeated as many times as the quality of the yarn +desired may require, for each drawing process served to straighten the +fibers and so to render the thread more even and capable of finer +spinning. + +Combing is exactly what its name implies. The lap is actually raked by a +fine-tooth comb with needle-like teeth of steel ranging from 16 to 90 per +inch. This involves breaking the lap again and the intricacy of the +comber rests in the mechanism which it employs for joining the separated +ends. + +[Illustration: _Cross-section diagram of revolving flat card_] + +Six or eight laps go through the machine at once, and the product is +combined, condensed, formed into a continuous sliver, and deposited once +more into cans. The process is not a fast one at best, and the chief +contribution of American inventors is in the direction of speed. Each nip +combs only 4/16 to 4/10 of an inch of fiber. The Heilman machine made +about 85 or 90 nips per minute. The American improvement makes 130 to +135. The width of the lap in the American machine is likewise increased, +and the saving in labor, therefore, is considerable. English improvements +have been in the same direction, the resultant saving being almost as +great. + +[Illustration: _Ribbon lappers_] + +Though many of the processes already described might be called drawing, +in a sense, insomuch as they involve a continual lengthening and +straightening of the lap or sliver, yet drawing in the strictest sense +has not yet begun. It may be done only once, for coarse and cheap yarn, +or it may be repeated a half dozen or more times to produce the finer and +more expensive products. The frame for each repetition is slightly +different, but several types may be isolated. They are, in the order of +their use, the drawing frame, the fly frame, or slubber, the intermediate +frame, and the roving and jack frames. + +For fine counts the slivers from the comber, and for other grades that +which comes directly from the card, are taken, then to the drawing frame. +The slivers from the cans, six or eight in number, are fed through one +aperture, and pass, thus combined, between several (usually four) pairs +of rollers, so arranged that each succeeding pair revolves at a more +rapid rate than that which preceded it. The last pair in the series +revolve probably six or eight times as fast as the first pair. This +combination of rollers pulls constantly on the more or less irregular +slivers, rendering them always more nearly uniform in diameter and +density, the thickness of one of the entering slivers serving to +counterbalance the thinness of the other. The drawing frame consists +usually of four or five "heads," and the sliver, after it passes through +one of these "heads," is put through a second one, along with other +slivers, so that the doubling and redoubling goes on constantly. There is +an electric device to stop the machine when a sliver breaks, either at +the back or the front of the frame. + +[Illustration: _Combers at work in a mill spinning fine counts_] + +From the last head of the drawing frame, the sliver passes to the fly +frame or slubber, which not only continues the drawing and doubling, +usually between three pairs of rollers, but through the aid of a device +which gives the sliver a slight twist and winds it, for the first time, +upon a spindle. This device is known as the flyer, and is, roughly, a +U-shaped piece of metal, which, revolving, inverted, over the spindle, +gives the thread a slight lateral twist as it coils upon the spindle. The +latter also revolves, but with a diminishing motion so that the amount of +twist may be kept uniform as the diameter of the coil upon the spindle +increases. The sliver, now being twisted, is called a sliver no longer, +but the slubbing. + +The slubbing is passed between the rollers in pairs, the emerging product +being less in diameter than the diameter of a single slubbing. The +machine combines the fourfold process of combination, attenuation, +twisting and winding. There are more spindles upon this frame than upon +the slubber. + +The last drawing frame, except for very fine yarns spun from Egyptian or +Sea Island staples, is the roving frame, similar in principle to the last +two but containing still more spindles. It receives the rovings from the +intermediate frame, combines two of them into one, twists them a little +more, and winds them upon the spindle tubes. The Jack frame is similar +except that its product is finer and smoother. + +[Illustration: _Sliver lappers in a Northern mill_] + +It is interesting to note, however, that the majority of improvements +have been the fruit of the brains, not of Americans, but of Englishmen. +Copeland points out that this may be due to the English desire to save in +the consumption of cotton, but that more probably it is due to the +development of fine spinning in England, in which most of the machines +here described are chiefly valuable; and he ventures the prediction that +now that American mills have definitely gone in for the finer counts, it +may be expected that engineers here will apply themselves to the +improvement of this machinery. + +[Illustration: _Drawing frames, turning slivers into roving_] + + +The "Mule" Versus +the Ring Spindle + +Spinning is the final process which turns the cotton into firm, coherent +yarn, sufficiently twisted, and ready for the loom. The twist given