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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sir William Herschel: His Life and Works, by 
+Edward Singleton Holden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sir William Herschel: His Life and Works
+
+Author: Edward Singleton Holden
+
+Release Date: June 3, 2009 [EBook #29031]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Eric Hutton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL
+
+HIS LIFE AND WORKS
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Sir William Herschel]
+
+SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL
+
+
+HIS LIFE AND WORKS
+
+BY
+
+EDWARD S. HOLDEN
+
+UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON
+
+[Illustration: Coelis Exploratis]
+
+
+
+NEW YORK
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+743 AND 745 BROADWAY
+1881
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1880,
+BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS.
+
+
+
+PRESS OF J. J. LITTLE & CO.,
+
+NOS. 10 TO 20 ASTOR PLACE, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+Please see the end of the text for TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the following account of the life and works of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL,
+I have been obliged to depend strictly upon data already in print--the
+_Memoir_ of his sister, his own scientific writings and the memoirs and
+diaries of his cotemporaries. The review of his published works will, I
+trust, be of use. It is based upon a careful study of all his papers in
+the _Philosophical Transactions_ and elsewhere.
+
+A life of HERSCHEL which shall be satisfactory in every particular can
+only be written after a full examination of the materials which are
+preserved at the family seat in England; but as two generations have
+passed since his death, and as no biography yet exists which approaches
+to completeness, no apology seems to me to be needed for a
+conscientious attempt to make the best use of the scanty material which
+we do possess.
+
+This study will, I trust, serve to exhibit so much of his life as
+belongs to the whole public. His private life belongs to his family,
+until the time is come to let the world know more of the greatest of
+practical astronomers and of the inner life of one of its most profound
+philosophers,--of a great and ardent mind, whose achievements are and
+will remain the glory of England.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                                  PAGE
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY YEARS; 1738-1772,                              1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+LIFE IN BATH; 1772-1782,                            33
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+LIFE AT DATCHET, CLAY HALL, AND SLOUGH; 1782-1822,  68
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF HERSCHEL,       118
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY,                                      215
+
+
+INDEX OF NAMES,                                    235
+
+
+
+
+LIFE AND WORKS
+
+OF
+
+WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY YEARS; 1738-1772.
+
+
+Of the great modern philosophers, that one of whom least is known, is
+WILLIAM HERSCHEL. We may appropriate the words which escaped him when
+the barren region of the sky near the body of _Scorpio_ was passing
+slowly through the field of his great reflector, during one of his
+sweeps, to express our own sense of absence of light and knowledge:
+_Hier ist wahrhaftig ein Loch im Himmel._
+
+HERSCHEL prepared, about the year 1818, a biographical memorandum, which
+his sister CAROLINA placed among his papers.
+
+This has never been made public. The only thoroughly authentic sources
+of information in possession of the world, are a letter written by
+HERSCHEL himself, in answer to a pressing request for a sketch of his
+life, and the _Memoir and Correspondence of CAROLINE HERSCHEL_ (London,
+1876), a precious memorial not only of his life, but of one which
+otherwise would have remained almost unknown, and one, too, which the
+world could ill afford to lose. The latter, which has been ably edited
+by Mrs. MARY CORNWALLIS HERSCHEL,[1] is the only source of knowledge in
+regard to the early years of the great astronomer, and together with the
+all too scanty materials to be gained from a diligent search through the
+biography of the time, affords the data for those personal details of
+his life, habits, and character, which seem to complete the distinct,
+though partial conception of him which the student of his philosophical
+writings acquires.
+
+The letter referred to was published in the Göttingen Magazine of
+Science and Literature, III., 4, shortly after the name of HERSCHEL had
+become familiar to every ear through his discovery of _Uranus_, but
+while the circumstances of the discovery, and the condition of the
+amateur who made it, were still entirely unknown.
+
+The editor (LICHTENBERG) says:
+
+    "Herr HERSCHEL was good enough to send me, some time since, through
+    Herr MAGELLAN, copies of his Dissertations on Double Stars, on the
+    Parallax of the Fixed Stars, and on a new Micrometer. In the letter
+    which conveyed to him my thanks for his gift, I requested him to
+    note down a few facts in regard to his life, for publication in this
+    magazine, since various accounts, more or less incorrect, had
+    appeared in several journals. In answer, I received a very obliging
+    letter from him and what follows is that portion of it relating to
+    my request, which was sent me with full permission to make it
+    public."
+
+
+                                                "DATCHET, NEAR WINDSOR,
+                                                _Nov. 15, 1783._
+
+    "I was born in Hanover, November, 1738. My father, who was a
+    musician, destined me to the same profession, hence I was
+    instructed betimes in his art. That I might acquire a perfect
+    knowledge of the theory as well as of the practice of music, I was
+    set at an early age to study mathematics in all its
+    branches--algebra, conic sections, infinitesimal analysis, and the
+    rest.
+
+    "The insatiable desire for knowledge thus awakened resulted next in
+    a course of languages; I learned French, English, and Latin, and
+    steadfastly resolved henceforth to devote myself wholly to those
+    sciences from the pursuit of which I alone looked for all my future
+    happiness and enjoyment. I have never been either necessitated or
+    disposed to alter this resolve. My father, whose means were limited,
+    and who consequently could not be as liberal to his children as he
+    would have desired, was compelled to dispose of them in one way or
+    another at an early age; consequently in my fifteenth year I
+    enlisted in military service, only remaining in the army, however,
+    until I reached my nineteenth year, when I resigned and went over to
+    England.
+
+    "My familiarity with the organ, which I had carefully mastered
+    previously, soon procured for me the position of organist in
+    Yorkshire, which I finally exchanged for a similar situation at Bath
+    in 1766, and while here the peculiar circumstances of my post, as
+    agreeable as it was lucrative, made it possible for me to occupy
+    myself once more with my studies, especially with mathematics. When,
+    in the course of time, I took up astronomy, I determined to accept
+    nothing on faith, but to see with my own eyes everything which
+    others had seen before me. Having already some knowledge of the
+    science of optics, I resolved to manufacture my own telescopes, and
+    after many continuous, determined trials, I finally succeeded in
+    completing a so-called Newtonian instrument, seven feet in length.
+    From this I advanced to one of ten feet, and at last to one of
+    twenty, for I had fully made up my mind to carry on the improvement
+    of my telescopes as far as it could possibly be done. When I had
+    carefully and thoroughly perfected the great instrument in all its
+    parts, I made systematic use of it in my observations of the
+    heavens, first forming a determination never to pass by any, the
+    smallest, portion of them without due investigation. This habit,
+    persisted in, led to the discovery of the new planet (_Georgium
+    Sidus_). This was by no means the result of chance, but a simple
+    consequence of the position of the planet on that particular
+    evening, since it occupied precisely that spot in the heavens which
+    came in the order of the minute observations that I had previously
+    mapped out for myself. Had I not seen it just when I did, I must
+    inevitably have come upon it soon after, since my telescope was so
+    perfect that I was able to distinguish it from a fixed star in the
+    first minute of observation.
+
+    "Now to bring this sketch to a close. As the king had expressed a
+    desire to see my telescope, I took it by his command to Greenwich,
+    where it was compared with the instruments of my excellent friend,
+    Dr. MASKELYNE, not only by himself, but by other experts, who
+    pronounced it as their opinion that my instrument was superior to
+    all the rest. Thereupon the king ordered that the instrument be
+    brought to Windsor, and since it there met with marked approval, his
+    majesty graciously awarded me a yearly pension, that I might be
+    enabled to relinquish my profession of music, and devote my whole
+    time to astronomy and the improvement of the telescope. Gratitude,
+    as well as other considerations specified by me in a paper presented
+    to the Royal Society, of which I am a member, has induced me to call
+    the new planet _Georgium Sidus_.
+
+        "'Georgium Sidus.--jam nunc assuesce vocari.'--(_Virgil._)
+
+    And I hope it will retain the name."
+
+We know but little of the family of HERSCHEL. The name is undoubtedly
+Jewish, and is found in Poland, Germany, and England. We learn that the
+ancestors of the present branch left Moravia about the beginning of the
+XVIIth century, on account of their change of religion to Protestantism.
+They became possessors of land in Saxony. HANS HERSCHEL, the
+great-grandfather of WILLIAM, was a brewer in Pirna (a small town near
+Dresden). Of the two sons of HANS, one, ABRAHAM (born in 1651, died
+1718), was employed in the royal gardens at Dresden, and seems to have
+been a man of taste and skill in his calling. Of his eldest son,
+EUSEBIUS, there appears to be little trace in the records of the family.
+The second son, BENJAMIN, died in infancy; the third, ISAAC, was born in
+1707 (Jan. 14), and was thus an orphan at eleven years of age. ISAAC was
+the father of the great astronomer.
+
+He appears to have early had a passionate fondness for music, and this,
+added to a distaste for his father's calling, determined his career. He
+was taught music by an oboe-player in the royal band, and he also
+learned the violin. At the age of twenty-one he studied music for a year
+under the Cappelmeister PABRICH, at Potsdam, and in August, 1731, he
+became oboist in the band of the Guards, at Hanover. In August, 1732, he
+married ANNA ILSE MORITZEN. She appears to have been a careful and busy
+wife and mother, possessed of no special faculties which would lead us
+to attribute to her care any great part of the abilities of her son.
+She could not herself write the letters which she sent to her husband
+during his absences with his regiment. It was her firm belief that the
+separations and some of the sorrows of the family came from too much
+learning; and while she could not hinder the education of the sons of
+the family, she prevented their sisters from learning French and
+dancing. It is but just to say that the useful accomplishments of
+cooking, sewing, and the care of a household, were thoroughly taught by
+her to her two daughters. The father, ISAAC, appears to have been of a
+different mould, and to him, no doubt, the chief intellectual
+characteristics of the family are due. His position obliged him to be
+often absent from Hanover, with his regiment, but his hand appears to
+have been always present, smoothing over difficulties, and encouraging
+his sons to such learning and improvement as was to be had.
+
+His health was seriously injured by the exposures of the campaigns,
+and he was left, after the Seven Years' War, with a broken constitution.
+
+After his final return home, in 1760, his daughter gives this record of
+him--
+
+    "Copying music employed every vacant moment, even sometimes
+    throughout half the night. . . . With my brother [DIETRICH]--now a
+    little engaging creature of between four and five years old--he was
+    very much pleased, and [on the first evening of his arrival at home]
+    before he went to rest, the Adempken (a little violin) was taken
+    from the shelf and newly strung, and the daily lessons immediately
+    commenced. . . . I do not recollect that he ever desired any other
+    society than what he had opportunities of enjoying in many of the
+    parties where he was introduced by his profession, though far from
+    being of a morose disposition; he would frequently encourage my
+    mother in keeping up a social intercourse among a few acquaintances,
+    whilst his afternoon hours generally were taken up in giving lessons
+    to some scholars at home, who gladly saved him the troublesome
+    exertion of walking. . . . He also found great pleasure in seeing
+    DIETRICH'S improvement, who, young as he was, and of the most lively
+    temper imaginable, was always ready to receive his lessons, leaving
+    his little companions with the greatest cheerfulness to go to his
+    father, who was so pleased with his performances that he made him
+    play a solo on the Adempken in RAKE'S concert, being placed on a
+    table before a crowded company, for which he was very much applauded
+    and caressed, particularly by an English lady, who put a gold coin
+    in his little pocket.
+
+    "It was not long before my father had as many scholars as he could
+    find time to attend. And when they assembled at my father's to make
+    little concerts, I was frequently called to join the second violin
+    in an overture, for my father found pleasure in giving me sometimes
+    a lesson before the instruments were laid by, after practising with
+    DIETRICH, for I never was missing at those hours, sitting in a
+    corner with my knitting and listening all the while."
+
+Here, as in all her writing, CAROLINA is simple, true, direct to
+awkwardness, and unconsciously pathetic even in joy.
+
+The family of ISAAC and ANNA HERSCHEL consisted of ten children. Six of
+these lived to adult age. They were:
+
+    1. SOPHIA ELIZABETH; born 1733, married GRIESBACH, a musician in the
+       Guard, by whom she had children. Five of her sons were afterwards
+       musicians at the court, in England, where they obtained places
+       through the influence of WILLIAM.
+
+    2. HENRY ANTON JACOB; born 1734, November 20.
+
+    4. FREDERIC WILLIAM (the astronomer) born 1738, November 15.
+
+    6. JOHN ALEXANDER; born 1745, November 13.
+
+    8. CAROLINA LUCRETIA; born 1750, March 16.
+
+    10. DIETRICH; born 1755, September 13.
+
+Of this family group, the important figures to us are WILLIAM,
+ALEXANDER, and CAROLINA.
+
+JACOB was organist at the Garrison Church of Hanover in 1753, a member
+of the Guards' band in 1755, and first violin in the Hanover Court
+Orchestra in 1759. Afterwards he joined his brother WILLIAM in Bath, but
+again returned to Hanover. In 1771 he published in Amsterdam his Opus
+I., a set of six quartettes, and later, in London, he published two
+symphonies and six trios. He appears to have been a clever musician, and
+his letters to his younger brother WILLIAM are full of discussion on
+points of musical composition, etc. He died in 1792.
+
+DIETRICH, the youngest brother, shared in the musical abilities of his
+family, and when only fifteen years old was so far advanced as to be
+able to supply his brother JACOB'S place in the Court Orchestra, and to
+give his lessons to private pupils. There is no one of the family,
+except the eldest daughter, whom we do not know to have possessed marked
+ability in music, and this taste descended truly for four generations.
+In the letters of Chevalier BUNSEN,[2] he describes meeting, in 1847,
+the eldest granddaughter of WILLIAM HERSCHEL, who, he says, "is a
+musical genius."
+
+Three members of the family, WILLIAM, ALEXANDER, and CAROLINA, formed a
+group which was inseparable for many years, and while the progress of
+the lives of ALEXANDER and CAROLINA was determined by the energy and
+efforts of WILLIAM, these two lent him an aid without which his career
+would have been strangely different. It is necessary to understand a
+little better the early life of all three.
+
+The sons of the HERSCHEL family all attended the garrison school in
+Hanover until they were about fourteen years old. They were taught the
+ordinary rudiments of knowledge--to read, to write, to cipher--and a
+knowledge of French and English was added. WILLIAM especially
+distinguished himself in his studies, learning French very rapidly, and
+studying Latin and arithmetic with his master out of hours. The
+household life seems to have been active, harmonious, and intelligent,
+especially during the presence of the father, who took a great delight
+in the rapid progress of all his sons in music, and who encouraged them
+with his companionship in their studies and in their reading on all
+intellectual subjects.
+
+From the _Memoir_ of CAROLINA, on which we must depend for our
+knowledge of this early life, we take the following paragraph:
+
+    "My brothers were often introduced as solo performers and assistants
+    in the orchestra of the court, and I remember that I was frequently
+    prevented from going to sleep by the lively criticism on music on
+    coming from a concert, or by conversations on philosophical subjects,
+    which lasted frequently till morning, in which my father was a
+    lively partaker and assistant of my brother WILLIAM, by contriving
+    self-made instruments. . . . Often I would keep myself awake that
+    I might listen to their animating remarks, for it made _me so happy_
+    to see _them so happy_. But generally their conversation would
+    branch out on philosophical subjects, when my brother WILLIAM and my
+    father often argued with such warmth that my mother's interference
+    became necessary, when the names LEIBNITZ, NEWTON, and EULER
+    sounded rather too loud for the repose of her little ones, who
+    ought to be in school by seven in the morning. But it seems that
+    on the brothers retiring to their own room, where they shared
+    the same bed, my brother WILLIAM had still a great deal to say; and
+    frequently it happened that when he stopped for an assent or reply,
+    he found his hearer was gone to sleep, and I suppose it was not till
+    then that he bethought himself to do the same.
+
+    "The recollection of these happy scenes confirms me in the belief,
+    that had my brother WILLIAM not then been interrupted in his
+    philosophical pursuits, we should have had much earlier proofs of
+    his inventive genius. My father was a great admirer of astronomy,
+    and had some knowledge of that science; for I remember his taking
+    me, on a clear frosty night, into the street, to make me acquainted
+    with several of the most beautiful constellations, after we had been
+    gazing at a comet which was then visible. And I well remember with
+    what delight he used to assist my brother WILLIAM in his various
+    contrivances in the pursuit of his philosophical studies, among
+    which was a neatly turned 4-inch globe, upon which the equator and
+    ecliptic were engraved by my brother."
+
+The mechanical genius was not confined to WILLIAM, for we read that
+ALEXANDER used often to "sit by us and amuse us and himself by making
+all sorts of things out of pasteboard, or contriving how to make a
+twelve-hour cuckoo clock go a week." This ability of ALEXANDER'S was
+turned later to the best account when he became his brother WILLIAM'S
+right hand in the manufacture of reflectors, eye-pieces, and stands in
+England. His abilities were great, and a purpose which might otherwise
+have been lacking was supplied through the younger brother's ardor in
+all that he undertook.
+
+His musical talent was remarkable; he played "divinely" on the
+violoncello. He returned to Hanover in 1816, where he lived in
+comfortable independence, through the never-failing generosity of his
+brother, until his death in 1821. A notice of him in a Bristol paper
+says: "Died, March 15, 1821, at Hanover, ALEXANDER HERSCHEL, Esqr., well
+known to the public of Bath and Bristol as a performer and elegant
+musician; and who for forty-seven years was the admiration of the
+frequenters of concerts and theatres of both those cities as principal
+violoncello. To the extraordinary merits of Mr. HERSCHEL was united
+considerable acquirement in the superior branches of mechanics and
+philosophy, and his affinity to his brother, Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, was
+not less in science than in blood."
+
+We shall learn more of the sister, CAROLINA, as time goes on. Now in
+these early years she was a silent and persistent child, growing up with
+a feeling that she was uncared for and neglected, and lavishing all her
+childish affection, as she did all that of her womanly life, on her
+brother WILLIAM. Throughout her long life, "my brother" was WILLIAM,
+"my nephew" _his_ son.
+
+The brothers JACOB and WILLIAM were, with their father, members of the
+band of the Guards in 1755, when the regiment was ordered to England,
+and they were absent from Hanover a year.
+
+WILLIAM (then seventeen years old) went as oboist, and out of his
+scanty pay brought back to Hanover, in 1756, only one memento of his
+stay--a copy of LOCKE _On the Human Understanding_.
+
+He appears to have served with the Guard during part of the campaign of
+1757. His health was then delicate, and his parents "determined to
+remove him from the service--a step attended by no small
+difficulties."[3]
+
+This "removal" was hurriedly and safely effected, so hurriedly that the
+copy of LOCKE was not put in the parcels sent after him to Hamburg by
+his mother; "she, dear woman, knew no other wants than good linen and
+clothing."
+
+Thus, at last, the young WILLIAM HERSCHEL, the son of an oboe-player in
+the King's Guard, is launched in life for himself, in the year 1757, at
+the age of nineteen.
+
+All his equipment is the "good linen and clothing," a knowledge of
+French, Latin, and English, some skill in playing the violin, the organ,
+and the oboe, and an "uncommon precipitancy" in doing what there is to
+be done.
+
+A slender outfit truly; but we are not to overlook what he said of
+himself on another occasion. "I have, nevertheless, several resources in
+view, and do not despair of succeeding pretty well in the end."
+
+From 1757 to 1760--three years--we know nothing of his life. We can
+imagine what it was. His previous visit to England had given him a good
+knowledge of the language, and perhaps a few uninfluential
+acquaintances. On his return he would naturally seek these out, and, by
+means of his music, he could gain a livelihood. We first hear of him as
+charged with the organization of the music of a corps of the militia of
+Durham, under the auspices of the EARL OF DARLINGTON. "La manière dont
+il remplit cette mission, le fit connaître avantageusement."[4] The
+nature of the service of these militia corps, which were then forming
+all over England, is well described in the Autobiography of GIBBON.
+Every county-gentleman felt constrained to serve his country,
+and the regimental mess-rooms were filled with men of rank and fashion.
+
+In 1760 we hear of him again. He has attracted the notice of those about
+him.
+
+    "About the year 1760, as MILLER[5] was dining at Pontefract with
+    the officers of the Durham militia, one of them, knowing his love of
+    music, told him they had a young German in their band as a performer
+    on the hautboy, who had only been a few months in England, and yet
+    spoke English almost as well as a native, and who was also an
+    excellent performer on the violin; the officer added that if MILLER
+    would come into another room, this German should entertain him with
+    a solo. The invitation was gladly accepted, and MILLER heard a solo
+    of GIARDINI'S executed in a manner that surprised him. He afterwards
+    took an opportunity of having some private conversation with the
+    young musician, and asked him whether he had engaged himself for any
+    long period to the Durham militia. The answer was, 'Only from month
+    to month.' 'Leave them, then,' said the organist, 'and come and live
+    with me. I am a single man, and think we shall be happy together;
+    and, doubtless, your merit will soon entitle you to a more eligible
+    situation.' The offer was accepted as frankly as it was made, and
+    the reader may imagine with what satisfaction Dr. MILLER
+    must have remembered this act of generous feeling when he hears
+    that this young German was HERSCHEL, the Astronomer. 'My humble
+    mansion,' says MILLER, 'consisted, at that time, but of two rooms.
+    However, poor as I was, my cottage contained a library of
+    well-chosen books; and it must appear singular that a foreigner who
+    had been so short a time in England should understand even the
+    peculiarities of the language so well as to fix upon SWIFT for his
+    favorite author.'
+
+    "He took an early opportunity of introducing his new friend at
+    Mr. CROPLEY'S concerts; the first violin was resigned to him; 'and
+    never,' says the organist, 'had I heard the concertos of CORELLI,
+    GEMINIANI, and AVISON, or the overtures of HANDEL performed more
+    chastely, or more according to the original intention of the
+    composers, than by Mr. HERSCHEL. I soon lost my companion; his fame
+    was presently spread abroad; he had the offer of pupils, and was
+    solicited to lead the public concerts both at Wakefield and Halifax.
+    A new organ for the parish church of Halifax was built about this
+    time, and HERSCHEL was one of the seven candidates for the
+    organist's place. They drew lots how they were to perform in
+    succession. HERSCHEL drew the third, the second fell to Dr.
+    WAINWRIGHT of Manchester, whose finger was so rapid that old
+    SNETZLER, the organ-builder, ran about the church exclaiming:
+    '_Te tevel! te tevel! he run over te keys like one cat; he will
+    not give my piphes room for to shpeak._' 'During Mr. WAINWRIGHT'S
+    performance,' says MILLER, 'I was standing in the middle aisle with
+    HERSCHEL. 'What chance have you,' said I, 'to follow this man?' He
+    replied, 'I don't know; I am sure fingers will not do.' On which he
+    ascended the organ loft, and produced from the organ so uncommon a
+    fulness, such a volume of slow, solemn harmony, that I could by no
+    means account for the effect. After this short _ex tempore_
+    effusion, he finished with the Old Hundredth psalm-tune, which he
+    played better than his opponent.
+
+    "'_Ay, ay_,' cried old SNETZLER, '_tish is very goot, very goot
+    indeet; I vil luf tish man, for he gives my piphes room for to
+    shpeak._' Having afterwards asked Mr. HERSCHEL by what means, in the
+    beginning of his performance, he produced so uncommon an effect, he
+    replied, 'I told you fingers would not do!' and producing two pieces
+    of lead from his waistcoat pocket, 'one of these,' said he,
+    'I placed on the lowest key of the organ, and the other upon the
+    octave above; thus by accommodating the harmony, I produced the
+    effect of four hands, instead of two.'"[6]
+
+The dates in this extract are not so well defined as might be wished.
+HERSCHEL had certainly been more than a few months in England at the
+time of his meeting with Dr. MILLER, which was probably about 1760. The
+appointment as organist at Halifax was in 1765, and the pupils and
+public concerts must have filled up the intervening five years. During a
+part of this time he lived in Leeds, with the family of Mr. BULMAN, whom
+he afterwards provided with a place as clerk to the Octagon Chapel, in
+his usual generous manner.
+
+All during his life he was placing some of the less fortunate and
+energetic members of his family.
+
+We cannot be too grateful to Dr. MILLER, who, seeing his opportunity,
+used it. Their frank friendship does honor to both. HERSCHEL'S
+organ-playing, which no doubt had been begun when his brother was the
+organist of the garrison chapel at Hanover, must have been perfected at
+this time, and it was through his organ-playing that he was able to
+leave the needy life in Yorkshire.
+
+He was sure to have emerged sooner or later, but every year spared to
+him as a struggling musician was a year saved to Astronomy.
+
+During all this period, a constant correspondence was maintained
+between the family at Hanover and the absent son.
+
+Many of WILLIAM'S letters were written in English, and addressed to his
+brother JACOB, and treated of such subjects as the Theory of Music, in
+which he was already far advanced.
+
+His little sister was still faithful to the memory of her _dearest_
+brother, and his father, whose health was steadily declining, became
+painfully eager for his return. In 1764 (April 2), he returned to
+Hanover on a very brief visit. He was attached to England, he was
+prospering there, and he had no inclination towards returning to a life
+in Hanover. His sister says:
+
+    "Of the joys and pleasures which all felt at this long-wished-for
+    meeting with my--let me say my _dearest_--brother, but a small
+    portion could fall to my share; for with my constant attendance at
+    church and school, besides the time I was employed in doing the
+    drudgery of the scullery, it was but seldom I could make one in the
+    group when the family were assembled together.
+
+    "In the first week, some of the orchestra were invited to a concert,
+    at which some of my brother WILLIAM'S compositions, overtures, etc.,
+    and some of my eldest brother JACOB'S were performed, to the great
+    delight of my dear father, who hoped and expected that they would
+    be turned to some profit by publishing them, but there was no
+    printer who bid high enough.
+
+    "Sunday, the 8th, was the--to me--eventful day of my confirmation,
+    and I left home not a little proud and encouraged by my dear brother
+    WILLIAM'S approbation of my appearance in my new gown."
+
+The engagement of HERSCHEL at Halifax did not long continue. In 1766 he
+obtained an advantageous engagement as oboist at Bath, and soon after
+the position of organist at the Octagon Chapel was offered to him and
+accepted. This was a great and important change.
+
+Bath was then, as now, one of the most beautiful cities in England, and
+the resort of the fashion and rank of the kingdom, who came to take the
+waters. It is beautifully situated on both sides of the Avon, and has
+many fine walks and public buildings. The aspect of the city is markedly
+cheerful and brilliant, owing to the nature of the white stone of which
+the principal houses are built, and to the exquisite amphitheatre of
+hills in which they lie.
+
+The society was then gay and polite, and HERSCHEL was at once thrown
+into a far more intelligent atmosphere than that he had just left in
+Yorkshire. It was easy to get new books, to see new faces, to hear new
+things. The Assembly Rooms (built in 1771) were noted for their size and
+elegance; the theatre was the best out of London.
+
+His position as organist of the fashionable chapel placed him in the
+current. His charming and engaging manners made him friends. His talents
+brought him admirers and pupils, and pupils brought him money.[7]
+
+He began in 1766 a life of unceasing activity, which continued. In 1768
+he published in London a symphony (in C) for two violins, viola, bass,
+two oboes, and two horns, and in the same year two military concertos
+for two oboes, two horns, two trumpets, and two bassoons.[8] He wrote
+pieces for the harp, glees, "catches," and other songs for the
+voice. One of these, the _Echo Catch_, was published and had even
+considerable vogue.
+
+    A competent musical critic writes to me of this work: "The
+    counterpoint is clear and flowing, and is managed with considerable
+    taste and effect. It would be difficult to explain the great
+    cleverness shown in the construction of the _Catch_ without diagrams
+    to illustrate the movements of the parts. It is certainly an
+    ingenious bit of musical writing."
+
+When he left Bath (in 1782), many of these musical writings were lost,
+in his great haste to take up his new profession. One, specially, his
+sister remembers to have written out for the printer, "but he could not
+find a moment to send it off, nor answer the printer's letters." This
+was a four-part song, "In thee I bear so dear a part." He wrote very
+many anthems, chants, and psalm-tunes for the excellent cathedral choir
+of the Octagon Chapel. Unfortunately, most of this music is now not to
+be found.
+
+A notice of HERSCHEL'S life which appeared in the _European Magazine_
+for 1785, January, gives a very lively picture of his life at this
+time, and it is especially valuable as showing how he appeared to his
+cotemporaries.
+
+    "Although Mr. HERSCHEL loved music to an excess, and made a
+    considerable progress in it, he yet determined with a sort of
+    enthusiasm to devote every moment he could spare from business to
+    the pursuit of knowledge, which he regarded as the sovereign good,
+    and in which he resolved to place all his views of future happiness
+    in life.". . .
+
+    "His situation at the Octagon Chapel proved a very profitable one,
+    as he soon fell into all the public business of the concerts, the
+    Rooms, the Theatre, and the oratorios, besides many scholars and
+    private concerts. This great run of business, instead of lessening
+    his propensity to study, increased it, so that many times, after a
+    fatiguing day of fourteen or sixteen hours spent in his vocation, he
+    would retire at night with the greatest avidity to _unbend the
+    mind_, if it may be so called, with a few propositions in
+    MACLAURIN'S _Fluxions_, or other books of that sort."
+
+It was in these years that he mastered Italian and made some progress
+in Greek.
+
+    "We may hazard a natural conjecture respecting the course of
+    HERSCHEL'S early studies. Music conducted him to mathematics, or,
+    in other words, impelled him to study SMITH'S _Harmonics_. Now this
+    ROBERT SMITH was the author of _A Complete System of Optics_,
+    a masterly work, which, notwithstanding the rapid growth of that
+    branch of the science, is not yet wholly superseded. It seems to us
+    not unlikely that HERSCHEL, studying the _Harmonics_, conceived a
+    reverence for the author, who was at that time still living, so that
+    from the _Philosophy of Music_ he passed to the _Optics_, a work on
+    which SMITH'S great reputation chiefly rested; and thus undesignedly
+    prepared himself for the career on which he was shortly about to
+    enter with so much glory."[9]
+
+There is no doubt that this conjecture is a true one. The _Optics_ of
+Dr. SMITH is one of the very few books quoted by HERSCHEL throughout his
+writings, and there is every evidence of his complete familiarity with
+its conclusions and methods; and this familiarity is of the kind which a
+student acquires with his early text-books. One other work he quotes in
+the same way, LALANDE'S _Astronomy_, and this too must have been deeply
+studied.
+
+During the years 1765-1772, while HERSCHEL was following his profession
+and his studies at Bath, the family life at Hanover went on in much the
+same way.
+
+In 1765 his father ISAAC had a stroke of paralysis, which ended his
+violin-playing forever, and forced him to depend entirely upon pupils
+and copying of music for a livelihood. He died on March 22, 1767,
+leaving behind him a good name, and living in the affectionate
+remembrance of his children and of all who knew him.
+
+CAROLINA had now lost her best friend, and transferred to her brother
+WILLIAM the affection she had before divided between him and her father.
+
+    "My father wished to give me something like a polished education,
+    but my mother was particularly determined that it should be a rough,
+    but at the same time a useful one; and nothing farther she thought
+    was necessary but to send me two or three months to a sempstress to
+    be taught to make household linen. . . . My mother would not consent
+    to my being taught French, and my brother Dietrich was even denied a
+    dancing-master, because she would not permit my learning along with
+    him, though the entrance had been paid for us both; so all my father
+    could do for me was to indulge me (and please himself) sometimes
+    with a short lesson on the violin, when my mother was either in
+    good humor or out of the way. Though I have often felt myself
+    exceedingly at a loss for the want of those few accomplishments of
+    which I was thus, by an erroneous though well-meant opinion of my
+    mother, deprived, I could not help thinking but that she had cause
+    for wishing me not to know more than was necessary for being useful
+    in the family; for it was her certain belief that my brother WILLIAM
+    would have returned to his country, and my eldest brother not have
+    looked so high, if they had had a little less learning.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+    But sometimes I found it scarcely possible to get through with the
+    work required, and felt very unhappy that no time at all was left
+    for improving myself in music or fancy work, in which I had an
+    opportunity of receiving some instruction from an ingenious young
+    woman whose parents lived in the same house with us. But the time
+    wanted for spending a few hours together could only be obtained by
+    our meeting at daybreak, because by the time of the family's rising
+    at seven, I was obliged to be at my daily business. Though I had
+    neither time nor means for producing anything immediately either for
+    show or use, I was content with keeping samples of all possible
+    patterns in needlework, beads, bugles, horse-hair, etc., for I could
+    not help feeling troubled sometimes about my future destiny; yet I
+    could not bear the idea of being turned into an Abigail or
+    housemaid, and thought that with the above and such like
+    acquirements, with a little notion of music, I might obtain a place
+    as governess in some family where the want of a knowledge of French
+    would be no objection."
+
+A change was soon to come in her life too; her brother WILLIAM wrote
+to propose that she should join him at Bath--
+
+    . . . "to make the trial, if, by his instruction, I might not become
+    a useful singer for his winter concerts and oratorios; he advised my
+    brother JACOB to give me some lessons by way of beginning; but that
+    if, after a trial of two years, we should not find it answer our
+    expectation, he would bring me back again. This at first seemed to
+    be agreeable to all parties, but by the time I had set my heart upon
+    this change in my situation, JACOB began to turn the whole scheme
+    into ridicule, and, of course, he never heard the sound of my voice
+    except in speaking, and yet I was left in the harassing uncertainty
+    whether I was to go or not. I resolved at last to prepare, as far as
+    lay in my power, for both cases, by taking, in the first place,
+    every opportunity, when all were from home, to imitate, with a gag
+    between my teeth, the solo parts of concertos, _shake and all_, such
+    as I had heard them play on the violin; in consequence I had gained
+    a tolerable execution before I knew how to sing. I next began to
+    knit ruffles, which were intended for my brother WILLIAM, in case I
+    remained at home--else they were to be JACOB'S. For my mother and
+    brother D. I knitted as many cotton stockings as would last two
+    years at least."
+
+In August, 1772, her brother arrived at Hanover, to take her back to
+England with him. The journey to London was made between August 16th and
+26th, and soon after they went together to HERSCHEL'S house, No. 7 New
+King's Street, Bath.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Wife of Major JOHN HERSCHEL, of the Royal Engineers,
+grandson of Sir WILLIAM.
+
+[2] Page 127.
+
+[3] _Memoir_ of CAROLINA HERSCHEL, p. 10. Sir GEORGE AIRY,
+Astronomer Royal, relates in the _Academy_ that this "removal" was a
+desertion, as he was told by the Duke of Sussex that on the first visit
+of HERSCHEL to the king, after the discovery of the _Georgium Sidus_,
+the pardon of HERSCHEL was handed to him by the king himself, written
+out in due form.
+
+[4] FÉTIS; _Biographie universelle des musiciens_, tome V.
+(1839) p. 141.
+
+[5] Dr. MILLER, a noted organist, and afterwards historian of
+Doncaster.
+
+[6] _The Doctor_; by ROBERT SOUTHEY, edition of 1848, p.
+140.
+
+[7] He frequently gave thirty-five and thirty-eight lessons a
+week to pupils at this time.
+
+[8] According to FÉTIS. A search for these in London has led
+me to the belief that FÉTIS, who is usually very accurate, is here
+mistaken, and that these writings are by JACOB HERSCHEL.
+
+[9] _Foreign Quarterly Review_, volume 31.
+
+
+
+
+                           CHAPTER II.
+
+                    LIFE IN BATH; 1772-1782.
+
+
+It was to a busy life in Bath that HERSCHEL took his sister CAROLINA,
+then twenty-two years old. She was a perfectly untried girl, of very
+small accomplishments and outwardly with but little to attract. The
+basis of her character was the possibility of an unchanging devotion to
+one object; for the best years of her life this object was the happiness
+and success of her brother WILLIAM, whom she profoundly loved. Her love
+was headstrong and full of a kind of obstinate pride, which refused to
+see anything but the view she had adopted. As long as her life continued
+to be with her dearest brother, all was well with her. She had a noble
+aim, and her heart was more than full. Later on, this very singleness of
+character brought her other years of wretchedness. It is necessary to
+understand the almost spaniel-like allegiance she gave, in order to
+comprehend the value which her services were to HERSCHEL. She supplied
+him with an aid which was utterly loyal, entire, and devoted. Her
+obedience was unquestioning, her reverence amounted almost to adoration.
+In their relation, he gave everything in the way of incentive and
+initiative, and she returned her entire effort loyally.
+
+At first her business was to gain a knowledge of the language, and to
+perfect herself in singing, so that she might become a soloist in the
+concerts and oratorios which he was constantly giving.
+
+In the beginning it was not easy.
+
+    . . . "As the season for the arrival of visitors to the baths does
+    not begin till October, my brother had leisure to try my capacity for
+    becoming a useful singer for his concerts and oratorios, and being
+    very well satisfied with my voice, I had two or three lessons every
+    day, and the hours which were not spent at the harpsichord, were
+    employed in putting me in the way of managing the family. . . .
+    On the second morning, on meeting my brother at breakfast, he began
+    immediately to give me a lesson in English and arithmetic, and
+    showed me the way of booking and keeping accounts of cash received
+    and laid out. . . . By way of relaxation we talked of astronomy and
+    the bright constellations with which I had made acquaintance during
+    the fine nights we spent on the postwagen travelling through Holland.
+
+    "My brother ALEXANDER, who had been some time in England, boarded
+    and lodged with his elder brother, and, with myself, occupied the
+    attic. The first floor, which was furnished in the newest and most
+    handsome style, my brother kept for himself. The front room,
+    containing the harpsichord, was always in order to receive his
+    musical friends and scholars at little private concerts or
+    rehearsals. . . . Sundays I received a sum for the weekly expenses,
+    of which my housekeeping book (written in English) showed the amount
+    laid out, and my purse the remaining cash. One of the principal
+    things required was to market, and about six weeks after coming to
+    England I was sent alone among fishwomen, butchers, basket-women,
+    etc., and I brought home whatever in my fright I could pick up. . . .
+    My brother ALEX., who was now returned from his summer engagement,
+    used to watch me at a distance, unknown to me, till he saw me safe
+    on my way home. But all attempts to introduce any order in our
+    little household proved vain, owing to the servant my brother then
+    had. And what still further increased my difficulty was, that my
+    brother's time was entirely taken up with business, so that I only
+    saw him at meals. Breakfast was at seven o'clock or before--much too
+    early for me, who would rather have remained up all night than be
+    obliged to rise at so early an hour. . . .
+
+    "The three winter months passed on very heavily. I had to struggle
+    against _heimwehe_ (home sickness) and low spirits, and to answer my
+    sister's melancholy letters on the death of her husband, by which
+    she became a widow with six children. I knew too little English to
+    derive any consolation from the society of those who were about me,
+    so that, dinner-time excepted, I was entirely left to myself."
+
+So the winter passed.
+
+    "The time when I could hope to receive a little more of my brother's
+    instruction and attention was now drawing near; for after Easter,
+    Bath becomes very empty, only a few of his scholars, whose families
+    were resident in the neighborhood, remaining. But I was greatly
+    disappointed; for, in consequence of the harassing and fatiguing
+    life he had led during the winter months, he used to retire to bed
+    with a basin of milk or glass of water, and SMITH'S _Harmonics_ and
+    _Optics_, FERGUSON'S _Astronomy_, etc., and so went to sleep buried
+    under his favorite authors; and his first thoughts on rising were
+    how to obtain instruments for viewing those objects himself of which
+    he had been reading. There being in one of the shops a
+    two-and-a-half-foot Gregorian telescope to be let, it was for some
+    time taken in requisition, and served not only for viewing the
+    heavens, but for making experiments on its construction. . . . It soon
+    appeared that my brother was not contented with knowing what former
+    observers had seen, for he began to contrive a telescope eighteen or
+    twenty feet long (I believe after HUYGHENS' description). . . . I was
+    much hindered in my musical practice by my help being continually
+    wanted in the execution of the various contrivances, and I had to
+    amuse myself with making the tube of pasteboard for the glasses,
+    which were to arrive from London, for at that time no optician had
+    settled at Bath. But when all was finished, no one besides my
+    brother could get a glimpse of Jupiter or Saturn, for the great
+    length of the tube would not allow it to be kept in a straight line.
+    This difficulty, however, was soon removed by substituting tin
+    tubes. . . . My brother wrote to inquire the price of a reflecting
+    mirror for (I believe) a five or six foot telescope. The answer was,
+    there were none of so large a size, but a person offered to make one
+    at a price much above what my brother thought proper to give. . . .
+    About this time he bought of a Quaker, resident at Bath, who had
+    formerly made attempts at polishing mirrors, all his rubbish of
+    patterns, tools, hones, polishers, unfinished mirrors, etc., but all
+    for small Gregorians, and none above two or three inches diameter.