to +the thread by the previous machines has been only enough to make the +fibers hold together. They are still comparatively loose and fluffy, and +their tensile strength is slight. + +There are, in general, two types of spinning machines. The first, the +mule, an English product. The second, radically different, is entirely +American. It was invented in 1828 by James Thorpe, and immediately found +some favor, but it was not until the Civil War that it was received on +equal terms with the mule. Today, however, it dominates in the United +States, the comparative figures in 1917 being: ring spindles 30,264,074; +mule spindles 3,634,761. The disparity is growing greater every year, and +the use of the ring is firmly established in other countries as well. The +figures for 1907 were: + + _Mule_ _Ring_ + England (1909) 39,800,000 7,900,000 + Germany 5,740,000 3,722,000 + France 4,122,000 2,481,000 + Austria 2,307,000 1,277,000 + Italy 1,015,000 1,852,000 + Russia 1,031,000 1,320,000 + +The mule, by reason of the great size to which it has been developed, and +the impressiveness of its large, rhythmic motion, is one of the most +formidable of all cotton machines, as indeed it is one of the most +complex. It received its name from the fact that, performing two +principal functions--drawing and spinning--it was regarded as a hybrid, +just as the mule is a hybrid cross between the horse and the donkey. + +In the mule (see diagram on page 53), which is a long and wide machine, +carrying sometimes, in new models, as many as 1,300 spindles, the drawing +and twisting are not continuous but consecutive. The rovings (B) are held +on a creel (A) at the back of the machine, usually in three or four +tiers, or on long beams or spools. They pass from the creel, or spools, +between three pairs of drawing rollers (C.) Coming out of the rollers, +they are fed to the spindles on the carriage which backs away from the +creel and recedes somewhat faster than the rovings are unwound. This +receding is the essential motion of the mule, for thus the cotton +receives its final drawing. The spindles, meanwhile, are revolving +rapidly, spinning the yarn. The twist goes first to the thin places where +the least resistance is offered. Then, as the carriage carrying the +whirling spindles continues to back away, the thicker parts of the +thread, being comparatively untwisted are pulled down to the average +diameter and are twisted in turn. The carriage usually runs back about +sixty-three inches. At the termination of its run, or stretch, the +spindles increase their speed until the twisting is completed and the +carriage starts on its return trip. This reverses the spindles, and the +thread which has been wound upon them is unwound, the slack being taken +up by one guide wire (D) while the other guides the thread to the winding +point, and winds it up in the opposite direction on the cone-shaped cops +on the spindles. The rollers do not feed out more roving as the carriage +returns. Hence, there is no slack when the round trip is completed. + +[Illustration: _Slubbers, showing the U-shaped flyers_] + +Except for the use of drawing rollers, there is little similarity between +the mule and the ring frame. The latter has no movable carriage, none of +the splendid sweep of motion that makes the mule so fascinating to +watch. The ring-frame is simple and business-like, and its speed is +amazing. The bobbins holding the roving are placed directly over the +spindles. Around each of the latter is a steel ring. There are at least +112 spindles on each machine, and all the machine rings for the spindles +are fixed in a single frame. The upper edge of the ring is flanged, like +a miniature railroad track, and snapped over the flange is a small but +important C-shaped steel ring, called the traveler. + + +How Thread is Spun +on the Ring Spindle + +When the machine is in operation (See diagram on page 56) each roving (H) +leaving its bobbin, runs through the usual drawing rollers (G) then +through a guiding wire to the ring, where it is passed through its +traveler (B) which is always at the winding point on the spindle. As the +spindle and the rollers revolve, the roving is fed out at a considerably +slower rate than the spindle takes it up, so that there is always a +tension on the thread. The whirling spindle thus pulls on the traveler, +drawing it round and round on its flanged track (A). It revolves just a +little more slowly than the spindle and thus the yarn receives its twist. +Meanwhile, the frame (C) on which the rings are fixed moves slowly up and +down, so that the winding is properly regulated. + +It is possible to operate the spindles at a remarkable speed. So perfect +are the bearings which have been evolved that the average speed is ten +thousand revolutions a minute, and on fine yarns it is sometimes 12,000 +to 13,000 revolutions. The speed is limited by only two factors: the +first is the ability of the operator to make splicings when threads +break, and the second is the tendency of the traveler to fly off when the +speed is too high. The number of travelers consumed is high at best, and +in a mill which has long been in operation the floor in the front of the +frame is likely to be paved with the little steel rings which have fallen +and been ground into the planks by the heels of the worker. + +[Illustration: _Diagram of mule_] + +The battle