+
+    "But nothing serious could be attempted, for want of time, till the
+    beginning of June, when some of my brother's scholars were leaving
+    Bath; and then, to my sorrow, I saw almost every room turned into a
+    workshop. A cabinet-maker making a tube and stands of all
+    descriptions in a handsomely furnished drawing-room; ALEX. putting
+    up a huge turning machine (which he had brought in the autumn from
+    Bristol, where he used to spend the summer) in a bedroom, for
+    turning patterns, grinding glasses, and turning eye-pieces, etc. At
+    the same time music durst not lie entirely dormant during the
+    summer, and my brother had frequent rehearsals at home, where Miss
+    FARINELLI, an Italian singer, was met by several of the principal
+    performers he had engaged for the winter concerts."
+
+Finally, in 1774, he had made himself a Gregorian telescope,[10] and
+had begun to view the heavens. He was then thirty-six years old.
+
+The writer in the _European Magazine_ describes this period:
+
+    "All this time he continued his astronomical observations, and
+    nothing now seemed wanting to complete his felicity, but sufficient
+    leisure to enjoy his telescopes, to which he was so much attached,
+    that at the theatre he used frequently to run from the harpsichord
+    to look at the stars, during the time between the acts."
+
+In an extract from his _Journal No. 1_, now at the rooms of the Royal
+Society, may be seen a copy of his first observation of the Nebula of
+_Orion_, on March 4, 1774. This was made with his five-and-a-half-foot
+Gregorian reflector.
+
+It was at this time (1775), between the acts of the theatre, that he
+made his first review of the heavens, with a Newtonian telescope, of an
+aperture of four and a half inches and a magnifying power of 222 times.
+This telescope was one of the first made by himself. The review
+consisted of the examination of every star in the sky of the first,
+second, third, and fourth magnitudes, and of all planets visible. There
+are no records of these observations now extant, and they are noteworthy
+only as a preparation for more serious work.
+
+He was carrying out his resolve to see everything for himself. His
+assiduity may be judged of by the fact that between 1774 and 1781
+HERSCHEL had observed a single object--the Nebula of _Orion_--no less
+than fourteen times.
+
+The success of his first telescopes incited him to new efforts. His
+house became a complete _atelier_, where everything that could tend to
+excellence in this manufacture was tried and re-tried a hundred
+different ways. When a difficulty arose, experiments were begun which
+continued till it was conquered. When a success was gained, it was
+prosecuted to the utmost.
+
+In 1775 the first seven-foot reflector was made, in 1777 a ten-foot was
+finished, in 1778 a "very good" ten-foot took its place. It must not be
+thought that the telescopes mentioned were the only ones completed. On
+the contrary, they were but the best ones selected out of many.
+
+In 1774 a new house had been engaged, which had "more room for
+workshops," and whose roof gave space for observing. The grass-plat near
+it was soon utilized to hold the stand of a twenty-foot telescope, which
+he had even then projected. His projects were unending, no success was
+final; his mind was at the height of activity; his whole effort was
+thrown into every undertaking.
+
+The mirrors for all these telescopes were made by hand. Every portion
+of the grinding down to rough dimensions, the shaping to something near
+the correct form, the polishing till the accurately exact curves were
+obtained, all this must be done by hand. The machines for the purpose
+were not invented until 1788.[11]
+
+ALEXANDER and WILLIAM worked together at this, but most of the work was
+done by the latter. The sister's part was to attend in the workshop and
+lend a hand wherever and whenever it was needed.
+
+    . . . "My time was taken up with copying music and practising, besides
+    attendance on my brother when polishing, since by way of keeping him
+    alive I was constantly obliged to feed him by putting the victuals by
+    bits into his mouth. This was once the case when, in order to finish
+    a seven-foot mirror, he had not taken his hands from it for sixteen
+    hours together. In general he was never unemployed at meals, but was
+    always at those times contriving or making drawings of whatever
+    came in his mind. Generally I was obliged to read to him whilst
+    he was at the turning-lathe, or polishing mirrors, _Don Quixote_,
+    _Arabian Nights' Entertainment_, the novels of STERNE, FIELDING,
+    etc.; serving tea and supper without interrupting the work with
+    which he was engaged, . . . and sometimes lending a hand. I became,
+    in time, as useful a member of the workshop as a boy might be to
+    his master in the first year of his apprenticeship. . . . But as
+    I was to take a part the next year in the oratorios, I had, for a
+    whole twelvemonth, two lessons per week from Miss FLEMING, the
+    celebrated dancing-mistress, to drill me for a gentlewoman (God
+    knows how she succeeded). So we lived on without interruption.
+    My brother ALEX. was absent from Bath for some months every summer,
+    but when at home he took much pleasure in executing some turning or
+    clockmaker's work for his brother."
+
+News from Hanover put a sudden stop, for a time, to all these labors.
+The mother wrote, in the utmost distress, to say that DIETRICH had
+disappeared from his home, it was supposed with the intention of going
+to India "with a young idler not older than himself." His brother
+immediately left the lathe at which he was turning an eye-piece in
+cocoa-nut, and started for Holland, whence he proceeded to Hanover,
+failing to meet his brother, as he expected. Meanwhile the sister
+received a letter to say that DIETRICH was "laid up very ill" at an inn
+in Wapping. ALEXANDER posted to town, removed him to a lodging, and,
+after a fortnight's nursing, brought him to Bath, where, on his brother
+WILLIAM'S return, he found him being well cared for by his sister.
+
+About this time another change was made to the house 19 New King Street,
+which was the last move in Bath. It was here that the _Georgium Sidus_
+was discovered.
+
+The music still went on. The oratorios of the _Messiah_, _Judas
+Maccabeus_, and _Samson_ were to be performed under HERSCHEL'S
+direction, with an orchestra of nearly one hundred pieces. The scores
+and vocal parts of these CAROLINA copied with her own hands, and the
+_soprani_ were instructed by her, she being the leading soloist. Along
+with the music went the astronomy. Not only were new telescopes made,
+but they were made for immediate use.
+
+The variable star _Mira Ceti_ was observed, and a long series of lunar
+observations begun.
+
+    "In 1779, 1780, and 1781 I measured the heights of about one hundred
+    mountains of the moon, by three different methods.
+
+    "Some of these observations are given in _Philosophical
+    Transactions_, vol. LXX., but most remain uncalculated in my journal
+    _till some proper opportunity."[12]_
+
+While HERSCHEL was measuring these lunar mountains, in December, 1779,
+he made by chance an acquaintance of much value to him. Dr. WILLIAM
+WATSON, a Fellow of the Royal Society, distinguished for his researches
+in electricity, happened to see him at his telescope, and this led to a
+visit and an invitation to HERSCHEL to join the Philosophical Society of
+Bath, then forming. This he gladly did, and it was of use to him in many
+ways.
+
+He there formed acquaintance with men of his own way of thinking, and he
+himself became known. Better than all, he learned to measure himself
+with other men, and by his early papers read to the Society, he gained
+skill in putting his thoughts before his hearers. This skill he never
+lost, and the merely literary art of his memoirs would make his papers
+remarkable without their other merits. He is always clear, and in his
+early papers especially, he appeals to his particular audience--the
+Royal Society--in a way which shows that he is conscious of all its
+weaknesses as well as of its dignity. Later, his tone slightly changed.
+He became less anxious to win his audience, for he had become an
+authority. This knowledge lent a quiet strength to his style, but never
+induced the slightest arrogance of spirit or manner.
+
+The Bath Philosophical Society has left no printed proceedings. HERSCHEL
+was one of its earliest members, and many papers were communicated to it
+by his hand. These appear to have been of a very miscellaneous nature.
+Some of them at least would be of the highest interest to us now.
+
+In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1789, p. 220, HERSCHEL tells us
+that he communicated to that Society "certain mathematical papers"
+relating to central forces other than the force of gravity, which are or
+may be concerned in the construction of the sidereal heavens. This early
+idea was still entertained by HERSCHEL in 1789, and the mathematical
+papers referred to must be contained in the _Minutes_ of the Society,
+which on its dissolution were torn from the Minute-book and returned to
+the writers.
+
+The earliest published writing of HERSCHEL is the answer to the prize
+question in the "Ladies' Diary" for 1779, proposed by the celebrated
+LANDEN, namely:
+
+    "The length, tension, and weight of a musical string being given,
+    it is required to find how many vibrations it will make in a given
+    time, when a small given weight is fastened to its middle and
+    vibrates with it."
+
+In the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the Royal Society for 1780, are
+two papers of his. The title of the first is, _Astronomical Observations
+on the Periodical Star in Collo Ceti_, by Mr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL, of Bath.
+This was communicated to the Society by Dr. WILLIAM WATSON, Jr., and
+was read May 11, 1780, at the same time as the other paper on the
+mountains of the moon. It is to be noted that HERSCHEL was at this time
+plain "Mr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL, of Bath." It was only in 1786 that he
+became "Dr. HERSCHEL," through the Oxford degree of LL.D.
+
+Neither of these two papers is specially remarkable on its purely
+astronomical side. The problems examined were such as lay open before
+all, and the treatment of them was such as would naturally be suggested.
+
+The second of these two contained, however, a short description of his
+Newtonian telescope, and he speaks of it with a just pride: "I believe
+that for distinctness of vision this instrument is perhaps equal to any
+that was ever made." He was, at least, certain of having obtained
+excellence in the making of his instruments.
+
+In his next paper, however, read January 11, 1781, a subject is
+approached which shows a different kind of thought. It is the first
+obvious proof of the truth of the statement which he made long
+afterwards (1811), when he said: "A knowledge of the construction of
+the heavens has always been the ultimate object of my observations."
+
+The title of this paper was _Astronomical Observations on the Rotation
+of the Planets round their Axes, made with a view to determine whether
+the Earth's diurnal motion is perfectly equable_. Here the question is a
+difficult and a remote one, and the method adopted for its solution is
+perfectly suitable in principle. It marks a step onward from mere
+observations to philosophizing upon their results. In practical
+astronomy, too, we note an advance. Not only are his results given, but
+also careful estimates of the errors to be feared in them, and a
+discussion of the sources of such errors. The same volume of the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ which contains this paper, also contains
+another, _Account of a Comet_, read April 26, 1781. This comet was the
+major planet _Uranus_, or, as HERSCHEL named it, _Georgium Sidus_.
+He had found it on the night of Tuesday, March 13, 1781. "In examining
+the small stars in the neighborhood of H _Geminorum_, I perceived one that
+appeared visibly larger than the rest; being struck with its uncommon
+appearance, I compared it to H _Geminorum_ and the small star in the
+quartile between _Auriga_ and _Gemini_, and finding it so much larger
+than either of them, I suspected it to be a comet." The "comet" was
+observed over all Europe. Its orbit was computed by various astronomers,
+and its distance from the sun was found to be nineteen times that of our
+earth. This was no comet, but a new major planet. The discovery of the
+amateur astronomer of Bath was the most striking since the invention of
+the telescope. It had absolutely no parallel, for every other major
+planet had been known from time immemorial.[13]
+
+The effect of the discoveries of GALILEO was felt almost more in the
+moral than in the scientific world. The mystic number of the planets was
+broken up by the introduction of four satellites to _Jupiter_. That
+_Venus_ emulated the phases of our moon, overthrew superstition and
+seated the Copernican theory firmly. The discovery of "an innumerable
+multitude of fixed stars" in the Milky Way confounded the received
+ideas. This was the great mission of the telescope in GALILEO'S hands.
+
+The epoch of mere astronomical discovery began with the detection of the
+large satellite of _Saturn_ by HUYGHENS, in 1655. Even then superstition
+was not dead. HUYGHENS did not search for more moons, because by that
+discovery he had raised the number of known satellites to six,[14] and
+because these, with the six planets, made "the perfect number twelve."
+
+From 1671 to 1684 CASSINI discovered four more moons revolving about
+_Saturn_. Since 1684 no new body had been added to the solar system.
+It was thought complete for nearly a century.
+
+In England, the remarkable discoveries of BRADLEY (1727-62) had been in
+the field of practical astronomy, and his example had set the key-note
+for further researches. France was just about beginning the brilliant
+period of her discoveries in mathematical astronomy, and had no
+observatory devoted to investigations like HERSCHEL'S, with the possible
+exception of DARQUIER'S and FLAUGERGUES'. The observatories of SCHROETER
+and VON HAHN, in Germany, were not yet active. The field which HERSCHEL
+was created to fill was vacant, the whole world over. It was especially
+so in England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich, under MASKELYNE,
+a skilful observer, whose work was mostly confined to meridian
+observations, was no rival to a private observatory like HERSCHEL'S. The
+private observatories themselves were but small affairs; those of the
+king, at Kew, of Dr. WILSON, at Glasgow, of Mr. AUBERT, at Loampit Hill,
+of the Count VON BRUHL, in London, being perhaps the most important.
+The whole field was open. What was perhaps more remarkable, there was in
+England, during HERSCHEL'S lifetime, no astronomer, public or private,
+whose talents, even as an observer, lay in the same direction.
+
+It hardly need be said that as a philosopher in his science, he had then
+no rival, as he has had none since. His only associates even, were
+MICHELL and WILSON.[15]
+
+Without depreciating the abilities of the astronomers of England, his
+cotemporaries, we may fairly say that HERSCHEL stood a great man among a
+group of small ones.
+
+Let us endeavor to appreciate the change effected in the state of
+astronomy not only in England but in the whole world, simply by the
+discovery of _Uranus_. Suppose, for example, that the last planet in our
+system had been _Saturn_. No doubt HERSCHEL would have gone on. In spite
+of one and another difficulty, he would have made his ten-foot, his
+twenty-foot telescopes. His forty-foot would never have been built, and
+the two satellites which he found with it might not have been
+discovered. Certainly _Mimas_ would not have been. His researches on the
+construction of the heavens would have been made; those were in his
+brain, and must have been ultimated. The mass of observations of
+_Saturn_, of _Jupiter_, of _Mars_, of _Venus_, would have been made and
+published. The researches on the sun, on the "invisible rays" of heat,
+on comets and nebulæ--all these might have been made, printed, and read.
+
+But these would have gone into the _Philosophical Transactions_ as the
+work of an amateur astronomer, "Mr. HERSCHEL, of Bath." They would have
+been praised, and they would have been doubted. It would have taken a
+whole generation to have appreciated them. They would have been severely
+tried, entirely on their merits, and finally they would have stood where
+they stand to-day--unrivalled. But through what increased labors these
+successes would have been gained! It is not merely that the patronage of
+the king, the subsidies for the forty-foot telescope (£4,000), the
+comparative ease of HERSCHEL'S life would have been lacking. It is more
+than this. It would have been necessary for him to have created the
+audience to which he appealed, and to have conquered the most persistent
+of enemies--indifference.
+
+Certainly, if HERSCHEL'S mind had been other than it was, the discovery
+of _Uranus_, which brought him honors from every scientific society in
+the world, and which gave him authority, might have had a hurtful
+effect. But, as he was, there was nothing which could have aided his
+career more than this startling discovery. It was needed for him. It
+completed the solar system far more by affording a free play to a
+profoundly philosophical mind, than by occupying the vacant spaces
+beyond _Saturn_.
+
+His opportunities would have been profoundly modified, though his
+personal worth would have been the same.
+
+    "The Star that from the zenith darts its beams,
+    Visible though it be to half the earth,
+    Though half a sphere be conscious of its brightness,
+    Is yet of no diviner origin,
+    No purer essence, than the One that burns
+    Like an untended watchfire, on the ridge
+    Of some dark mountain; or than those that seem
+    Humbly to hang, like twinkling winter lamps,
+    Among the branches of the leafless trees."
+
+To show how completely unknown the private astronomer of Bath was at
+this time, I transcribe a sentence from BODE'S account of the discovery
+of _Uranus_.
+
+    "In the _Gazette Littéraire_ of June, 1781, this worthy man is
+    called MERSTHEL; in JULIUS' _Journal Encyclopédique_, HERTSCHEL;
+    in a letter from Mr. MASKELYNE to M. MESSIER, HERTHEL; in another
+    letter of MASKELYNE'S to Herr MAYER, at Mannheim, HERRSCHELL; M.
+    DARQUIER calls him HERMSTEL. What may his name be? He must have been
+    born a _German_."[16]
+
+This obscurity did not long continue. The news spread quickly from
+fashionable Bath to London. On the 6th of December, 1781, HERSCHEL was
+elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, to which he was formally
+"admitted" May 30, 1782. He was forty-three years old.
+
+He also received the Copley medal in 1781 for his "discovery of a new
+and singular star."[17]
+
+    . . . "He was now frequently interrupted by visitors who were
+    introduced by some of his resident scholars, among whom I remember
+    Sir HARRY ENGELFIELD, Dr. BLAGDEN, and Dr. MASKELYNE. With the
+    latter he was engaged in a long conversation, which to me sounded
+    like quarrelling, and the first words my brother said after he was
+    gone were: 'That is a devil of a fellow.'. . .
+
+    "I suppose their names were often not known, or were forgotten; for
+    it was not till the year 1782 or 1783 that a memorandum of the names
+    of visitors was thought of.". . . "My brother now applied himself to
+    perfect his mirrors, erecting in his garden a stand for his
+    twenty-foot telescope; many trials were necessary before the
+    required motions for such an unwieldy machine could be contrived.
+    Many attempts were made by way of experiment before an intended
+    thirty-foot telescope could be completed, for which, between whiles
+    (not interrupting the observations with seven, ten, and twenty-foot,
+    and writing papers for both the Royal and Bath Philosophical
+    Societies), gauges, shapes, weight, etc., of the mirror were
+    calculated, and trials of the composition of the metal were made. In
+    short, I saw nothing else and heard nothing else talked of but these
+    things when my brothers were together. ALEX. was always very alert,
+    assisting when anything new was going forward, but he wanted
+    perseverance, and never liked to confine himself at home for many
+    hours together. And so it happened that my brother WILLIAM was
+    obliged to make trial of my abilities in copying for him catalogues,
+    tables, etc., and sometimes whole papers which were lent him for his
+    perusal. Among them was one by Mr. MICHELL and a catalogue of
+    CHRISTIAN MAYER, in Latin, which kept me employed when my brother
+    was at the telescope at night. When I found that a hand was
+    sometimes wanted when any particular measures were to be made with
+    the lamp micrometer, etc., or a fire to be kept up, or a dish of
+    coffee necessary during a long night's watching, I undertook with
+    pleasure what others might have thought a hardship. . . . Since the
+    discovery of the _Georgium Sidus_ [March 13, 1781], I believe few
+    men of learning or consequence left Bath before they had seen and
+    conversed with its discoverer, and thought themselves fortunate in
+    finding him at home on their repeated visits. Sir WILLIAM WATSON was
+    almost an intimate, for hardly a day passed but he had something to
+    communicate from the letters which he received from Sir JOSEPH
+    BANKS, and other members of the Royal Society, from which it
+    appeared that my brother was expected in town to receive the gold
+    medal. The end of November was the most precarious season for
+    absenting himself. But Sir WILLIAM WATSON went with him, and it was
+    arranged so that they set out with the diligence at night, and by
+    that means his absence did not last above three or four days, when
+    my brother returned alone, Sir WILLIAM remaining with his father.
+
+    "Now a very busy winter was commencing; for my brother had engaged
+    himself to conduct the oratorios conjointly with RONZINI, and had
+    made himself answerable for the payment of the engaged performers,
+    for his credit ever stood high in the opinion of every one he had to
+    deal with. (He lost considerably by this arrangement.) But, though
+    at times much harassed with business, the mirror for the thirty-foot
+    reflector was never out of his mind, and if a minute could but be
+    spared in going from one scholar to another, or giving one the slip,
+    he called at home to see how the men went on with the furnace, which
+    was built in a room below, even with the garden.
+
+    "The mirror was to be cast in a mould of loam, of which an immense
+    quantity was to be pounded in a mortar and sifted through a fine
+    sieve. It was an endless piece of work, and served me for many an
+    hour's exercise; and ALEX. frequently took his turn at it, for we
+    were all eager to do something towards the great undertaking. Even
+    Sir WILLIAM WATSON would sometimes take the pestle from me when he
+    found me in the work-room, where he expected to find his friend, in
+    whose concerns he took so much interest that he felt much
+    disappointed at not being allowed to pay for the metal. But I do not
+    think my brother ever accepted pecuniary assistance from any one of
+    his friends, and on this occasion he declined the offer by saying it
+    was paid for already.
+
+    "Among the Bath visitors were many philosophical gentlemen who used
+    to frequent the levées at St. James's, when in town. Colonel WALSH,
+    in particular, informed my brother that from a conversation he had
+    had with His Majesty, it appeared that in the spring he was to come
+    with his seven-foot telescope to the king. Similar reports he
+    received from many others, but they made no great impression nor
+    caused any interruption in his occupation or study, and as soon as
+    the season for the concerts was over, and the mould, etc., in
+    readiness, a day was set apart for casting, and the metal was in the
+    furnace. Unfortunately it began to leak at the moment when ready for
+    pouring, and both my brothers and the caster, with his men, were
+    obliged to run out at opposite doors, for the stone flooring (which
+    ought to have been taken up) flew about in all directions as high as
+    the ceiling. Before the second casting was attempted, everything
+    which could insure success had been attended to, and a very perfect
+    metal was found in the mould.
+
+    "But a total stop and derangement now took place, and nearly six or
+    seven months elapsed before my brother could return to the
+    undisturbed enjoyment of his instruments and observations. For one
+    morning in Passion Week, as Sir WILLIAM WATSON was with my brother,
+    talking about the pending journey to town, my eldest nephew arrived
+    to pay us a visit, and brought the confirmation that his uncle was
+    expected with his instrument in town. . . . We had not one night in
+    the week, except Friday, but what was set apart for an oratorio either
+    at Bath or Bristol. Soon after Easter, a new organ being erected in
+    St. James's Church, it was opened with two performances of the
+    'Messiah;' this again took up some of my brother's time.". . .
+
+In May of 1782 HERSCHEL went to London.
+
+    "But when almost double the time had elapsed which my brother could
+    safely be absent from his scholars, ALEX., as well as myself, were
+    much at a loss how to answer their inquiries, for, from the letters
+    we received, we could learn nothing but that he had been introduced
+    to the king and queen, and had permission to come to the concerts at
+    Buckingham House, where the king conversed with him about
+    astronomy."
+
+It was during his absence at this time that the three following letters
+were written and received:
+
+    "DEAR LINA:--
+
+    "I have had an audience of His Majesty this morning, and met with a
+    very gracious reception. I presented him with the drawing of the
+    solar system, and had the honor of explaining it to him and the
+    queen. My telescope is in three weeks' time to go to Richmond, and
+    meanwhile to be put up at Greenwich, where I shall accordingly carry
+    it to-day. So you see, LINA, that you must not think of seeing me in
+    less than a month. I shall write to Miss LEE myself; and other
+    scholars who inquire for me, you may tell that I cannot wait on them
+    till His Majesty shall be pleased to give me leave to return, or
+    rather to dismiss me, for till then I must attend. I will also write
+    to Mr. PALMER to acquaint him with it.
+
+    "I am in a great hurry, therefore can write no more at present.
+    Tell ALEXANDER that everything looks very likely as if I were to stay
+    here. The king inquired after him, and after my great speculum. He
+    also gave me leave to come to hear the GRIESBACHS play at the
+    private concert which he has every evening. My having seen the king
+    need not be kept a secret, but about my staying here it will be best
+    not to say anything, but only that I must remain here till His
+    Majesty has observed the planets with my telescope.
+
+    "Yesterday I dined with Colonel WALSH, who inquired after you. There
+    were Mr. AUBERT and Dr. MASKELYNE. Dr. MASKELYNE in public declared
+    his obligations to me for having introduced to them the high powers,
+    for Mr. AUBERT has so much succeeded with them that he says he looks
+    down upon 200, 300, or 400 with contempt, and immediately begins
+    with 800. He has used 2,500 very completely, and seen my fine double
+    stars with them. All my papers are printing, with the postscript and
+    all, and are allowed to be very valuable. You see, LINA, I tell you
+    all these things. You know vanity is not my foible, therefore I need
+    not fear your censure. Farewell.
+
+                   "I am, your affectionate brother,
+
+                                           "WM. HERSCHEL.
+
+
+    "Saturday Morning,
+
+         "probably _May 25, 1782_."
+
+                    TO MISS HERSCHEL.
+
+                                    "Monday Evening, _June 3, 1782._
+
+    "DEAR LINA:--
+
+    "I pass my time between Greenwich and London agreeably enough,
+    but am rather at a loss for work that I like. Company is not always
+    pleasing, and I would much rather be polishing a speculum. Last
+    Friday I was at the king's concert to hear GEORGE play. The king
+    spoke to me as soon as he saw me, and kept me in conversation for
+    half an hour. He asked GEORGE to play a solo-concerto on purpose
+    that I might hear him; and GEORGE plays extremely well, is very much
+    improved, and the king likes him very much. These two last nights I
+    have been star-gazing at Greenwich with Dr. MASKELYNE and Mr.
+    AUBERT. We have compared our telescopes together, and mine was found
+    very superior to any of the Royal Observatory. Double stars which
+    they could not see with their instruments I had the pleasure to show
+    them very plainly, and my mechanism is so much approved of that
+    Dr. MASKELYNE has already ordered a model to be taken from mine,
+    and a stand to be made by it to his reflector. He is, however, now
+    so much out of love with his instrument that he begins to doubt
+    whether it _deserves_ a new stand.
+
+    "I am introduced to the best company. To-morrow I dine at Lord
+    PALMERSTON'S, next day with Sir JOSEPH BANKS, etc., etc. Among
+    opticians and astronomers nothing now is talked of but _what they
+    call_ my great discoveries. Alas! this shows how far they are
+    behind, when such trifles as I have seen and done are called
+    _great_. Let me but get at it again! I will make such telescopes,
+    and see such things--that is, I will endeavor to do so."
+
+
+                         TO MISS HERSCHEL.
+
+                                                     "_July 3, 1782._"
+
+    "DEAR CAROLINA:--
+
+    "I have been so much employed that you will not wonder at my not
+    writing sooner. The letter you sent me last Monday came very safe to
+    me. As Dr. WATSON has been so good as to acquaint you and ALEXANDER
+    with my situation, I was still more easy in my silence to you. Last
+    night the King, the Queen, the Prince of Wales, the Princess Royal,
+    Princess SOPHIA, Princess AUGUSTA, etc., Duke of MONTAGUE, Dr.
+    HEBERDEN, M. DE LUC, etc., etc., saw my telescope, and it was a very
+    fine evening. My instrument gave general satisfaction. The king has
+    very good eyes, and enjoys observations with telescopes exceedingly.
+
+    "This evening, as the king and queen are gone to Kew, the princesses
+    were desirous of seeing my telescope, but wanted to know if it was
+    possible to see without going out on the grass, and were much
+    pleased when they heard that my telescope could be carried into any
+    place they liked best to have it. About eight o'clock it was moved
+    into the queen's apartments, and we waited some time in hopes of
+    seeing _Jupiter_ or _Saturn_. Meanwhile I showed the princesses, and
+    several other ladies who were present, the speculum, the
+    micrometers, the movements of the telescopes, and other things that
+    seemed to excite their curiosity. When the evening appeared to be
+    totally unpromising, I proposed an artificial _Saturn_ as an object,
+    since we could not have the real one. I had beforehand prepared this
+    little piece, as I guessed by the appearance of the weather in the
+    afternoon we should have no stars to look at. This being accepted
+    with great pleasure, I had the lamps lighted up which illuminated
+    the picture of a _Saturn_ (cut out in pasteboard) at the bottom of
+    the garden wall. The effect was fine, and so natural that the best
+    astronomer might have been deceived. Their royal highnesses and
+    other ladies seemed to be much pleased with the artifice.
+
+    "I remained in the queen's apartment with the ladies till about half
+    after ten; when in conversation with them I found them extremely
+    well instructed in every subject that was introduced, and they
+    seemed to be most amiable characters. To-morrow evening they hope to
+    have better luck, and nothing will give me greater happiness than to
+    be able to show them some of those beautiful objects with which the
+    heavens are so gloriously ornamented."
+
+CAROLINA'S diary goes on:
+
+    "Sir WILLIAM WATSON returned to Bath after a fort-night or three
+    weeks' stay. From him we heard that my brother was invited to
+    Greenwich with the telescope, where he was met by a numerous party
+    of astronomical and learned gentlemen, and trials of his instrument
+    were made. In these letters he complained of being obliged to lead
+    an idle life, having nothing to do but to pass between London and
+    Greenwich. Sir WILLIAM received many letters, which he was so kind
+    as to communicate to us. By these, and from those to ALEXANDER or to
+    me, we learned that the king wished to see the telescope at Windsor.
+    At last a letter, dated July 2, arrived from THERESE, and from this
+    and several succeeding ones we gathered that the king would not
+    suffer my brother to return to his profession again, and by his
+    writing several times for a supply of money we could only suppose
+    that he himself was in uncertainty about the time of his return.
+
+    "In the last week of July my brother came home, and immediately
+    prepared for removing to Datchet, where he had taken a house with a
+    garden and grass-plat annexed, quite suitable for the purpose of an
+    observing-place. Sir WILLIAM WATSON spent nearly the whole time at
+    our house, and he was not the only friend who truly grieved at my
+    brother's going from Bath; or feared his having perhaps agreed to no
+    very advantageous offers; their fears were, in fact, not without
+    reason. . . . The prospect of entering again on the toils of teaching,
+    etc., which awaited my brother at home (the months of leisure being
+    now almost gone by), appeared to him an intolerable waste of time,
+    and by way of alternative he chose to be royal astronomer, with a
+    salary of £200 a year. Sir WILLIAM WATSON was the only one to whom
+    the sum was mentioned, and he exclaimed, 'Never bought monarch honor
+    so cheap!' To every other inquirer, my brother's answer was that the
+    king had provided for him."
+
+On the 1st of August, 1782, the family removed to Datchet. The last
+musical duty was performed on Whit-Sunday, 1782, in St. Margaret's
+Chapel, Bath, when the anthem for the day was of HERSCHEL'S own
+composition.
+
+The end of the introductory epoch of his life is reached. Henceforth he
+lived in his observatory, and from his forty-fourth year onwards he only
+left it for short periods to go to London to submit his classic memoirs
+to the Royal Society. Even for these occasions he chose periods of
+moonlight, when no observations could be made.
+
+He was a private man no longer. Henceforth he belongs to the whole
+world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] Probably on the model of one of SHORT'S Gregorian
+telescopes, which were then the best instruments of the kind.
+
+[11] For a description of the main points of HERSCHEL'S
+processes of making reflectors, which will illustrate his strong
+mechanical talents, see _Encyclopædia Britannica_, eighth edition,
+article _Telescope_.
+
+[12] These have never been published, nor is it likely at this
+day, when our measuring instruments are so greatly improved, that they
+would be of any material value to science, although of interest as
+giving the proofs of HERSCHEL'S assiduity and skill. He was always more
+than the maker of telescopes, for he was never content until they were
+applied to the problems of astronomy.
+
+[13] ARAGO has implied that if HERSCHEL had directed his
+telescope to _Uranus_ only eleven days earlier than he did, this
+discovery would have escaped him, since at that time (March 2, 1781) the
+planet was at its _station_, and had no motion relative to the star.
+This is an entire misconception, since the new planet was detected by
+its physical appearance, and not by its motion. Does any one suppose
+that "a new and singular star" like this would have been once viewed and
+then forgotten?
+
+[14] Four of _Jupiter_, one of the earth, and one of _Saturn_.
+
+[15] JOHN MICHELL had been a member of the Royal Society since
+1760: he died in 1793. He was a philosophical thinker, as is shown by
+his memoirs on the distances of the stars, and by his invention of the
+method for determining the earth's density. It is not certain that he
+was personally known to HERSCHEL, although his writings were familiar to
+the latter.
+
+ALEXANDER WILSON was Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow, and is chiefly
+known to us by his theory of the nature of the solar spots, which was
+adopted and enlarged by HERSCHEL. He died in 1786; but the families of
+WILSON and HERSCHEL remained close friends.
+
+[16] _Berliner Jahrbuch_, 1784, p. 211. In the _Connaissance
+des Tems_ for 1784 he is called "HOROCHELLE."
+
+[17] At the presentation Sir JOSEPH BANKS, the President of the
+Royal Society, said: "In the name of the Royal Society I present to you
+this gold medal, the reward which they have assigned to your successful
+labors, and I exhort you to continue diligently to cultivate those
+fields of science which have produced to you a harvest of so much honor.
+Your attention to the improvement of telescopes has already amply repaid
+the labor which you have bestowed upon them; but the treasures of the
+heavens are well known to be inexhaustible. Who can say but your new
+star, which exceeds _Saturn_ in its distance from the sun, may exceed
+him as much in magnificence of attendance? Who knows what new rings, new
+satellites, or what other nameless and numberless phenomena remain
+behind, waiting to reward future industry and improvement?"
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III.
+
+            LIFE AT DATCHET, CLAY HALL, AND SLOUGH; 1782-1822.
+
+
+The new house at Datchet, which was occupied from 1782 till 1785, was a
+source of despair to CAROLINA HERSCHEL, who looked upon its desolate and
+isolated condition with a housekeeper's eyes. This was nothing to her
+brother, who gayly consented to live upon "eggs and bacon," now that he
+was free at last to mind the heavens. The ruinous state of the place had
+no terrors in his eyes, for was there not a laundry which would serve as
+a library, a large stable which was just the place for the grinding of
+mirrors, and a grass-plat for the small twenty-foot reflector?
+
+Here they set to work at astronomy; the brother with the twenty-foot,
+the sister aiding him, and at odd times sweeping for comets. In the
+course of her life she discovered no less than eight, and five of these
+were first seen by her.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1787 HERSCHEL wrote his paper "On three Volcanoes in the Moon,"
+which he had observed in April of that year. In this he mentions
+previous observations of the same sort. I do not remember that the
+following account of these has ever been put on record in English.
+Baron VON ZACH writes from London to BODE:[18]
+
+    "Probably you have heard also of the volcanoes in the moon, which
+    HERSCHEL has observed. . . . I will give you an account of it as I
+    heard it from his own lips. Dr. LIND, a worthy physician in Windsor,
+    who has made himself known through his two journeys in China, and
+    who is a friend of our HERSCHEL'S, was with his wife one evening on
+    a visit to HERSCHEL in Datchet [1783, May 4]. On this evening there
+    was to be an occultation of a star at the moon's dark limb. This was
+    observed by HERSCHEL and Doctor LIND. Mrs. LIND wished also to see
+    what was occurring, and placed herself at a telescope and watched
+    attentively.
+
+    "Scarcely had the star disappeared before Mrs. LIND thought she saw
+    it again, and exclaimed that the star had gone in front of, and not
+    behind the moon. This provoked a short astronomical lecture on the
+    question, but still she would not credit it, because she _saw_
+    differently. Finally HERSCHEL stepped to the telescope, and in fact
+    he saw a bright point on the dark disc of the moon, which he
+    followed attentively. It gradually became fainter and finally
+    vanished.". . .
+
+The life at Datchet was not free from its annoyances.
+
+    "Much of my brother's time was taken up in going, when the evenings
+    were clear, to the queen's lodge, to show the king, etc., objects
+    through the seven-foot. But when the days began to shorten, this was
+    found impossible, for the telescope was often (at no small expense
+    and risk of damage) obliged to be transported in the dark back to
+    Datchet, for the purpose of spending the rest of the night with
+    observations on double stars for a second catalogue. My brother was,
+    besides, obliged to be absent for a week or ten days, for the
+    purpose of bringing home the metal of the cracked thirty-foot
+    mirror, and the remaining materials from his work-room. Before the
+    furnace was taken down at Bath, a second twenty-foot mirror, twelve
+    inches diameter, was cast, which happened to be very fortunate, for
+    on the 1st of January, 1783, a very fine one cracked by frost in the
+    tube.
+
+    . . . "In my brother's absence from home I was, of course, left alone
+    to amuse myself with my own thoughts, which were anything but
+    cheerful. I found I was to be trained for an assistant astronomer,
+    and, by way of encouragement, a telescope adapted for 'sweeping,'
+    consisting of a tube with two glasses, such as are commonly used in
+    a 'finder,' was given me. I was 'to sweep for comets,' and I see, by
+    my journal, that I began August 22d, 1782, to write down and
+    describe all remarkable appearances I saw in my 'sweeps,' which were
+    horizontal. But it was not till the last two months of the same year
+    that I felt the least encouragement to spend the star-light nights
+    on a grass-plot covered with dew or hoar-frost, without a human
+    being near enough to be within call. I knew too little of the real
+    heavens to be able to point out every object so as to find it again,
+    without losing much time by consulting the Atlas. But all these
+    troubles were removed when I knew my brother to be at no great
+    distance making observations, with his various instruments, on
+    double stars, planets, etc., and when I could have his assistance
+    immediately if I found a nebula or cluster of stars, of which I
+    intended to give a catalogue; but, at the end of 1783, I had only
+    marked fourteen, when my sweeping was interrupted by being employed
+    to write down my brother's observations with the large twenty-foot.
+    I had, however, the comfort to see that my brother was satisfied
+    with my endeavors to assist him when he wanted another person either
+    to run to the clocks, write down a memorandum, fetch and carry
+    instruments, or measure the ground with poles, etc., etc., of which
+    something of the kind every moment would occur. For the assiduity
+    with which the measurements on the diameter of the _Georgium Sidus_,
+    and observations of other planets, double stars, etc., etc., were
+    made, was incredible, as may be seen by the various papers that were
+    given to the Royal Society in 1783, which papers were written in the
+    daytime, or when cloudy nights interfered. Besides this, the
+    twelve-inch speculum was perfected before the spring, and many hours
+    were spent at the turning-bench, as not a night clear enough for
+    observing ever passed but that some improvements were planned for
+    perfecting the mounting and motions of the various instruments then
+    in use, or some trials were made of new constructed eye-pieces,
+    which were mostly executed by my brother's own hands. Wishing to
+    save his time, he began to have some work of that kind done by a
+    watchmaker who had retired from business and lived on Datchet
+    Common; but the work was so bad, and the charges so unreasonable,
+    that he could not be employed. It was not till some time afterwards,
+    in his frequent visits to the meetings of the Royal Society (made in
+    moonlight nights), that he had an opportunity of looking about for
+    mathematical workmen, opticians, and founders. But the work seldom
+    answered expectation, and it was kept, to be executed with
+    improvements by ALEXANDER during the few months he spent with us.
+
+    "The summer months passed in the most active preparation for getting
+    the large twenty-foot ready against the next winter. The carpenters
+    and smiths of Datchet were in daily requisition, and, as soon as
+    patterns for tools and mirrors were ready, my brother went to town
+    to have them cast, and, during the three or four months ALEXANDER
+    could be absent from Bath, the mirrors and optical parts were nearly
+    completed.
+
+    "But that the nights after a day of toil were not given to rest, may
+    be seen by the observations on _Mars_, of which a paper, dated
+    December 1, 1783, was given to the Royal Society. Some trouble,
+    also, was often thrown away, during those nights, in the attempt to
+    teach me to remeasure double stars with the same micrometers with
+    which former measures had been taken, and the small twenty-foot was
+    given me for that purpose. . . . I had also to ascertain their places
+    by a transit instrument lent for that purpose by Mr. DALRYMPLE; but,
+    after many fruitless attempts, it was seen that the instrument was,
+    perhaps, as much in fault as my observations."
+
+In 1783 HERSCHEL says:
+
+    "I have now finished my third review of the heavens. The first was
+    made with a Newtonian telescope something less than seven feet focal
+    length, a power of 222, and an aperture of four and a half inches.
+    It extended only to stars of the first, second, third, and fourth
+    magnitudes. My second review was made with an instrument much
+    superior to the other, of 85.2 inches focus, 6.2 inches aperture,
+    and power 227. It extended to all the stars of HARRIS'S maps and
+    the telescopic ones near them, as far as the eighth magnitude. The
+    Catalogue of Double Stars and the discovery of the _Georgium Sidus_,
+    were the results of that review. The third was with the same
+    instrument and aperture, but with a power of 460. This review
+    extended to all the stars of FLAMSTEED'S Catalogue, together with
+    every small star about them, to the amount of a great many thousands
+    of stars. I have, many a night, in the course of eleven or twelve
+    hours of observation, carefully and singly examined not less than
+    400 celestial objects, besides taking measures, and sometimes
+    viewing a particular star for half an hour together."
+
+The fourth review began with the twenty-foot, in 1784.
+
+    "My brother began his series of sweeps when the instrument was yet
+    in a very unfinished state, and my feelings were not very
+    comfortable when every moment I was alarmed by a crack or fall,
+    knowing him to be elevated fifteen feet or more on a temporary
+    cross-beam, instead of a safe gallery. The ladders had not even
+    their braces at the bottom; and one night, in a very high wind, he
+    had hardly touched the ground before the whole apparatus came down.
+    Some laboring men were called up to help in extricating the mirror,
+    which was, fortunately, uninjured, but much work was cut out for
+    carpenters next day. I could give a pretty long list of accidents
+    which were near proving fatal to my brother as well as myself. To
+    make observations with such large machinery, where all around is in
+    darkness, is not unattended with danger, especially when personal
+    safety is the last thing with which the mind is occupied; even poor
+    PIAZZI did not go home without getting broken shins by falling over
+    the rack-bar.
+
+    "In the long days of the summer months many ten and seven foot
+    mirrors were finished; there was nothing but grinding and polishing
+    to be seen. For ten-foot, several had been cast with ribbed backs,
+    by way of experiment, to reduce the weight in large mirrors. In my
+    leisure hours I ground seven-foot and plain mirrors from rough to
+    fining down, and was _indulged_ with polishing and the last
+    finishing of a very beautiful mirror for Sir WILLIAM WATSON.
+
+    "An account of the discoveries made with the twenty-foot and the
+    improvements of the mechanical parts of the instrument during the
+    winter of 1785 is given with the catalogue of the first 1,000 new
+    nebulæ. By which account it must plainly appear that the expenses of
+    these improvements, and those which were yet to be made in the
+    apparatus of the twenty-foot (which, in fact, proved to be a model
+    of a larger instrument), could not be supplied out of a salary of
+    £200 a year, especially as my brother's finances had been too much
+    reduced during the six months before he received his _first_
+    quarterly payment of _fifty pounds_ (which was Michaelmas, 1782).
+    Travelling from Bath to London, Greenwich, Windsor, backwards and
+    forwards, transporting the telescope, etc., breaking up his
+    establishment at Bath and forming a new one near the court, all
+    this, even leaving such personal conveniences as he had for many
+    years been used to, out of the question, could not be obtained for a
+    trifle; a good large piece of ground was required for the use of the
+    instruments, and a habitation in which he could receive and offer a
+    bed to an astronomical friend, was necessary after a night's
+    observation.
+
+    "It seemed to be supposed that enough had been done when my brother
+    was enabled to leave his profession that he might have time to make
+    and sell telescopes. The king ordered four ten-foot himself, and
+    many seven-foot besides had been bespoke, and much time had already
+    been expended on polishing the mirrors for the same. But all this
+    was only retarding the work of a thirty or forty foot instrument,
+    which it was my brother's chief object to obtain as soon as
+    possible; for he was then on the wrong side of forty-five, and felt
+    how great an injustice he would be doing to himself and to the cause
+    of astronomy by giving up his time to making telescopes for other
+    observers.
+
+    "Sir WILLIAM WATSON, who often in the lifetime of his father came to
+    make some stay with us at Datchet, saw my brother's difficulties,
+    and expressed great dissatisfaction. On his return to Bath he met,
+    among the visitors there, several belonging to the court, to whom he
+    gave his opinion concerning his friend and his situation very
+    freely. In consequence of this, my brother had soon after, through
+    Sir J. BANKS, the promise that £2,000 would be granted for enabling
+    him to make himself an instrument.
+
+    "Immediately every preparation for beginning the great work
+    commenced. A very ingenious smith (CAMPION), who was seeking
+    employment, was secured by my brother, and a temporary forge erected
+    in an upstairs room."
+
+The sale of these telescopes of HERSCHEL'S must have produced a large
+sum, for he had made before 1795 more than two hundred seven-feet, one
+hundred and fifty ten-feet, and eighty twenty-feet mirrors. For many of
+the telescopes sent abroad no stands were constructed. The mirrors and
+eye-pieces alone were furnished, and a drawing of the stand sent with
+them by which the mirrors could be mounted.
+
+In 1785 the cost of a seven-foot telescope, six and four-tenths inches
+aperture, stand, eye-pieces, etc., complete, was two hundred guineas, a
+ten-foot was six hundred guineas, and a twenty-foot about 2,500 to 3,000
+guineas. He had made four ten-foot telescopes like this for the king.
+In 1787 SCHROETER got the mirrors and eye-pieces only for a
+four-and-three-quarter-inch reflector for five guineas; those for his
+seven-foot telescope were twenty-three guineas. Later a seven-foot
+telescope, complete, was sold for one hundred guineas, and the
+twenty-five-foot reflector, made for the Madrid observatory, cost them
+75,000 francs = $15,000.[19] It was ordered in 1796, but not delivered
+for several years, the Spanish government being short of money. For a
+ten and a seven foot telescope, the Prince of Canino paid £2,310.
+
+VON MAGELLAN writes to BODE concerning a visit to HERSCHEL:[20]
+
+    "I spent the night of the 6th of January at HERSCHEL'S, in Datchet,
+    near Windsor, and had the good luck to hit on a fine evening. He has
+    his twenty-foot Newtonian telescope in the open air and mounted in
+    his garden very simply and conveniently. It is moved by an
+    assistant, who stands below it. . . . Near the instrument is a clock
+    regulated to sidereal time. . . . In the room near it sits HERSCHEL'S
+    sister, and she has FLAMSTEED'S Atlas open before her. As he gives
+    her the word, she writes down the declination and right ascension
+    and the other circumstances of the observation. In this way
+    HERSCHEL examines the whole sky without omitting the least part. He
+    commonly observes with a magnifying power of one hundred and fifty,
+    and is sure that after four or five years he will have passed in
+    review every object above our horizon. He showed me the book in
+    which his observations up to this time are written, and I am
+    astonished at the great number of them. Each sweep covers 2° 15' in
+    declination, and he lets each star pass at least three times through
+    the field of his telescope, so that it is impossible that anything
+    can escape him. He has already found about 900 double stars and
+    almost as many nebulæ. I went to bed about one o'clock, and up to
+    that time, he had found that night four or five new nebulæ. The
+    thermometer in the garden stood at 13° Fahrenheit; but, in spite of
+    this, HERSCHEL observes the whole night through, except that he
+    stops every three or four hours and goes in the room for a few
+    moments. For some years HERSCHEL has observed the heavens every hour
+    when the weather is clear, and this always in the open air, because
+    he says that the telescope only performs well when it is at the same
+    temperature as the air. He protects himself against the weather by
+    putting on more clothing. He has an excellent constitution, and
+    thinks about nothing else in the world but the celestial bodies. He
+    has promised me in the most cordial way, entirely in the service of
+    astronomy, and without thinking of his own interest, to see to the
+    telescopes I have ordered for European observatories, and he will
+    himself attend to the preparation of the mirrors."
+
+It was at this time, 1783, May 8, that HERSCHEL married. His wife was
+the daughter of Mr. JAMES BALDWIN, a merchant of the city of London, and
+the widow of JOHN PITT, Esq. She is described as a lady of singular
+amiability and gentleness of character. She was entirely interested in
+his scientific pursuits, and the jointure which she brought removed all
+further anxiety about money affairs. They had but one child, JOHN
+FREDERICK WILLIAM, born March 7, 1792.[21]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The house at Datchet became more and more unfit for the needs of the
+family, and in June, 1785, a move was made to Clay Hall, in Old Windsor.
+The residence here was but short, and finally a last change was made to
+Slough on April, 3d, 1786.
+
+The ardor of the work during these years can be judged of by a single
+sentence from CAROLINA HERSCHEL'S diary:
+
+    "The last night at Clay Hall was spent in sweeping till daylight,
+    and by the next evening the telescope stood ready for observation at
+    Slough."
+
+From 1786 until his death, HERSCHEL remained at Slough; his life, truly
+speaking, was in his observatory.
+
+It is indeed true, as ARAGO has said in his eloquent tribute to him: "On
+peut dire hardiment du jardin et de la petite maison de Slough, que
+c'est le lieu du monde où il a été fait le plus de découvertes. Le nom
+de ce village ne périra pas; les sciences le transmettront
+religieusement à nos derniers neveux."
+
+HERSCHEL'S first contribution to the _Philosophical Transactions_ was
+printed in the volume for 1780, his last in that for 1818. Of these
+thirty-nine volumes, there are only two (1813 and 1817) which contain no
+paper from his hand, and many volumes contain more than one, as he
+published no less than sixty-eight memoirs in this place.
+
+And yet it must not be thought that his was an austere and grave
+existence. Music, which he loved to enthusiasm, was still a delight to
+him. All the more that his devotion was free. The glimpses which we get
+of his life with his friends show him always cheerful, ardent, and
+devoted. Even in his later years, he had not lost a "boyish earnestness
+to explain;" his simplicity and the charm of his manner struck every
+one.
+
+"HERSCHEL, you know, and everybody knows, is one of the most pleasing
+and well-bred natural characters of the present age," says Dr. BURNEY,
+who had opportunity to know.
+
+The portrait which is given in the frontispiece must have been painted
+about this time (1788), and the eager, ardent face shows his inner life
+far better than any words can do.
+
+Even in his scientific writings, which everything conspired to render
+grave and sober, the almost poetic nature of his mind shows forth. In
+one of his (unpublished) note-books, now in the Royal Society's library,
+I found this entry:
+
+    "640th Sweep--November 28, 1786.--The nebula of _Orion_, which I saw
+    by the front view, was so glaring and beautiful that I could not
+    think of taking any place of its extent."
+
+He was quite alone under the perfectly silent sky when this was written,
+and he was at his post simply to make this and other such observations.
+But the sky was beautiful to him, and his faithful sister, CAROLINA,
+sitting below, has preserved for us the words as they dropped from his
+lips.
+
+On the 11th of January, 1787, HERSCHEL discovered two satellites to
+_Uranus_.
+
+After he had well assured himself of their existence, but before he
+communicated his discovery to the world, he made this crucial test. He
+prepared a sketch of _Uranus_ attended by his two satellites, as it
+would appear on the night of February 10, 1787, and when the night
+came, "the heavens displayed the original of my drawings, by showing in
+the situation I had delineated them _the Georgian planet attended by two
+satellites_. I confess that this scene appeared to me with additional
+beauty, as the little secondary planets seemed to give a dignity to the
+primary one which raises it into a more conspicuous situation among the
+great bodies of the solar system.". . .
+
+In a memoir of 1789, he has a few sentences which show the living way
+in which the heavens appeared to him:
+
+    "This method of viewing the heavens seems to throw them into a new
+    kind of light.
+
+    "They are now seen to resemble a luxuriant garden, which contains
+    the greatest variety of productions in different flourishing beds;
+    and one advantage we may at least reap from it is, that we can, as
+    it were, extend the range of our experience to an immense duration.
+    For is it not almost the same thing whether we live successively to
+    witness the germination, blooming, foliage, fecundity, fading,
+    withering, and corruption of a plant, or whether a vast number of
+    specimens selected from every stage through which the plant passes
+    in the course of its existence be brought at once to our view?"
+
+The thought here is no less finely expressed than it is profound. The
+simile is perfect, if we have the power to separate among the vast
+variety each state of being from every other, and if the very luxuriance
+of illustration in the heavens does not bewilder and overpower the mind.
+It was precisely this discriminating power that HERSCHEL possessed in
+perfection.
+
+There is a kind of humor in the way he records a change of opinion:
+
+    "I formerly supposed the surface of _Saturn's_ ring to be rough,
+    owing to luminous points like mountains seen on it, till one of
+    these was kind enough to venture off the edge of the ring and appear
+    as a satellite."
+
+In 1782 he replies with a certain concealed sharpness to the idea that
+he used magnifying powers which were too high. There is a tone almost of
+impatience, as if he were conscious he was replying to a criticism based
+on ignorance:
+
+    "We are told that we gain nothing by magnifying too much. I grant
+    it; but shall never believe I magnify too much till by experience I
+    find that I can see better with a lower power." (1782.)
+
+By 1786, when he returns to this subject, in answer to a formal request
+to explain his use of high magnifiers, he is quite over any irritation,
+and treats the subject almost with playfulness:
+
+    "Soon after my first essay of using high powers with the Newtonian
+    telescope, I began to doubt whether an opinion which has been
+    entertained by several eminent authors, 'that vision will grow
+    indistinct when the optic pencils are less than the fiftieth part of
+    an inch,' would hold good in all cases. I perceived that according
+    to this criterion I was not entitled to see distinctly with a power
+    of much more than about 320 in a seven-foot telescope of an aperture
+    of six and four-tenths inches, whereas in many experiments I found
+    myself very well pleased with magnifiers which far exceeded such
+    narrow limits. This induced me, as it were, by way of apology to
+    myself for seeing well where I ought to have seen less distinctly,
+    to make a few experiments."
+
+It is needless to say that these experiments proved that from the point
+of view taken by HERSCHEL, he was quite right, and that his high powers
+had numerous valuable applications. He goes on to say:
+
+    "Had it not been for a late conversation with some of my highly
+    esteemed and learned friends, I might probably have left the papers
+    on which these experiments were recorded, among the rest of those
+    that are laid aside, when they have afforded me the information I
+    want."
+
+The last sentence seems to be a kind of notice to his learned friends
+that there is yet more unsaid. As a warning to those to whose criticisms
+he had replied, he gives them this picture of the kind of assiduity
+which will be required, if some of his observations on double stars are
+to be repeated:
+
+    "It is in vain to look for these stars if every circumstance is not
+    favorable. The observer as well as the instrument must have been
+    long enough out in the open air to acquire the same temperature. In
+    very cold weather an hour at least will be required." (1782.)
+
+We may gain some further insight into his character from the following
+chance extracts from his writings:
+
+    "I have all along had truth and reality in view as the sole object
+    of my endeavors." (1782.)
+
+    "Not being satisfied when I thought it possible to obtain more
+    accurate measures, I employed [a more delicate apparatus]." (1783.)
+
+    "To this end I have already begun a series of observations upon
+    several zones of double stars, and should the result of them be
+    against these conjectures, I shall be the first to point out their
+    fallacy." (1783.)
+
+    "There is a great probability of succeeding still farther in this
+    laborious but delightful research, so as to be able at last to say
+    not only how much the annual parallax _is not_, but how much it
+    really _is_." (1782.)
+
+The nature of his philosophizing, and the limits which he set to
+himself, may be more clearly seen in further extracts:
+
+    "By taking more time [before printing these observations] I should
+    undoubtedly be enabled to speak more confidently of the _interior_
+    _construction of the heavens_, and of its various _nebulous_ and
+    sidereal strata. As an apology for this prematurity it may be said
+    that, the end of all discoveries being communication, we can never
+    be too ready in giving facts and observations, whatever we may be in
+    reasoning upon them." (1785.)
+
+    "In an investigation of this delicate nature we ought to avoid two
+    opposite extremes. If we indulge a fanciful imagination, and build
+    worlds of our own, we must not wonder at our going wide from the
+    path of truth and nature. On the other hand, if we add observation
+    to observation without attempting to draw not only certain
+    conclusions but also conjectural views from them, we offend against
+    the very end for which only observations ought to be made. I will
+    endeavor to keep a proper medium, but if I should deviate from that,
+    I could wish not to fall into the latter error." (1785.)
+
+    "As observations carefully made should always take the lead of
+    theories, I shall not be concerned if what I have to say contradicts
+    what has been said in my last paper on this subject." (1790.)
+
+No course of reasoning could be more simple, more exact, more profound,
+and more beautiful than this which follows:
+
+    "As it has been shown that the spherical figure of a cluster is
+    owing to the action of central powers, it follows that those
+    clusters which, _cæteris paribus_, are the most complete in this
+    figure, must have been the longest exposed to the action of these
+    causes. Thus the maturity of a sidereal system may be judged from
+    the disposition of the component parts.
+
+    "Hence planetary nebulæ may be looked on as very aged. Though we
+    cannot see any individual nebula pass through all its stages of
+    life, we can select particular ones in each peculiar stage." (1789.)
+
+There is something almost grandiose and majestic in his statement of
+the ultimate destiny of the Galaxy:
+
+                  "To him the fates were known
+             Of orbs dim hovering on the skirts of space."
+
+    "--Since the stars of the Milky Way are permanently exposed to the
+    action of a power whereby they are irresistibly drawn into groups,
+    we may be certain that from mere clustering stars they will be
+    gradually compressed, through successive stages of accumulation,
+    till they come up to what may be called the ripening period of the
+    globular form, and total insulation; from which it is evident that
+    the Milky Way must be finally broken up and cease to be a stratum of
+    scattered stars.
+
+    "The state into which the incessant action of the clustering power
+    has brought it at present, is a kind of chronometer that may be used
+    to measure the time of its past and future existence; and although
+    we do not know the rate of going of this mysterious chronometer, it
+    is nevertheless certain that since the breaking up of the Milky Way
+    affords a proof that it cannot last forever, it equally bears
+    witness that its past duration cannot be admitted to be infinite."
+    (1814.)
+
+HERSCHEL'S relations with his cotemporaries were usually of the most
+pleasant character, though seldom intimate. This peace was broken but by
+one unpleasant occurrence. In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1792,
+SCHROETER had communicated a series of observations made with one of
+HERSCHEL'S own telescopes on the atmospheres of _Venus_, the Moon, etc.
+It was not only an account of phenomena which had been seen; it was
+accompanied by measures, and the computations based on these led to
+heights and dimensions for mountains on _Venus_ which were, to say the
+least, extravagant. The adjective will not seem too strong when we say
+that the very existence of the mountains themselves is to-day more than
+doubtful.
+
+The appearances seen by SCHROETER were described by him in perfectly
+good faith, and similar ones have been since recorded. His reasoning
+upon them was defective, and the measures which he made were practically
+valueless. This paper, printed in the _Transactions_ of the Royal
+Society, to which SCHROETER had not before contributed, appears to have
+irritated HERSCHEL.
+
+No doubt there were not wanting members of his own society who hinted
+that on the Continent, too, there were to be found great observers, and
+that here, at least, HERSCHEL had been anticipated even in his own
+field. I have always thought that the memoir of HERSCHEL which appeared
+in the next volume of the _Transactions_ (1793), _Observations on the
+Planet Venus_, was a rejoinder intended far more for the detractors at
+home than for the astronomer abroad. The review is conceived in a severe
+spirit. The first idea seems to be to crush an opposition which he
+feels. The truth is established, but its establishment is hardly the
+_first_ object.
+
+It seems as if HERSCHEL had almost allowed himself to be forced into a
+position of arrogance, which his whole life shows was entirely foreign
+to his nature. All through the review he does not once mention
+SCHROETER'S name. He says:
+
+    "A series of observations on _Venus_, begun by me in April, 1777,
+    has been continued down to the present time. . . . The result of my
+    observations would have been communicated long ago if I had not
+    flattered myself with the hope of some better success concerning the
+    diurnal motion of _Venus_, which has still eluded my constant
+    attention as far as concerns its period and direction. . . . Even at
+    this present time I should hesitate to give the following extracts
+    if it did not seem incumbent on me to examine by what accident I
+    came to overlook mountains in this planet of such enormous height as
+    to exceed four, five, or even six times the perpendicular height of
+    Chimboraço, the highest of our mountains. . . . The same paper contains
+    other particulars concerning _Venus_ and _Saturn_. All of which
+    being things of which I have never taken any notice, it will not be
+    amiss to show, by what follows, that neither want of attention, nor
+    a deficiency of instruments, would occasion my not perceiving these
+    mountains of more than twenty-three miles in height, this jagged
+    border of _Venus_, and these flat, spherical forms on _Saturn_."
+
+The reply of SCHROETER (1795) is temperate and just. It does him honor,
+and he generously gives full justice to his critic.
+
+It would hardly be worth while to mention this slight incident if it
+were not that during these years there certainly existed a feeling
+that HERSCHEL undervalued the labors of his cotemporaries.
+
+This impression was fostered no doubt by his general habit of not
+quoting previous authorities in the fields which he was working.
+
+A careful reading of his papers will, I think, show that his definite
+indebtedness to his _cotemporaries_ was vanishingly small. The work of
+MICHELL and WILSON he alludes to again and again, and always with
+appreciation. Certainly he seems to show a vein of annoyance that the
+papers of CHRISTIAN MAYER, _De novis in coelo sidereo phænomenis_
+(1779), and _Beobachtungen von Fixsterntrabanten_ (1778), should have
+been quoted to prove that the method proposed by HERSCHEL in 1782 for
+ascertaining the parallax of the fixed stars by means of observations of
+those which were double, was not entirely original with himself.
+
+There is direct proof that it was so,[22] and if this was not
+forthcoming it would be unnecessary, as he has amply shown in his
+Catalogue of Double Stars. One is reminded of his remarks on the use of
+the high magnifying powers by the impatience of his comments.
+
+His proposal to call the newly discovered minor planets _asteroids_
+(1802) was received as a sign that he wished to discriminate between the
+discoveries of PIAZZI and OLBERS and his own discovery of URANUS.[23]
+
+He takes pains to quietly put this on one side in one of his papers,
+showing that he was cognizant of the existence of such a feeling.
+
+I am tempted to resurrect from a deserved obscurity a notice of
+HERSCHEL'S _Observations on the Two Lately Discovered Celestial Bodies_
+(_Philosophical Transactions_, 1802), printed in the first volume
+of the _Edinburgh Review_, simply to show the kind of envy to which even
+he, the glory of England, was subject.
+
+The reviewer sets forth the principal results of HERSCHEL'S
+observations, and, after quoting his definition of the new term
+asteroid, goes on to say:
+
+    "If a new name must be found, why not call them by some appellation
+    which shall, in some degree, be descriptive of, or at least
+    consistent with, their properties? Why not, for instance, call them
+    _Concentric Comets_, or _Planetary Comets_, or _Cometary Planets_?
+    or, if a single term must be found, why may we not coin such a
+    phrase as _Planetoid_ or _Cometoid_?"
+
+Then follows a general arraignment of HERSCHEL'S methods of expression
+and thought, as distinguished from his powers of mere observation. This
+distinction, it may be said, exists only in the reviewer's mind; there
+was no such distinction in fact. If ever a series of observations was
+directed by profound and reasonable thought, it was HERSCHEL'S own.
+
+    "Dr. HERSCHEL'S passion for coining words and idioms has often
+    struck us as a weakness wholly unworthy of him. The invention of a
+    name is but a poor achievement for him who has discovered whole
+    worlds. Why, for instance, do we hear him talking of the
+    _space-penetrating power_ of his instrument--a compound epithet and
+    metaphor which he ought to have left to the poets, who, in some
+    future age, shall acquire glory by celebrating his name. The other
+    papers of Dr. HERSCHEL, in the late volumes of the _Transactions_,
+    do not deserve such particular attention. His catalogue of 500 new
+    nebulæ, though extremely valuable to the practical astronomer, leads
+    to no general conclusions of importance, and abounds with the
+    defects which are peculiar to the Doctor's writings--a great
+    prolixity and tediousness of narration--loose and often
+    unphilosophical reflections, which give no very favorable idea of
+    his scientific powers, however great his merit may be as an
+    observer--above all, that idle fondness for inventing names without
+    any manner of occasion, to which we have already alluded, and a use
+    of novel and affected idioms.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "To the speculations of the Doctor on the nature of the Sun, we have
+    many similar objections; but they are all eclipsed by the grand
+    absurdity which he has there committed, in his hasty and erroneous
+    theory concerning the influence of the solar spots on the price of
+    grain. Since the publication of Gulliver's voyage to Laputa, nothing
+    so ridiculous has ever been offered to the world. We heartily wish
+    the Doctor had suppressed it; or, if determined to publish it, that
+    he had detailed it in language less confident and flippant."
+
+One is almost ashamed to give space and currency to a forgotten attack,
+but it yields a kind of perspective; and it is instructive and perhaps
+useful to view HERSCHEL'S labors from all sides, even from wrong and
+envious ones.
+
+The study of the original papers, together with a knowledge of the
+circumstances in which they were written, will abundantly show that
+HERSCHEL'S ideas sprung from a profound meditation of the nature of
+things in themselves. What the origin of trains of thought prosecuted
+for years may have been we cannot say, nor could he himself have
+expressed it. A new path in science was to be found out, and he found
+it. It was not in his closet, surrounded by authorities, but under the
+open sky, that he meditated the construction of the heavens. As he says,
+"My situation permitted me not to consult large libraries; nor, indeed,
+was it very material; for as I intended to view the heavens myself,
+Nature, that great volume, appeared to me to contain the best
+catalogue."
+
+His remarkable memoirs on the invisible and other rays of the solar
+spectrum were received with doubt, and with open denial by many of the
+scientific bodies of Europe. The reviews and notices of his work in this
+direction were often quite beyond the bounds of a proper scientific
+criticism; but HERSCHEL maintained a dignified silence. The discoveries
+were true, the proofs were open to all, and no response was needed from
+him. He may have been sorely tempted to reply, but I am apt to believe
+that the rumors that reached him from abroad and at home did not then
+affect him as they might have done earlier. He was at his grand
+climacteric, he had passed his sixty-third year, his temper was less
+hasty than it had been in his youth, and his nerves had not yet received
+the severe strain from whose effects he suffered during the last years
+of his life.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have some glimpses of his personal life in the reminiscences of him
+in the _Diary and Letters_ of Madame D'ARBLAY, who knew him well:
+
+    "1786.--In the evening Mr. HERSCHEL came to tea. I had once seen
+    that very extraordinary man at Mrs. DE LUC'S, but was happy to see
+    him again, for he has not more fame to awaken curiosity than sense
+    and modesty to gratify it. He is perfectly unassuming, yet openly
+    happy, and happy in the success of those studies which would render
+    a mind less excellently formed presumptuous and arrogant.
+
+    "The king has not a happier subject than this man, who owes it
+    wholly to His Majesty that he is not wretched; for such was his
+    eagerness to quit all other pursuits to follow astronomy solely,
+    that he was in danger of ruin, when his talents and great and
+    uncommon genius attracted the king's patronage. He has now not only
+    his pension, which gives him the felicity of devoting all his time
+    to his darling study, but he is indulged in license from the king to
+    make a telescope according to his new ideas and discoveries, that is
+    to have no cost spared in its construction, and is wholly to be paid
+    for by His Majesty.
+
+    "This seems to have made him happier even than the pension, as it
+    enables him to put in execution all his wonderful projects, from
+    which his expectations of future discoveries are so sanguine as to
+    make his present existence a state of almost perfect enjoyment.
+    Mr. LOCKE himself would be quite charmed with him.
+
+    "He seems a man without a wish that has its object in the
+    terrestrial globe. At night Mr. HERSCHEL, by the king's command,
+    came to exhibit to His Majesty and the royal family the new comet
+    lately discovered by his sister, Miss HERSCHEL; and while I was
+    playing at piquet with Mrs. SCHWELLENBURG, the Princess AUGUSTA came
+    into the room and asked her if she chose to go into the garden and
+    look at it. She declined the offer, and the princess then made it to
+    me. I was glad to accept it for all sorts of reasons. We found him
+    at his telescope. The comet was very small, and had nothing grand or
+    striking in its appearance; but it is the first lady's comet, and I
+    was very desirous to see it. Mr. HERSCHEL then showed me some of his
+    new discovered universes, with all the good humor with which he
+    would have taken the same trouble for a brother or a sister
+    astronomer; there is no possibility of admiring his genius more than
+    his gentleness."
+
+    "_1786, December 30th_.--This morning my dear father carried me to
+    Dr. HERSCHEL. That great and very extraordinary man received us
+    almost with open arms. He is very fond of my father, who is one of
+    the council of the Royal Society this year, as well as himself. . . .
+    At this time of day there was nothing to see but his instruments;
+    those, however, are curiosities sufficient. . . . I wished very much
+    to have seen his sister, . . . but she had been up all night, and
+    was then in bed."
+
+    "_1787, September_.--Dr. HERSCHEL is a delightful man; so
+    unassuming with his great knowledge, so willing to dispense it to
+    the ignorant, and so cheerful and easy in his general manners, that,
+    were he no genius, it would be impossible not to remark him as a
+    pleasing and sensible man."
+
+    "_1788, October 3d_.--We returned to Windsor at noon, and Mrs. DE
+    LUC sent me a most pressing invitation to tea and to hear a little
+    music. Two young ladies were to perform at her house in a little
+    concert. Dr. HERSCHEL was there, and accompanied them very sweetly
+    on the violin; his new-married wife was with him, and his sister.
+    His wife seems good-natured; she was rich, too! and astronomers are
+    as able as other men to discern that gold can glitter as well as
+    stars."
+
+
+                    DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.
+
+                                             "CHELSEA COLLEGE,
+
+                                                 _September 28, 1798_.
+
+    "*   *   *   *   *
+
+    "I drove through Slough in order to ask at Dr. HERSCHEL'S door when
+    my visit would be least inconvenient to him--that night or next
+    morning. The good soul was at dinner, but came to the door himself,
+    to press me to alight immediately and partake of his family repast;
+    and this he did so heartily that I could not resist.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "I expected (not knowing that HERSCHEL was married) only to have
+    found Miss HERSCHEL; but there was a very old lady, the mother, I
+    believe, of Mrs. HERSCHEL, who was at the head of the table herself,
+    and a Scots lady (a Miss WILSON, daughter of Dr. WILSON, of Glasgow,
+    an eminent astronomer), Miss HERSCHEL, and a little boy. They
+    rejoiced at the accident which had brought me there, and hoped I
+    would send my carriage away and take a bed with them. They were
+    sorry they had no stables for my horses.
+
+    "We soon grew acquainted--I mean the ladies and I--and before dinner
+    was over we seemed old friends just met after a long absence. Mrs.
+    HERSCHEL is sensible, good-humored, unpretending, and well bred;
+    Miss HERSCHEL all shyness and virgin modesty; the Scots lady
+    sensible and harmless; and the little boy entertaining, promising,
+    and comical. HERSCHEL, you know, and everybody knows, is one of the
+    most pleasing and well-bred natural characters of the present age,
+    as well as the greatest astronomer.
+
+    "Your health was drunk after dinner (put that into your pocket), and
+    after much social conversation and a few hearty laughs, the ladies
+    proposed to take a walk, in order, I believe, to leave HERSCHEL and
+    me together. We walked and talked round his great telescopes till it
+    grew damp and dusk, then retreated into his study to philosophize.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "He made a discovery to me, which, had I known it sooner, would have
+    overset me, and prevented my reading any part of my work.[24] He
+    said that he had almost always had an aversion to poetry, which he
+    regarded as the arrangement of fine words, without any useful
+    meaning or adherence to truth; but that when truth and science were
+    united to these fine words, he liked poetry very well."
+
+
+                         1798, December 10.
+
+                    DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.
+
+    "HERSCHEL has been in town for short spurts, and back again two or
+    three times, leaving Mrs. HERSCHEL behind (in town) to transact law
+    business. I had him here two whole days."
+
+    The reading of the manuscript of the _Poetical History of Astronomy_
+    was continued, "and HERSCHEL was so humble as to confess that I
+    knew more of the history of astronomy than he did, and had surprised
+    him with the mass of information I had got together.
+
+    "He thanked me for the entertainment and instruction I had given
+    him. 'Can anything be grander?' and all this before he knows a word
+    of what I have said of himself--all his discoveries, as you may
+    remember, being kept back for the twelfth and last book."
+
+
+                    DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.
+
+                             "SLOUGH, _Monday morning._ _July 22, 1799_,
+                                 in bed at Dr. HERSCHEL'S, half-past
+                                 five, where I can neither sleep nor lie
+                                 idle.
+
+    "My Dear Fanny:--I believe I told you on Friday that I was going to
+    finish the perusal of my astronomical verses to the great astronomer
+    on Saturday.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "After tea Dr. HERSCHEL proposed that we two should retire into a
+    quiet room in order to resume the perusal of my work, in which no
+    progress has been made since last December. The evening was
+    finished very cheerfully; and we went to our bowers not much out of
+    humor with each other or the world. . . . After dinner we all agreed
+    to go to the terrace [at Windsor]--Mr., Mrs., and Miss H., with
+    their nice little boy, and three young ladies. Here I met with
+    almost everybody I wished and expected to see previous to the
+    king's arrival.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "But now here comes Will, and I must get up, and make myself up to
+    go down to the perusal of my last book, entitled _Herschel_. So
+    good-morrow."
+
+
+                                                "CHELSEA, _Tuesday._
+
+    "Not a moment could I get to write till now. . . . I must tell you
+    that HERSCHEL proposed to me to go with him to the king's concert at
+    night, he having permission to go when he chooses, his five nephews
+    (GRIESBACHS) making a principal part of the band. 'And,' says he,
+    'I know you will be welcome.'"
+
+An intimacy was gradually established between HERSCHEL and Dr. BURNEY.
+They saw each other often at the meetings of the Royal Society, and
+HERSCHEL frequently stayed at the doctor's house. "On the first evening
+HERSCHEL spent at Chelsea, when I called for my ARGAND lamp, HERSCHEL,
+who had not seen one of those lamps, was surprised at the great effusion
+of light, and immediately calculated the difference between that and a
+single candle, and found it sixteen to one."[25]
+
+In 1793 we find HERSCHEL as a witness for his friend JAMES WATT, in the
+celebrated case of WATT _vs._ BULL, which was tried in the Court of
+Common Pleas. And from MUIRHEAD'S Life of WATT, it appears that HERSCHEL
+visited WATT at Heathfield in 1810.
+
+A delightful picture of the old age of HERSCHEL is given by the poet
+CAMPBELL,[26] whose nature was fitted to perceive the beauties of a
+grand and simple character like HERSCHEL'S:
+
+
+                                      "[BRIGHTON], _September 15, 1813_.
+
+    . . . "I wish you had been with me the day before yesterday, when you
+    would have joined me, I am sure, deeply in admiring a great, simple,
+    good old man--Dr. HERSCHEL. Do not think me vain, or at least put up
+    with my vanity, in saying that I almost flatter myself I have made
+    him my friend. I have got an invitation, and a pressing one, to go
+    to his house; and the lady who introduced me to him, says he spoke
+    of me as if he would really be happy to see me. . . . I spent all
+    Sunday with him and his family. His son is a prodigy in sciences,
+    and fond of poetry, but very unassuming. . . . Now, for the old
+    astronomer himself. His simplicity, his kindness, his anecdotes, his
+    readiness to explain--and make perfectly conspicuous too--his own
+    sublime conceptions of the universe are indescribably charming. He
+    is seventy-six, but fresh and stout; and there he sat, nearest the
+    door, at his friend's house, alternately smiling at a joke, or
+    contentedly sitting without share or notice in the conversation.
+    Any train of conversation he follows implicitly; anything you ask he
+    labors with a sort of boyish earnestness to explain.
+
+    "I was anxious to get from him as many particulars as I could about
+    his interview with BUONAPARTE.[27] The latter, it was reported, had
+    astonished him by his astronomical knowledge.
+
+    "'No,' he said, 'the First Consul did surprise me by his quickness
+    and versatility on all subjects; but in science he seemed to know
+    little more than any well-educated gentleman, and of astronomy much
+    less for instance than our own king. His general air,' he said, 'was
+    something like affecting to know more than he did know.' He was
+    high, and tried to be great with HERSCHEL, I suppose, without
+    success; and 'I remarked,' said the astronomer, 'his hypocrisy in
+    concluding the conversation on astronomy by observing how all these
+    glorious views gave proofs of an Almighty Wisdom.' I asked him if he
+    thought the system of LAPLACE to be quite certain, with regard to
+    the total security of the planetary system from the effects of
+    gravitation losing its present balance? He said, No; he thought by
+    no means that the universe was secured from the chance of sudden
+    losses of parts.
+
+    "He was convinced that there had existed a planet between _Mars_
+    and _Jupiter_, in our own system, of which the little asteroids, or
+    planetkins, lately discovered, are indubitably fragments; and
+    'Remember,' said he, 'that though they have discovered only four of
+    those parts, there will be thousands--perhaps thirty thousand
+    more--yet discovered.' This planet he believed to have been lost by
+    explosion.
+
+    "With great kindness and patience he referred me, in the course of
+    my attempts to talk with him, to a theorem in NEWTON'S 'Principles
+    of Natural Philosophy' in which the time that the light takes to
+    travel from the sun is proved with a simplicity which requires but a
+    few steps in reasoning. In talking of some inconceivably distant
+    bodies, he introduced the mention of this plain theorem, to remind
+    me that the progress of light could be measured in the one case as
+    well as the other. Then, speaking of himself, he said, with a
+    modesty of manner which quite overcame me, when taken together with
+    the greatness of the assertion: 'I have looked _further into space
+    than ever human being did before me_. I have observed stars, of
+    which the light, it can be proved, must take two millions of years
+    to reach this earth.'
+
+    "I really and unfeignedly felt at this moment as if I had been
+    conversing with a supernatural intelligence. 'Nay, more,' said he,
+    'if those distant bodies had ceased to exist two millions of years
+    ago, we should still see them, as the light would travel after the
+    body was gone. . . .' These were HERSCHEL'S words; and if you had
+    heard him speak them, you would not think he was apt to tell more
+    than the truth.
+
+    "After leaving HERSCHEL I felt elevated and overcome; and have in
+    writing to you made only this memorandum of some of the most
+    interesting moments of my life."
+
+CAMPBELL'S conscientious biographer appears to have felt that the value
+of this charming account of his interview with HERSCHEL was in its
+report of astronomical facts and opinions, and he adds a foot-note to
+explain that "HERSCHEL'S opinion never amounted to more than
+_hypothesis_ having some degree of probability. Sir JOHN HERSCHEL
+remembers his father saying, 'If that hypothesis were true, and _if_ the
+planet destroyed were as large as the earth, there must have been at
+least thirty-thousand such fragments,' but always as an hypothesis--he
+was never heard to declare any degree of conviction that it was so."
+
+For us, the value of this sympathetic account of a day in HERSCHEL'S
+life is in its conception of the simplicity, the modesty, the "boyish
+earnestness," the elevation of thought and speech of the old
+philosopher; and in the impression made on the feelings, not the mind,
+of the poet, then thirty-five years old.
+
+In a letter to ALISON, CAMPBELL reverts with great pleasure to the day
+spent with HERSCHEL:
+
+                                         "SYDENHAM, _December 12, 1813_.
+
+"MY DEAREST ALISON:--
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "I spent three weeks with my family at Brighton, in charming
+    weather, and was much pleased with, as well as benefited by, the
+    place. There I met a man with whom you will stare at the idea of my
+    being congenial, or having the vanity to think myself so--the great
+    HERSCHEL. He is a simple, great being. . . . I once in my life
+    looked at NEWTON'S _Principia_, and attended an astronomical class
+    at Glasgow; wonderful it seemed to myself, that the great man
+    condescended to understand my questions; to become apparently
+    earnest in communicating to me as much information as my limited
+    capacity and preparation for such knowledge would admit. He invited
+    me to see him at his own abode, and so kindly that I could not
+    believe that it was mere good breeding; but a sincere wish to see me
+    again. I had a full day with him; he described to me his whole
+    interview with BUONAPARTE; said it was not true, as reported, that
+    BUONAPARTE understood astronomical subjects deeply, but affected
+    more than he knew.
+
+    "In speaking of his great and chief telescope, he said with an air,
+    not of the least pride, but with a greatness and simplicity of
+    expression that struck me with wonder, 'I have looked further into
+    space than ever human being did before me. I have observed stars, of
+    which the light takes _two millions_ of years to travel to this
+    globe.' I mean to pay him a reverential visit at Slough, as soon as
+    my book is out, this winter."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1807 CAROLINA HERSCHEL has this entry in her diary:
+
+    "_October_ 4.--My brother came from Brighton. The same night two
+    parties from the Castle came to see the comet, and during the whole
+    month my brother had not an evening to himself. As he was then in
+    the midst of polishing the forty-foot mirror, rest became absolutely
+    necessary after a day spent in that most laborious work; and it has
+    ever been my opinion that on the 14th of October his nerves received
+    a shock of which he never got the better afterwards."
+
+In the spring of 1808 he was quite seriously ill; but in May the
+observing went on again. In 1809 and 1810 his principal investigations
+were upon physical subjects (NEWTON'S rings), and in 1811 the only long
+series of observations was upon the comet of that year. After 1811 the
+state of HERSCHEL'S health required that his observations should be
+much less frequent. Much of the time after 1811 he was absent, and his
+work at home consisted largely in arranging the results of his previous
+labors, and in computations connected with them. All through the years
+1814 to 1822, HERSCHEL'S health was very feeble. The severe winter of
+1813-14 had told materially upon him. In 1814, however, he undertook to
+repolish the forty-foot mirror, but was obliged to give it over.