between the advocates of the ring frame and those who favor +the mule is still on. For the American spinner the ring has undoubtedly +many advantages. Because it spins continuously, and not intermittently, +it turns out about a third more yarn per operator. It is usually +admitted, however, that the thread from the mule is more even in +diameter. Advocates of the mule say, moreover, that the thread from the +mule is softer and "loftier", and that cloth woven from it has a more +"clothy" feel. But others say they can produce soft yarn with the ring. +In the United States, where the labor cost is a vital item, the +ring-spindle has an assured place. + +[Illustration: _Mules at work_] + +The yarn is now a finished product. It may be sold by the spinner to the +weaver or it may be woven in the mill in which it is spun. Before it is +ready for the loom, however, there are a number of operations which must +be completed. + +The yarn from the ring frame, or mule, is wound in a large cop, or on a +bobbin. It must be put upon spools before it can be warped. The spooler +is a simple machine, but one that requires constant attendance. In the +spooler, bobbins are placed upon holders or spindles, and the thread is +passed over a series of guides to the spool, up above. The spool revolves +at a high rate of speed, and the thread is wound evenly upon it. The +operator must watch for broken threads, retie them, replace the empty +bobbins by full ones and see that the empty ones are gathered up +uninjured. She--the operator is usually a girl or woman--must be alert +and active, and especially nimble fingered. + +[Illustration: _"Close-up" of Ring Spindle in American mill_] + +One of the most important inventions, one that was received with acclaim +by the American manufacturer, and one which actually reduced his labor +cost on spooling no less than ten per cent. at one clip, is a tiny little +thing that is held in the palm of the hand. This is the Barber knotter. +When a thread breaks, the attendant places the two ends together in the +machine and by the mere pressure of her thumb ties the knot much better +than she could do it without the knotter. The economies which it effects +extend beyond the mere spooling, for better knots mean fewer breaks in +the warping process, and a better cloth at the end of weaving. + +The spools from the spooler are placed on a large frame, called a creel. +The creels have an average capacity of about 600 spools, and there are +usually 16 to 20 in one tier. The threads from the spools are drawn +between the dents of an adjustable reed, then under and over a series of +rollers. From here they are led down to the beam, upon which they are +wound. The revolving of the beam unwinds the yarn from the spools and +winds it regularly and evenly upon the beam itself. There is a device for +measuring the length of the warp wound, and stop motions for arresting +the operation should a thread break or other accident occur. + +[Illustration: _Each operator at these spoolers has a Barber knotter on +her hand_] + +The yarn of the warp must usually be impregnated with a sizing which will +smooth out and stick down its furry surface and add as well to the +tensile strength so that the strain of weaving may be withstood. For this +the most effective and most generally used machine is the slasher, the +chief feature of which is a roller, whose lower side is immersed in the +sizing solution. Threads from the warp beam are run around this roller +through the solution and then dried, after which it is finally wound on +another beam for the loom. A considerable number of loom beams can be +filled from one set of the warper beams mounted in the slasher. + +The lengthwise threads of a fabric are called the warp. The crosswise +threads are called the weft or filling. To make cloth, the warp and weft +must be interlaced with each other in a suitable manner. The operation is +called weaving, the machine in which it is performed is, of course, the +loom. The principal operations of weaving are as follows: + + 1. Shedding, or the raising and lowering of the alternate threads + of the warp, so that the weft may pass under and over them. + This is done by means of the harnesses and their heddles. + + 2. Picking, or placing a thread of the weft between the warp + threads so raised and lowered by means of the shuttle. + + 3. Beating-up, or pushing, each thread of the weft into its + position close against the thread which has preceded it by + means of the reed. + + 4. Letting-off, or permitting the warp to unwind from the beam only + just as fast as is needed by the speed of the weaving. This is + accomplished by friction bands and weights on the warp beam. + + 5. Taking-up, or winding upon a roller the cloth as it is + manufactured. + +In addition to these primary operations, the loom has attachments for +performing several other functions, such as stop-motions for stopping the +loom when warp or filling threads break, or when the shuttle fails to +cross the loom completely; temples for holding out the cloth laterally as +the weaving proceeds; a mechanism--in the most modern looms--for changing +the shuttles, or the cops in the shuttles, as the weft thread on the cops +becomes exhausted, etc. + +[Illustration: _Diagram of ring spindle_] + +The modern cotton loom, which automatically removes the filling bobbins +without stopping the loom, is