+
+He now found it necessary to make frequent little excursions for change
+of air and scene. His faithful sister remained at home, bringing order
+into the masses of manuscript, and copying the papers for the Royal
+Society.
+
+She was sick at heart, fearing that each time she saw her brother it
+would be the last. In 1818 she says:
+
+    "Feb. 11, I went to my brother and remained with him till the 23d.
+    We spent our time, though not in idleness, in sorrow and sadness.
+    He is not only unwell, but low in spirits."
+
+In 1818 (December 16), HERSCHEL went to London to have his portrait
+painted by ARTAUD. While he was in London his will was made.[28]
+
+In 1819 there is a glimmer of the old-time light. In a note HERSCHEL
+says:
+
+    "LINA:--There is a great comet. I want you to assist me. Come to
+    dine and spend the day here. If you can come soon after one o'clock,
+    we shall have time to prepare maps and telescopes. I saw its
+    situation last night. It has a long tail.
+
+    "_July 4, 1819._"
+
+This note has been carefully kept by his sister, and on it she has
+written: "I keep this as a relic. Every line _now_ traced by the hand of
+my dear brother becomes a treasure to me."
+
+So the next three years passed away. Sir WILLIAM[29] was daily more and
+more feeble. He spent his time in putting his works in order, but could
+devote only a few moments each day to this. His sister says:
+
+    "_Aug. 11th_, _12th_, _13th_, and _14th_ [1822], I went as usual to
+    spend some hours of the forenoon with my brother.
+
+    "_Aug. 15th._--I hastened to the spot where I was wont to find him,
+    with the newspaper which I was to read to him. But instead I found
+    Mrs. MONSON, Miss BALDWIN, and Mr. BULMAN, from Leeds, the grandson
+    of my brother's earliest acquaintance in this country. I was
+    informed my brother had been obliged to return to his room, whither
+    I flew immediately. Lady H. and the housekeeper were with him,
+    administering everything which could be thought of for supporting
+    him. I found him much irritated at not being able to grant Mr.
+    BULMAN'S request for some token of remembrance for his father. As
+    soon as he saw me, I was sent to the library to fetch one of his
+    last papers and a plate of the forty-foot telescope. But for the
+    universe I could not have looked twice at what I had snatched from
+    the shelf, and when he faintly asked if the breaking up of the Milky
+    Way was in it, I said 'Yes,' and he looked content. I cannot help
+    remembering this circumstance; it was the last time I was sent to
+    the library on such an occasion. That the anxious care for his
+    papers and workrooms never ended but with his life, was proved by
+    his frequent whispered inquiries if they were locked and the key
+    safe, of which I took care to assure him that they were, and the key
+    in Lady HERSCHEL'S hands.
+
+    "After half an hour's vain attempt to support himself, my brother
+    was obliged to consent to be put to bed, leaving no hope ever to see
+    him rise again."
+
+On the 25th of August, 1822, HERSCHEL died peacefully at the age of
+eighty-four years.
+
+His remains lie in the little church at Upton, near Windsor, where a
+memorial tablet has been erected by his son. The epitaph is as
+follows:[30]
+
+                             H. S. E.
+
+                GULIELMUS HERSCHEL Eques Guelphicus
+               Hanoviæ natus Angliam elegit patriam
+               Astronomis ætatis suæ præstantissimis
+                       Merito annumeratus
+                  Ut leviora sileantur inventa
+               Planetam ille extra Saturni orbitam
+                          Primus detexit
+                  Novis artis adjumentis innixus
+                 Quæ ipse excogitavit et perfecit
+                   Coelorum perrupit claustra
+            Et remotiora penetrans et explorans spatia
+                    Incognitos astrorum ignes
+            Astronomorum oculis et intellectui subjecit
+                    Qua sedulitate qua solertia
+                      Corporum et phantasmatum
+             Extra systematis nostri fines lucentium
+                       Naturam indagaverit
+                Quidquid paulo audacius conjecit
+                  Ingenita temperans verecundia
+                  Ultro testantur hodie æquales
+                  Vera esse quæ docuit pleraque
+           Siquidem certiora futuris ingeniis subsidia
+                     Debitura est astronomia
+                     Agnoscent forte posteri
+                 Vitam utilem innocuam amabilem
+         Non minus felici laborum exitu quam virtutibus
+                     Ornatam et vere eximiam
+               Morte suis et bonis omnibus deflenda
+                    Nec tamen immatura clausit
+                Die XXV Augusti A. D. CI[C]I[C]CCCXXII
+                      Ætatis vero suæ LXXXIV.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] BODE'S _Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 144.
+
+[19] ZACH'S _Monatlich Correspondenz_, 1802, p. 56.
+
+[20] BODE'S _Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 161.
+
+[21] Through Sir JOHN HERSCHEL there is preserved to us an
+incident of his early boyhood, which shows the nature of the training
+his young mind received in the household at Slough.
+
+Walking with his father, he asked him "What was the oldest of all
+things?" The father replied, after the Socratic manner, "And what do you
+suppose is the oldest of all things?" The boy was not successful in his
+answers, whereon the old astronomer took up a small stone from the
+garden walk: "There, my child, there is the oldest of all the things
+that I certainly know." On another occasion the father asked his son,
+"What sort of things do you think are most alike?" The boy replied,
+"The leaves of the same tree are most like each other." "Gather, then,
+a handful of leaves from that tree," rejoined the philosopher,
+"and choose two which are alike."--_Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
+Society_, vol. xxxii., page 123.
+
+[22] _Memoir of CAROLINE HERSCHEL_, p. 42.
+
+[23] "Of late years these expectations have been more than
+accomplished by the discovery of no fewer than four planetary bodies,
+almost all in the same place; but so small that Dr. HERSCHEL refuses to
+honor them with the name of planets, and chooses to call them asteroids,
+though for what reason it is not easy to determine, unless it be to
+deprive the discoverers of these bodies of any pretence for rating
+themselves as high in the list of astronomical discoverers as
+himself."--_History of the Royal Society_, by THOMAS THOMSON, p. 358.
+This work was published in 1812, and therefore during the lifetime of
+HERSCHEL.
+
+[24] _Poetical History of Astronomy_: this work was nearly
+completed, but was never published. The whole of it was read to
+HERSCHEL, in order that BURNEY might have the benefit of his criticism
+on its technical terms.
+
+[25] _Memoirs of Dr. BURNEY_, vol. iii., p. 264.
+
+[26] Life and Letters of THOMAS CAMPBELL, edited by WILLIAM
+BEATTIE, vol. ii., p. 234.
+
+[27] This interview must have taken place in 1802, during
+HERSCHEL'S journey to Paris. We have no other record of it.
+
+[28] The will of HERSCHEL was dated December 17th, 1818.
+
+"The personal effects were sworn under £6,000. The copyhold and other
+lands and tenements at Upton-cum-Chalvey, in the County of Bucks, and at
+Slough, he decrees to his son, with £25,000 in the 3 per cent. Reduced
+Annuities. £2,000 are given to his brother JOHANN DIETRICH, and
+annuities of £100 each to his brother JOHANN ALEXANDER and to his sister
+CAROLINA; £20 each to his nephews and nieces, and the residue (with the
+exception of astronomical instruments, telescopes, observations, etc.,
+which he declares to have given, on account of his advanced age, to his
+son for the purpose of continuing his studies) is left solely to Lady
+HERSCHEL."--_Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xcii., 1822, p. 650.
+
+It is not necessary to say here how nobly Sir JOHN HERSCHEL redeemed the
+trust confided in him. All the world knows of his Survey of the Southern
+Heavens, in which he completed the review of the sky which had been
+begun and completed for the northern heavens by the same instruments in
+his father's hands. A glance at the Bibliography at the end of this book
+will show the titles of several papers by Sir JOHN, written with the
+sole object of rendering his father's labors more complete.
+
+[29] He was created a knight of the Royal Hanoverian
+Guelphic Order in 1816, and was the first President of the Royal
+Astronomical Society in 1821, his son being its first Foreign
+Secretary.
+
+[30] BODE'S _Jahrbuch_, 1823, p. 222.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV.
+
+          REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+
+In this chapter I shall endeavor to give such explanations as will
+enable the general reader to follow the course of discovery in each
+branch of astronomy and physics, regularly through the period of
+HERSCHEL'S life, and up to the state in which he left it.
+
+A more detailed and precise account, which should appeal directly to the
+professional astronomer, will not be needed, since ARAGO has already
+fulfilled this want in his "_Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir
+WILLIAM HERSCHEL_," published in 1842. The few misconceptions there
+contained will be easily corrected by those to whom alone they are of
+consequence. The latter class of readers may also consult the abstracts
+of HERSCHEL'S memoirs, which have been given in "_A Subject-index and a
+Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL_," prepared
+by Dr. HASTINGS and myself, and published by the Smithsonian
+Institution.
+
+An accurate sketch of the state of astronomy in England and on the
+Continent, in the years 1780-1820, need not be given. It will be enough
+if we remember that of the chief observatories of Europe, public and
+private, no one was actively devoted to such labors as were undertaken
+by HERSCHEL at the very beginning of his career.
+
+His observations on variable stars, indeed, were in the same line as
+those of PIGOTT; FLAUGERGUES and DARQUIER, in France, had perhaps
+preceded him in minute scrutiny of the sun's surface, etc.; but, even in
+that department of observation, he at once put an immense distance
+between himself and others by the rapid and extraordinary advances in
+the size and in the excellence of his telescopes. Before his time the
+principal aids to observation were the Gregorian and Newtonian
+telescopes of SHORT, and the small achromatics of DOLLOND.[31]
+
+We have seen, in what goes before, how his patient zeal had succeeded in
+improving upon these. There was no delay, and no rest. Steadily the art
+of making reflectors was urged forward, until he had finally in his
+hands the forty-foot telescope.
+
+It must be admitted that this was the limit to which the manufacture of
+powerful telescopes could be pushed in his generation. The optical and
+mechanical difficulties which prevented a farther advance required time
+for their solution; and, indeed, some of these difficulties are scarcely
+solved at this day. It may fairly be said that no reflector larger than
+three feet in aperture has yet realized our expectations.
+
+
+           _The Improvement of Telescopes and Optical Apparatus._
+
+It will be of interest to give in this place some connected account of
+the large forty-foot reflector, of four feet aperture, made by HERSCHEL.
+Its history extends from 1785 to 1811. Its manufacture was considered by
+his cotemporaries as his greatest triumph. As a machine, it was
+extremely ingenious in all its parts, as may be seen from the elaborate
+description and plates of it published in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ for 1795. One of its mirrors certainly had good
+definition, for, by means of it, the two small satellites of _Saturn_
+(_Mimas_ and _Enceladus_) were discovered, and these discoveries alone
+would make it famous. Perhaps more was expected of it by the public in
+general than it absolutely performed. Its merits were after a while
+decried, and HERSCHEL even felt obliged to state why he did not always
+employ it in his observations. His reasons were perfectly valid, and
+such as any one may understand. The time required to get so large a
+machine into working order was a serious tax; it required more
+assistants than his twenty-foot telescope, and he says, "I have made it
+a rule never to employ a larger telescope when a smaller will answer the
+purpose."
+
+It still remains as a remarkable feat of engineering and an example of
+great optical and mechanical skill. It led the way to the large
+reflectors of Lord ROSSE, some sixty years later, and several of the
+forty-foot telescopes of the present day even have done less useful
+work. Its great feat, however, was to have added two satellites to the
+solar system. From the published accounts of it the following is taken:
+
+    "When I resided at Bath I had long been acquainted with the theory
+    of optics and mechanics, and wanted only that experience so
+    necessary in the practical part of these sciences. This I acquired
+    by degrees at that place, where in my leisure hours, by way of
+    amusement, I made several two-foot, five-foot, seven-foot, ten-foot,
+    and twenty-foot Newtonian telescopes, beside others, of the
+    Gregorian form, of eight, twelve, and eighteen inches, and two,
+    three, five, and ten feet focal length. In this way I made not less
+    than two hundred seven-foot, one hundred and fifty ten-foot, and
+    about eighty twenty-foot mirrors, not to mention the Gregorian
+    telescopes.[32]
+
+    "The number of stands I invented for these telescopes it would not
+    be easy to assign. . . . In 1781 I began to construct a thirty-foot
+    aërial reflector, and having made a stand for it, I cast the mirror
+    thirty-six inches in diameter. This was cracked in cooling. I cast
+    it a second time, and the furnace I had built in my house broke."
+
+Soon after, the Georgian planet was discovered, and this interrupted the
+work for a time.
+
+    "In the year 1783 I finished a very good twenty-foot reflector with
+    a large aperture, and mounted it upon the plan of my present
+    telescope. After two years' observation with it, the great advantage
+    of such apertures appeared so clearly to me that I recurred to my
+    former intention of increasing them still further; and being now
+    sufficiently provided with experience in the work which I wished to
+    undertake, the President of the Royal Society, who is always ready
+    to promote useful undertakings, had the goodness to lay my design
+    before the king. His Majesty was graciously pleased to approve of
+    it, and with his usual liberality to support it with his royal
+    bounty.
+
+    "In consequence of this arrangement I began to construct the
+    forty-foot telescope about the latter end of 1785.[33] The woodwork
+    of the stand and machines for giving the required motions to the
+    instrument were immediately put in hand. In the whole of the
+    apparatus none but common workmen were employed, for I made drawings
+    of every part of it, by which it was easy to execute the work, as I
+    constantly inspected and directed every person's labor; though
+    sometimes there were not less than forty different workmen employed
+    at the same time. While the stand of the telescope was preparing, I
+    also began the construction of the great mirror, of which I
+    inspected the casting, grinding, and polishing, and the work was in
+    this manner carried on with no other interruption than that
+    occasioned by the removal of all the apparatus and materials from
+    where I then lived, to my present situation at Slough.
+
+    "Here, soon after my arrival, I began to lay the foundation upon
+    which by degrees the whole structure was raised as it now stands,
+    and the speculum being highly polished and put into the tube, I had
+    the first view through it on February 19, 1787. I do not, however,
+    date the completing of the instrument till much later. For the first
+    speculum, by a mismanagement of the person who cast it, came out
+    thinner on the centre of the back than was intended, and on account
+    of its weakness would not permit a good figure to be given to it.
+
+    "A second mirror was cast January 26, 1788, but it cracked in
+    cooling. February 16 we recast it, and it proved to be of a proper
+    degree of strength. October 24 it was brought to a pretty good
+    figure and polish, and I observed the planet _Saturn_ with it. But
+    not being satisfied, I continued to work upon it till August 27,
+    1789, when it was tried upon the fixed stars, and I found it to give
+    a pretty sharp image. Large stars were a little affected with
+    scattered light, owing to many remaining scratches on the mirror.
+    August the 28th, 1789, having brought the telescope to the parallel
+    of _Saturn_, I discovered a _sixth_ satellite of that planet, and
+    also saw the spots upon _Saturn_ better than I had ever seen them
+    before, so that I may date the finishing of the forty-foot telescope
+    from that time."
+
+Another satellite of _Saturn_ was discovered with the forty-foot on the
+17th of September (1789). It was used for various observations so late
+as 1811. On January 19, of that year, HERSCHEL observed the nebula of
+_Orion_ with it. This was one of his last observations.
+
+The final disposition of the telescope is told in the following extract
+from a letter of Sir JOHN HERSCHEL'S to Mr. WELD, Secretary of the Royal
+Society:
+
+                                       "COLLINGWOOD, _March 13, 1847_.
+
+    . . . "In reply to your queries, respecting the forty-foot
+    reflecting telescope constructed by my father, I have to state that
+    King GEORGE III. munificently defrayed the _entire_ cost of that
+    instrument (including, of course, all preparatory cost in the nature
+    of construction of tools, and of the apparatus for casting, grinding,
+    and figuring the reflectors, of which two were constructed), at a
+    total cost of £4,000. The woodwork of the telescope being so far
+    decayed as to be dangerous, in the year 1839 I pulled it down, and
+    piers were erected on which the tube was placed, _that_ being of
+    iron and so well preserved, that, although not more than
+    one-twentieth of an inch thick, when in the horizontal position it
+    sustained within it all my family, and continues to sustain inclosed
+    within it, to this day, not only the heavier of the two reflectors,
+    but also all the more important portions of the machinery. . . .
+    The mirror and the rest of the polishing apparatus are on the
+    premises. The iron grinding tools and polishers are placed
+    underneath the tube, let into the ground, and level with the surface
+    of the gravelled area in which it stands.". . .
+
+The closing of the tube was done with appropriate ceremony on
+New-Year's-Day, 1840, when, after a procession through it by the family
+at Slough, a poem, written by Sir JOHN, was read, the machinery put into
+its present position, and the tube sealed.
+
+The memoir on the forty-foot telescope shows throughout that HERSCHEL'S
+prime object was not the making of the telescope itself, but that his
+mind was constantly directed towards the uses to which it was to be
+put--towards the questions which he wished it to answer.
+
+Again and again, in his various papers, he returns to the question of
+the _limit of vision_. As BESSEL has said:
+
+    "The naked eye has its limit of vision in the stars of the sixth
+    magnitude. The light of fainter stars than these does not affect the
+    retina enough for them to be seen. A very small telescope penetrates
+    to smaller, and, in general, without doubt, to more distant stars.
+    A more powerful one penetrates deeper into space, and as its power is
+    increased, so the boundaries of the visible universe are widened,
+    and the number of stars increased to millions and millions. Whoever
+    has followed the history of the series of HERSCHEL'S telescopes will
+    have observed this. But HERSCHEL was not content with the bare fact,
+    but strove ever to know _how far_ a telescope of a certain
+    construction and size could penetrate, compared with the naked and
+    unassisted eye. These investigations were never for the discovery of
+    new facts concerning the working of his instruments; it was for the
+    knowledge of the distribution of the fixed stars in space itself
+    that he strove. . . . HERSCHEL'S instruments were designed to aid
+    vision to the last extent. They were only secondarily for the taking
+    of measures. His efforts were not for a knowledge of the _motions_,
+    but of the _constitution_ and _construction_ of the heavenly
+    bodies."
+
+Besides the stands for his telescopes, which were both ingenious and
+convenient, HERSCHEL devised many forms of apparatus for facilitating
+the art of observation. His micrometers for measuring position angles,
+his lamp micrometer, the method of limiting apertures, and the methods
+he used for viewing the sun may be mentioned among these.
+
+Points in practical astronomy are considered all through the years of
+observation. A reference to his original papers will show how numerous,
+how varied, and how valuable these are. I cannot forbear quoting here
+the account of a precaution observed during his examination of the belts
+on _Saturn_ (1794).
+
+It is the most striking example of how fully HERSCHEL realized that the
+eye of the observer is a material part of the optical apparatus of
+astronomy. Simple as this principle may appear, it was an absolute
+novelty in his day.
+
+In making these observations, he says:
+
+    "I took care to bend my head so as to receive the picture of the
+    belt in the same direction as I did formerly. This was a precaution
+    that occurred to me, as there was a possibility that the vertical
+    diameter of the retina might be more or less sensitive than the
+    horizontal one."
+
+Astronomers will recognize in this the first suggestion of the processes
+which have led to important results in the hands of Dr. OTTO STRUVE and
+others in the comparison of the measures of double stars by different
+observers, each of whom has a personal habit of observation, which, if
+not corrected, may affect his results in the way which HERSCHEL was
+striving to avoid.
+
+
+           _Researches on the Relative Brightness of the
+                     Stars: Variable Stars._
+
+No research of HERSCHEL'S was more laborious than the elaborate
+classification of the stars according to their comparative brightness,
+which he executed during the years 1796 to 1799. It was directly in the
+line of his main work--to find out the construction of the heavens.
+
+His first paper had been upon the variable star _Mira Ceti_. Here was a
+sun, shining by its native brightness, which waxed and waned like the
+moon itself. This star is periodic. It is for a long period invisible to
+the unassisted eye. Then it can just be seen, and increases in
+brightness for a little over a month, and attains a maximum brilliancy.
+From this it decreases for nearly three months, and after becoming
+invisible, remains so for five or six months. Its whole period is about
+333 days. Are all other stars constant in brightness? The example of
+_Mira Ceti_ and of other known variables makes this at least doubtful.
+But the sun itself may vary for all that we know. It is a simple star
+like the rest.
+
+This question of variability in general is an important one, then.
+It can only be tested by making accurate catalogues of the relative
+brilliance of stars at various times, and by comparing these. No such
+general catalogue existed before HERSCHEL'S time, and led by the
+discrepancies in isolated cases, which he found between his own
+estimates and those of his predecessors, he made from observation a
+series of four catalogues, in which were set down the order of sequence
+of the stars of each constellation.
+
+The method adopted by HERSCHEL was perfectly simple in principle, though
+most laborious in practice. Suppose any number of stars, A, B, C, D, E,
+. . . etc., near enough to each other to be well compared. The process
+consists simply in writing down the names of the stars, A, B, C, etc.,
+in the order of their relative brightness. Thus if for a group of eight
+stars we have found at one epoch A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and if at
+another time the order was A, B, C, D, F, E, G, H, symptoms of
+variability are pointed out. Repeated observations, where the same star
+is found in different sequences, will decide the question. Thus, for the
+stars visible to the naked eye, we know exactly the state of the sky in
+HERSCHEL'S day, now nearly a century ago. Any material change cannot
+escape us. These catalogues have been singularly overlooked by the
+observers of our generation who have followed this branch of
+observation, and it was not till 1876 that they received proper
+attention and a suitable reduction (at the hands of Mr. C. S. PIERCE).
+
+We owe to HERSCHEL the first trustworthy account of the stars visible
+to the naked eye, and since the date of his labors (about 1800) we have
+similar views published by ARGELANDER (1839), HEIS (1848), ARGELANDER
+and SCHÖNFELD (1857), GOULD (1860 and 1872), and HOUZEAU (1875). Thus
+his labors have been well followed up.
+
+In the prosecution of this work HERSCHEL found stars whose light was
+progressively diminishing, others which regularly increased, one star
+whose light periodically varies (_[alpha] Herculis_), and at least
+one star (55 _Herculis_) which has utterly disappeared. On October 10,
+1781, and April 11, 1782, he observed this latter star, but in May,
+1791, it had totally vanished. There was no trace remaining.
+
+The discovery of the variability of _[alpha] Herculis_ was a more
+important one than would at first sight appear. Up to that time the only
+variable stars known were seven in number. Their periods were four
+hundred and ninety-four, four hundred and four, three hundred and
+thirty-four, seven, six, five, and three days. These periods seemed to
+fall into two groups, one of from three hundred to five hundred days,
+the other comparatively much shorter, of three to seven days.
+_[alpha] Herculis_ came to occupy the middle place between these groups,
+its period being about sixty days.
+
+The cause of these strange and regular variations of brightness was
+supposed by HERSCHEL to be the rotation of the star bodily on an axis,
+by which revolution different parts of its surface, of different
+brilliancy, were successively and periodically presented to us. This
+explanation it might have been difficult to receive, when the periods of
+the known variables were so markedly various in length. His own
+discovery came to bridge over the interval, and quite confirmed him in
+his belief. He returned to the subject of the revolution of stars about
+their axes again and again, and connected it with the revolution of
+satellites.
+
+He found that the satellites of _Jupiter_ and one of _Saturn's_
+periodically changed in brightness, and by quite simple means showed
+that their periods of rotation were at least approximately the same as
+their periods of revolution about their primaries. In this case, as in
+every other, he considered a discovery in each and every one of its
+possible bearings. There are no instances where he has singularly
+overlooked the consequences of his observations.
+
+
+                    _Researches on Double Stars._
+
+The double stars were the subject of HERSCHEL'S earliest and of his
+latest papers. In 1782 he published his "_Catalogue of Double Stars_,"
+and his last published memoir (1822) was on the same subject.
+
+The question of determining the parallax of stars first brought HERSCHEL
+to the discovery of double stars. If two stars, A and B, appear very
+close together, and if, in reality, the star B is very many times more
+distant from the earth than A, although seen along the same line of
+sight, then the revolution of the earth in its orbit will produce
+changes in the relative situation of A and B, and, in fact, B will
+describe a small orbit about A, due to this revolution. This idea had
+been proposed by GALILEO, and measures on this plan had been made by
+LONG, with negative results. But HERSCHEL, in reviewing their work,
+declares that the stars chosen by LONG were not suitable to the purpose.
+It is necessary, among other things, to the success of this method, that
+it should be certain that the star B is really very much more distant
+than the star A. The only general test of the distance of stars is their
+brilliancy, and HERSCHEL decided to use only stars for this research
+which had two components very greatly different in brightness. A must be
+very bright (and presumably near to us), and B must be very close to A,
+and very faint (and thus, presumably, very distant).
+
+It was in the search for such pairs of stars that the _Catalogue of
+Double Stars_ (1782) was formed. HERSCHEL'S first idea of a double star
+made such pairs as he found, to consist of two stars _accidentally_ near
+to each other. A was near to us, and appeared projected in a certain
+place on the celestial sphere. B was many times more distant, but, by
+chance, was seen along the same line, and made with A an _optical_
+double. If the two stars were at the same distance from the earth, if
+they made part of the same physical system, if one revolved around the
+other, then this method of gaining a knowledge of their distance failed.
+Even in his first memoir on the subject, a surmise that this latter
+state might occur in some cases, was expressed by HERSCHEL. The notes on
+some of the pairs declare that a motion of one of them was suspected.
+But this motion might be truly orbital--of one star about the other as
+a centre--or it might simply be that one star was moving by its own
+_proper_ motion, and leaving the other behind. It was best to wait and
+see. The first Catalogue of Double Stars contained two hundred and three
+instances of such associations. These were observed from time to time,
+and new pairs discovered. The paper of MICHELL, "An Inquiry into the
+probable Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of
+Light which they Afford, and the Particular Circumstances of their
+Situation" (1767), was read and pondered. By 1802 HERSCHEL had become
+certain that there existed in the heavens real pairs of stars, both at
+the same distance from the earth, which were physically connected with
+each other. The arguments of MICHELL have been applied by BESSEL to the
+case of one of HERSCHEL'S double stars, in much the same order in which
+the argument ran in HERSCHEL'S own mind, as follows:
+
+The star _Castor_ (_[alpha] Geminorum_) is a double star, where A is of
+the second, and B of the fourth, magnitude. To the naked eye these two
+appear as one star. With a telescope this is seen to be two stars, some
+5" apart. In the whole sky there are not above fifty such stars
+as the brighter of the two, and about four hundred of the brilliancy of
+B. These fifty and four hundred stars are scattered over the vault of
+heaven, almost at random. No law has yet been traced by which we can say
+that here or here there shall be a bright star like A, or a fainter one
+like B. In general the distribution appears to be fortuitous. How then
+can we account for one of the four hundred stars like B placed so close
+to one of the fifty like A?
+
+The chances are over four hundred thousand to one that the association
+in position is not accidental. This argument becomes overwhelming when
+the same association is found in many other cases. There were two
+hundred and three doubles in the Catalogue of 1782 alone, and many
+thousands are now known.
+
+By a process like this, HERSCHEL reached his grand discovery of true
+binary systems, where one sun revolves about another. For he saw that
+if the two stars are near together in space, they could not stand still
+in face of each other, but that they must revolve in true orbits. Here
+was the discovery which came to take the place of the detection of the
+parallaxes of the fixed stars.
+
+He had failed in one research, but he was led to grand conclusions.
+Was the force that these distant pairs of suns obeyed, the force of
+gravitation? This he could not settle, but his successors have done so.
+It was not till about 1827 that SAVARY, of the Paris Observatory, showed
+that one of HERSCHEL'S doubles was subjected to the law of gravitation,
+and thus extended the power of this law from our system to the universe
+at large. HERSCHEL himself lived to see some of his double stars perform
+half a revolution.
+
+Of HERSCHEL'S discoveries, ARAGO thinks this has "le plus d'avenir."
+It may well be so. The laws which govern our solar system have been
+extended, through his researches, to regions of unknown distance. The
+binary stars will afford the largest field for research into the laws
+which govern them, and together with the clusters and groups, they will
+give a firm basis by which to study the distribution of stars in
+general, since here we have the great advantage of knowing, if not the
+real distance of the two stars from the earth, at least that this
+distance is alike for both.
+
+
+                  _Researches on Planets and Satellites._
+
+After HERSCHEL'S first publication on the mountains of the Moon (1780),
+our satellite appears to have occupied him but little. The observation
+of volcanoes (1787) and of a lunar eclipse are his only published ones.
+The planets _Mercury_, _Venus_, _Mars_, and _Jupiter_, although they
+were often studied, were not the subjects of his more important memoirs.
+The planet _Saturn_, on the contrary, seems never to have been lost
+sight of from the time of his first view of it in 1772.
+
+The field of discovery always appears to be completely occupied until
+the advent of a great man, who, even by his way of putting old and
+familiar facts, shows the paths along which discoveries must come, if at
+all. This faculty comes from profound reflection on the nature of the
+subject itself, from a sort of transmuting power which changes the words
+of the books into the things of reality. HERSCHEL'S paper on _Saturn_,
+in 1790, is an admirable example of this.
+
+HERSCHEL'S observations on _Saturn_ began in 1772. From 1790 to 1808 he
+published six memoirs on the figure, the ring, and the satellites of
+this planet. The spheroidal shape of the ball was first discovered by
+him, and we owe much of our certain knowledge of the constitution of the
+rings to his work. The sixth and seventh satellites, _Mimas_ and
+_Enceladus_, were discovered by him in 1789. The periods of rotation of
+the ball and of the ring were also fixed. In his conclusions as to the
+real figure of the rings, there is a degree of scientific caution which
+is truly remarkable, and which to-day seems almost excessive.
+
+In his paper of 1792, HERSCHEL shows that the most distant satellite of
+_Saturn_--_Japetus_--turns once on its axis in each revolution about its
+primary, just as our moon does. He says of this:
+
+    "I cannot help reflecting with some pleasure on the discovery of an
+    analogy which shows that a certain uniform plan is carried on among
+    the secondary planets of our solar system; and we may conjecture
+    that probably most of the satellites are governed by the same law;
+    especially if it be founded on such a construction of their figure
+    as makes them more ponderous towards their primary planets."
+
+I believe the last suggestion to have been the first statement of the
+possible arrangement of matter in satellites, which was afterwards so
+forcibly maintained by HANSEN in his theory of the moon. HANSEN'S
+researches show the consequences of such an arrangement, although they
+do not prove its existence.
+
+It should be recorded that the explanation which is to-day received of
+the belts and bands upon _Jupiter_, is, I believe, first found in
+HERSCHEL'S memoir on _Venus_ (1793). His memoir of 1797, on the
+changeable brightness of the satellites of _Jupiter_, has already been
+referred to. The times of the rotation of the satellites on their axes
+was first determined by HERSCHEL from these observations, which also
+contain accounts of the curious, and as yet unexplained, phenomena
+attending their appearances on the disc of the planet.
+
+HERSCHEL discovered in January, 1787, the two brighter satellites of
+_Uranus_, now called _Oberon_ and _Titania_. They are among the faintest
+objects in the solar system. A later discussion of all his observations
+led him to the belief that there were four more, and he gives his
+observations and computations in full. He says that of the existence of
+additional satellites he has no doubt. Of these four, three were
+exterior to the most distant satellite _Oberon_, the other was
+"interior" to _Titania_.
+
+It was not until 1834 that even _Oberon_ and _Titania_ were again
+observed (by Sir JOHN HERSCHEL) with a telescope of twenty feet, similar
+to that which had discovered them, and not until 1847 was the true state
+of this system known, when Mr. LASSELL discovered _Ariel_ and _Umbriel_,
+two satellites interior to _Titania_, neither of which was HERSCHEL'S
+"interior" satellite. In 1848 and later years Mr. LASSELL, by the aid of
+telescopes constructed by himself, fully settled the fact that only
+four satellites of this planet existed. In 1874 I examined the
+observations of HERSCHEL on his supposed "interior" satellite, thinking
+that it might be possible that among the very few glimpses of it which
+he recorded, some might have belonged to _Ariel_ and some to _Umbriel_,
+and that by combining rare and almost accidental observations of two
+satellites which really existed, he had come to announce the existence
+of an "interior" satellite which had no existence in fact. Such I
+believe to be the case. In 1801, April 17, HERSCHEL describes an
+interior satellite in the position angle 189°, distant 18" from
+the planet. At that instant _Umbriel_, one of Mr. LASSELL'S satellites,
+was in the position 191°, and distant 21" from _Uranus_, in the
+most favorable position for seeing it. The observation of 1794, March
+27, _may_ belong to _Ariel_. At the best the investigation is of passing
+interest only, and has nothing to do with the question of the discovery
+of the satellites. HERSCHEL discovered the two brighter ones, and it
+was only sixty years later that they were properly re-observed by Mr.
+LASSELL, who has the great honor of having added as many more, and who
+first settled the vexed question of satellites _exterior_ to _Oberon_,
+and this with a reflecting telescope made by himself, which is
+unequalled by any other of its dimensions.
+
+
+                    _Researches on the Nature of the Sun._
+
+In the introduction to his paper on the _Nature and Construction of the
+Sun and Fixed Stars_ (1795), HERSCHEL recounts what was known of the
+nature of the sun at that time. NEWTON had shown that it was the centre
+of the system; GALILEO and his successors had determined its rotation,
+the place of its equator, its real diameter, magnitude, density,
+distance, and the force of gravity on its surface. He says:
+
+    "I should not wonder if, considering all this, we were induced to
+    think that nothing remained to be added; and yet we are still very
+    ignorant in regard to the internal construction of the sun." "The
+    spots have been supposed to be solid bodies, the smoke of
+    volcanoes, the scum floating on an ocean of fluid matter, clouds,
+    opaque masses, and to be many other things." "The sun itself has
+    been called a globe of fire, though, perhaps, metaphorically." "It
+    is time now to profit by the observations we are in possession of.
+    I have availed myself of the labors of preceding astronomers, but
+    have been induced thereto by my own actual observation of the solar
+    phenomena."
+
+HERSCHEL then refers to the theories advanced by his friend, Prof.
+WILSON, of Glasgow, in 1774. WILSON maintained that the spots were
+depressions below the sun's atmosphere, vast hollows as it were, at the
+bases of which the true surface of the sun could be seen.
+
+The essence of his theory was the existence of two different kinds of
+matter in the sun: one solid and non-luminous--the nucleus--the other
+gaseous and incandescent--the atmosphere. Vacant places in the
+atmosphere, however caused, would show the black surface of the solid
+mass below. These were the spots. No explanation could be given of the
+_faculæ_, bright streaks, which appear on the sun's surface from time
+to time; but his theory accounted for the existence of the black
+_nuclei_ of the spots, and for the existence of the _penumbræ_ about
+these. The penumbra of a spot was formed by the thinner parts of the
+atmosphere about the vacancy which surrounded the nucleus.
+
+This theory of WILSON'S was adopted by HERSCHEL as a basis for his own,
+and he brought numerous observations to confirm it, in the modified
+shape which he gave to it.
+
+According to HERSCHEL, the sun consisted of three essentially different
+parts. First, there was a solid nucleus, non-luminous, cool, and even
+capable of being inhabited. Second, above this was an atmosphere proper;
+and, lastly, outside of this was a layer in which floated the clouds, or
+bodies which gave to the solar surface its intense brilliancy:
+
+    "According to my theory, a dark spot in the sun is a place in its
+    atmosphere which happens to be free from luminous decompositions"
+    above it.
+
+The two atmospheric layers, which will be of varying thickness about a
+spot, will account for all the shades of darkness seen in the penumbra.
+Ascending currents from the solar surface will elevate certain regions,
+and may increase the solar activity near by, and will thus give rise to
+faculæ, which HERSCHEL shows to be elevated above the general surface.
+It will not be necessary to give a further account of this theory. The
+data in the possession of the modern theorist is a thousand-fold that to
+be derived from HERSCHEL'S observations, and, while the subject of the
+internal construction of the sun is to-day unsettled, we know that many
+important, even fundamental, portions of his theory are untenable.
+A remark of his should be recorded, however, as it has played a great
+part in such theories:
+
+    "That the emission of light must waste the sun, is not a difficulty
+    that can be opposed to our hypothesis. Many of the operations of
+    Nature are carried on in her great laboratory which we cannot
+    comprehend. Perhaps the many telescopic comets may restore to the
+    sun what is lost by the emission of light."
+
+Arguments in favor of the habitability of both sun and moon are
+contained in this paper; but they rest more on a metaphysical than a
+scientific basis, and are to-day justly forgotten.
+
+
+             _Researches on the Motion of the Sun and of
+                    the Solar System in Space._
+
+In 1782 HERSCHEL writes, in regard to some of his discoveries of double
+stars:
+
+    "These may serve another very important end. I will just mention it,
+    though it is foreign to my present purpose. Several stars of the
+    first magnitude have been observed or suspected to have a proper
+    motion; hence we may surmise that our sun, with all its planets and
+    comets, may also have a motion towards some particular point of the
+    heavens. . . . If this surmise should have any foundation, it will show
+    itself in a series of some years in a kind of systematical parallax,
+    or change, due to the motion of the whole solar system."
+
+In 1783 he published his paper _On the Proper Motion of the Solar
+System_, which contained the proofs of his surmises of a year before.
+That certain of the stars had in fact a _proper_ motion had been well
+established by the astronomers of the eighteenth century. After all
+allowances had been made for the effects of precession and other
+displacements of a star's position which were produced by motions of the
+earth, it was found that there were still small outstanding differences
+which must be due to the motion of the star itself--its proper motion.
+The quantity of this motion was not well known for any star when
+HERSCHEL'S researches began. Before they were concluded, however,
+MASKELYNE had deduced the proper motions of thirty-six stars--the
+fundamental stars, so called--which included in their number _Sirius_,
+_Procyon_, _Arcturus_, and generally the brightest stars.
+
+It is _à priori_ evident that stars, in general, must have proper
+motions, when once we admit the universality of gravitation. That any
+fixed star should be entirely at rest would require that the attractions
+on all sides of it should be exactly balanced. Any change in the
+position of this star would break up this balance, and thus, in general,
+it follows that stars must be in motion, since all of them cannot occupy
+such a critical position as has to be assumed. If but one fixed star is
+in motion, this affects all the rest, and we cannot doubt but that
+every star, our sun included, is in motion by an amount which varies
+from small to great. If the sun alone had a motion, and the other stars
+were at rest, the consequence of this would be that all the fixed stars
+would appear to be retreating _en masse_ from that point in the sky
+towards which we were moving. Those nearest us would move more rapidly,
+those more distant less so. And in the same way, the stars from which
+the solar system was receding would seem to be approaching each other.
+If the stars, instead of being quite at rest, as just supposed, had
+motions proper to themselves, then we should have a double complexity.
+They would still appear to an observer in the solar system to have
+motions, and part of these motions would be truly proper to the stars,
+and part would be due to the advance of the sun itself in space.
+
+Observations can show us only the _resultant_ of these two motions.
+It is for reasoning to separate this resultant into its two components.
+At first the question is to determine whether the results of observation
+indicate any solar motion at all. If there is none, the proper motions
+of stars will be directed along all possible lines. If the sun does
+truly move, then there will be a general agreement in the resultant
+motions of the stars near the ends of the line along which it moves,
+while those at the sides, so to speak, will show comparatively less
+systematic effect. It is as if one were riding in the rear of a railway
+train and watching the rails over which it has just passed. As we recede
+from any point, the rails at that point seem to come nearer and nearer
+together.
+
+If we were passing through a forest, we should see the trunks of the
+trees from which we were going apparently come nearer and nearer
+together, while those on the sides of us would remain at their constant
+distance, and those in front would grow further and further apart.
+
+These phenomena, which occur in a case where we are sensible of our own
+motion, serve to show how we may deduce a motion, otherwise unknown,
+from the appearances which are presented by the stars in space.
+
+In this way, acting upon suggestions which had been thrown out
+previously to his own time by LAMBERT, MAYER, and BRADLEY, HERSCHEL
+demonstrated that the sun, together with all its system, was moving
+through space in an unknown and majestic orbit of its own. The centre
+round which this motion is directed cannot yet be assigned. We can
+only know the point in the heavens towards which our course is
+directed--"the apex of solar motion."
+
+By a study of the proper motions assigned by MASKELYNE to the brighter
+stars, HERSCHEL was able to define the position of the solar apex with
+an astonishing degree of accuracy. His calculations have been several
+times repeated with the advantage of modern analytical methods, and of
+the hundred-fold material now at our disposition, but nothing essential
+has been added to his results of 1805, which were based upon such scanty
+data; and his paper of 1782 contains the announcement of the discovery
+itself.