rapidly displacing the older types, and one +weaver can now attend to a surprisingly large number of looms, being +greatly assisted also by the automatic warp and filling "stop motions." + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +The Finishing Operations + + +Following the manufacture of the cloth, come the operations necessary to +prepare it for the market. These involve such treatments as bleaching, +printing, mercerizing, dyeing, and finishing (in the narrow sense). + +The number of machines involved in these various processes rivals the +number which are used in the actual spinning and weaving operations. + +Modern bleaching is a highly technical science, conceived and planned by +engineers, and carried out with elaborate machinery by skilled workers. + +Gray cloth, as it comes from the loom, is of an unattractive color, a +dirty grayish yellow, and contains not only those impurities which it has +picked up on its journey through the mill but those inherent in its +natural state as well, all totalling some five per cent. more or less, of +the total weight. In addition there may be numerous bits of leaf from the +boll which have clung to the fibers through all the processing, and which +appear finally in the cloth as little brownish specks, known to the trade +as motes. Finally, there is the sizing which was put into the warp. + +[Illustration: _Warping--The creel in the rear_] + + +Bleaching an Intricate +Chemical Process + +In the bleaching of cotton, there is a series of operations which have +for their object the elimination of the waxy, fatty matters embodied in +the fiber, as well as any dirt which it may have acquired. Then, there is +the actual whitening and the bleaching of the cloth which destroys any +coloring matter which it may contain and finally there are treatments +designed to neutralize the effect of the chemicals used in the bleaching. +Thus, the sequence of treatments might be: first, boiling in plain water, +which removes certain soluble substances; next, an extended boiling in a +strong alkaline solution, which saponifies the waxy, fatty matters in the +fiber, and thus removes them from the cloth or yarn. Third, a steeping in +a bleaching solution--a solution of chloride of lime being largely +employed for this purpose, and which treatment is known as the chemic. +Next, after another thorough washing there is a treatment in diluted +sulphuric acid to neutralize the effects of the chemic, and finally this +is followed again by another thorough washing with possibly an additional +mild alkaline treatment. The nature and the method of all these +treatments varies considerably, and depends upon the character of the +goods being treated, but, at the conclusion, if all has gone well, the +cloth should be a good white and should not be impaired in strength. + + +Singeing Necessary +in Some Finishes + +For a certain class of goods, where a clean, smooth surface is required, +it is desirable to singe the goods before the bleaching. This is +accomplished by passing the cloth, stretched out at full width, very +rapidly over heated plates, or through gas flames, so that the fine hairs +or fuzz are singed off, but the fabric itself has not had time to take +fire. Both sides may be singed and the goods may be passed more than once +through the flame. When yarns are singed, the threads are passed through +the flame very rapidly, being unwound from one set of bobbins and wound +up on another. + +[Illustration: _Front view of an automatic loom_] + +In the dyeing operation the cotton piece goods pass through a series of +machines, the goods being in rope form as already explained, so that a +number of pieces can be put into each machine, side by side. The wash +boxes, dye vats, etc. are equipped with overhead rollers, by means of +which the goods, which have been sewn end to end, so as to make a +continuous string of them, pass out of the dye, over the roller and down +into the bath on the other side, continuing to circulate around thus +until the desired results have been obtained. In addition to the +preparatory washing and boiling, mordanting and dyeing, there are +subsequent washings to free the goods from loose coloring matter, and +other special treatments are frequently accorded them. + +Finishing in its special and restricted sense, implies a series of +treatments, such as stretching, starching, dampening, drying, pressing, +smoothing, lustreing, glazing, stiffening, softening, and whatnot, which +are given to them according to the use to which they are to be put. + +The printing press is constructed with a large main cylinder (D), the +size being dictated by the number of colors which it must take care of. +As the printing operation is a continuous one, there must be a continuous +feeding of the cloth, a continuous inking of the engraved rollers (C), +and a continuous cleaning off of the unengraved surface after the +inking. + +Under each roller, where it is fixed in its place in the press, is a long +copper trough or pan carrying the coloring material, and in the pan under +the roller, and extending into the coloring matter, is an intermediate +roller known as the "furnisher" roller, and, as the press revolves, this +covers the surface of the copper roller with a heavy film of coloring. +The surplus coloring is scraped off as the roller revolves, by a long, +sharp blade or knife, known as "the