+
+His second paper on the _Direction_ and _Velocity_ of the solar system
+(1805) is the best example that can possibly be given of his marvellous
+skill in reaching the heart of a matter, and it may be the one in which
+his philosophical powers appear in their highest exercise. For sustained
+reflection and high philosophic thought it is to be ranked with the
+researches of NEWTON in the _Principia_.
+
+
+           _Researches on the Construction of the Heavens._
+
+HERSCHEL'S papers on the Construction of the Heavens, as he named it,
+extended over his whole scientific life. By this he specially means the
+method according to which the stars, the clusters, the nebulæ, are
+spread through the regions of space, the causes that have led to this
+distribution, and the laws to which it is subjected.
+
+No single astronomical fact is unimportant in the light which it may
+throw on the scheme of the whole, and each fact is to be considered in
+this light. As an instance: his discovery of the variable star
+_[alpha] Herculis_, which has a period of sixty days, was valuable in
+itself as adding one more to the number of those strange suns whose
+light is now brighter, now fainter, in a regular and periodic order.
+But the chief value of the discovery was that now we had an instance of
+a periodic star which went through all its phases in sixty days, and
+connected, as it were, the stars of short periods (three to seven days)
+with those of very long ones (three hundred to five hundred days), which
+two groups had, until then, been the only ones known. In the same way
+all his researches on the parallaxes of stars were not alone for the
+discovery of the distance of any one or two single stars, but to gain a
+unit of celestial measure, by means of which the depths of space might
+be sounded.
+
+Astronomy in HERSCHEL'S day considered the bodies of the solar system as
+separated from each other by distances, and as filling a cubical space.
+The ideas of near and far, of up and down, were preserved, in regard to
+them, by common astronomical terms. But the vast number of stars seemed
+to be thought of, as they appear in fact to exist, lying on the surface
+of a hollow sphere. The immediate followers of BRADLEY used these fixed
+stars as points of reference by which the motions within the solar
+system could be determined, or, like LACAILLE and LALANDE, gathered
+those immense catalogues of their positions which are so indispensable
+to the science. MICHELL and HERSCHEL alone, in England, occupied their
+thoughts with the nature and construction of the heavens--the one in his
+study, the other through observation.[34] They were concerned with all
+three of the dimensions of space.
+
+In his memoir of 1784, HERSCHEL says:
+
+    "Hitherto the sidereal heavens have, not inadequately for the
+    purpose designed, been represented by the concave surface of a
+    sphere, in the centre of which the eye of an observer might be
+    supposed to be placed.
+
+    "It is true the various magnitudes of the fixed stars even then
+    plainly suggested to us, and would have better suited, the idea of
+    an expanded firmament of three dimensions; but the observations upon
+    which I am now going to enter still farther illustrate and enforce
+    the necessity of considering the heavens in this point of view. In
+    future, therefore, we shall look upon those regions into which we
+    may now penetrate by means of such large telescopes, as a naturalist
+    regards a rich extent of ground or chain of mountains containing
+    strata variously inclined and directed, as well as consisting of
+    very different materials. The surface of a globe or map, therefore,
+    will but ill delineate the interior parts of the heavens."
+
+HERSCHEL'S method of study was founded on a mode of observation which he
+called _star-gauging_. It consisted in pointing a powerful telescope
+toward various parts of the heavens, and ascertaining by actual count
+how thick the stars were in each region. His twenty-foot reflector was
+provided with such an eye-piece that, in looking into it, he saw a
+portion of the heavens about 15' in diameter. A circle of this size on
+the celestial sphere has about one quarter the apparent surface of the
+sun, or of the full moon. On pointing the telescope in any direction, a
+greater or less number of stars were visible. These were counted, and
+the direction in which the telescope pointed was noted. Gauges of this
+kind were made in all parts of the sky, and the results were tabulated
+in the order of right ascension.
+
+The following is an extract from the gauges, and gives the average
+number of stars in each field at the points noted in right ascension and
+north polar distance:
+
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+              |    N. P. D.     ||           |    N. P. D.
+      R. A.   |   78° to 80°.   ||   R. A.   |   92° to 94°.
+              |  No. of Stars.  ||           | No. of Stars.
+  ------------|-----------------||-----------|--------------
+      H.  M.  |                 ||  H.  M.   |
+      11   6  |       3.1       ||  15  10   |      9.4
+      12  31  |       3.4       ||  15  22   |     10.6
+      12  44  |       4.6       ||  15  47   |     10.6
+      12  49  |       3.9       ||  16   8   |     12.1
+      13   5  |       3.8       ||  16  25   |     13.6
+      14  30  |       3.6       ||  16  37   |     18.6
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+
+In this small table, it is plain that a different law of clustering or
+of distribution obtains in the two regions. Such differences are still
+more marked, if we compare the extreme cases found by HERSCHEL, as
+R. A. = 19h 41m, N. P. D. = 74° 33', number of stars per field = 588;
+and R. A. = 16h 10m, N. P. D. = 113° 4', number of stars = 1.1.
+
+The number of stars in certain portions is very great. For example, in
+the Milky Way, near _Orion_, six fields of view promiscuously taken gave
+110, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 stars each, or a mean of 79 stars per field.
+The most vacant space in this neighborhood gave 60 stars. So that as
+HERSCHEL'S sweeps were two degrees wide in declination, in one hour
+(15°) there would pass through the field of his telescope 40,000 or more
+stars. In some of the sweeps this number was as great as 116,000 stars
+in a quarter of an hour.
+
+When HERSCHEL first applied his telescope to the Milky Way, he believed
+that it completely resolved the whole whitish appearance into small
+stars. This conclusion he subsequently modified. He says:
+
+    "It is very probable that the great stratum called the Milky Way is
+    that in which the sun is placed, though perhaps not in the very
+    centre of its thickness.
+
+    "We gather this from the appearance of the Galaxy, which seems to
+    encompass the whole heavens, as it certainly must do if the sun is
+    within it. For, suppose a number of stars arranged between two
+    parallel planes, indefinitely extended every way, but at a given
+    considerable distance from each other; and calling this a sidereal
+    stratum, an eye placed somewhere within it will see all the stars in
+    the direction of the planes of the stratum projected into a great
+    circle, which will appear lucid on account of the accumulation of
+    the stars, while the rest of the heavens, at the sides, will only
+    seem to be scattered over with constellations, more or less crowded
+    according to the distance of the planes, or number of stars
+    contained in the thickness or sides of the stratum.
+
+    "If the eye were placed somewhere without the stratum, at no very
+    great distance, the appearance of the stars within it would assume
+    the form of one of the smaller circles of the sphere, which would be
+    more or less contracted according to the distance of the eye; and,
+    if this distance were exceedingly increased, the whole stratum might
+    at last be drawn together into a lucid spot of any shape, according
+    to the length, breadth, and height of the stratum.
+
+    "Suppose that a smaller stratum should branch out from the former in
+    a certain direction, and that it also is contained between two
+    parallel planes, so that the eye is contained within the great
+    stratum somewhere before the separation, and not far from the place
+    where the strata are still united. Then this second stratum will not
+    be projected into a bright circle like the former, but it will be
+    seen as a lucid branch proceeding from the first, and returning
+    into it again at a distance less than a semicircle. If the bounding
+    surfaces are not parallel planes, but irregularly curved surfaces,
+    analogous appearances must result."
+
+The Milky Way, as we see it, presents the aspect which has been just
+accounted for, in its general appearance of a girdle around the heavens
+and in its bifurcation at a certain point, and HERSCHEL'S explanation of
+this appearance, as just given, has never been seriously questioned. One
+doubtful point remains: are the stars scattered all through space? or
+are they near its bounding planes, or clustered in any way within this
+space so as to produce the same result to the eye as if uniformly
+distributed?
+
+HERSCHEL assumed that they were nearly equably arranged all through the
+space in question. He only examined one other arrangement, _viz._, that
+of a ring of stars surrounding the sun, and he pronounced against such
+an arrangement, for the reason that there is absolutely nothing in the
+size or brilliancy of the sun to cause us to suppose it to be the centre
+of such a gigantic system. No reason, except its importance to us
+personally, can be alleged for such a supposition. Every star will have
+its own appearance of a Galaxy or Milky Way, which will vary according
+to the situation of the star.
+
+Such an explanation will account for the general appearances of the
+Milky Way and of the rest of the sky, supposing the stars equally or
+nearly equally distributed in space. On this supposition, the system
+must be deeper where the stars appear most numerous.
+
+HERSCHEL endeavored, in his early memoirs, to explain this inequality of
+distribution on the fundamental assumption that the stars were nearly
+equably distributed in space. If they were so distributed, then the
+number of stars visible in any gauge would show the thickness of the
+stellar system in the direction in which the telescope was pointed.
+At each pointing, the field of view of the instrument includes all the
+visible stars situated within a cone, having its vortex at the
+observer's eye, and its base at the very limits of the system, the angle
+of the cone (at the eye) being 15'. Then the cubes of the
+perpendiculars let fall from the eye, on the plane of the bases of the
+various visual cones, are proportional to the solid contents of the
+cones themselves, or, as the stars are supposed equally scattered within
+all the cones, the cube roots of the numbers of stars in each of the
+fields express the relative lengths of the perpendiculars. A _section_
+of the sidereal system along any great circle can be constructed from
+the data furnished by the gauges in the following way:
+
+The solar system is within the mass of stars. From this point lines are
+drawn along the different directions in which the gauging telescope was
+pointed. On these lines are laid off lengths proportional to the cube
+roots of the number of stars in each gauge. The irregular line joining
+the terminal points will be approximately the bounding curve of the
+stellar system in the great circle chosen. Within this line the space is
+nearly uniformly filled with stars. Without it is empty space. A similar
+section can be constructed in any other great circle, and a combination
+of all such would give a representation of the shape of our stellar
+system. The more numerous and careful the observations, the more
+elaborate the representation, and the 863 gauges of HERSCHEL are
+sufficient to mark out with great precision the main features of the
+Milky Way, and even to indicate some of its chief irregularities.
+
+On the fundamental assumption of HERSCHEL (equable distribution), no
+other conclusion can be drawn from his statistics but the one laid down
+by him.
+
+This assumption he subsequently modified in some degree, and was led to
+regard his gauges as indicating not so much the _depth of the system_ in
+any direction, as the _clustering power or tendency_ of the stars in
+those special regions. It is clear that if in any given part of the sky,
+where, on the average, there are ten stars (say) to a field, we should
+find a certain small portion having 100 or more to a field, then, on
+HERSCHEL'S first hypothesis, rigorously interpreted, it would be
+necessary to suppose a spike-shaped protuberance directed from the
+earth, in order to explain the increased number of stars. If many such
+places could be found, then the probability is great that this
+explanation is wrong. We should more rationally suppose some real
+inequality of star distribution here. It is, in fact, in just such
+details that the method of HERSCHEL breaks down, and a careful
+examination of his system leads to the belief that it must be greatly
+modified to cover all the known facts, while it undoubtedly has, in the
+main, a strong basis.
+
+The stars are certainly not uniformly distributed, and any general
+theory of the sidereal system must take into account the varied tendency
+to aggregation in various parts of the sky.
+
+In 1817, HERSCHEL published an important memoir on the same subject, in
+which his first method was largely modified, though not abandoned. Its
+fundamental principle was stated by him as follows:
+
+    "It is evident that we cannot mean to affirm that the stars of the
+    fifth, sixth, and seventh magnitudes are really smaller than those
+    of the first, second, or third, and that we must ascribe the cause
+    of the difference in the apparent magnitudes of the stars to a
+    difference in their relative distances from us. On account of the
+    great number of stars in each class, we must also allow that the
+    stars of each succeeding magnitude, beginning with the first, are,
+    one with another, further from us than those of the magnitude
+    immediately preceding. The relative magnitudes give only relative
+    distances, and can afford no information as to the real distances at
+    which the stars are placed.
+
+    "A standard of reference for the arrangement of the stars may be had
+    by comparing their distribution to a certain properly modified
+    equality of scattering. The equality which I propose does not
+    require that the stars should be at equal distances from each other,
+    nor is it necessary that all those of the same nominal magnitude
+    should be equally distant from us."
+
+It consisted in allotting a certain equal portion of space to every
+star, so that, on the whole, each equal portion of space within the
+stellar system contains an equal number of stars. The space about each
+star can be considered spherical. Suppose such a sphere to surround our
+own sun. Its radius will not differ greatly from the distance of the
+nearest fixed star, and this is taken as the unit of distance.
+
+Suppose a series of larger spheres, all drawn around our sun as a
+centre, and having the radii 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. The contents of the
+spheres being as the cubes of their diameters, the first sphere will
+have 3 × 3 × 3 = 27 times the volume of the unit sphere, and will
+therefore be large enough to contain 27 stars; the second will have 125
+times the volume, and will therefore contain 125 stars, and so on with
+the successive spheres. For instance, the sphere of radius 7 has room
+for 343 stars, but of this space 125 parts belong to the spheres inside
+of it; there is, therefore, room for 218 stars between the spheres of
+radii 5 and 7.
+
+HERSCHEL designates the several distances of these layers of stars as
+orders; the stars between spheres 1 and 3 are of the first order of
+distance, those between 3 and 5 of the second order, and so on.
+Comparing the room for stars between the several spheres with the number
+of stars of the several magnitudes which actually exists in the sky, he
+found the result to be as follows:
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+    Order of  |  Number of   |             |  Number of
+    Distance. | Stars there  |  Magnitude. | Stars of that
+              | is Room for. |             |  Magnitude.
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+    1........ |      26      |      1      |      17
+    2........ |      98      |      2      |      57
+    3........ |     218      |      3      |     206
+    4........ |     386      |      4      |     454
+    5........ |     602      |      5      |   1,161
+    6........ |     866      |      6      |   6,103
+    7........ |   1,178      |      7      |   6,146
+    8........ |   1,538      |             |
+  ---------------------------------------------------------
+
+The result of this comparison is, that if the order of magnitudes could
+indicate the distance of the stars, it would denote at first a gradual
+and afterward a very abrupt condensation of them, at and beyond the
+region of the sixth-magnitude stars.
+
+If we assume the brightness of any star to be inversely proportional to
+the square of its distance, it leads to a scale of distance different
+from that adopted by HERSCHEL, so that a sixth-magnitude star on the
+common scale would be about of the eighth order of distance according to
+this scheme--that is, we must remove a star of the first magnitude to
+eight times its actual distance to make it shine like a star of the
+sixth magnitude.
+
+On the scheme here laid down, HERSCHEL subsequently assigned the _order_
+of distance of various objects, mostly star-clusters, and his estimates
+of these distances are still quoted. They rest on the fundamental
+hypothesis which has been explained, and the error in the assumption of
+equal intrinsic brilliancy for all stars affects these estimates. It is
+perhaps probable that the hypothesis of equal brilliancy for all stars
+is still more erroneous than the hypothesis of equal distribution, and
+it may well be that there is a very large range indeed in the actual
+dimensions and in the intrinsic brilliancy of stars at the same order of
+distance from us, so that the tenth-magnitude stars, for example, may be
+scattered throughout the spheres which HERSCHEL would assign to the
+seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth
+magnitudes. However this may be, the fact remains that it is from
+HERSCHEL'S groundwork that future investigators must build. He found the
+whole subject in utter confusion. By his observations, data for the
+solution of some of the most general questions were accumulated, and in
+his memoirs, which STRUVE well calls "immortal," he brought the
+scattered facts into order and gave the first bold outlines of a
+reasonable theory. He is the founder of a new branch of astronomy.
+
+
+            _Researches for a Scale of Celestial Measures.
+                        Distances of the Stars._
+
+If the stars are _supposed_ all of the same absolute brightness, their
+brightness to the eye will depend only upon their distance from us. If
+we call the brightness of one of the fixed stars at the distance of
+_Sirius_, which may be used as the unity of distance, 1, then if it is
+moved to the distance 2, its apparent brightness will be one-fourth; if
+to the distance 3, one-ninth; if to the distance 4, one-sixteenth, and
+so on, the apparent brightness diminishing as the square of the distance
+increases. The distance may be taken as an order of magnitude. Stars at
+the _distances_ two, three, four, etc., HERSCHEL called of the second,
+third, and fourth magnitudes.
+
+By a series of experiments, the details of which cannot be given here,
+HERSCHEL determined the space-penetrating power of each of his
+telescopes. The twenty-foot would penetrate into space seventy-five
+times farther than the naked eye; the twenty-five foot, ninety-six
+times; and the forty-foot, one hundred and ninety-two times. If the
+seventh-magnitude stars are those just visible to the naked eye, and if
+we still suppose all stars to be of equal intrinsic brightness, such
+seventh-magnitude stars would remain visible in the forty-foot, even if
+removed to 1,344 times the distance of _Sirius_ (1,344 = 7 × 192).
+If, further, we suppose that the visibility of a star is strictly
+proportional to the total intensity of the light from it which strikes
+the eye, then a condensed cluster of 25,000 stars of the 1,344th
+magnitude could still be seen in the forty-foot at a distance where each
+star would have become 25,000 times fainter, that is, at about 158 times
+the distance of _Sirius_ (158 × 158 = 24,964). The light from the
+nearest star requires some three years to reach the earth. From a star
+1,344 times farther it would require about 4,000 years, and for such a
+cluster as we have imagined no less than 600,000 years are needed. That
+is, the light by which we see such a group has not just now left it.
+On the contrary, it has been travelling through space for centuries and
+centuries since it first darted forth. It is the ancient history of such
+groups that we are studying now, and it was thus that HERSCHEL declared
+that telescopes penetrated into time as well as into space.
+
+Other more exact researches on the relative light of stars were made by
+HERSCHEL. These were only one more attempt to obtain a scale of
+celestial distances, according to which some notion of the limits and of
+the interior dimensions of the universe could be gained. Two telescopes,
+_exactly equal_ in every respect, were chosen and placed side by side.
+Pairs of stars which were _exactly equal_, were selected by means of
+them. By diminishing the aperture of one telescope directed to a bright
+star, and keeping the other telescope unchanged and directed to a
+fainter star, the two stars could be equalized in light, and, from the
+relative size of the apertures, the relative light of this pair of stars
+could be accurately computed, and so on for other pairs. This was the
+first use of the method of _limiting apertures_. His general results
+were that the stars of the first magnitude would still remain visible to
+the naked eye, even if they were at a distance from us _twelve_ times
+their actual distance.
+
+This method received a still further development at his hands. He did
+not leave it until he had gained all the information it was capable of
+giving. He prepared a set of telescopes collecting 4, 9, 16, etc.
+(2 × 2, 3 × 3, 4 × 4, etc.), times as much light as the naked eye.
+These were to extend the determinations of distance to the telescopic
+stars. For example, a certain portion of the heavens which he examined
+contained no star visible to the naked eye, but many telescopic stars.
+We cannot say that no one of these is as bright in itself as some of our
+first-magnitude stars. The smallest telescope of the set showed a large
+number of stars; these must, then, be _twice_ as far from us, on the
+average, as the stars just visible to the naked eye. But first-magnitude
+stars, like _Sirius_, _Procyon_, _Arcturus_, etc., become just visible
+to the eye if removed to twelve times their present distance. Hence the
+stars seen in this first telescope of the set were between twelve and
+twenty-four times as far from us as _Arcturus_, for example.
+
+"At least," as HERSCHEL says, "we are certain that if stars of the size
+and lustre of _Sirius_, _Arcturus_, etc., were removed into the
+profundity of space I have mentioned, they would then appear like the
+stars which I saw." With the next telescope, which collected nine times
+more light than the eye, and brought into view objects three times more
+distant, other and new stars appeared, which were then (3 × 12)
+thirty-six times farther from us than _Arcturus_. In the same way, the
+seven-foot reflector showed stars 204 times, the ten-foot 344 times,
+the twenty-foot 900 times farther from us than the average
+first-magnitude star. As the light from such a star requires three years
+to reach us, the light from the faintest stars seen by the twenty-foot
+would require 2,700 years (3 × 900).
+
+But HERSCHEL was now (1817) convinced that the twenty-foot telescope
+could not penetrate to the boundaries of the Milky Way; the faintest
+stars of the Galaxy must then be farther from us even than nine hundred
+times the distance of _Arcturus_, and their light must be at least 3,000
+years old when it reaches us.
+
+There is no escaping a certain part of the consequences established by
+HERSCHEL. It is indeed true that unless a particular star is of the same
+intrinsic brightness as our largest stars, this reasoning does not apply
+to it; in just so far as the average star is less bright than the
+average brightness of our largest stars, will the numbers which HERSCHEL
+obtained be diminished. But for every star of which his hypothesis is
+true, we may assert that his conclusions are true, and no one can deny,
+with any show of reason, that, on the whole, his suppositions must be
+valid. On the whole, the stars which we call faint are farther from us
+than the brighter ones; and, on the whole, the brilliancy of our
+brightest and nearest stars is not very far from the brilliancy of the
+average star in space. We cannot yet define the word _very_ by a
+numerical ratio.
+
+The _method_ struck out by HERSCHEL was correct; it is for his
+successors to look for the special cases and limitations, to answer the
+question, At a certain distance from us, what are the variations which
+actually take place in the brilliancy and the sizes of stars? The answer
+to this question is to be found in the study of the clusters of regular
+forms, where we _know_ the stars to be all at the same distance from us.
+
+
+                    _Researches on Light and Heat, Etc._
+
+Frequently in the course of his astronomical work, HERSCHEL found
+himself confronted by questions of physics which could not be
+immediately answered in the state of the science at that time. In his
+efforts to find a method for determining the dimensions of the stellar
+universe, he was finally led, as has been shown, to regard the
+brightness of a star as, in general, the best attainable measure of its
+distance from us. His work, however, was done with telescopes of various
+dimensions and powers, and it was therefore necessary to find some law
+for comparing the different results among themselves as well as with
+those given by observations with an unassisted eye. This necessity
+prompted an investigation, published in 1800, in which, after drawing
+the distinction between absolute and intrinsic brightness, HERSCHEL gave
+an expression for the _space-penetrating power_ of a telescope. The
+reasoning at the base of this conception was as follows.
+
+The ratio of the light entering the eye when directed toward a star, to
+the whole light given out by the star, would be as the area of the pupil
+of the eye to the area of the whole sphere having the star as a centre
+and our distance from the star as a radius. If the eye is assisted by a
+telescope, the ratio is quite different. In that case the ratio of the
+light which enters the eye to the whole light, would be as the area of
+the mirror or object-glass to the area of the whole sphere having the
+star as a centre and its distance as a radius. Thus the light received
+by the _eye_ in the two cases would be as the area of the pupil is to
+the area of the object-glass. For instance, if the pupil has a diameter
+of two-fifths of an inch, and the mirror a diameter of four inches, then
+a hundred times as much light would enter the eye when assisted by the
+telescope as when unarmed, since the _area_ of the pupil is
+one-hundredth the _area_ of the objective.
+
+If a particular star is just visible to the naked eye, it will be quite
+bright if viewed with this special telescope, which makes it one hundred
+times more brilliant in appearance. If we could move the star bodily
+away from us to a distance ten times its present distance, we could thus
+reduce its brightness, as seen with the telescope, to what it was at
+first, as seen with the eye alone, _i. e._, to bare visibility. Moving
+the star to ten times its present distance would increase the surface of
+the sphere which it illuminates a hundred-fold. We cannot move any
+special star, but we can examine stars of all brightnesses, and thus
+(presumably) of all distances.
+
+HERSCHEL'S argument was, then, as follows: Since with such a telescope
+one can see a star ten times as far off as is possible to the naked eye,
+this telescope has the power of penetrating into space ten times farther
+than the eye alone. But this number ten, also, expresses the ratio of
+the diameter of the objective to that of the pupil of the eye,
+consequently the general law is that the _space-penetrating power_ of a
+telescope is found by dividing the diameter of the mirror in inches by
+two-fifths. The diameter of the pupil of the eye (two-fifths of an inch)
+HERSCHEL determined by many measures.
+
+This simple ratio would only hold good, however, provided no more light
+were lost by the repeated reflections and refractions in the telescope
+than in the eye. That light must be so lost was evident, but no data
+existed for determining the loss. HERSCHEL was thus led to a long series
+of photometric experiments on the reflecting powers of the metals used
+in his mirrors, and on the amount of light transmitted by lenses.
+Applying the corrections thus deduced experimentally, he found that the
+space-penetrating power of his twenty-foot telescope, with which he made
+his star-gauges, was sixty-one times that of the unassisted eye, while
+the space-penetrating power of his great forty-foot telescope was one
+hundred and ninety-two times that of the eye. In support of his
+important conclusions HERSCHEL had an almost unlimited amount of
+experimental data in the records of his observations, of which he made
+effective use.
+
+By far the most important of HERSCHEL'S work in the domain of pure
+physics was published in the same year (1800), and related to radiant
+heat. The investigation of the space-penetrating powers of telescopes
+was undertaken for the sole purpose of aiding him in measuring the
+dimensions of the stellar universe, and there was no temptation for him
+to pursue it beyond the limits of its immediate usefulness. But here,
+though the first hint leading to remarkable discoveries was a direct
+consequence of his astronomical work, the novelty and interest of the
+phenomena observed induced him to follow the investigation very far
+beyond the mere solution of the practical question in which it
+originated.
+
+Having tried many varieties of shade-glasses between the eye-piece of
+his telescope and the eye, in order to reduce the inordinate degree of
+heat and light transmitted by the instrument when directed towards the
+sun, he observed that certain combinations of colored glasses permitted
+very little light to pass, but transmitted so much heat that they could
+not be used; while, on the other hand, different combinations and
+differently colored glasses would stop nearly all the heat, but allow an
+inconveniently great amount of light to pass. At the same time he
+noticed, in the various experiments, that the images of the sun were of
+different colors. This suggested the question as to whether there was
+not a different heating power proper to each color of the spectrum. On
+comparing the readings of sensitive thermometers exposed in different
+portions of an intense solar spectrum, he found that, beginning with the
+violet end, he came to the maximum of light long before that of heat,
+which lay at the other extremity, that is, near the red. By several
+experiments it appeared that the maximum of illumination, _i. e._, the
+yellow, had little more than half the heat of the full red rays; and
+from other experiments he concluded that even the full red fell short of
+the maximum of heat, which, perhaps, lay even a little beyond the limits
+of the visible spectrum.
+
+    "In this case," he says, "radiant heat will at least partly, if not
+    chiefly, consist, if I may be permitted the expression, of invisible
+    light; that is to say, of rays coming from the sun, that have such a
+    momentum[35] as to be unfit for vision. And admitting, as is highly
+    probable, that the organs of sight are only adapted to receive
+    impressions from particles of a certain momentum, it explains why
+    the maximum of illumination should be in the middle of the
+    refrangible rays; as those which have greater or less momenta are
+    likely to become equally unfit for the impression of sight."
+
+In his second paper on this subject, published in the same year,
+HERSCHEL describes the experiments which led to the conclusion given
+above. This paper contains a remarkably interesting passage which
+admirably illustrates HERSCHEL'S philosophic method.
+
+    "To conclude, if we call light, those rays which illuminate objects,
+    and radiant heat, those which heat bodies, it may be inquired
+    whether light be essentially different from radiant heat? In answer
+    to which I would suggest that we are not allowed, by the rules of
+    philosophizing, to admit two different causes to explain certain
+    effects, if they may be accounted for by one. . . . If this be a true
+    account of the solar heat, for the support of which I appeal to my
+    experiments, it remains only for us to admit that such of the rays
+    of the sun as have the refrangibility of those which are contained
+    in the prismatic spectrum, by the construction of the organs of
+    sight, are admitted under the appearance of light and colors, and
+    that the rest, being stopped in the coats and humors of the eye, act
+    on them, as they are known to do on all the other parts of our body,
+    by occasioning a sensation of heat."
+
+We now know that the reasoning and conclusion here given are entirely
+correct, but they have for their basis only a philosophical conception,
+and not a series of experiments designed especially to test their
+correctness. Such an experimental test of this important question was
+the motive for a third and last paper in this department of physics.
+This paper was published in volume ninety of the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, and gave the results of two hundred and nineteen
+quantitative experiments.
+
+Here we are at a loss to know which to admire most--the marvellous skill
+evinced in acquiring such accurate data with such inadequate means, and
+in varying and testing such a number of questions as were suggested in
+the course of the investigation--or the intellectual power shown in
+marshalling and reducing to a system such intricate and apparently
+self-contradictory phenomena. It is true that this discussion led him to
+a different conclusion from that announced in the previous paper, and,
+consequently, to a false conclusion; but almost the only escape from his
+course of reasoning lay in a principle which belongs to a later period
+of intellectual development than that of HERSCHEL'S own time.
+
+HERSCHEL made a careful determination of the quantitative distribution
+of light and of heat in the prismatic spectrum, and discovered the
+surprising fact that not only where the light was at a maximum the heat
+was very inconsiderable, but that where there was a maximum exhibition
+of heat, there was not a trace of light.
+
+    "This consideration," he writes, "must alter the form of our
+    proposed inquiry; for the question being thus at least partly
+    decided, since it is ascertained that we have rays of heat which
+    give no light, it can only become a subject of inquiry whether some
+    of these heat-making rays may not have a power of rendering objects
+    visible, superadded to their now already established power of
+    heating bodies. This being the case, it is evident that the _onus
+    probandi_ ought to lie with those who are willing to establish such
+    an hypothesis, for it does not appear that Nature is in the habit of
+    using one and the same mechanism with any two of our senses. Witness
+    the vibration of air that makes sound, the effluvia that occasion
+    smells, the particles that produce taste, the resistance or
+    repulsive powers that affect the touch--all these are evidently
+    suited to their respective organs of sense."
+
+It is difficult to see how the fallacy of this argument could have been
+detected by any one not familiar with the fundamental physiological law
+that the nature of a sensation is in no wise determined by the character
+of the agent producing it, but only by the character of the nerves acted
+upon; but, as already intimated, this law belongs to a later epoch than
+the one we are considering. HERSCHEL thus finally concluded that light
+and radiant heat were of essentially different natures, and upon this
+supposition he explained all of the phenomena which his numerous
+experiments had shown him. So complete and satisfactory did this work
+appear to the scientific world, that for a long time the question was
+looked upon as closed, and not until thirty-five years later was there
+any dissent. Then the Italian physicist, MELLONI, with instrumental
+means a thousand times more delicate than that of HERSCHEL, and with a
+far larger store of cognate phenomena, collected during the generation
+which had elapsed, to serve as a guide, discovered the true law. This,
+as we have seen, was at first adopted by HERSCHEL on philosophical
+grounds, and then rejected, since he did not at that time possess the
+key which alone could have enabled him to properly interpret his
+experiments.
+
+It is well to summarize the capital discoveries in this field made by
+HERSCHEL, more particularly because his claims as a discoverer seem to
+have been strangely overlooked by historians of the development of
+physical science. He, before any other investigator, showed that radiant
+heat is refracted according to the laws governing the refraction of
+light by transparent media; that a portion of the radiation from the sun
+is incapable of exciting the sensation of vision, and that this portion
+is the less refrangible; that the different colors of the spectrum
+possess very unequal heating powers, which are not proportional to their
+luminosity; that substances differ very greatly in their power of
+transmitting radiant heat, and that this power does not depend solely
+upon their color; and that the property of diffusing heat is possessed
+to a varying degree by different bodies, independently of their color.
+Nor should we neglect to emphasize, in this connection, the importance
+of his measurements of the intensity of the heat and light in the
+different portions of the solar spectrum. It is the more necessary to
+state HERSCHEL'S claims clearly, as his work has been neglected by those
+who should first have done him justice. In his "History of Physics,"
+POGGENDORFF has no reference to HERSCHEL. In the collected works of
+VERDET, long bibliographical notes are appended to each chapter, with
+the intention of exhibiting the progress and order of discovery. But all
+of HERSCHEL'S work is overlooked, or indexed under the name of his son.
+One little reference in the text alone shows that his very name was not
+unknown. Even in the great work of HELMHOLTZ on physiological optics,
+HERSCHEL'S labors are not taken account of.
+
+It is easy to account for this seemingly strange neglect. HERSCHEL is
+known to this generation only as an astronomer. A study of his memoirs
+will show that his physical work alone should give him a very high rank
+indeed, and I trust that the brief summaries, which alone can be given
+here, will have made this plain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We may conclude from the time expended, the elaborate nature of the
+experiments involved, and the character of the papers devoted to their
+consideration, that the portion of HERSCHEL'S researches in physics
+which interested him to the greatest degree, was the investigation of
+the optical phenomena known as NEWTON'S rings. In 1792 he obtained the
+two object-glasses of HUYGHENS, which were in the possession of the
+Royal Society, for the purpose of repeating NEWTON'S experiments, and in
+1810 he read the last of his three papers on the subject.
+
+Sir ISAAC NEWTON had given some of his most vigorous efforts to the
+study of the phenomena of interference of light, which are exemplified
+in the colors of thin and of thick plates. The colors of thin plates are
+most conveniently studied in the regular form which they present when
+produced by a thin plate of air, limited on one side by a plane
+polished surface, and on the other by a spherical surface of long
+radius, such as the exterior surface of a convex lens, for example.
+The colors are then arranged in concentric circles, and, though others
+had so produced them before NEWTON, these rings have, ever since the
+publication of his remarkable work, been known by his name.
+
+To explain the phenomena, NEWTON was obliged to supplement his theory of
+the corpuscular nature of light, by supposing that the inconceivably
+minute particles constituting light are not always equally susceptible
+of reflection, but that they have periodically recurring "fits of easy
+reflection" and of "easy transmission." This conception, though by no
+means unphilosophical, seemed to HERSCHEL too artificial and improbable
+for ready acceptance, and his effort was to supply a more probable
+explanation.
+
+The developments of optical science have justified HERSCHEL in his
+objections, but we cannot accord to him must any considerable part in
+making clear the true nature of the phenomenon. Indeed, it must be
+recognized that his position was distinctly less advanced than that of
+NEWTON. That great philosopher announced the true law governing the
+relation between the color and the thickness of the film. HERSCHEL did
+not recognize such a relation. NEWTON showed exactly how the phenomenon
+depended upon the obliquity at which it was viewed. HERSCHEL found no
+place in his theory for this evident variation.
+
+In the series of experiments described in the first paper on this
+subject, HERSCHEL mistook the locus of a certain set of rings which he
+was observing. This mistake, though so slight as hardly to be detected
+without the guidance of the definite knowledge acquired in later times,
+not only vitiated the conclusion from the experiments, but gave an
+erroneous direction to the whole investigation. To him these experiments
+proved that NEWTON'S conception of a periodic phenomenon was untenable.
+Thus cut loose from all hypothesis, his fertility in ideas and ingenuity
+in experimentation are as striking as ever. He tried the effect of
+having a polished metal as one of the surfaces limiting the thin plate
+of air. Observing the so-called "blue bow" of NEWTON at the limit of
+total reflection in a prism, he was led to the discovery of its
+complement, the "red bow" by refraction. Here he thought he had found
+the solution of his problem, and attributed the rings to the reflection
+of the light which passed through in the red bow. Though mistaken, he
+had presented to the world of science two experiments which have since
+played very prominent parts in the undulatory theory of light, namely,
+the rings formed upon polished metal, and the bands produced by a thin
+plate near the critical angle.
+
+As in his later researches upon the nature of radiant heat, he was wrong
+in his conclusions, and perhaps with less excuse. His experiments were
+skilfully devised and most ingenious. His philosophizing was distinctly
+faulty. We can see not only that he was wrong, but exactly where he
+began to go wrong. Yet these papers are full of interest to the
+physicist, and by no means deserve the neglect into which they have
+fallen.
+
+
+               _Researches on the Dimensions of the Stars._
+
+HERSCHEL examined a number of bright stars, using extremely high
+magnifying powers, in order to determine whether the stars have sensible
+dimensions. In a good telescope stars present round and pretty uniformly
+illuminated disks. If these disks really represent the angular diameter
+of the stars, they should admit of magnifying, like other objects; but,
+instead of this, HERSCHEL found that they appeared smaller as the
+telescopic power was increased. He accordingly called the disk of light
+seen in the telescope a spurious disk. This singular phenomenon gave its
+discoverer a ready criterion for determining whether a small bright body
+has an appreciable size, or only impresses the sense of sight by virtue
+of its intrinsic brightness. If the first were the case, the apparent
+size would increase with increased magnifying power, while, if the
+angular dimensions were inappreciable, the apparent size would, on the
+contrary, diminish with additional magnifying. An occasion for using
+this criterion came in the first years of this century, with the
+discovery of three small planets having orbits lying between those of
+_Mars_ and _Jupiter_. HERSCHEL gave the name _Asteroids_ to these
+bodies. As the appropriateness of this term had been violently assailed,
+the discovery of _Juno_, in 1804, the third one of the group, led to a
+careful experimental study of the defining power of the telescope used,
+and of the laws governing the phenomena of spurious disks.
+
+With a telescope of about nine inches in aperture, HERSCHEL found that
+if _Juno_ subtended an angle greater than a quarter of a second of arc,
+a certain indication of the fact would have shown itself in the course
+of the experiments. This conclusion was a justification of the name
+Asteroid, since the appearance of the new planet was strictly stellar.
+On other grounds, a better name might have been selected.
+
+In the paper giving the results of the experiments, the phenomena of the
+spurious disks are very completely described; but they did not attract
+the attention which they deserved, and they only became an object of
+especial interest to students of physics when they were again studied by
+the famous German optician FRAUNHOFER, a generation later.
+
+Incidentally the experiments are of interest, as yielding us a measure
+of the excellence of HERSCHEL'S telescopes, and a measure which is quite
+independent of the keenness of his vision. From them we may be sure that
+the efficiency of the nine-inch mirror used was not sensibly less than
+that of the highest theoretically attainable excellence. In this
+connection, too, we may refer to the _Philosophical Transactions_ for
+1790, pp. 468 and 475, where HERSCHEL gives observations of both
+_Enceladus_ and _Mimas_ seen in contact with the ball of _Saturn_.
+I have never seen so good definition, telescopic and atmospheric, as he
+must have had on these occasions.
+
+
+              _Researches on the Spectra of the Fixed Stars._
+
+The spectroscope was applied by SECCHI to the study of the spectra of
+the fixed stars visible to the naked eye in the years 1863 to 1866.
+He examined the nature of the spectrum of each of the larger stars,
+and found that these stars could be arranged in three general classes or
+_types_. His results have been verified and extended by other
+astronomers, and his classification has been generally accepted.
+According to SECCHI, the lucid stars may be separated into three groups,
+distinguished by marked differences in their spectra. SECCHI'S Type I.
+contains stars whose spectra are like those of _Sirius_, _Procyon_, and
+_[alpha] Lyræ_; his Type II. stars like _Arcturus_ and _Aldebaran_;
+his Type III. stars like _[alpha] Orionis_.
+
+HERSCHEL also made some trials in this direction. In the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ for 1814 (p. 264), he says:
+
+    "By some experiments on the light of a few of the stars of the first
+    magnitude, made in 1798, by a prism applied to the eye-glasses of my
+    reflectors, adjustable to any angle and to any direction, I had the
+    following analyses:
+
+    "The light of _Sirius_ consists of red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
+    purple, and violet. _[alpha] Orionis_ contains the same colors,
+    but the red is more intense, and the orange and yellow are less
+    copious in proportion than they are in _Sirius_. _Procyon_ contains
+    all the colors, but proportionately more blue and purple than
+    _Sirius_. _Arcturus_ contains more red and orange, and less yellow
+    in proportion than _Sirius_. _Aldebaran_ contains much orange and
+    very little yellow. _[alpha] Lyræ_ contains much yellow, green,
+    blue, and purple."
+
+Here the essential peculiarities of the spectrum of each of the stars
+investigated by HERSCHEL is pointed out, and if we were to use his
+observations alone to classify these stars into types, we should put
+_Sirius_ and _Procyon_ into one type of stars which have "all the
+colors" in their spectra; _Arcturus_ and _Aldebaran_ would represent
+another group of stars, with a deficiency of yellow and an excess of
+orange and red in the spectrum; and _[alpha] Orionis_ would stand as
+a type of those stars with an excess of red and a deficiency of orange.
+_[alpha] Lyræ_ would represent a sub-group of the first class.
+
+HERSCHEL'S immediate object was not classification, and his observations
+are only recorded in a passing way. But the fact remains that he
+clearly distinguished the essential differences of the spectra of these
+stars, and that he made these observations in support of his statement
+that the fixed stars, "like the planets, also shine with differently
+colored light. That of _Arcturus_ and _Aldebaran_, for instance, is as
+different from the light of _Sirius_ and _Capella_ as that of _Mars_ and
+_Saturn_ is from the light of _Venus_ and _Jupiter_."