doctor," and after the roller passes +this it is quite clean, no coloring remaining on it except that in the +engraved portion. + +Each roller has its color pan with its own color in it. Then, as the +cloth (A) passes between the main cylinder, properly covered by suitable +intervening materials and the series of rollers, each roller in turn +prints its own color, and, collectively, the finished pattern is +produced. + +[Illustration: _Diagram of cloth printing machine_] + +The goods then pass into a drying room and are afterwards introduced into +a steaming chamber, where they are given a good steaming at a slight +pressure. This steaming develops the colors and causes them to impregnate +the fibers more thoroughly. Subsequently, for good work, the goods should +be washed to get rid of the thickening matters that are mixed with the +coloring, and then the printing appears in all its beauty. + + +Printing on +Full Ground Colors + +The foregoing briefly describes the processes of direct printing. In this +case, the penetration of the colors to the opposite side of the goods is +not very good. If a solid and full ground color is needed both on the +face and back of the goods, it can be had either by the "Resist" or +"Reserve" method, or by the "Extract" or "Discharge" method. In the +"Resist" method, when a white figure is wanted on a black or colored +ground, the goods are first printed with some substance which will resist +the action of the dye stuffs. Then, when the goods are dyed, the treated +part does not take the color and the substance used as a resist is washed +out, and thus a white figure is obtained on a solid colored ground. + +In the "Discharge" method, the goods are first dyed in a solid color, and +are then treated with certain chemicals which destroy the dyed color +wherever they touch the fabric, these chemicals being subsequently washed +out where they have been applied, and thus again a white figure can be +had in the colored ground. By the "Discharge" method, moreover, colored +figures can also be printed on colored grounds, as certain colorings have +been developed which are not affected by the discharge materials used, +hence, a whole series of beautiful colors can be printed on goods +previously dyed with black or colored grounds, each color being mixed +with a suitable chemical for discharging the ground color, and thus the +colors of the printed pattern come out as desired. + +Another important process which is applied to both cotton yarn and cotton +fabrics is that known as mercerization, called after "Mercer" an English +chemist who introduced the process. Cotton when subjected to the action +of strong, caustic alkali contracts violently, but when again stretched +and straightened it is found to have acquired a distinct silkiness of +appearance, and under the microscope the twisted ribbon-like fibers of +the material--already referred to--will be found to have become straight, +glossy and rodlike, just as a bicycle tire would appear after air was +blown into it. + +Cotton may be mercerized either in the yarn, warp, skein, or in the +piece, the first being more effective. The best and most satisfactory +results are achieved when the material treated is made of fine long +staple cotton, either Sea Island or Egyptian, the shorter cottons being +relatively much less improved by the treatment. The mercerizing does not +diminish the strength of the material, and gives to it a greater affinity +for dye stuffs. + + +Internal Organization +of Cotton Mills + +The foremen are specialists in their particular departments. The +warehouseman, at one end, is a judge of cotton stock, and the foreman of +the weaving room at the other knows how many automatic looms may safely +be trusted to each weaver on his staff. + +In between these two there are, according to the individual mill, a dozen +or more other foremen, all reporting regularly to the superintendent, all +captains of their own companies of workers, and all keen, in the +interests of their own reputations, to operate their departments as +intelligently, as efficiently, and with as little friction with their +individual operators as possible. For it is generally recognized +throughout the cotton industry that profitable business depends as much +upon the whole-hearted cooperation of the wage-earners, as upon any other +single factor. + + +The Question of +Individual Efficiency + +As for the operators themselves, they are so varied, there are so many +problems which they have to face, and such difficulties which those who +employ and direct them have to solve, that anything like adequate +consideration is impossible. From the impersonal viewpoint, leaving out +of account the human elements, the problems of wages, and the correlated +problem of trade organization, there remains the question of individual +efficiency. It is that which we have chiefly to consider. + +[Illustration: _Inspecting finished cloth_] + +The number of men, women, and children employed in the cotton mills of +the country has increased at a very high rate, but there has been an +interesting diminution in the proportionate percentage of women and +children under sixteen years of age employed. + +The United States Census of Manufacturers gives the following figures: + +AVERAGE NUMBER OF EMPLOYES IN AMERICAN COTTON MILLS + + _Men_ _Women_ _Children_ _Total_ + 1870 42,790 69,637 22,942 135,369 + 1880 59,685 84,539 28,320 172,544 + 1890 88,837 106,607 23,432 218,876 + 1900 134,354 123,709 39,866 297,929 + 1910 190,531 141,728 38,861 371,120 + +In percentages these figures express themselves as follows: + + _Men_ _Women_ _Children_ + 1870 31.5 51.4 17.1 + 1880 34.6 49.0 16.4 + 1890 40.6 48.7 10.7 + 1900 45.1 41.5 13.4 + 1910 51.3 38.2 10.5 + +The question of nationality has had an important bearing upon the +development of the industry in the United States. The constant influx +into the country of successive waves of immigration from the different +countries of Europe has often served in a decade to change the whole +complexion of the labor question. In the original New England mills, the +employees were of almost pure English stock. The sons and daughters of +the Yankee farmers entered the mills, not as a permanent occupation, but +merely as a means of getting a start in life. + +Just before the Civil War, the Irish began to come rapidly, and the +actual advent of that struggle saw a great number of the remaining +natives leaving for the army, or thrown out of work. When the fighting +was over they did not return, but the Irish came in even greater numbers. +The next decade saw the arrival of the French Canadians in the New +England states, and there also came, in quick succession, natives of +Italy, and of the various states of eastern Europe. + +[Illustration: _Baled cloth being put aboard waiting freight cars_] + +This change in the national complexion had two very important results. It +brought into the country a constant stream of cheap labor, polyglot, and +lacking in homogeneity, and consequently slow at first to unionize and +strike. This characteristic brought another in its train--a lack of +stability, and a proneness to transiency. The second result was hardly +less important. It meant that though labor was relatively plentiful, much +of it was unskilled. This lack of skill put a premium upon quantity +production, and led to efforts to develop automatic machinery and +labor-saving devices of all kinds. It compelled most American +manufacturers to specialize upon the coarser kinds of yarns and cloths, +made in simple weaves and patterns, in the making of which the minimum +amount of skilled labor was required. + + +Native Stock +in Southern Mills + +Conditions in the South were somewhat different. From the beginning, the +employes here have been almost entirely of native stock. They came from a +class which previously had little opportunity for any employment of a +regular character outside of farming. When the mills were built these +folks were given, for the first time, an opportunity for continuous +employment. Whole families entered the mills, fathers, mothers and +children serving in different or in the same departments. The South at +first specialized on ducks, twills, denims, and such coarse work. Now, +however, there is a growing tendency to diversify the product. The reason +is found in the increasing capability of the workers, many of whom have +by now spent many years of their lives in the mills, and whose fathers +before them were operatives. Unless present conditions change and the +South becomes the mecca of immigrants--a development probably less likely +now than in the years before the war--there seems to be a strong +possibility that a class of operatives, rivalling eventually in skill +those of the English mill towns, will be developed. The stock is the +same, and the latent capabilities are all there. The determining factors +will probably be the economic changes of the next few years. + +A remaining factor in the organization of the mill is the size of the +individual plant, the number of spindles and looms it contains, the +number of workers employed, etc. It is in just this particular that some +of the most characteristic developments of the American industry are +found. About the time of the Civil War, the average New England mill had +less than ten thousand spindles. Today the average is probably between +fifty and one hundred thousand, and perhaps nearer the latter figure than +the former. Some of the mills have nearly, if not quite, a full million +spindles in several buildings. The average in the South is much less than +the New England average. The industry in the older section is definitely +localized, even to the extent of having whole towns devoted almost +exclusively to the manufacture of single grades of cloth. In the South +the mills are more widely scattered, advantage having been taken of labor +supply, water power, and other conditions. Local pride has sometimes +caused the establishment of mills in regions economically unfitted for +them. Such mills do not long survive. The advantage of large scale +production has thus been seized chiefly by the New England mills, but the +generally lower wages of the South have tended to equalize the +situation. + +[Illustration: _Original Whitney cotton gin, preserved in Smithsonian +Institute in Washington_] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fabric of Civilization, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FABRIC OF CIVILIZATION *** + +***** This file should be named 29048.txt or 29048.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/0/4/29048/ + +Produced by Audrey Longhurst, ronnie sahlberg and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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