+
+Of course, no special discovery can be claimed for him on these few
+instances. We can see, however, a good example of the manner in which he
+examined a subject from every side, and used the most remote evidence
+exactly in its proper place and time.
+
+
+          _Researches on the Variable Emission of Light
+                  and Heat from the Sun._
+
+It is certainly a remarkable fact that HERSCHEL was the first observer
+to recognize the real importance of the aperture or diameter of a
+telescope. Before his time it was generally assumed that this element
+only conditioned the amount of light transmitted to the eye, or, in
+other words, merely determined the brightness of the image. Hence the
+conclusion that if an object is sufficiently bright, the telescope may
+be made as small as desired without loss of power. Thus, in observing
+the sun, astronomers before HERSCHEL had been accustomed to reduce the
+aperture of their telescopes, in order to moderate the heat and light
+transmitted. SCHEINER, it is true, nearly two centuries before the time
+we are considering, had invented a method for observing the sun without
+danger, still employing the full aperture. This was by projecting the
+image of the sun on a white screen beyond the eye-piece, the telescope
+being slightly lengthened. For special purposes this ingenious method
+has even been found useful in modern times, though for sharpness of
+definition it bears much the same relation to the more usual manner of
+observing, that a photographic picture does to direct vision.
+
+Although HERSCHEL saw the advantages of using the whole aperture of a
+telescope in such observations, the practical difficulties in the way
+were very great. We have noted his attempts to find screens which would
+effectively cut off a large portion of the heat and light without
+impairing vision, and have considered, somewhat in detail, the
+remarkable discoveries in radiant heat to which these attempts led him.
+His efforts were not unsuccessful. A green glass smoked, and a glass
+cell containing a solution of black writing ink in water--were found to
+work admirably.
+
+Thus provided with more powerful instrumental means than had ever been
+applied to the purpose, HERSCHEL turned his attention to the sun. In a
+very short time he exhausted nearly all there was to be discovered, so
+that since the publication of his last paper on this subject, in 1801,
+until the present time, there has been but a single telescopic
+phenomenon, connected with the physical appearance of the sun, which was
+unknown to HERSCHEL. That phenomenon is the frequent occurrence of a
+darker central shade or kernel in large spots, discovered by DAWES about
+1858.
+
+HERSCHEL, though observing a hundred and ninety years after the earliest
+discovery of sun spots, seems to have been the first to suspect their
+periodic character. To establish this as a fact, and to measure the
+period, was left for our own times and for the indefatigable observer
+SCHWABE. The probable importance of such a period in its relation to
+terrestrial meteorology was not only clearly pointed out by HERSCHEL,
+but he even attempted to demonstrate, from such data as were obtainable,
+the character of this influence.
+
+Perhaps no one thing which this great philosopher has done better
+exhibits the catholic character of his mind than this research. When the
+possible connection of solar and terrestrial phenomena occurred to him
+as a question to be tested, there were no available meteorological
+records, and he could find but four or five short series of
+observations, widely separated in time. To an ordinary thinker the task
+would have seemed hopeless until more data had been collected. But
+HERSCHEL'S fertile mind, though it could not recall lost opportunities
+for solar observations, did find a substitute for meteorological records
+in the statistics of the prices of grain during the various epochs.
+It is clear that the price of wheat must have depended upon the supply,
+and the supply, in turn, largely upon the character of the season.
+The method, as ingenious as it is, failed in HERSCHEL'S hands on account
+of the paucity of solar statistics; but it has since proved of value,
+and has taken its place as a recognized method of research.
+
+
+                    _Researches on Nebulæ and Clusters._
+
+When HERSCHEL first began to observe the nebulæ in 1774, there were
+very few of these objects known. The nebulæ of _Orion_ and _Andromeda_
+had been known in Europe only a little over a hundred years.
+
+In 1784 MESSIER published a list of sixty-eight such objects which he
+had found in his searches for comets, and twenty-eight nebulæ had been
+found by LACAILLE in his observations at the Cape of Good Hope. In the
+mere discovery of these objects HERSCHEL quickly surpassed all others.
+In 1786 he published a catalogue of one thousand new nebulæ, in 1789 a
+catalogue of a second thousand, and in 1802 one of five hundred. In all
+he discovered and described two thousand five hundred and eight new
+nebulæ and clusters. This branch of astronomy may almost be said to be
+proper to the HERSCHELS, father and son. Sir JOHN HERSCHEL re-observed
+all his father's nebulæ in the northern hemisphere, and added many new
+ones, and in his astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope he
+recorded almost an equal number in the southern sky.
+
+Of the six thousand two hundred nebulæ now known the HERSCHELS
+discovered at least eight-tenths. The mere discovery of twenty-five
+hundred nebulæ would have been a brilliant addition to our knowledge of
+celestial statistics.
+
+HERSCHEL did more than merely point out the existence and position of
+these new bodies. Each observation was accompanied by a careful and
+minute description of the object viewed, and with sketches and diagrams
+which gave the position of the small stars in it and near it.[36]
+
+As the nebulæ and clusters were discovered they were placed in classes,
+each class covering those nebulæ which resembled each other in their
+general features. Even at the telescope HERSCHEL'S object was not
+discovery merely, but to know the inner constitution of the heavens.
+His classes were arranged with this end, and they are to-day adopted.
+They were:
+
+  CLASS I. "Bright nebulæ (288 in all).
+       II. "Faint nebulæ (909 in all).
+      III. "Very faint nebulæ (984 in all).
+       IV. "Planetary nebulæ, stars with burs, with milky chevelure,
+              with short rays, remarkable shapes, etc. (79 in all).
+        V. "Very large nebulæ (52 in all).
+       VI. "Very compressed and rich clusters of stars (42 in all).
+      VII. "Pretty much compressed clusters (67 in all).
+     VIII. "Coarsely scattered clusters of stars" (88 in all).
+
+The lists of these classes were the storehouses of rich material from
+which HERSCHEL drew the examples by which his later opinions on the
+physical conditions of nebulous matter were enforced.
+
+As the nebulæ were discovered and classified they were placed upon a
+star-map in their proper positions (1786), and, as the discoveries went
+on, the real laws of the distribution of the nebulæ and of the clusters
+over the surface of the sky showed themselves more and more plainly. It
+was by this means that HERSCHEL was led to the announcement of the law
+that the spaces richest in nebulæ are distant from the Milky Way, etc.
+By no other means could he have detected this, and I believe this to
+have been the first example of the use of the graphical method, now
+become common in treating large masses of statistics.
+
+It is still in his capacity of an observer--an acute and wise one--that
+HERSCHEL is considered. But this was the least of his gifts. This vast
+mass of material was not left in this state: it served him for a
+stepping-stone to larger views of the nature and extent of the nebulous
+matter itself.
+
+His views on the nature of nebulæ underwent successive changes. At first
+he supposed all nebulæ to be but aggregations of stars. The logic was
+simple. To the naked eye there are many groups of stars which appear
+nebulous. _Praesepe_ is, perhaps, the best example. The slightest
+telescopic power applied to such groups alters the nebulous appearance,
+and shows that it comes from the combined and confused light of discrete
+stars. Other groups which remain nebulous in a seven-foot telescope,
+become stellar in a ten-foot. The nebulosity of the ten-foot can be
+resolved into stars by the twenty-foot, and so on. The nebulæ which
+remained still unresolved, it was reasonable to conclude, would yield to
+higher power, and generally a nebula was but a group of stars removed to
+a great distance. An increase of telescopic power was alone necessary to
+demonstrate this.[37]
+
+    "Nebulæ can be selected so that an insensible gradation shall take
+    place from a coarse cluster like the _Pleiades_ down to a milky
+    nebulosity like that in _Orion_, every intermediate step being
+    represented. This tends to confirm the hypothesis that all are
+    composed of stars more or less remote."
+
+So, at first, HERSCHEL believed that his twenty-foot telescope was of
+power sufficient to fathom the Milky Way, that is, to see through it and
+beyond it, and to reduce all its nebulosities to true groups of stars.
+
+In 1791 he published a memoir on _Nebulous Stars_, in which his views
+were completely changed. He had found a nebulous star, the sixty-ninth
+of his Class IV., to which his reasons would not apply. In the centre of
+it was a bright star; around the star was a halo gradually diminishing
+in brightness from the star outward, and perfectly circular. It was
+clear the two parts, star and nebula, were connected, and thus at the
+same distance from us.
+
+There were two possible solutions only. Either the whole mass was,
+_first_, composed of stars, in which case the nucleus would be
+enormously larger than the other stars of its stellar magnitude
+elsewhere in the sky, or the stars which made up the halo indefinitely
+small; or, _second_, the central nucleus was indeed a star, but a star
+surrounded with "a shining fluid, of a nature totally unknown to us."
+
+The long strata of nebulæ, which he had before described under the name
+of "telescopic Milky Ways," might well be accounted for by masses of
+this fluid lying beyond the regions of the seventh-magnitude stars. This
+fluid might exist independently of stars. If it is self-luminous, it
+seems more fit to produce a star by its condensation, than to depend
+upon the star for its own existence. Such were a few of the theorems to
+which his discovery of this nebula led him. The hypothesis of an elastic
+_shining fluid_ existing in space, sometimes in connection with stars,
+sometimes distinct from them, was adopted and never abandoned. How well
+the spectroscope has confirmed this idea it is not necessary to say.
+We know the shining fluid does exist, and in late years we have seen the
+reverse of the process imagined by HERSCHEL. A star has actually, under
+our eyes, become a planetary nebula, and the cycle of which he gave the
+first terms is complete.
+
+In five separate memoirs (1802, 1811, 1814, 1817, and 1818) HERSCHEL
+elaborated his views of the sidereal system. The whole extent of his
+views must be gained from the extended memoirs themselves. Here only the
+merest outline can be given.
+
+In 1802 there is a marshaling of the various objects beyond our solar
+system. The stars themselves may be _insulated_, or may belong to
+_binary_ or _multiple_ systems, to _clusters_ and groups, or to grand
+groups like the Milky Way. Nebulæ may have any of the forms which have
+been described; and, in 1811, he gives examples of immense spaces in the
+sky covered with diffused and very faint nebulosity. "Its abundance
+exceeds all imagination."[38] These masses of nebular matter are the
+seats of attracting forces, and these forces must produce condensation.
+When a nebula has more than one preponderating seat of attracting
+matter, it may in time be divided, and the double nebulæ have had such
+an origin. When nebulæ appear to us as round masses, they are in reality
+globular in form, and this form is at once the effect and the proof of a
+gravitating cause.
+
+The central brightness of nebulæ points out the seat of the attraction;
+and the completeness of the approximation to a spherical form points out
+the length of time that the gravitating forces have been at work. Those
+nebulæ (and clusters) which are most perfect in the globular form, have
+been longest exposed to central forces. The planetary nebulæ are the
+oldest in our system. They must have a rotatory motion on their axes.
+
+By progressive condensation planetary nebulæ may be successively
+converted into bright stellar nebulæ, or into nebulous stars, and these
+again, by the effects of the same cause, into insulated or double stars.
+This chain of theorems, laid down in the memoir of 1811, is enforced in
+1814 with examples which show how the nebulous appearance may grow into
+the sidereal. HERSCHEL selects from the hundreds of instances in his
+note-books, nebulæ in every stage of progress, and traces the effect of
+condensation and of clustering power through all its course, even to the
+final breaking up of the Milky Way itself.
+
+The memoirs of 1817 and 1818 add little to the general view of the
+physical constitution of the heavens. They are attempts to gain a scale
+of celestial measures by which we may judge of the distances of the
+stars and clusters in which these changes are going on.
+
+There is little to change in HERSCHEL'S statement of the general
+construction of the heavens. It is the groundwork upon which we have
+still to build. Every astronomical discovery and every physical fact
+well observed is material for the elaboration of its details or for the
+correction of some of its minor points. As a scientific conception it is
+perhaps the grandest that has ever entered into the human mind. As a
+study of the height to which the efforts of one man may go, it is almost
+without a parallel. The philosopher who will add to it to-day, will have
+his facts and his methods ready to his hands. HERSCHEL presents the
+almost unique example of an eager observer marshaling the multitude of
+single instances, which he himself has laboriously gathered, into a
+compact and philosophic whole. In spite of minor errors and defects, his
+ideas of the nature of the sidereal universe have prevailed, and are
+to-day the unacknowledged basis of our every thought upon it. Some of
+its most secret processes have been worked out by him, and the paths
+which he pointed out are those along which our advances must be made.
+
+In concluding this condensed account of HERSCHEL'S scientific labors,
+it behoves us to remember that there was nothing due to accident in his
+long life. He was born with the faculties which fitted him for the
+gigantic labors which he undertook, and he had the firm basis of energy
+and principle which kept him steadily to his work.
+
+As a practical astronomer he remains without an equal. In profound
+philosophy he has few superiors. By a kindly chance he can be claimed as
+the citizen of no one country. In very truth his is one of the few names
+which belong to the whole world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] JAMES SHORT, F.R.S. (1710-1768), and JOHN DOLLOND, F.R.S.
+(1706-1761), were the most celebrated makers of telescopes of their day.
+The six-foot Newtonian reflectors of SHORT (aperture 9.4 inches), and
+the forty-six-inch achromatics of DOLLOND (aperture 3.6 inches), were
+highly esteemed. The Royal Observatory of Greenwich possessed, in 1765,
+one of each class. In a comparative trial of SHORT'S telescope, at
+Greenwich, and one of HERSCHEL'S first telescopes, the latter was
+adjudged greatly superior.
+
+[32] At least _one_ of these telescopes had the principal
+mirror made of glass instead of metal.--_Philosophical Transactions_,
+1803.
+
+[33] The following extract from FOURIER'S _Éloge_ of HERSCHEL
+is of interest in this connection. The sum first appropriated by the
+king was £2,000. This was afterwards raised to £4,000, and a sum of £200
+yearly was given for maintenance.
+
+"L'histoire doit conserver à jamais la réponse de ce prince à un
+étranger célèbre [LALANDE?] qui le remerciait des sommes considérables
+accordées pour les progrès de l'astronomie. 'Je fais les dépenses de la
+guerre,' dit le roi, 'parcequ'elles sont nécessaires; quant à celles des
+sciences, il m'est agréable des les ordonner; leur objet ne coûte point
+des larmes, et honore l'humanité.'"
+
+LALANDE'S own account is a little different. He says the king exclaimed:
+"Ne vaut-il pas mieux employer son argent à cela qu'à faire tuer des
+hommes?"
+
+[34] The memoirs on the parallaxes of stars, written by various
+astronomers from 1750 to 1800, were mainly directed to the improvement
+of the methods, or to the discovery of the parallax of some particular
+star. For example, LACAILLE'S observations of _Sirius_, at the Cape of
+Good Hope, had resulted in a parallax of 9" for that star--a
+quantity over forty times too large.
+
+[35] HERSCHEL accepted, as did all his cotemporaries, the
+Newtonian or corpuscular theory of light.
+
+[36] Thus the position of small stars critically situated in
+the centre, or on the edges of the nebulæ was always noted. Many of the
+descriptions are given in the published papers, but the publication of
+the diagrams would be an immense help to this branch of astronomy.
+D'ARREST in his reduction of HERSCHEL'S nebula observations (1856)
+writes: "Gewiss wäre es vom höchsten Interesse für die Entwickelung,
+welche hoffentlich auch dieser Zweig der beobachtenden Astronomie
+zukünftig erhalten wird, wenn die HERSCHEL'Schen Beobachtungen in der
+Ausführlichkeit in welcher sie, verschiedenen Andeutungen zufolge,
+_handschriftlich_ vorhanden sind, veröffentlicht würden. Es schliesst
+sich dieser Wunsch in Betreff der Nebelflecken lebhaft an den an,
+welcher, schon vor einem Jahrzehnt nach Veröffentlichung der 400 noch
+unedirten _star-gauges_ von gewichtigerer Seite her geäussert wurde."
+In this all must agree who have a knowledge of the direction in which we
+must look for advances in the difficult and important questions of the
+distance, the motions, and the changes of the nebulæ. Almost the only
+aid to be looked for from the older observations must come from such
+diagrams, and we may safely say that the publication of this priceless
+material, just as it stands, would carry our exact data back from 1833
+to 1786, or no less than forty-seven years.
+
+[37] Long after HERSCHEL had abandoned this idea, it continued
+current among astronomers. The successes of Lord ROSSE'S telescope
+perpetuated to the middle of the nineteenth century an erroneous view
+which HERSCHEL had given up in 1791.
+
+[38] These have never been re-observed. They should be sought
+for with a powerful refractor, taking special precautions against the
+illumination of the field of view from neighboring bright stars.
+HERSCHEL'S reflectors were specially open to illusions produced in this
+way. His observations probably will remain untested until some large
+telescope is used in the way he adopted, _i. e._, in sweeping.
+
+
+
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+I.--LIST OF THE PUBLISHED WRITINGS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL ON ASTRONOMICAL
+    SUBJECTS.
+
+                       [In chronological order.]
+
+_N.B.--In general, translations and abstracts of those which appeared
+in periodicals are not noticed here. I have made exceptions in the
+more important cases._
+
+[Solution of a prize question. _See_ this book, page 46.]
+                              _Ladies' Diary_, 1779.
+
+
+Astronomical observations on the periodical star in _Collo Ceti_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1780, p. 338.
+
+
+Astronomical observations relating to the mountains of the moon.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1780, p. 507.
+
+
+Astronomical observations on the rotation of the planets round their
+axes, made with a view to determine whether the earth's diurnal motion
+is perfectly equable.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1781, p. 115.
+
+
+Account of a comet. [Dated 13th March, 1781. This was _Uranus_.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1781, p. 492.
+
+
+On the parallax of the fixed stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 82.
+
+
+Catalogue of double stars.
+                       _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 112: translation in
+                         _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1786, p. 187.
+
+
+Description of a lamp micrometer and the method of using it.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 163.
+
+
+A paper to obviate some doubts concerning the great magnifying powers used.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 173.
+
+
+A letter from WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Esq., F.R.S., to Sir JOSEPH BANKS,
+_Bart._, P.R.S.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1783, p. 1.
+
+
+Aus einem Schreiben des Hrn. HERSCHEL an mich [BODE], datirt London, den
+13ten August, 1783.
+[This is a letter forwarding HERSCHEL'S memoir on the Parallax of the
+Fixed Stars, etc.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1786, p. 258.
+
+
+On the diameter and magnitude of the _Georgium Sidus_, with a
+description of the dark and lucid disk and periphery micrometers.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1783, p. 4.
+
+
+On the proper motion of the sun and solar system, with an account of
+several changes that have happened among the fixed stars since the time
+of Mr. FLAMSTEED.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1783, p. 247.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1787, p. 194, p. 224.
+
+
+Astronomische Nachrichten und Entdeckungen, aus einem französischen
+Schreiben desselben an mich [BODE], datirt Datchet, nahe bey Windsor,
+den 18. Mai, 1784.
+
+[This letter is on the subject of the use of high magnifying powers, and
+gives a _résumé_ of his recent papers.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1787, p. 211.
+
+
+On the remarkable appearances at the polar regions of the planet _Mars_,
+the inclination of its axis, the position of its poles and its
+spheroidical figure; with a few hints relating to its real diameter and
+atmosphere.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1784, p. 233.
+
+
+Account of some observations tending to investigate the construction of
+the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1784, p. 437.
+
+
+[_Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 246, has a summary of this paper by Baron
+VON ZACH. See, also, _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1794, p. 213.]
+
+
+Catalogue of double stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1785, p. 40.
+
+
+On the construction of the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1785, p. 213.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 238.
+                      See, also, _same_, 1787, p. 213, and 1794, p. 213.
+
+
+Aus einem Schreiben des Hrn. HERSCHEL an mich [BODE], datirt Clay Hall,
+nahe bey Windsor, den 20. Jul., 1785.
+[This is a letter forwarding two memoirs, and giving the prices of
+telescopes]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 254.
+
+
+Catalogue of one thousand new nebulæ and clusters of stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1786, p. 457.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1791, p. 157,
+                              and _same_, 1794, p. 213.
+
+
+Investigation of the cause of that indistinctness of vision which has
+been ascribed to the smallness of the optic pencil.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1786, p. 500.
+
+
+Remarks on the new comet [1786, II.].
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 4.
+
+
+[Letter from HERSCHEL to BODE on the discovery of two satellites to
+_Uranus_, dated Slough, 1787, Feb. 11.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1790, p. 253.
+
+
+An account of the discovery of two satellites revolving round the
+_Georgian planet_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 125.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1791, p. 255.
+
+
+An account of three volcanoes in the moon.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 229.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1791, p. 255.
+
+
+Note on M. MÉCHAIN'S comet. [1787, I.] [Added to preceding paper.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 232.
+
+
+On the _Georgian planet_ and its satellites.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1788, p. 364.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1793, p. 104.
+
+
+Observations on a comet [1788, II.].
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1789, p. 151.
+
+
+Catalogue of a second thousand of new nebulæ and clusters of stars, with
+a few introductory remarks on the construction of the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1789, p. 212.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1793, p. 104.
+                              Also, _same_, 1794, p. 150.
+
+
+Account of the discovery of a sixth and seventh satellite of the planet
+_Saturn_, with remarks on the construction of its ring, its atmosphere,
+its rotation on an axis, and its spheroidical figure.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1790, p. 1.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1793, p. 239;
+                              _same_, 1796, p. 88; 1797, p. 249.
+
+
+On the satellites of the planet _Saturn_, and the rotation of its ring
+on an axis.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1790, p. 427.
+
+
+On nebulous stars properly so called.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1791, p. 71.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1801, p. 128.
+
+
+On the ring of _Saturn_ and the rotation of the fifth satellite upon its
+axis.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1792, p. 1.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1796, p. 88.
+
+
+Miscellaneous observations.
+
+[Account of a comet], p. 23 [1792, I.].
+
+[On the periodical appearance of omicron Ceti], p. 24.
+
+[On the disappearance of the 55th _Herculis_], p. 26.
+
+[Remarkable phenomenon in an eclipse of the moon], p. 27.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1792, p. 23.
+
+
+Observations on the planet _Venus_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1793, p. 201.
+
+
+Observations of a quintuple belt on the planet _Saturn_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1794, p. 28.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1798, p. 90.
+
+
+Account of some particulars observed during the late eclipse of the sun.
+[1793, September 5th.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1794, p. 39.
+
+
+On the rotation of the planet _Saturn_ upon its axis.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1794, p. 48.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1798, p. 74.
+
+
+On the nature and construction of the sun and fixed stars.
+                             _Phil. Trans._, 1795, p. 46.
+                             _Bode's Jahrbuch_, II. Suppl. Band, p. 65.
+
+
+Description of a forty-foot reflecting telescope.
+                             _Phil. Trans._, 1795, p. 347.
+                             _Bode's Jahrbuch_, III. Suppl. Band, p. 238.
+
+
+Additional observations on the comet. [1796, I.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1796, p. 131.
+
+
+On the method of observing the changes that happen to the fixed stars;
+with some remarks on the stability of the light of our sun. To which is
+added a catalogue of comparative brightness for ascertaining the
+permanency of the lustre of stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1796, p. 166.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1809, p. 201.
+
+
+On the periodical star _[alpha] Herculis_; with remarks tending to
+establish the rotatory motion of the stars on their axes; to which is
+added a second catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1796, p. 452.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1809, p. 201.
+
+
+A third catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars, with an
+introductory account of an index to Mr. FLAMSTEED'S observations of the
+fixed stars, contained in the second volume of the Historia Coelestis.
+To which are added several useful results derived from that index.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1797, p. 293.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1810, p. 143.
+
+
+Observations of the changeable brightness of the satellites of
+_Jupiter_, and of the variation in their apparent magnitudes, with a
+determination of the time of their rotatory motions on their axes. To
+which is added a measure of the diameter of the second satellite, and an
+estimate of the comparative size of all the four.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1797, p. 332.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1801, p. 103.
+
+
+On the discovery of four additional satellites of the _Georgium Sidus_.
+The retrograde motion of its old satellites announced, and the cause of
+their disappearance at certain distances from the planet explained.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1798, p. 47.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1801, p. 231.
+
+
+A fourth catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1799, p. 121.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1810, p. 143.
+
+
+On the power of penetrating into space by telescopes, with a comparative
+determination of the extent of that power in natural vision, and in
+telescopes of various sizes and constructions, illustrated by select
+observations.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 49-85.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1804, p. 231.
+
+
+Investigation of the powers of the prismatic colors to heat and
+illuminate objects, with remarks that prove the different refrangibility
+of radiant heat. To which is added an inquiry into the method of viewing
+the sun advantageously with telescopes of large apertures and high
+magnifying powers.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 255-283.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1804, p. 89.
+
+
+Experiments on the refrangibility of the invisible rays of the sun.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 284-292.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1804, p. 89.
+
+
+Experiments on the solar and on the terrestrial rays that occasion heat,
+with a comparative view of the laws by which light and heat, or rather
+the rays that occasion them, are subject, in order to determine whether
+they are the same or different.
+                               _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 293-326, 437-538.
+                               _Gilbert Annal._, X. (1802), pp. 68-78;
+                               _same_, XII. (1803), pp. 521-546.
+
+
+Observations tending to investigate the nature of the sun, in order to
+find the causes or symptoms of its variable emission of light and heat,
+with remarks on the use that may possibly be drawn from solar
+observations.
+                       _Phil. Trans._, 1801, pp. 265-318.
+                       _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1805, p. 218, and 1806, p. 113.
+
+
+Ueber den 7 Nebelfleck der 1sten classe des Herschel'schen Verzeichniss,
+und ueber _Ceres_ und _Pallas_, vom Herrn Doctor HERSCHEL, aus zwey
+Briefen desselben.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1805, p. 211.
+
+
+Additional observations tending to investigate the symptoms of the
+variable emission of the light and heat of the sun, with trials to set
+aside darkening glasses by transmitting the solar rays through liquids,
+and a few remarks to remove objections that might be made against some
+of the arguments contained in the former paper.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1801, pp. 354-362.
+
+
+Observations on the two lately discovered celestial bodies
+[_Ceres and Pallas_].
+                  _Phil. Trans._, 1802, pp. 213-232.
+                  _Nicholson Journal_, IV. (1808), pp. 120-130, 142-148.
+
+
+Catalogue of five hundred new nebulæ, nebulous stars, planetary nebulæ,
+and clusters of stars, with remarks on the construction of the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1802, pp. 477-528.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1807, p. 113.
+
+
+Observations of the transit of _Mercury_ over the sun's disk, to which
+is added an investigation of the causes which often prevent the proper
+action of mirrors.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1803, pp. 214-232.
+
+
+Account of the changes which have happened during the last twenty-five
+years in the relative situation of double stars, with an investigation
+of the cause to which they are owing.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1803, pp. 339-382.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1808, pp. 154-178.
+
+
+Continuation of the account of the changes that have happened in the
+relative situation of double stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1804, pp. 353-384.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1808, p. 226.
+
+
+Aus einem Schreiben des Herrn Doctor HERSCHEL, datirt Slough, bey
+Windsor, den 31. May, 1804.
+
+[Relates to his theory of the relation between the solar radiation and
+the price of wheat.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1808, p. 226.
+
+
+Experiments for ascertaining how far telescopes will enable us to
+determine very small angles, and to distinguish the real from the
+spurious diameters of celestial and terrestrial objects, with an
+application of the results of those experiments to a series of
+observations on the nature and magnitude of Mr. HARDING'S lately
+discovered star [_Juno_ (1804),].
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1805, pp. 31-70.
+
+
+On the direction and velocity of the motion of the sun and solar system.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1805, pp. 233-256.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, IV. Suppl. Band, p. 67.
+
+
+Observations on the singular figure of the planet _Saturn_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1805, pp. 272-280.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1809, p. 197.
+
+
+On the quantity and velocity of solar motion.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1806, pp. 205-237.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1811, p. 224.
+
+
+Observations and remarks on the figure, climate, and atmosphere of
+_Saturn_ and its ring.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1806, pp. 455-467.
+                              _Gilbert Annal._, XXXIV. (1810), pp. 82-105.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1810, p. 228.
+
+
+Experiments for investigating the cause of the colored concentric rings
+discovered by Sir I. NEWTON between two object-glasses laid one upon
+another.
+                   _Phil. Trans._, 1807, pp. 180-233.
+                   _Annal. de Chimie_, LXX., 1809, pp. 154-181, 293-321;
+                   _same_, LXXI., 1809, pp. 5-40.
+
+
+Observations on the nature of the new celestial body [_Vesta_]
+discovered by Dr. OLBERS, and of the comet which was expected to appear
+last January in its return from the sun. [1806, II.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1807, pp. 260-266.
+
+
+Observations of a comet [1807, I.] made with a view to investigate its
+magnitude and the nature of its illumination, to which is added an
+account of a new irregularity lately perceived in the apparent figure of
+the planet _Saturn_.
+                        _Phil. Trans._, 1808, pp. 145-163.
+                        _Gilbert Annal._, XXXVI. (1810), pp. 389-393.
+                        _Zach, Monat. Corresp._, XX. (1809), pp. 512-514.
+
+
+Continuation of experiments for investigating the cause of colored
+concentric rings and other appearances of a similar nature.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1809, pp. 259-302.
+
+
+Supplement to the first and second part of the paper of experiments for
+investigating the cause of colored concentric rings between
+object-glasses, and other appearances of a similar nature.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1810, pp. 149-177.
+                              _Gilbert Annal._, XLVI., 1814, pp. 22-79.
+
+
+Astronomical observations relating to the construction of the heavens,
+arranged for the purpose of a critical examination, the result of which
+appears to throw some new light upon the organization of the celestial
+bodies.
+                           _Phil. Trans._, 1811, pp. 269-336.
+                           _Journ. de Phys._, LXXV., 1812, pp. 121-167.
+
+
+Observations of a comet, with remarks on the construction of its
+different parts [1811, I.].
+           _Phil. Trans._, 1812, pp. 115-143.
+           _Journ. de Phys._, LXXVII., 1813, pp. 125-135.
+           _Zach, Monat. Corresp._, XXVIII., 1813, pp. 455-469, 558-568.
+           _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1816, p. 185.
+
+
+Observations of a second comet, with remarks on its construction
+[1811, II.].
+                           _Phil. Trans._, 1812, pp. 229-237.
+                           _Nicholson Journ._, XXXV., 1813, pp. 193-199.
+                           _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1816, p. 203.
+
+
+Astronomical observations relating to the sidereal part of the heavens,
+and its connection with the nebulous part, arranged for the purpose of a
+critical examination.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1814. pp. 248-284.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1818, pp. 97-118.
+
+
+A series of observations of the satellites of the _Georgian planet_,
+including a passage through the node of their orbits, with an
+introductory account of the telescopic apparatus that has been used on
+this occasion, and a final exposition of some calculated particulars
+deduced from the observations.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1815, pp. 293-362.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1819, p. 232-242.
+
+
+Astronomical observations and experiments tending to investigate the
+local arrangement of the celestial bodies in space, and to determine the
+extent and condition of the Milky Way.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1817, pp. 302-331.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1821, p. 149.
+
+
+Astronomical observations and experiments selected for the purpose of
+ascertaining the relative distances of clusters of stars, and of
+investigating how far the power of our telescopes may be expected to
+reach into space, when directed to ambiguous celestial objects.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1818, pp. 429-470.
+
+
+On the places of one hundred and forty-five new double stars (1821).
+                            _Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc._, 1, 1822, pp. 166-181.
+
+
+
+II.--LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF WILLIAM
+HERSCHEL.
+
+                 [Arranged alphabetically by authors.]
+
+_N.B.--In general, the notices of his life to be found in Encyclopædias
+of Biography, etc., are not included here._
+
+
+ARAGO (F.)
+    Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL [from
+_Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes_, 1842]. Paris, 1843. 18mo.
+        [See also the _Annuaire_ for 1834, for an account of HERSCHEL'S
+        work on double stars.]
+
+
+ARAGO (F.)
+    Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men. Translated by Admiral
+      W. H. SMYTH, Rev. B. POWELL, and ROBERT GRANT, Esq. HERSCHEL.
+        First series, p. 258. Boston, 1859. 8vo.
+
+
+ARAGO (F.)
+    HERSCHEL. [Translated from the French.]
+        Smithsonian Report. 1870. p. 197. 8vo.
+
+
+AUWERS (A.)
+    WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Verzeichnisse von Nebelflecken und Sternhaufen
+      bearbeitet von A. AUWERS.
+        From the _Königsberg Observations_. 1862. Folio.
+
+
+BESSEL (F. W.)
+    Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL. [From the _Königsberger Allgemeine Zeitung_, 1,
+      1843, No. 37, _et seq._, reprinted in his] _Abhandlungen_, vol iii.,
+      p. 468. Leipzig, 1876. 4to.
+
+
+D'ARREST (H. L.)
+    Verzeichniss von Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Nebelflecken _erster_ und
+      _vierter_ Classe, aus den Beobachtungen berechnet und auf 1850
+      reducirt.
+        _Abhandlungen der Math. Phys. Classe der K. Sächs Gesells. d.
+          Wissenschaften_, Band iii. [1857], p. 359.
+
+
+DUNKIN (E.)
+    Obituary Notices of Astronomers, p. 86. Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL,
+      K.C.H., F.R.S., 1738-1822.
+        London, 1879. 12mo.
+
+
+FÉTIS (F. J.)
+    Biographie universelle des Musiciens [Article HERSCHEL].
+        Paris, 1835-37. 8vo.
+
+
+FORBES (J. D.)
+    Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL [being § 2 of Dissertation vi.].
+        Encyclopædia Britannica, eighth edition.
+        Vol. i.,_Dissertations_, p. 838.
+
+
+FOURIER (J.)
+    Éloge historique de Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, prononcé dans la séance
+      publique de l'Académie royale des sciences le 7 Juin, 1824.
+
+       _Historie de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France_,
+         _tome_ vi., _année_ 1823, p. lxi.
+
+
+HARDING (C. L.)
+    Des Herrn Dr. HERSCHEL'S Untersuchungen über die Natur der
+      Sonnenstrahlen, aus dem englischen übersetzt. Erstes Heft.
+      [Translations from _Phil. Trans._, 1800.] Celle, 1801. 16mo.
+
+
+HASTINGS (C. S.)
+    See HOLDEN _and_ HASTINGS.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    An Account of a new Comet. [1786, II.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1787, vol. LXXVII., p. 1.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    An Account of the Discovery of a Comet. [1793, I.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1794, vol. LXXXIV., p. 1.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    Account of the Discovery of a Comet. [1795, II.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1796, vol. LXXXVI., p. 131.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    Catalogue of Stars taken from FLAMSTEED'S observations contained in
+      the second volume of his _Historia Coelestis_, and not inserted
+      in the British Catalogue; to which is added a collection of errata
+      which should be noticed in the same volume; with remarks by W.
+      HERSCHEL. London, 1798. Folio.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    Verzeichniss von 74 Sternen FLAMSTEEDS von denen keine beobachtungen
+      in der _Hist. Coel. Brit._ vorkommen.
+        _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1806, p. 255
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (Carolina.)]
+    [Notice of her Life.]
+        _Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 8, p. 64; _also_, _Memoirs
+          Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 17, p. 120.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (Carolina.)]
+    Memoir and Correspondence of CAROLINE HERSCHEL. By Mrs. JOHN
+      HERSCHEL. With portraits. London, 1876. 12mo.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    Article _Telescope_, in Encyclopædia Britannica, eighth edition.
+      [This article (illustrated) gives most of the important features of
+      Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S manner of grinding and polishing specula.]
+
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    Catalogue of Nebulæ and Clusters of Stars. [General and systematic
+      reduction of all Sir W. HERSCHEL'S observations brought into
+      connection with all other similar ones.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1864. Page 1. 4to.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    A Synopsis of all Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Micrometrical Measurements,
+      etc., of Double Stars, together with a Catalogue of those Stars . . .
+      for 1880.
+        _Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 35, p. 21. Lond., 1867. 4to.
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    Additional Identifications of Double Stars in the Synoptic
+      Catalogues of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Micrometrical Measurements,
+      etc.
+        _Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 28, p. 151. London, 1868.
+         8vo.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Mrs. John.)
+    Memoir and Correspondence of CAROLINE HERSCHEL. With portraits.
+        London, 1876. 12mo.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    [Solution of a prize question. _See_ this book, page 46.]
+        _Ladies' Diary_, 1779.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    The favorite Eccho Catch . . . and the preceding Glee [by S. LEACH].
+      To which is added the . . . Catch Sung by Three Old Women . . .
+      in the Pantomime called "The Genius of Nonsense" [by H. HARINGTON].
+        London, 1780(?). Obl. folio. [A MS. copy of this was kindly
+        furnished me by Dr. R. GARNETT, of the British Museum.]
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    _Göttingen Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur_ (1783), vol.
+      iii., p. 4. LICHTENBERG and FORSTER, Editors.
+        [Letter from HERSCHEL, giving a brief account of his life. _See_
+        this book, page 3.]
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    I. _Manuscripts in possession of the Royal Society._
+
+       1. A series of register sheets in which are entered up _all_ the
+          observations of _each_ nebula, copied _verbatim_ from the
+          sweeps. 2. A similar set of register sheets for MESSIER'S nebulæ.
+          3. A general index of the 2,508 nebulæ of W. HERSCHEL; given the
+          class and number, to find the general number. 4. An index list;
+          given the general number, to find the class and number.
+          5. A more complete list like 4. 6. A manuscript catalogue of
+          all the nebulæ and clusters, reduced to 1,800, and arranged
+          in zones of 1° in polar distance; by Miss CAROLINA HERSCHEL.
+          7. The original sweeps with the 20-foot reflector at Slough,
+          in three small 4to and four folio vols. of MS.
+
+
+II. _Manuscripts in possession of the Royal Astronomical Society._
+
+        This library contains "the whole series of autograph observations
+          of each double star [observed by HERSCHEL], brought together on
+          separate sheets by Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL and Miss CAROLINA
+          HERSCHEL."
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    Some Account of the Life and Writings of WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Esq.
+      [With a Portrait.]
+        The _European Magazine and London Review_ for January, 1785. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Edinburgh Review_, vol. i., p, 426.
+            [A review of HERSCHEL'S memoir, "Observations on the two
+            lately discovered bodies," from _Phil. Trans._, 1802. _See_
+            this book, page 96.]
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        "Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, from a London paper."
+
+        [This is a short obituary notice "furnished by a gentleman well
+          acquainted with Sir WILLIAM and his family, and its accuracy may
+          be relied on."]
+
+        _Niles' Register_, vol. 23, p. 154. Nov. 9, 1822. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    Obituary: Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Knt., LL.D., F.R.S.
+        _The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle_, vol. xcii.,
+          1822, p. 274. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Annual Register_, 1822, p. 289. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    W. HERSCHEL'S Sämmtliche Schriften, Erster Band.
+        Ueber den Bau des Himmels. Mit 10 Kupfertafeln.
+          [Edited by J. W. PFAFF. A second edition was published in 1850.]
+          Dresden and Leipzig, 1828. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _New York Mirror_, vol. vi., 1829-30, p. 388.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Living Age_, vol. ii., p. 125 (1844). 8vo.
+        [Reprinted from _Chambers' Journal_.]
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Foreign Quarterly Review_, vol. 31, p. 438. 8vo.
+
+        [Review of ARAGO'S "Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir WILLIAM
+          HERSCHEL."]
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    ARAGO'S Life of HERSCHEL.
+
+        _Eclectic Museum_, vol. ii., p. 556. [Reprinted from the _Foreign
+          Quarterly Review_, vol. 31.]
+
+
+HOLDEN (E. S.)
+    On the Inner Satellites of _Uranus_. [Reduction of Sir WILLIAM
+      HERSCHEL'S observations.]
+
+        _Proceedings Amer. Assn. Adv. Science_, _August_, 1874, p. 49.
+         8vo.
+
+
+HOLDEN (E. S.)
+    Index Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relative to nebulæ, clusters,
+      etc. _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, No. 311, pp. 19-38.
+    [Abstracts of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S memoirs (on nebulæ) in the
+      _Philosophical Transactions_.]
+
+        Washington, 1877. 8vo.
+
+
+HOLDEN (E. S.) and C. S. HASTINGS.
+    A Subject-index and a Synopsis of the scientific writings of Sir
+      WILLIAM HERSCHEL. [Reprinted from the _Report_ of the Smithsonian
+      Institution (1879).]
+
+        Washington, 1881. 8vo.
+
+
+KRAFFT (J. G. F.)
+    Kurze Nachricht von dem berühmten Astronomen HERSCHEL und einigen
+      seiner Entdeckungen.
+
+        Bayreuth, 1787. 8vo.
+
+PEIRCE (C. S.)
+    Photometric Researches. [A reduction of HERSCHEL'S observations on
+      the comparative brightness of the stars.] _Annals Harvard College
+      Observatory_, vol. ix.
+
+        Leipzig, 1878. 4to.
+
+
+SOMMER (G. M.)
+    WILLIAM HERSCHEL . . . ueber den Bau des Himmels; drei abhandlungen
+      aus dem englischen uebersetzt, nebst einem authentischen Auszug
+      aus KANTS allgemeiner Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels.
+
+        Koenigsberg, 1791. 8vo.
+
+
+STRUVE (W.)
+    Études d'astronomie stellaire. Sur la voie lactée et sur la distance
+      des étoiles fixes. [P. 24 _et seq._ contains an elaborate review
+      of the construction of the heavens according to HERSCHEL.] St.
+      Petersburg, 1847. 8vo.
+
+
+WOLF (R.)
+    WILLIAM HERSCHEL. Zurich, 1867. 8vo.
+
+
+ZACH (F. von.)
+    Dr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL [translated from _Public Characters_ and
+      printed in ZACH'S _Monatlich Correspondenz_, 1802, part i., p. 70
+      _et seq._]
+
+
+III.--LIST OF THE PUBLISHED PORTRAITS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+_Artist_, MME. DUPIERY. _Engraver_, THÖNERT. 8vo. Early portrait. Some
+  copies in red. Profile.
+
+_Artist_, F. REHBURG. _Engraver_, F. W. BOLLINGER. 8vo. Late portrait.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, C. WESTERMAYR. 8vo. Medallion.
+
+_Artist_, C. BRAND. _Engraver_, ----? 8vo. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, J. SEWELL. 8vo. Profile, 1785.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, ----? 8vo. Profile.
+
+_Artist_, F. BONNEVILLE. _Engraver_, F. BONNEVILLE. 8vo. Profile.
+
+_Artist_, J. RUSSELL, R.A. _Engraver_, E. SCRIVEN. 8vo. Engraved from a
+  crayon in the possession of his son, and published by the S. D. U. K.
+  in the _Gallery of Portraits_, vol. 5.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, ----? 8vo. _European Magazine_, Jan., 1785.
+  This is a bust in profile, showing the left side of the face.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, THOMSON. 8vo. Published by Caxton, 1823.
+This must have been engraved before 1816 since the legend is WILLIAM
+HERSCHEL, LL.D., F.R.S.
+
+_Artist_, Lady GORDON. From the painting by ABBOTT in the National
+Portrait Gallery. _Engraver_, JOSEPH BROWN. 8vo. Published in memoir of
+CAROLINE HERSCHEL. This is of the date 1788, or thereabouts. _See_
+frontispiece.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, C. MÜLLER. 4to. Medallion, 1785(?).
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, H. PINHAS. 4to. Legend in Russian.
+
+_Artist_, BAISCH. _Engraver_, ----? 4to. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, H. GRÉVEDON. _Engraver_, ----? Fol. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, F. MÜLLER. Fol.
+
+_Artist_, ABBOTT. _Engraver_, RYDER. Fol. 1788.
+
+_Artist_, J. BOILLY. _Engraver_, ----? Fol. 1822. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, J. GODBY. Fol.
+
+
+R. W. S. LUTWIDGE, Esq., F.R.A.S., has an original seal with a head of
+Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, which is shown on the title-page of this work. A
+cut of it has been courteously furnished me by JOHN BROWNING, Esq.,
+F.R.A.S., etc.
+
+In 1787 a bust of HERSCHEL was made by LOCKIE for Sir WILLIAM WATSON.
+
+A picture of HERSCHEL was painted by Mr. ARTAUD about the beginning of
+1819. A portrait of HERSCHEL by ABBOTT is in the National Portrait
+Gallery, London. There are no doubt many other paintings in England,
+though I can find notices of these only. The Royal Society of London has
+nearly a hundred portraits of its most distinguished members, but owns
+none of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+
+
+
+                            INDEX OF NAMES.
+
+
+_N.B.--This index is intended to refer to the proper names occurring in
+the body of the work only, and not to the Bibliography._
+
+
+  Airy (Sir George), 17.
+
+  Alison (Sir Archibald), 111.
+
+  Arago (François), 49, 81, 139.
+
+  Artaud (M.), 114.
+
+  Aubert (Alexander), 52, 62, 63.
+
+
+  Baldwin (Miss), 115.
+
+  Banks (Sir Joseph), 56, 58, 64.
+
+  Bessel (F. W.), 127, 137.
+
+  Blagden (Dr.), 57.
+
+  Bonaparte (Napoleon), 108, 111.
+
+  Bradley (James), 51, 153.
+
+  Bruhl (Count von), 52.
+
+  Bulman (Mr.), 22, 115, 116.
+
+  Bunsen (Chevalier), 12.
+
+  Burney (Dr.), 82, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106.
+
+
+  Campbell (Thomas), 107.
+
+  Cassini (J. D.), 51.
+
+  Cropley (Mr.), 20.
+
+
+  Dalrymple (Mr.), 73.
+
+  D'Arblay (Madame), 100 _et seq._
+
+  Darlington (Earl of), 18.
+
+  Darquier, 51, 119.
+
+  D'Arrest (H. L.), 204.
+
+  Dawes (W. R.), 200.
+
+  De Luc (M.), 64.
+
+  De Luc (Mrs.), 100, 102.
+
+  Dollond (J.), 120.
+
+
+  Engelfield (Sir Harry), 57.
+
+
+  Farinelli (Miss), 38.
+
+  Flaugergues (H.), 51, 119.
+
+  Fleming (Miss), 42.
+
+  Fourier (J.), 124.
+
+  Frauenhofer (J.), 195.
+
+
+  Galileo, 50, 135.
+
+  George III., 64, 77, 124, 126.
+
+  Griesbach (George), 63.
+
+  Griesbachs (the), 62, 106.
+
+
+  Hansen (P. A.), 142.
+
+  Hastings (C. S.), 119.
+
+  Heberden (Dr.), 64.
+
+  Helmholtz (H.), 188.
+
+  Herschel (Abraham) [1651-1718], 6.
+
+  Herschel (Alexander) [1745-1821], 10, 12, 14, 15, 35, 38, 41, 57, 61,
+    62, 66, 72, 73, 114.
+
+  Herschel (Benjamin), 7.
+
+  Herschel (Carolina) [1750-1848], 2, 10, 11, 12, 16, 23, 29, 33, 41, 43,
+    68;
+    discovers five comets, 69, 70, 78, 83, 103, 105, 112, 113, 114, 115.
+
+  Herschel (Carolina), her _Memoir_ quoted, 2, 9, 13, 23, 29, 31, 34, 36,
+    41, 57, 61, 63, 64, 65, 70, 74.
+
+  Herschel (Dietrich), 9, 10, 11, 29, 42, 114.
+
+  Herschel (Eusebius), 7.
+
+  Herschel (Hans) [_circa_ 1600], 6.
+
+  Herschel (Isaac) [1707-1767], 7, 8, 29.
+
+  Herschel (Jacob) [1734-1792], 10, 11, 16, 23, 30.
+
+  Herschel (Sir John Frederick William) [1792-1871], 80, 103, 105, 114,
+    126, 127, 143, 203.
+
+  Herschel (Lady), 80, 102, 103, 105, 114.
+
+  Herschel (Major John), 2.
+
+  Herschel (Mrs. Mary Cornwallis), 2.
+
+  Herschel (Sophia Elizabeth), b. 1733, married Griesbach, 10.
+
+  Herschel (William), born 1738, November 15; 10.
+    oboist in the band of the Guards (1755), and goes to England for the
+      first time, returning in 1756, 16.
+    deserts from the Guards and goes to England (1757), 17.
+    organizes the band of the Durham militia (1760), 18.
+    leaves the band and lives with Dr. Miller, 19.
+    leads the public concerts at Wakefield and Halifax, 20.
+    organist at Halifax (1765), 22.
+    organist of the Octagon Chapel at Bath (1766), 24.
+    his musical writings, 26.
+    studies Smith's harmonies and optics, 28.
+    visits Hanover, August, 1772, 32.
+    hires a small telescope, 37.
+    makes his first telescope (1774), 38.
+    visits Hanover (1775?), 42.
+    1st review of the heavens, 39, 73.
+    2d review of the heavens, 73.
+    3d review of the heavens (1783), 73.
+    4th review of the heavens (1785), 74.
+    manufacture of telescopes, 40, 59, 75, 77, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124,
+      125, 126, 127.
+    moves to 19 New King St., Bath, 43.
+    conducts oratorios of Handel, 43.
+    begins astronomical _measures_ (1779), 44.
+    joins Philosophical Society of Bath, 45.
+    first published scientific writing (1779), 46.
+    first communication to the Royal Society (1780), 47.
+    discovery of _Uranus_ (1781, March 13), 49.
+    its effect on his career, 53.
+    elected a member of the Royal Society (1781), and receives the
+      Copley medal, 56.
+    attempts a thirty-foot reflector, 59.
+    goes to London, 1782 (May, June, July), 61.
+    appointed Royal Astronomer (£200), 1782, 67.
+    removes to Datchet, 1782, August 1, 67.
+    his assiduity, 72, 77, 79, 81.
+    his mechanical genius, 14, 41, 121.
+    cost of his telescopes, 77.
+    marries Mrs. John Pitt, _née_ Baldwin (1783), 80.
+    only child born (1792), 80.
+    removes to Slough (1786), 81.
+    LL.D. (_Oxon._), 1786, 47.
+    his account of the discovery of _Uranus_ (1781, March 13), 4.
+    discovers two satellites to _Uranus_, 1787, Jan. 11, 84.
+    discovers two satellites to _Saturn_, 1789, August-September, 125.
+    invents machines for making reflectors (1788), 41.
+    began forty-foot telescope, 1785, finished it, 1789, 121.
+    biographical letter (1783), 3.
+    list of published portraits of him, 232.
+    value of his sister's assistance to him, 34.
+    letters to Carolina Herschel, 61, 63, 64, 114.
+    his personal character (1786-1800), 100 _et seq._
+    his relations to his cotemporaries, 85, 86, 87, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97,
+      98, 99.
+    list of writings relating to him and to his works, 225.
+    his literary skill, 45.
+    examples of his style, 83 _et seq._
+    failure of health, 112 _et seq._
+    created a Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order (1816), 115.
+
+  Herschel (Sir William), first president of the Royal Astronomical Society
+       (1821), 115.
+    his will, 114.
+    his death, August 25th, 1822, 116.
+    his epitaph, 117.
+    list of his scientific writings, 215.
+    review of his scientific labors, 118.
+    the improvement of telescopes and apparatus, 121.
+    the relative brightness of the stars; variable stars, 130.
+    researches on double stars, 134.
+    researches on planets and satellites, 140.
+    researches on the nature of the sun, 145, 186, 198.
+    the motion of the solar system in space, 149.
+    researches on the construction of the heavens, 154.
+    scale of celestial measures; distances of the stars, 170.
+    researches on light, heat, etc., 176.
+    researches on the dimensions of the stars, 193.
+    on the spectra of the fixed stars, 195.
+    on the variable emission of light and heat from the sun, 198.
+    researches on nebulæ and clusters, 202.
+
+  Huyghens (C.), 50, 189.
+
+
+  King George III., 64, 77, 124, 126.
+
+
+  Lacaille (N. L.), 156, 202.
+
+  Lalande (Jerome), 28, 124, 156.
+
+  Lambert (J. H.), 153.
+
+  Lassell (W.), 143.
+
+  Lee (Miss), 61.
+
+  Lichtenberg (Herr), 3.
+
+  Lind (Dr. and Mrs.), 69.
+
+  Long (Dr.), 135.
+
+
+  Magellan (Herr), 3, 78.
+
+  Maskelyne (Nevil), 5, 51, 57, 62, 63, 150, 153.
+
+  Mayer (Christian), 94, 153.
+
+  Melloni (M.), 186.
+
+  Messier (C.), 202.
+
+  Michell (John), 52, 94, 137, 156.
+
+  Miller (Dr.), 19, 20, 21, 22.
+
+  Monson (Mrs.), 115.
+
+  Moritzen (Anna Ilse), m. Isaac Herschel, 7, 8.
+
+
+  Napoleon I., 108, 111.
+
+  Newton (Sir Isaac), 189, 190, 191, 192.
+
+
+  Olbers (William), 95.
+
+
+  Pabrich (Cappelmeister), 7.
+
+  Palmerston (Lord), 64.
+
+  Piazzi (Joseph), 75, 95.
+
+  Pierce (Charles S.), 132.
+
+  Pigott (J.), 119.
+
+  Poggendorff (J. G.), 188.
+
+
+  Ronzoni (Signor), 59.
+
+  Rosse (Lord), 122, 207.
+
+
+  Savary (M.), 139.
+
+  Secchi (Angelo), 195, 196.
+
+  Scheiner (C.), 199.
+
+  Schroeter (J. H.), 51, 77, 91, 92, 93.
+
+  Schwabe (H.), 201.
+
+  Short (James), 120.
+
+  Smith (Dr. Robert), 28.
+
+  Snetzler (Herr), 20, 21.
+
+  Struve (Otto von), 129.
+
+
+  Thomson (Thomas), 95.
+
+
+  Verdet (E.), 188.
+
+
+  Wainwright (Dr.), 20.
+
+  Walsh (Colonel), 62.
+
+  Watson (Sir William), 44, 58, 60, 64, 65, 66, 67, 75, 76.
+
+  Watt (James), 106.
+
+  Weld (R.), 126.
+
+  Wilson (Alexander), 52, 94, 146.
+
+
+  Zach (Baron von), 69.
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+START OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+I have used [alpha] to represent the greek letter used in the text.
+
+
+  page line  In the Original text, left as is.
+  227    3   übersetzt
+  231   29   uebersetzt
+   18   24   Biographie universelle des musiciens
+  226   24   Biographie universelle des Musiciens
+  231   33   Koenigsberg, 1791. 8vo.
+  226    9   Königsberger Allgemeine Zeitung
+  195    4   Fraunhofer
+  235 index  Frauenhofer (J.), 195.
+  226   29   Vol.  (all other occurances are) vol.
+  238 index  Ronzoni (Signor), 59.
+   58   26   Ronzini
+
+
+  Original
+  page line  Original text                    Replaced with
+   65   23   ornamented.                      ornamented."
+  117   31   [C] for letter C reversed        CI[C]I[C]CCCXXII
+  216   25   den 18. May                      den 18. Mai
+  219   23   Suppl. Band., p. 238.            Suppl. Band, p. 238.
+
+
+END OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sir William Herschel: His Life and
+Works, by Edward Singleton Holden
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sir William Herschel: His Life and Works, by 
+Edward Singleton Holden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sir William Herschel: His Life and Works
+
+Author: Edward Singleton Holden
+
+Release Date: June 3, 2009 [EBook #29031]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Eric Hutton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
+<h1>SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL</h1>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">HIS LIFE AND WORKS</p>
+
+<div class="newpage"></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="400" height="543" alt="Sir William Herschel" /></p>
+
+<h1><span class="smcap">Sir William Herschel</span></h1>
+
+
+<h2>HIS LIFE AND WORKS</h2>
+
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<h3>EDWARD S. HOLDEN</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcapsize07">United States Naval Observatory, Washington</span></p>
+<p> &nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><img src="images/tpage.jpg" width="130" height="157" alt="Coelis Exploratis]" /></p>
+<p> &nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="size09">NEW YORK</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>
+<br /><span class="size11">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</span>
+<br /><span class="smcap">743 and 745 Broadway</span>
+<br />1881</p>
+
+
+<div class="newpage"></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcapsize07">Copyright</span>,<span class="size07"> 1880,</span>
+<br /><span class="smcapsize09">By</span><span class="size09"> CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS.</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="newpage"></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="size07">PRESS OF J. J. LITTLE &amp; CO.,</span>
+
+<br /><span class="size07">NOS. 10 TO 20 ASTOR PLACE, NEW YORK.</span></p>
+
+<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2>
+
+<p>Typographical errors noticed during the preparation of this text have been underlined
+<ins class="correction" title="Transcribers note: original reads 'like that'">like this</ins>.
+ A list has also been placed <a href="#tnotes">at the end.</a></p>
+
+<div class="newpage"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></div>
+
+<p class="chapter">PREFACE.</p>
+<hr />
+
+<p>In the following account of the life and works of Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>,
+I have been obliged to depend strictly upon data already in print&mdash;the
+<i>Memoir</i> of his sister, his own scientific writings and the memoirs and
+diaries of his cotemporaries. The review of his published works will, I
+trust, be of use. It is based upon a careful study of all his papers in
+the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>A life of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> which shall be satisfactory in every particular can
+only be written after a full examination of the materials which are
+preserved at the family seat in England; but as two generations have
+passed since his death, and as no biography yet exists which approaches
+to completeness, no apology seems to me to be needed for a
+conscientious attempt to make the best use of the scanty material which
+we do possess.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p><p>This study will, I trust, serve to exhibit so much of his life as
+belongs to the whole public. His private life belongs to his family,
+until the time is come to let the world know more of the greatest of
+practical astronomers and of the inner life of one of its most profound
+philosophers,&mdash;of a great and ardent mind, whose achievements are and
+will remain the glory of England.</p>
+
+<div class="newpage"> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<hr />
+
+
+<div class="right">PAGE</div>
+
+<div class="newchap">CHAPTER I.
+<div class="right">1</div>
+<div class="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Early Years</span>; 1738-1772,</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="newchap">CHAPTER II.
+<div class="right">33</div>
+<div class="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">Life in Bath</span>; 1772-1782,</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="newchap">CHAPTER III.
+<div class="right">68</div>
+<div class="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Life at Datchet, Clay Hall, and Slough</span>;&nbsp;1782-1822,</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="newchap">CHAPTER IV.
+<div class="right">118</div>
+<div class="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Review of the Scientific Labors of Herschel</span>,</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="newchap"> </div>
+<div class="right">215</div>
+<div class="left"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span>,</a></div>
+
+<div class="newchap"> </div>
+<div class="right">235</div>
+<div class="left"><a href="#INDEXOFNAMES"><span class="smcap">Index of Names</span>,</a><span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="newpage"> <span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></div>
+
+
+<h3>LIFE AND WORKS</h3>
+
+<h4>OF</h4>
+
+<h1><span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>.</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 20%;" />
+<p class="chapter"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</p>
+
+<p class="centermargin">EARLY YEARS; 1738-1772.</p>
+
+
+<p>Of the great modern philosophers, that one of whom least is known, is
+<span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>. We may appropriate the words which escaped him when
+the barren region of the sky near the body of <i>Scorpio</i> was passing
+slowly through the field of his great reflector, during one of his
+sweeps, to express our own sense of absence of light and knowledge:
+<i>Hier ist wahrhaftig ein Loch im Himmel.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> prepared, about the year 1818, a biographical memorandum, which
+his sister <span class="smcap">Carolina</span> placed among his papers.</p>
+
+<p>This has never been made public. The only thoroughly authentic sources
+of information in possession of the world, are a letter written by
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> himself, in answer to a pressing request for a sketch of his
+life, and the <i>Memoir and Correspondence of</i> <span class="smcap">Caroline Herschel</span> (London,
+1876), a precious memorial not only of his life, but of one which
+otherwise would have remained almost unknown, and one, too, which the
+world could ill afford to lose. The latter, which has been ably edited
+by Mrs. <span class="smcap">Mary Cornwallis Herschel</span>,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> is the only source of knowledge in
+regard to the early years of the great astronomer, and together with the
+all too scanty materials to be gained from a diligent search through the
+biography of the time, affords the data for those personal details of
+his life, habits, and character, which seem to complete the distinct,
+though partial conception <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>of him which the student of his philosophical
+writings acquires.</p>
+
+<p>The letter referred to was published in the G&ouml;ttingen Magazine of
+Science and Literature, III., 4, shortly after the name of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had
+become familiar to every ear through his discovery of <i>Uranus</i>, but
+while the circumstances of the discovery, and the condition of the
+amateur who made it, were still entirely unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The editor (<span class="smcap">Lichtenberg</span>) says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>    "Herr <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was good enough to send me, some time since, through
+    Herr <span class="smcap">Magellan</span>, copies of his Dissertations on Double Stars, on the
+    Parallax of the Fixed Stars, and on a new Micrometer. In the letter
+    which conveyed to him my thanks for his gift, I requested him to
+    note down a few facts in regard to his life, for publication in this
+    magazine, since various accounts, more or less incorrect, had
+    appeared in several journals. In answer, I received a very obliging
+    letter from him and what follows is that portion of it relating to
+    my request, which was sent me with full permission to make it
+    public."</p>
+
+<div class="right">
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Datchet, near Windsor</span>,</p>
+<p><i>Nov. 15, 1783.</i></p></div></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+    "I was born in Hanover, November, 1738. My father, who was a
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+    musician, destined me to the same profession, hence I was
+    instructed betimes in his art. That I might acquire a perfect
+    knowledge of the theory as well as of the practice of music, I was
+    set at an early age to study mathematics in all its
+    branches&mdash;algebra, conic sections, infinitesimal analysis, and the
+    rest.</p>
+
+<p>    "The insatiable desire for knowledge thus awakened resulted next in
+    a course of languages; I learned French, English, and Latin, and
+    steadfastly resolved henceforth to devote myself wholly to those
+    sciences from the pursuit of which I alone looked for all my future
+    happiness and enjoyment. I have never been either necessitated or
+    disposed to alter this resolve. My father, whose means were limited,
+    and who consequently could not be as liberal to his children as he
+    would have desired, was compelled to dispose of them in one way or
+    another at an early age; consequently in my fifteenth year I
+    enlisted in military service, only remaining in the army, however,
+    until I reached my nineteenth year, when I resigned and went over to
+    England.</p>
+
+<p>    "My familiarity with the organ, which I had carefully mastered
+    previously, soon procured for me the position of organist in
+    Yorkshire, which I finally exchanged for a similar situation at Bath
+    in 1766, and while here the peculiar circumstances of my post, as
+    agreeable as it was lucrative, made it possible for me to occupy
+    myself once more with my studies, especially with mathematics. When,
+    in the course of time, I took up astronomy, I determined to accept
+    nothing on faith, but to see with my own eyes everything which
+    <span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+    others had seen before me. Having already some knowledge of the
+    science of optics, I resolved to manufacture my own telescopes, and
+    after many continuous, determined trials, I finally succeeded in
+    completing a so-called Newtonian instrument, seven feet in length.
+    From this I advanced to one of ten feet, and at last to one of
+    twenty, for I had fully made up my mind to carry on the improvement
+    of my telescopes as far as it could possibly be done. When I had
+    carefully and thoroughly perfected the great instrument in all its
+    parts, I made systematic use of it in my observations of the
+    heavens, first forming a determination never to pass by any, the
+    smallest, portion of them without due investigation. This habit,
+    persisted in, led to the discovery of the new planet (<i>Georgium
+    Sidus</i>). This was by no means the result of chance, but a simple
+    consequence of the position of the planet on that particular
+    evening, since it occupied precisely that spot in the heavens which
+    came in the order of the minute observations that I had previously
+    mapped out for myself. Had I not seen it just when I did, I must
+    inevitably have come upon it soon after, since my telescope was so
+    perfect that I was able to distinguish it from a fixed star in the
+    first minute of observation.</p>
+
+<p>"Now to bring this sketch to a close. As the king had expressed a
+    desire to see my telescope, I took it by his command to Greenwich,
+    where it was compared with the instruments of my excellent friend,
+    Dr. <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span>, not only by himself, but by other experts, who
+    <span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+    pronounced it as their opinion that my instrument was superior to
+    all the rest. Thereupon the king ordered that the instrument be
+    brought to Windsor, and since it there met with marked approval, his
+    majesty graciously awarded me a yearly pension, that I might be
+    enabled to relinquish my profession of music, and devote my whole
+    time to astronomy and the improvement of the telescope. Gratitude,
+    as well as other considerations specified by me in a paper presented
+    to the Royal Society, of which I am a member, has induced me to call
+    the new planet <i>Georgium Sidus</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">"'Georgium Sidus.&mdash;jam nunc assuesce vocari.'&mdash;(<i>Virgil.</i>)</span></p>
+
+
+<p> And I hope it will retain the name."</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">We know but little of the family of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. The name is undoubtedly
+Jewish, and is found in Poland, Germany, and England. We learn that the
+ancestors of the present branch left Moravia about the beginning of the
+XVIIth century, on account of their change of religion to Protestantism.
+They became possessors of land in Saxony. <span class="smcap">Hans Herschel</span>, the
+great-grandfather of <span class="smcap">William</span>, was a brewer in Pirna (a small town near
+Dresden). Of the two sons of <span class="smcap">Hans</span>, one, <span class="smcap">Abraham</span> (born in 1651, died
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+1718), was employed in the royal gardens at Dresden, and seems to have
+been a man of taste and skill in his calling. Of his eldest son,
+<span class="smcap">Eusebius</span>, there appears to be little trace in the records of the family.
+The second son, <span class="smcap">Benjamin</span>, died in infancy; the third, <span class="smcap">Isaac</span>, was born in
+1707 (Jan. 14), and was thus an orphan at eleven years of age. <span class="smcap">Isaac</span> was
+the father of the great astronomer.</p>
+
+<p>He appears to have early had a passionate fondness for music, and this,
+added to a distaste for his father's calling, determined his career. He
+was taught music by an oboe-player in the royal band, and he also
+learned the violin. At the age of twenty-one he studied music for a year
+under the Cappelmeister <span class="smcap">Pabrich</span>, at Potsdam, and in August, 1731, he
+became oboist in the band of the Guards, at Hanover. In August, 1732, he
+married <span class="smcap">Anna Ilse Moritzen</span>. She appears to have been a careful and busy
+wife and mother, possessed of no special faculties which would lead us
+to attribute to her care any great part of the abilities of her son.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+She could not herself write the letters which she sent to her husband
+during his absences with his regiment. It was her firm belief that the
+separations and some of the sorrows of the family came from too much
+learning; and while she could not hinder the education of the sons of
+the family, she prevented their sisters from learning French and
+dancing. It is but just to say that the useful accomplishments of
+cooking, sewing, and the care of a household, were thoroughly taught by
+her to her two daughters. The father, <span class="smcap">Isaac</span>, appears to have been of a
+different mould, and to him, no doubt, the chief intellectual
+characteristics of the family are due. His position obliged him to be
+often absent from Hanover, with his regiment, but his hand appears to
+have been always present, smoothing over difficulties, and encouraging
+his sons to such learning and improvement as was to be had.</p>
+
+<p>His health was seriously injured by the exposures of the campaigns, and
+he was left, after the Seven Years' War, with a broken constitution.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After his final return home, in 1760, his daughter gives this record of
+him&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Copying music employed every vacant moment, even sometimes
+    throughout half the night. . . . With my brother [<span class="smcap">Dietrich</span>]&mdash;now a
+    little engaging creature of between four and five years old&mdash;he was
+    very much pleased, and [on the first evening of his arrival at home]
+    before he went to rest, the Adempken (a little violin) was taken
+    from the shelf and newly strung, and the daily lessons immediately
+    commenced. . . . I do not recollect that he ever desired any other
+    society than what he had opportunities of enjoying in many of the
+    parties where he was introduced by his profession, though far from
+    being of a morose disposition; he would frequently encourage my
+    mother in keeping up a social intercourse among a few acquaintances,
+    whilst his afternoon hours generally were taken up in giving lessons
+    to some scholars at home, who gladly saved him the troublesome
+    exertion of walking. . . . He also found great pleasure in seeing
+    <span class="smcap">Dietrich's</span> improvement, who, young as he was, and of the most lively
+    temper imaginable, was always ready to receive his lessons, leaving
+    his little companions with the greatest cheerfulness to go to his
+    father, who was so pleased with his performances that he made him
+    play a solo on the Adempken in <span class="smcap">Rake's</span> concert, being placed on a
+    table before a crowded company, for which he was very much applauded
+    and caressed, particularly by an English lady, who put a gold coin
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>    in his little pocket.</p>
+
+<p>"It was not long before my father had as many scholars as he could
+    find time to attend. And when they assembled at my father's to make
+    little concerts, I was frequently called to join the second violin
+    in an overture, for my father found pleasure in giving me sometimes
+    a lesson before the instruments were laid by, after practising with
+    <span class="smcap">Dietrich</span>, for I never was missing at those hours, sitting in a
+    corner with my knitting and listening all the while."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">Here, as in all her writing, <span class="smcap">Carolina</span> is simple, true, direct to
+awkwardness, and unconsciously pathetic even in joy.</p>
+
+<p>The family of <span class="smcap">Isaac</span> and <span class="smcap">Anna Herschel</span> consisted of ten children. Six of
+these lived to adult age. They were:</p>
+
+<p class="indent">1. <span class="smcap">Sophia Elizabeth</span>; born 1733, married <span class="smcap">Griesbach</span>, a musician in the
+Guard, by whom she had children. Five of her sons were afterwards
+musicians at the court, in England, where they obtained places through
+the influence of <span class="smcap">William</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">2. <span class="smcap">Henry Anton Jacob</span>; born 1734, November 20.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">4. <span class="smcap">Frederic William</span> (the astronomer) born 1738, November 15.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">6. <span class="smcap">John Alexander</span>; born 1745, November 13.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">8. <span class="smcap">Carolina Lucretia</span>; born 1750, March 16.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">10. <span class="smcap">Dietrich</span>; born 1755, September 13.</p>
+
+<p>Of this family group, the important figures to us are <span class="smcap">William</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Alexander</span>, and <span class="smcap">Carolina</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jacob</span> was organist at the Garrison Church of Hanover in 1753, a member
+of the Guards' band in 1755, and first violin in the Hanover Court
+Orchestra in 1759. Afterwards he joined his brother <span class="smcap">William</span> in Bath, but
+again returned to Hanover. In 1771 he published in Amsterdam his Opus
+I., a set of six quartettes, and later, in London, he published two
+symphonies and six trios. He appears to have been a clever musician, and
+his letters to his younger brother <span class="smcap">William</span> are full of discussion on
+points of musical composition, etc. He died in 1792.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dietrich</span>, the youngest brother, shared in the musical abilities of his
+family, and when only fifteen years old was so far advanced as to be
+able to supply his brother <span class="smcap">Jacob's</span> place<span class='pagenum'>
+<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> in the Court Orchestra, and to
+give his lessons to private pupils. There is no one of the family,
+except the eldest daughter, whom we do not know to have possessed marked
+ability in music, and this taste descended truly for four generations.
+In the letters of Chevalier <span class="smcap">Bunsen</span>,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> he describes meeting, in 1847,
+the eldest granddaughter of <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, who, he says, "is a
+musical genius."</p>
+
+<p>Three members of the family, <span class="smcap">William</span>, <span class="smcap">Alexander</span>, and <span class="smcap">Carolina</span>, formed a
+group which was inseparable for many years, and while the progress of
+the lives of <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> and <span class="smcap">Carolina</span> was determined by the energy and
+efforts of <span class="smcap">William</span>, these two lent him an aid without which his career
+would have been strangely different. It is necessary to understand a
+little better the early life of all three.</p>
+
+<p>The sons of the <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> family all attended the garrison school in
+Hanover until they were about fourteen years old. They were taught the
+ordinary rudiments of knowledge&mdash;to read, to write, to cipher&mdash;and a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> knowledge of French and English was added. <span class="smcap">William</span> especially
+distinguished himself in his studies, learning French very rapidly, and
+studying Latin and arithmetic with his master out of hours. The
+household life seems to have been active, harmonious, and intelligent,
+especially during the presence of the father, who took a great delight
+in the rapid progress of all his sons in music, and who encouraged them
+with his companionship in their studies and in their reading on all
+intellectual subjects.</p>
+
+<p>From the <i>Memoir</i> of <span class="smcap">Carolina</span>, on which we must depend for our knowledge
+of this early life, we take the following paragraph:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"My brothers were often introduced as solo performers and assistants
+    in the orchestra of the court, and I remember that I was frequently
+    prevented from going to sleep by the lively criticism on music on
+    coming from a concert, or by conversations on philosophical
+    subjects, which lasted frequently till morning, in which my father
+    was a lively partaker and assistant of my brother <span class="smcap">William</span>, by
+    contriving self-made instruments. . . . Often I would keep myself awake
+    that I might listen to their animating remarks, for it made <i>me so</i>
+    <i>happy</i> to see <i>them so happy</i>. But generally their conversation
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+    would branch out on philosophical subjects, when my brother <span class="smcap">William</span>
+    and my father often argued with such warmth that my mother's
+    interference became necessary, when the names <span class="smcap">Leibnitz</span>, <span class="smcap">Newton</span>, and
+    <span class="smcap">Euler</span> sounded rather too loud for the repose of her little ones, who
+    ought to be in school by seven in the morning. But it seems that on
+    the brothers retiring to their own room, where they shared the same
+    bed, my brother <span class="smcap">William</span> had still a great deal to say; and
+    frequently it happened that when he stopped for an assent or reply,
+    he found his hearer was gone to sleep, and I suppose it was not till
+    then that he bethought himself to do the same.</p>
+
+<p>"The recollection of these happy scenes confirms me in the belief,
+    that had my brother <span class="smcap">William</span> not then been interrupted in his
+    philosophical pursuits, we should have had much earlier proofs of
+    his inventive genius. My father was a great admirer of astronomy,
+    and had some knowledge of that science; for I remember his taking
+    me, on a clear frosty night, into the street, to make me acquainted
+    with several of the most beautiful constellations, after we had been
+    gazing at a comet which was then visible. And I well remember with
+    what delight he used to assist my brother <span class="smcap">William</span> in his various
+    contrivances in the pursuit of his philosophical studies, among
+    which was a neatly turned 4-inch globe, upon which the equator and
+    ecliptic were engraved by my brother."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The mechanical genius was not confined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> to <span class="smcap">William</span>, for we read that
+<span class="smcap">Alexander</span> used often to "sit by us and amuse us and himself by making
+all sorts of things out of pasteboard, or contriving how to make a
+twelve-hour cuckoo clock go a week." This ability of <span class="smcap">Alexander's</span> was
+turned later to the best account when he became his brother <span class="smcap">William's</span>
+right hand in the manufacture of reflectors, eye-pieces, and stands in
+England. His abilities were great, and a purpose which might otherwise
+have been lacking was supplied through the younger brother's ardor in
+all that he undertook.</p>
+
+<p>His musical talent was remarkable; he played "divinely" on the
+violoncello. He returned to Hanover in 1816, where he lived in
+comfortable independence, through the never-failing generosity of his
+brother, until his death in 1821. A notice of him in a Bristol paper
+says: "Died, March 15, 1821, at Hanover, <span class="smcap">Alexander Herschel</span>, Esqr., well
+known to the public of Bath and Bristol as a performer and elegant
+musician; and who for forty-seven years was the admiration of the
+frequenters of concerts and theatres of both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> those cities as principal
+violoncello. To the extraordinary merits of Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was united
+considerable acquirement in the superior branches of mechanics and
+philosophy, and his affinity to his brother, Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, was
+not less in science than in blood."</p>
+
+<p>We shall learn more of the sister, <span class="smcap">Carolina</span>, as time goes on. Now in
+these early years she was a silent and persistent child, growing up with
+a feeling that she was uncared for and neglected, and lavishing all her
+childish affection, as she did all that of her womanly life, on her
+brother <span class="smcap">William</span>. Throughout her long life, "my brother" was <span class="smcap">William</span>, "my
+nephew" <i>his</i> son.</p>
+
+<p>The brothers <span class="smcap">Jacob</span> and <span class="smcap">William</span> were, with their father, members of the
+band of the Guards in 1755, when the regiment was ordered to England,
+and they were absent from Hanover a year.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">William</span> (then seventeen years old) went as oboist, and out of his scanty
+pay brought back to Hanover, in 1756, only one memento of his stay&mdash;a
+copy of <span class="smcap">Locke</span> <i>On the Human Understanding</i>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He appears to have served with the Guard during part of the campaign of
+1757. His health was then delicate, and his parents "determined to
+remove him from the service&mdash;a step attended by no small
+difficulties."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>This "removal" was hurriedly and safely effected, so hurriedly that the
+copy of <span class="smcap">Locke</span> was not put in the parcels sent after him to Hamburg by
+his mother; "she, dear woman, knew no other wants than good linen and
+clothing."</p>
+
+<p>Thus, at last, the young <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, the son of an oboe-player in
+the King's Guard, is launched in life for himself, in the year 1757, at
+the age of nineteen.</p>
+
+<p>All his equipment is the "good linen and clothing," a knowledge of
+French, Latin, and English, some skill in playing the violin, the organ,
+and the oboe, and an "uncommon precipitancy" in doing what there is to
+be done.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A slender outfit truly; but we are not to overlook what he said of
+himself on another occasion. "I have, nevertheless, several resources in
+view, and do not despair of succeeding pretty well in the end."</p>
+
+<p>From 1757 to 1760&mdash;three years&mdash;we know nothing of his life. We can
+imagine what it was. His previous visit to England had given him a good
+knowledge of the language, and perhaps a few uninfluential
+acquaintances. On his return he would naturally seek these out, and, by
+means of his music, he could gain a livelihood. We first hear of him as
+charged with the organization of the music of a corps of the militia of
+Durham, under the auspices of the <span class="smcap">Earl of Darlington</span>. "La mani&egrave;re dont
+il remplit cette mission, le fit conna&icirc;tre avantageusement."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The
+nature of the service of these militia corps, which were then forming
+all over England, is well described in the Autobiography of <span class="smcap">Gibbon</span>.
+Every county-gentleman felt constrained to serve his country,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>and
+the regimental mess-rooms were filled with men of rank and fashion.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760 we hear of him again. He has attracted the notice of those about
+him.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"About the year 1760, as <span class="smcap">Miller</span><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> was dining at Pontefract with the
+    officers of the Durham militia, one of them, knowing his love of
+    music, told him they had a young German in their band as a performer
+    on the hautboy, who had only been a few months in England, and yet
+    spoke English almost as well as a native, and who was also an
+    excellent performer on the violin; the officer added that if <span class="smcap">Miller</span>
+    would come into another room, this German should entertain him with
+    a solo. The invitation was gladly accepted, and <span class="smcap">Miller</span> heard a solo
+    of <span class="smcap">Giardini's</span> executed in a manner that surprised him. He afterwards
+    took an opportunity of having some private conversation with the
+    young musician, and asked him whether he had engaged himself for any
+    long period to the Durham militia. The answer was, 'Only from month
+    to month.' 'Leave them, then,' said the organist, 'and come and live
+    with me. I am a single man, and think we shall be happy together;
+    and, doubtless, your merit will soon entitle you to a more eligible
+    situation.' The offer was accepted as frankly as it was made, and
+    the reader may imagine with what satisfaction Dr. <span class="smcap">Miller</span>
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+    must have remembered this act of generous feeling when he hears
+    that this young German was <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, the Astronomer. 'My humble
+    mansion,' says <span class="smcap">Miller</span>, 'consisted, at that time, but of two rooms.
+    However, poor as I was, my cottage contained a library of
+    well-chosen books; and it must appear singular that a foreigner who
+    had been so short a time in England should understand even the
+    peculiarities of the language so well as to fix upon <span class="smcap">Swift</span> for his
+    favorite author.'</p>
+
+<p>"He took an early opportunity of introducing his new friend at Mr.
+    <span class="smcap">Cropley's</span> concerts; the first violin was resigned to him; 'and
+    never,' says the organist, 'had I heard the concertos of <span class="smcap">Corelli</span>,
+    <span class="smcap">Geminiani</span>, and <span class="smcap">Avison</span>, or the overtures of <span class="smcap">Handel</span> performed more
+    chastely, or more according to the original intention of the
+    composers, than by Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. I soon lost my companion; his fame
+    was presently spread abroad; he had the offer of pupils, and was
+    solicited to lead the public concerts both at Wakefield and Halifax.
+    A new organ for the parish church of Halifax was built about this
+    time, and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was one of the seven candidates for the
+    organist's place. They drew lots how they were to perform in
+    succession. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> drew the third, the second fell to Dr.
+    <span class="smcap">Wainwright</span> of Manchester, whose finger was so rapid that old
+    <span class="smcap">Snetzler</span>, the organ-builder, ran about the church exclaiming: '<i>Te
+    tevel! te tevel! he run over te keys like one cat; he will not give
+    my piphes room for to shpeak.</i>' 'During Mr. <span class="smcap">Wainwright's</span>
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+    performance,' says <span class="smcap">Miller</span>, 'I was standing in the middle aisle with
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. 'What chance have you,' said I, 'to follow this man?' He
+    replied, 'I don't know; I am sure fingers will not do.' On which he
+    ascended the organ loft, and produced from the organ so uncommon a
+    fulness, such a volume of slow, solemn harmony, that I could by no
+    means account for the effect. After this short <i>ex tempore</i>
+    effusion, he finished with the Old Hundredth psalm-tune, which he
+    played better than his opponent.</p>
+
+<p>"'<i>Ay, ay</i>,' cried old <span class="smcap">Snetzler</span>, '<i>tish is very goot, very goot
+    indeet; I vil luf tish man, for he gives my piphes room for to
+    shpeak.</i>' Having afterwards asked Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> by what means, in the
+    beginning of his performance, he produced so uncommon an effect, he
+    replied, 'I told you fingers would not do!' and producing two pieces
+    of lead from his waistcoat pocket, 'one of these,' said he, 'I
+    placed on the lowest key of the organ, and the other upon the octave
+    above; thus by accommodating the harmony, I produced the effect of
+    four hands, instead of two.'"<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dates in this extract are not so well defined as might be wished.
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had certainly been more than a few months in England at the
+time of his meeting with Dr. <span class="smcap">Miller</span>, which was probably about 1760. The
+appointment as organist at Halifax was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> in 1765, and the pupils and
+public concerts must have filled up the intervening five years. During a
+part of this time he lived in Leeds, with the family of Mr. <span class="smcap">Bulman</span>, whom
+he afterwards provided with a place as clerk to the Octagon Chapel, in
+his usual generous manner.</p>
+
+<p>All during his life he was placing some of the less fortunate and
+energetic members of his family.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot be too grateful to Dr. <span class="smcap">Miller</span>, who, seeing his opportunity,
+used it. Their frank friendship does honor to both. <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+organ-playing, which no doubt had been begun when his brother was the
+organist of the garrison chapel at Hanover, must have been perfected at
+this time, and it was through his organ-playing that he was able to
+leave the needy life in Yorkshire.</p>
+
+<p>He was sure to have emerged sooner or later, but every year spared to
+him as a struggling musician was a year saved to Astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>During all this period, a constant correspondence
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> was maintained
+between the family at Hanover and the absent son.</p>
+
+<p>Many of <span class="smcap">William's</span> letters were written in English, and addressed to his
+brother <span class="smcap">Jacob</span>, and treated of such subjects as the Theory of Music, in
+which he was already far advanced.</p>
+
+<p>His little sister was still faithful to the memory of her <i>dearest</i>
+brother, and his father, whose health was steadily declining, became
+painfully eager for his return. In 1764 (April 2), he returned to
+Hanover on a very brief visit. He was attached to England, he was
+prospering there, and he had no inclination towards returning to a life
+in Hanover. His sister says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Of the joys and pleasures which all felt at this long-wished-for
+    meeting with my&mdash;let me say my <i>dearest</i>&mdash;brother, but a small
+    portion could fall to my share; for with my constant attendance at
+    church and school, besides the time I was employed in doing the
+    drudgery of the scullery, it was but seldom I could make one in the
+    group when the family were assembled together.</p>
+
+<p>"In the first week, some of the orchestra were invited to a concert,
+    at which some of my brother <span class="smcap">William's</span> compositions, overtures, etc.,
+    and some of my eldest brother <span class="smcap">Jacob's</span> were performed, to the great
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+    delight of my dear father, who hoped and expected that they would
+    be turned to some profit by publishing them, but there was no
+    printer who bid high enough.</p>
+
+<p>"Sunday, the 8th, was the&mdash;to me&mdash;eventful day of my confirmation,
+    and I left home not a little proud and encouraged by my dear brother
+    <span class="smcap">William's</span> approbation of my appearance in my new gown."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The engagement of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> at Halifax did not long continue. In 1766 he
+obtained an advantageous engagement as oboist at Bath, and soon after
+the position of organist at the Octagon Chapel was offered to him and
+accepted. This was a great and important change.</p>
+
+<p>Bath was then, as now, one of the most beautiful cities in England, and
+the resort of the fashion and rank of the kingdom, who came to take the
+waters. It is beautifully situated on both sides of the Avon, and has
+many fine walks and public buildings. The aspect of the city is markedly
+cheerful and brilliant, owing to the nature of the white stone of which
+the principal houses are built, and to the exquisite amphitheatre of
+hills in which they lie.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The society was then gay and polite, and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was at once thrown
+into a far more intelligent atmosphere than that he had just left in
+Yorkshire. It was easy to get new books, to see new faces, to hear new
+things. The Assembly Rooms (built in 1771) were noted for their size and
+elegance; the theatre was the best out of London.</p>
+
+<p>His position as organist of the fashionable chapel placed him in the
+current. His charming and engaging manners made him friends. His talents
+brought him admirers and pupils, and pupils brought him money.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>He began in 1766 a life of unceasing activity, which continued. In 1768
+he published in London a symphony (in C) for two violins, viola, bass,
+two oboes, and two horns, and in the same year two military concertos
+for two oboes, two horns, two trumpets, and two bassoons.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> He wrote
+pieces for the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+harp, glees, "catches," and other songs for the
+voice. One of these, the <i>Echo Catch</i>, was published and had even
+considerable vogue.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> A competent musical critic writes to me of this work: "The
+    counterpoint is clear and flowing, and is managed with considerable
+    taste and effect. It would be difficult to explain the great
+    cleverness shown in the construction of the <i>Catch</i> without diagrams
+    to illustrate the movements of the parts. It is certainly an
+    ingenious bit of musical writing."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When he left Bath (in 1782), many of these musical writings were lost,
+in his great haste to take up his new profession. One, specially, his
+sister remembers to have written out for the printer, "but he could not
+find a moment to send it off, nor answer the printer's letters." This
+was a four-part song, "In thee I bear so dear a part." He wrote very
+many anthems, chants, and psalm-tunes for the excellent cathedral choir
+of the Octagon Chapel. Unfortunately, most of this music is now not to
+be found.</p>
+
+<p>A notice of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> life which appeared in the <i>European Magazine</i>
+for 1785, January, gives a very lively picture of his life
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> at this
+time, and it is especially valuable as showing how he appeared to his
+cotemporaries.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Although Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> loved music to an excess, and made a
+    considerable progress in it, he yet determined with a sort of
+    enthusiasm to devote every moment he could spare from business to
+    the pursuit of knowledge, which he regarded as the sovereign good,
+    and in which he resolved to place all his views of future happiness
+    in life.". . . </p>
+
+<p>"His situation at the Octagon Chapel proved a very profitable one,
+    as he soon fell into all the public business of the concerts, the
+    Rooms, the Theatre, and the oratorios, besides many scholars and
+    private concerts. This great run of business, instead of lessening
+    his propensity to study, increased it, so that many times, after a
+    fatiguing day of fourteen or sixteen hours spent in his vocation, he
+    would retire at night with the greatest avidity to <i>unbend the
+    mind</i>, if it may be so called, with a few propositions in
+    <span class="smcap">Maclaurin's</span> <i>Fluxions</i>, or other books of that sort."</p>
+</div>
+<p>It was in these years that he mastered Italian and made some progress in
+Greek.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"We may hazard a natural conjecture respecting the course of
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> early studies. Music conducted him to mathematics, or, in
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+    other words, impelled him to study <span class="smcap">Smith's</span> <i>Harmonics</i>. Now this
+    <span class="smcap">Robert Smith</span> was the author of <i>A Complete System of Optics</i>, a
+    masterly work, which, notwithstanding the rapid growth of that
+    branch of the science, is not yet wholly superseded. It seems to us
+    not unlikely that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, studying the <i>Harmonics</i>, conceived a
+    reverence for the author, who was at that time still living, so that
+    from the <i>Philosophy of Music</i> he passed to the <i>Optics</i>, a work on
+    which <span class="smcap">Smith's</span> great reputation chiefly rested; and thus undesignedly
+    prepared himself for the career on which he was shortly about to
+    enter with so much glory."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p class="thoughtbreak">There is no doubt that this conjecture is a true one. The <i>Optics</i> of
+Dr. <span class="smcap">Smith</span> is one of the very few books quoted by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> throughout his
+writings, and there is every evidence of his complete familiarity with
+its conclusions and methods; and this familiarity is of the kind which a
+student acquires with his early text-books. One other work he quotes in
+the same way, <span class="smcap">Lalande's</span> <i>Astronomy</i>, and this too must have been deeply
+studied.</p>
+
+<p>During the years 1765-1772, while <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was following his profession
+and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> studies at Bath, the family life at Hanover went on in much the
+same way.</p>
+
+<p>In 1765 his father <span class="smcap">Isaac</span> had a stroke of paralysis, which ended his
+violin-playing forever, and forced him to depend entirely upon pupils
+and copying of music for a livelihood. He died on March 22, 1767,
+leaving behind him a good name, and living in the affectionate
+remembrance of his children and of all who knew him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carolina</span> had now lost her best friend, and transferred to her brother
+<span class="smcap">William</span> the affection she had before divided between him and her father.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"My father wished to give me something like a polished education,
+    but my mother was particularly determined that it should be a rough,
+    but at the same time a useful one; and nothing farther she thought
+    was necessary but to send me two or three months to a sempstress to
+    be taught to make household linen. . . . My mother would not consent to
+    my being taught French, and my brother Dietrich was even denied a
+    dancing-master, because she would not permit my learning along with
+    him, though the entrance had been paid for us both; so all my father
+    could do for me was to indulge me (and please himself) sometimes
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+    with a short lesson on the violin, when my mother was either in
+    good humor or out of the way. Though I have often felt myself
+    exceedingly at a loss for the want of those few accomplishments of
+    which I was thus, by an erroneous though well-meant opinion of my
+    mother, deprived, I could not help thinking but that she had cause
+    for wishing me not to know more than was necessary for being useful
+    in the family; for it was her certain belief that my brother <span class="smcap">William</span>
+    would have returned to his country, and my eldest brother not have
+    looked so high, if they had had a little less learning.</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p>"But sometimes I found it scarcely possible to get through with the
+    work required, and felt very unhappy that no time at all was left
+    for improving myself in music or fancy work, in which I had an
+    opportunity of receiving some instruction from an ingenious young
+    woman whose parents lived in the same house with us. But the time
+    wanted for spending a few hours together could only be obtained by
+    our meeting at daybreak, because by the time of the family's rising
+    at seven, I was obliged to be at my daily business. Though I had
+    neither time nor means for producing anything immediately either for
+    show or use, I was content with keeping samples of all possible
+    patterns in needlework, beads, bugles, horse-hair, etc., for I could
+    not help feeling troubled sometimes about my future destiny; yet I
+    could not bear the idea of being turned into an Abigail or
+    housemaid, and thought that with the above and such like
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+    acquirements, with a little notion of music, I might obtain a place
+    as governess in some family where the want of a knowledge of French
+    would be no objection."</p>
+</div>
+<p>A change was soon to come in her life too; her brother <span class="smcap">William</span> wrote to
+propose that she should join him at Bath&mdash;</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="noindent"> . . .  "to make the trial, if, by his instruction, I might not become a
+    useful singer for his winter concerts and oratorios; he advised my
+    brother <span class="smcap">Jacob</span> to give me some lessons by way of beginning; but that
+    if, after a trial of two years, we should not find it answer our
+    expectation, he would bring me back again. This at first seemed to
+    be agreeable to all parties, but by the time I had set my heart upon
+    this change in my situation, <span class="smcap">Jacob</span> began to turn the whole scheme
+    into ridicule, and, of course, he never heard the sound of my voice
+    except in speaking, and yet I was left in the harassing uncertainty
+    whether I was to go or not. I resolved at last to prepare, as far as
+    lay in my power, for both cases, by taking, in the first place,
+    every opportunity, when all were from home, to imitate, with a gag
+    between my teeth, the solo parts of concertos, <i>shake and all</i>, such
+    as I had heard them play on the violin; in consequence I had gained
+    a tolerable execution before I knew how to sing. I next began to
+    knit ruffles, which were intended for my brother <span class="smcap">William</span>, in case I
+    remained at home&mdash;else they were to be <span class="smcap">Jacob's</span>. For my mother and
+    brother D. I knitted as many cotton stockings as would last two
+    years at least."</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+<p>In August, 1772, her brother arrived at Hanover, to take her back to
+England with him. The journey to London was made between August 16th and
+26th, and soon after they went together to <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> house, No. 7 New
+King's Street, Bath.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Wife of Major <span class="smcap">John Herschel</span>, of the Royal Engineers,
+grandson of Sir <span class="smcap">William</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <a href="#Page_127">Page 127</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Memoir</i> of <span class="smcap">Carolina Herschel</span>, p. 10. Sir <span class="smcap">George Airy</span>,
+Astronomer Royal, relates in the <i>Academy</i> that this "removal" was a
+desertion, as he was told by the Duke of Sussex that on the first visit
+of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> to the king, after the discovery of the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>,
+the pardon of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was handed to him by the king himself, written
+out in due form.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <span class="smcap">F&eacute;tis</span>; <i>Biographie universelle des musiciens</i>, tome V.
+(1839) p. 141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Dr. <span class="smcap">Miller</span>, a noted organist, and afterwards historian of
+Doncaster.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>The Doctor</i>; by <span class="smcap">Robert Southey</span>, edition of 1848, p.
+140.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> He frequently gave thirty-five and thirty-eight lessons a
+week to pupils at this time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> According to <span class="smcap">F&eacute;tis</span>. A search for these in London has led
+me to the belief that <span class="smcap">F&eacute;tis</span>, who is usually very accurate, is here
+mistaken, and that these writings are by <span class="smcap">Jacob Herschel</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Foreign Quarterly Review</i>, volume 31.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="newchap">
+<span class='Cpagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="chapter"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</p>
+
+<p class="centermargin">LIFE IN BATH; 1772-1782.</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">It was to a busy life in Bath that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> took his sister <span class="smcap">Carolina</span>,
+then twenty-two years old. She was a perfectly untried girl, of very
+small accomplishments and outwardly with but little to attract. The
+basis of her character was the possibility of an unchanging devotion to
+one object; for the best years of her life this object was the happiness
+and success of her brother <span class="smcap">William</span>, whom she profoundly loved. Her love
+was headstrong and full of a kind of obstinate pride, which refused to
+see anything but the view she had adopted. As long as her life continued
+to be with her dearest brother, all was well with her. She had a noble
+aim, and her heart was more than full.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> Later on, this very singleness
+of character brought her other years of wretchedness. It is necessary to
+understand the almost spaniel-like allegiance she gave, in order to
+comprehend the value which her services were to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. She supplied
+him with an aid which was utterly loyal, entire, and devoted. Her
+obedience was unquestioning, her reverence amounted almost to adoration.
+In their relation, he gave everything in the way of incentive and
+initiative, and she returned her entire effort loyally.</p>
+
+<p>At first her business was to gain a knowledge of the language, and to
+perfect herself in singing, so that she might become a soloist in the
+concerts and oratorios which he was constantly giving.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning it was not easy.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> . . .  "As the season for the arrival of visitors to the baths does not
+    begin till October, my brother had leisure to try my capacity for
+    becoming a useful singer for his concerts and oratorios, and being
+    very well satisfied with my voice, I had two or three lessons every
+    day, and the hours which were not spent at the harpsichord, were
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+    employed in putting me in the way of managing the family. . . . On
+    the second morning, on meeting my brother at breakfast, he began
+    immediately to give me a lesson in English and arithmetic, and
+    showed me the way of booking and keeping accounts of cash received
+    and laid out. . . . By way of relaxation we talked of astronomy and the
+    bright constellations with which I had made acquaintance during the
+    fine nights we spent on the postwagen travelling through Holland.</p>
+
+<p>"My brother <span class="smcap">Alexander</span>, who had been some time in England, boarded
+    and lodged with his elder brother, and, with myself, occupied the
+    attic. The first floor, which was furnished in the newest and most
+    handsome style, my brother kept for himself. The front room,
+    containing the harpsichord, was always in order to receive his
+    musical friends and scholars at little private concerts or
+    rehearsals. . . . Sundays I received a sum for the weekly expenses, of
+    which my housekeeping book (written in English) showed the amount
+    laid out, and my purse the remaining cash. One of the principal
+    things required was to market, and about six weeks after coming to
+    England I was sent alone among fishwomen, butchers, basket-women,
+    etc., and I brought home whatever in my fright I could pick up. . . .
+    My brother <span class="smcap">Alex.</span>, who was now returned from his summer engagement,
+    used to watch me at a distance, unknown to me, till he saw me safe
+    on my way home. But all attempts to introduce any order in our
+    little household proved vain, owing to the servant my brother then
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+    had. And what still further increased my difficulty was, that my
+    brother's time was entirely taken up with business, so that I only
+    saw him at meals. Breakfast was at seven o'clock or before&mdash;much too
+    early for me, who would rather have remained up all night than be
+    obliged to rise at so early an hour. . . .</p>
+
+<p> "The three winter months passed on very heavily. I had to struggle
+    against <i>heimwehe</i> (home sickness) and low spirits, and to answer my
+    sister's melancholy letters on the death of her husband, by which
+    she became a widow with six children. I knew too little English to
+    derive any consolation from the society of those who were about me,
+    so that, dinner-time excepted, I was entirely left to myself."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>So the winter passed.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "The time when I could hope to receive a little more of my brother's
+    instruction and attention was now drawing near; for after Easter,
+    Bath becomes very empty, only a few of his scholars, whose families
+    were resident in the neighborhood, remaining. But I was greatly
+    disappointed; for, in consequence of the harassing and fatiguing
+    life he had led during the winter months, he used to retire to bed
+    with a basin of milk or glass of water, and <span class="smcap">Smith's</span> <i>Harmonics</i> and
+    <i>Optics</i>, <span class="smcap">Ferguson's</span> <i>Astronomy</i>, etc., and so went to sleep buried
+    under his favorite authors; and his first thoughts on rising were
+    how to obtain instruments for viewing those objects himself of which
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+    he had been reading. There being in one of the shops a
+    two-and-a-half-foot Gregorian telescope to be let, it was for some
+    time taken in requisition, and served not only for viewing the
+    heavens, but for making experiments on its construction. . . . It soon
+    appeared that my brother was not contented with knowing what former
+    observers had seen, for he began to contrive a telescope eighteen or
+    twenty feet long (I believe after <span class="smcap">Huyghens'</span> description). . . . I was
+    much hindered in my musical practice by my help being continually
+    wanted in the execution of the various contrivances, and I had to
+    amuse myself with making the tube of pasteboard for the glasses,
+    which were to arrive from London, for at that time no optician had
+    settled at Bath. But when all was finished, no one besides my
+    brother could get a glimpse of Jupiter or Saturn, for the great
+    length of the tube would not allow it to be kept in a straight line.
+    This difficulty, however, was soon removed by substituting tin
+    tubes. . . . My brother wrote to inquire the price of a reflecting
+    mirror for (I believe) a five or six foot telescope. The answer was,
+    there were none of so large a size, but a person offered to make one
+    at a price much above what my brother thought proper to give. . . .
+    About this time he bought of a Quaker, resident at Bath, who had
+    formerly made attempts at polishing mirrors, all his rubbish of
+    patterns, tools, hones, polishers, unfinished mirrors, etc., but all
+    for small Gregorians, and none above two or three inches diameter.</p>
+
+<p> "But nothing serious could be attempted, for want
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>of time, till the
+    beginning of June, when some of my brother's scholars were leaving
+    Bath; and then, to my sorrow, I saw almost every room turned into a
+    workshop. A cabinet-maker making a tube and stands of all
+    descriptions in a handsomely furnished drawing-room; <span class="smcap">Alex.</span> putting
+    up a huge turning machine (which he had brought in the autumn from
+    Bristol, where he used to spend the summer) in a bedroom, for
+    turning patterns, grinding glasses, and turning eye-pieces, etc. At
+    the same time music durst not lie entirely dormant during the
+    summer, and my brother had frequent rehearsals at home, where Miss
+    <span class="smcap">Farinelli</span>, an Italian singer, was met by several of the principal
+    performers he had engaged for the winter concerts."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Finally, in 1774, he had made himself a Gregorian telescope,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and had
+begun to view the heavens. He was then thirty-six years old.</p>
+
+<p>The writer in the <i>European Magazine</i> describes this period:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "All this time he continued his astronomical observations, and
+    nothing now seemed wanting to complete his felicity, but sufficient
+    leisure to enjoy his telescopes, to which he was so much attached,
+    that at the theatre he used frequently to run from the harpsichord
+    to look at the stars, during the time between the acts."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+In an extract from his <i>Journal No. 1</i>, now at the rooms of the Royal
+Society, may be seen a copy of his first observation of the Nebula of
+<i>Orion</i>, on March 4, 1774. This was made with his five-and-a-half-foot
+Gregorian reflector.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time (1775), between the acts of the theatre, that he
+made his first review of the heavens, with a Newtonian telescope, of an
+aperture of four and a half inches and a magnifying power of 222 times.
+This telescope was one of the first made by himself. The review
+consisted of the examination of every star in the sky of the first,
+second, third, and fourth magnitudes, and of all planets visible. There
+are no records of these observations now extant, and they are noteworthy
+only as a preparation for more serious work.</p>
+
+<p>He was carrying out his resolve to see everything for himself. His
+assiduity may be judged of by the fact that between 1774 and 1781
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had observed a single object&mdash;the Nebula of <i>Orion</i>&mdash;no less
+than fourteen times.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The success of his first telescopes incited him to new efforts. His
+house became a complete <i>atelier</i>, where everything that could tend to
+excellence in this manufacture was tried and re-tried a hundred
+different ways. When a difficulty arose, experiments were begun which
+continued till it was conquered. When a success was gained, it was
+prosecuted to the utmost.</p>
+
+<p>In 1775 the first seven-foot reflector was made, in 1777 a ten-foot was
+finished, in 1778 a "very good" ten-foot took its place. It must not be
+thought that the telescopes mentioned were the only ones completed. On
+the contrary, they were but the best ones selected out of many.</p>
+
+<p>In 1774 a new house had been engaged, which had "more room for
+workshops," and whose roof gave space for observing. The grass-plat near
+it was soon utilized to hold the stand of a twenty-foot telescope, which
+he had even then projected. His projects were unending, no success was
+final; his mind was at the height of activity; his whole effort was
+thrown into every undertaking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The mirrors for all these telescopes were made by hand. Every portion of
+the grinding down to rough dimensions, the shaping to something near the
+correct form, the polishing till the accurately exact curves were
+obtained, all this must be done by hand. The machines for the purpose
+were not invented until 1788.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> and <span class="smcap">William</span> worked together at this, but most of the work was
+done by the latter. The sister's part was to attend in the workshop and
+lend a hand wherever and whenever it was needed.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="noindent"> . . .  "My time was taken up with copying music and practising, besides
+    attendance on my brother when polishing, since by way of keeping him
+    alive I was constantly obliged to feed him by putting the victuals
+    by bits into his mouth. This was once the case when, in order to
+    finish a seven-foot mirror, he had not taken his hands from it for
+    sixteen hours together. In general he was never unemployed at meals,
+    but was always at those times contriving or making drawings of
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+    whatever came in his mind. Generally I was obliged to read to him
+    whilst he was at the turning-lathe, or polishing mirrors, <i>Don
+    Quixote</i>, <i>Arabian Nights' Entertainment</i>, the novels of <span class="smcap">Sterne</span>,
+    <span class="smcap">Fielding</span>, etc.; serving tea and supper without interrupting the work
+    with which he was engaged, . . . and sometimes lending a hand. I
+    became, in time, as useful a member of the workshop as a boy might
+    be to his master in the first year of his apprenticeship. . . . But as
+    I was to take a part the next year in the oratorios, I had, for a
+    whole twelvemonth, two lessons per week from Miss <span class="smcap">Fleming</span>, the
+    celebrated dancing-mistress, to drill me for a gentlewoman (God
+    knows how she succeeded). So we lived on without interruption. My
+    brother <span class="smcap">Alex.</span> was absent from Bath for some months every summer, but
+    when at home he took much pleasure in executing some turning or
+    clockmaker's work for his brother."</p>
+</div>
+<p>News from Hanover put a sudden stop, for a time, to all these labors.
+The mother wrote, in the utmost distress, to say that <span class="smcap">Dietrich</span> had
+disappeared from his home, it was supposed with the intention of going
+to India "with a young idler not older than himself." His brother
+immediately left the lathe at which he was turning an eye-piece in
+cocoa-nut, and started for Holland, whence he proceeded to Hanover,
+failing to meet his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> brother, as he expected. Meanwhile the sister
+received a letter to say that <span class="smcap">Dietrich</span> was "laid up very ill" at an inn
+in Wapping. <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> posted to town, removed him to a lodging, and,
+after a fortnight's nursing, brought him to Bath, where, on his brother
+<span class="smcap">William's</span> return, he found him being well cared for by his sister.</p>
+
+<p>About this time another change was made to the house 19 New King Street,
+which was the last move in Bath. It was here that the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>
+was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The music still went on. The oratorios of the <i>Messiah</i>, <i>Judas
+Maccabeus</i>, and <i>Samson</i> were to be performed under <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+direction, with an orchestra of nearly one hundred pieces. The scores
+and vocal parts of these <span class="smcap">Carolina</span> copied with her own hands, and the
+<i>soprani</i> were instructed by her, she being the leading soloist. Along
+with the music went the astronomy. Not only were new telescopes made,
+but they were made for immediate use.</p>
+
+<p>The variable star <i>Mira Ceti</i> was observed, and a long series of lunar
+observations begun.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "In 1779, 1780, and 1781 I measured the heights of about one hundred
+    mountains of the moon, by three different methods.</p>
+
+<p> "Some of these observations are given in <i>Philosophical</i>
+    <i>Transactions</i>, vol. LXX., but most remain uncalculated in my journal
+    <i>till some proper opportunity."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></i></p>
+</div>
+<p class="thoughtbreak">While <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was measuring these lunar mountains, in December, 1779,
+he made by chance an acquaintance of much value to him. Dr. <span class="smcap">William
+Watson</span>, a Fellow of the Royal Society, distinguished for his researches
+in electricity, happened to see him at his telescope, and this led to a
+visit and an invitation to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> to join the Philosophical Society of
+Bath, then forming. This he gladly did, and it was of use to him in many
+ways.</p>
+
+<p>He there formed acquaintance with men of his own way of thinking, and he
+himself became known. Better than all, he learned to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> measure himself
+with other men, and by his early papers read to the Society, he gained
+skill in putting his thoughts before his hearers. This skill he never
+lost, and the merely literary art of his memoirs would make his papers
+remarkable without their other merits. He is always clear, and in his
+early papers especially, he appeals to his particular audience&mdash;the
+Royal Society&mdash;in a way which shows that he is conscious of all its
+weaknesses as well as of its dignity. Later, his tone slightly changed.
+He became less anxious to win his audience, for he had become an
+authority. This knowledge lent a quiet strength to his style, but never
+induced the slightest arrogance of spirit or manner.</p>
+
+<p>The Bath Philosophical Society has left no printed proceedings. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+was one of its earliest members, and many papers were communicated to it
+by his hand. These appear to have been of a very miscellaneous nature.
+Some of them at least would be of the highest interest to us now.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1789, p. 220, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> tells us
+that he communicated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> to that Society "certain mathematical papers"
+relating to central forces other than the force of gravity, which are or
+may be concerned in the construction of the sidereal heavens. This early
+idea was still entertained by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> in 1789, and the mathematical
+papers referred to must be contained in the <i>Minutes</i> of the Society,
+which on its dissolution were torn from the Minute-book and returned to
+the writers.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest published writing of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is the answer to the prize
+question in the "Ladies' Diary" for 1779, proposed by the celebrated
+<span class="smcap">Landen</span>, namely:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "The length, tension, and weight of a musical string being given, it
+    is required to find how many vibrations it will make in a given
+    time, when a small given weight is fastened to its middle and
+    vibrates with it."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of the Royal Society for 1780, are
+two papers of his. The title of the first is, <i>Astronomical Observations
+on the Periodical Star in Collo Ceti</i>, by Mr. <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, of Bath.
+This was communicated to the Society by Dr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> <span class="smcap">William Watson</span>, Jr., and
+was read May 11, 1780, at the same time as the other paper on the
+mountains of the moon. It is to be noted that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was at this time
+plain "Mr. <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, of Bath." It was only in 1786 that he
+became "Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>," through the Oxford degree of LL.D.</p>
+
+<p>Neither of these two papers is specially remarkable on its purely
+astronomical side. The problems examined were such as lay open before
+all, and the treatment of them was such as would naturally be suggested.</p>
+
+<p>The second of these two contained, however, a short description of his
+Newtonian telescope, and he speaks of it with a just pride: "I believe
+that for distinctness of vision this instrument is perhaps equal to any
+that was ever made." He was, at least, certain of having obtained
+excellence in the making of his instruments.</p>
+
+<p>In his next paper, however, read January 11, 1781, a subject is
+approached which shows a different kind of thought. It is the first
+obvious proof of the truth of the statement which he made long
+afterwards (1811),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> when he said: "A knowledge of the construction of
+the heavens has always been the ultimate object of my observations."</p>
+
+<p>The title of this paper was <i>Astronomical Observations on the Rotation
+of the Planets round their Axes, made with a view to determine whether
+the Earth's diurnal motion is perfectly equable</i>. Here the question is a
+difficult and a remote one, and the method adopted for its solution is
+perfectly suitable in principle. It marks a step onward from mere
+observations to philosophizing upon their results. In practical
+astronomy, too, we note an advance. Not only are his results given, but
+also careful estimates of the errors to be feared in them, and a
+discussion of the sources of such errors. The same volume of the
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i> which contains this paper, also contains
+another, <i>Account of a Comet</i>, read April 26, 1781. This comet was the
+major planet <i>Uranus</i>, or, as <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> named it, <i>Georgium Sidus</i>. He
+had found it on the night of Tuesday, March 13, 1781. "In examining the
+small stars in the neighborhood of H <i>Geminorum</i>, I perceived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> one that
+appeared visibly larger than the rest; being struck with its uncommon
+appearance, I compared it to H <i>Geminorum</i> and the small star in the
+quartile between <i>Auriga</i> and <i>Gemini</i>, and finding it so much larger
+than either of them, I suspected it to be a comet." The "comet" was
+observed over all Europe. Its orbit was computed by various astronomers,
+and its distance from the sun was found to be nineteen times that of our
+earth. This was no comet, but a new major planet. The discovery of the
+amateur astronomer of Bath was the most striking since the invention of
+the telescope. It had absolutely no parallel, for every other major
+planet had been known from time immemorial.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>The effect of the discoveries of <span class="smcap">Galileo</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> was felt almost more in the
+moral than in the scientific world. The mystic number of the planets was
+broken up by the introduction of four satellites to <i>Jupiter</i>. That
+<i>Venus</i> emulated the phases of our moon, overthrew superstition and
+seated the Copernican theory firmly. The discovery of "an innumerable
+multitude of fixed stars" in the Milky Way confounded the received
+ideas. This was the great mission of the telescope in <span class="smcap">Galileo's</span> hands.</p>
+
+<p>The epoch of mere astronomical discovery began with the detection of the
+large satellite of <i>Saturn</i> by <span class="smcap">Huyghens</span>, in 1655. Even then superstition
+was not dead. <span class="smcap">Huyghens</span> did not search for more moons, because by that
+discovery he had raised the number of known satellites to six,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and
+because these, with the six planets, made "the perfect number twelve."</p>
+
+<p>From 1671 to 1684 <span class="smcap">Cassini</span> discovered four more moons revolving about
+<i>Saturn</i>. Since 1684 no new body had been added to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> the solar system. It
+was thought complete for nearly a century.</p>
+
+<p>In England, the remarkable discoveries of <span class="smcap">Bradley</span> (1727-62) had been in
+the field of practical astronomy, and his example had set the key-note
+for further researches. France was just about beginning the brilliant
+period of her discoveries in mathematical astronomy, and had no
+observatory devoted to investigations like <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>, with the possible
+exception of <span class="smcap">Darquier's</span> and <span class="smcap">Flaugergues'</span>. The observatories of <span class="smcap">Schroeter</span>
+and <span class="smcap">Von Hahn</span>, in Germany, were not yet active. The field which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+was created to fill was vacant, the whole world over. It was especially
+so in England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich, under <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span>, a
+skilful observer, whose work was mostly confined to meridian
+observations, was no rival to a private observatory like <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>. The
+private observatories themselves were but small affairs; those of the
+king, at Kew, of Dr. <span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, at Glasgow, of Mr. <span class="smcap">Aubert</span>, at Loampit Hill,
+of the Count <span class="smcap">von Bruhl</span>, in London,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> being perhaps the most important.
+The whole field was open. What was perhaps more remarkable, there was in
+England, during <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> lifetime, no astronomer, public or private,
+whose talents, even as an observer, lay in the same direction.</p>
+
+<p>It hardly need be said that as a philosopher in his science, he had then
+no rival, as he has had none since. His only associates even, were
+<span class="smcap">Michell</span> and <span class="smcap">Wilson</span>.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Without depreciating the abilities of the astronomers of England, his
+cotemporaries, we may fairly say that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> stood a great man among a
+group of small ones.</p>
+
+<p>Let us endeavor to appreciate the change effected in the state of
+astronomy not only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> in England but in the whole world, simply by the
+discovery of <i>Uranus</i>. Suppose, for example, that the last planet in our
+system had been <i>Saturn</i>. No doubt <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> would have gone on. In spite
+of one and another difficulty, he would have made his ten-foot, his
+twenty-foot telescopes. His forty-foot would never have been built, and
+the two satellites which he found with it might not have been
+discovered. Certainly <i>Mimas</i> would not have been. His researches on the
+construction of the heavens would have been made; those were in his
+brain, and must have been ultimated. The mass of observations of
+<i>Saturn</i>, of <i>Jupiter</i>, of <i>Mars</i>, of <i>Venus</i>, would have been made and
+published. The researches on the sun, on the "invisible rays" of heat,
+on comets and nebul&aelig;&mdash;all these might have been made, printed, and read.</p>
+
+<p>But these would have gone into the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> as the
+work of an amateur astronomer, "Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, of Bath." They would have
+been praised, and they would have been doubted. It would have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> taken a
+whole generation to have appreciated them. They would have been severely
+tried, entirely on their merits, and finally they would have stood where
+they stand to-day&mdash;unrivalled. But through what increased labors these
+successes would have been gained! It is not merely that the patronage of
+the king, the subsidies for the forty-foot telescope (&pound;4,000), the
+comparative ease of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> life would have been lacking. It is more
+than this. It would have been necessary for him to have created the
+audience to which he appealed, and to have conquered the most persistent
+of enemies&mdash;indifference.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly, if <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> mind had been other than it was, the discovery
+of <i>Uranus</i>, which brought him honors from every scientific society in
+the world, and which gave him authority, might have had a hurtful
+effect. But, as he was, there was nothing which could have aided his
+career more than this startling discovery. It was needed for him. It
+completed the solar system far more by affording a free play to a
+profoundly philosophical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> mind, than by occupying the vacant spaces
+beyond <i>Saturn</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His opportunities would have been profoundly modified, though his
+personal worth would have been the same.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="noindent">"The Star that from the zenith darts its beams,
+<br />&nbsp;Visible though it be to half the earth,
+<br />&nbsp;Though half a sphere be conscious of its brightness,
+<br />&nbsp;Is yet of no diviner origin,
+<br />&nbsp;No purer essence, than the One that burns
+<br />&nbsp;Like an untended watchfire, on the ridge
+<br />&nbsp;Of some dark mountain; or than those that seem
+<br />&nbsp;Humbly to hang, like twinkling winter lamps,
+<br />&nbsp;Among the branches of the leafless trees."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To show how completely unknown the private astronomer of Bath was at
+this time, I transcribe a sentence from <span class="smcap">Bode's</span> account of the discovery
+of <i>Uranus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "In the <i>Gazette Litt&eacute;raire</i> of June, 1781, this worthy man is
+    called <span class="smcap">Mersthel</span>; in <span class="smcap">Julius'</span> <i>Journal Encyclop&eacute;dique</i>, <span class="smcap">Hertschel</span>; in
+    a letter from Mr. <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span> to M. <span class="smcap">Messier</span>, <span class="smcap">Herthel</span>; in another
+    letter of <span class="smcap">Maskelyne's</span> to Herr <span class="smcap">Mayer</span>, at Mannheim, <span class="smcap">Herrschell</span>; M.
+    <span class="smcap">Darquier</span> calls him <span class="smcap">Hermstel</span>. What may his name be? He must have been
+    born a <i>German</i>."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+This obscurity did not long continue. The news spread quickly from
+fashionable Bath to London. On the 6th of December, 1781, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was
+elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, to which he was formally
+"admitted" May 30, 1782. He was forty-three years old.</p>
+
+<p>He also received the Copley medal in 1781 for his "discovery of a new
+and singular star."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> . . .  "He was now frequently interrupted by visitors who were
+    introduced by some of his resident scholars, among whom I remember
+    Sir <span class="smcap">Harry Engelfield</span>, Dr. <span class="smcap">Blagden</span>, and Dr. <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span>. With the
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+    latter he was engaged in a long conversation, which to me sounded
+    like quarrelling, and the first words my brother said after he was
+    gone were: 'That is a devil of a fellow.'. . . </p>
+
+<p> "I suppose their names were often not known, or were forgotten; for
+    it was not till the year 1782 or 1783 that a memorandum of the names
+    of visitors was thought of.". . . "My brother now applied himself to
+    perfect his mirrors, erecting in his garden a stand for his
+    twenty-foot telescope; many trials were necessary before the
+    required motions for such an unwieldy machine could be contrived.
+    Many attempts were made by way of experiment before an intended
+    thirty-foot telescope could be completed, for which, between whiles
+    (not interrupting the observations with seven, ten, and twenty-foot,
+    and writing papers for both the Royal and Bath Philosophical
+    Societies), gauges, shapes, weight, etc., of the mirror were
+    calculated, and trials of the composition of the metal were made. In
+    short, I saw nothing else and heard nothing else talked of but these
+    things when my brothers were together. <span class="smcap">Alex.</span> was always very alert,
+    assisting when anything new was going forward, but he wanted
+    perseverance, and never liked to confine himself at home for many
+    hours together. And so it happened that my brother <span class="smcap">William</span> was
+    obliged to make trial of my abilities in copying for him catalogues,
+    tables, etc., and sometimes whole papers which were lent him for his
+    perusal. Among them was one by Mr. <span class="smcap">Michell</span> and a catalogue of
+    <span class="smcap">Christian Mayer</span>, in Latin, which kept me employed when my brother
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+    was at the telescope at night. When I found that a hand was
+    sometimes wanted when any particular measures were to be made with
+    the lamp micrometer, etc., or a fire to be kept up, or a dish of
+    coffee necessary during a long night's watching, I undertook with
+    pleasure what others might have thought a hardship. . . . Since the
+    discovery of the <i>Georgium Sidus</i> [March 13, 1781], I believe few
+    men of learning or consequence left Bath before they had seen and
+    conversed with its discoverer, and thought themselves fortunate in
+    finding him at home on their repeated visits. Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> was
+    almost an intimate, for hardly a day passed but he had something to
+    communicate from the letters which he received from Sir <span class="smcap">Joseph
+    Banks</span>, and other members of the Royal Society, from which it
+    appeared that my brother was expected in town to receive the gold
+    medal. The end of November was the most precarious season for
+    absenting himself. But Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> went with him, and it was
+    arranged so that they set out with the diligence at night, and by
+    that means his absence did not last above three or four days, when
+    my brother returned alone, Sir <span class="smcap">William</span> remaining with his father.</p>
+
+<p> "Now a very busy winter was commencing; for my brother had engaged
+    himself to conduct the oratorios conjointly with <span class="smcap">Ronzini</span>, and had
+    made himself answerable for the payment of the engaged performers,
+    for his credit ever stood high in the opinion of every one he had to
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+    deal with. (He lost considerably by this arrangement.) But, though
+    at times much harassed with business, the mirror for the thirty-foot
+    reflector was never out of his mind, and if a minute could but be
+    spared in going from one scholar to another, or giving one the slip,
+    he called at home to see how the men went on with the furnace, which
+    was built in a room below, even with the garden.</p>
+
+<p> "The mirror was to be cast in a mould of loam, of which an immense
+    quantity was to be pounded in a mortar and sifted through a fine
+    sieve. It was an endless piece of work, and served me for many an
+    hour's exercise; and <span class="smcap">Alex.</span> frequently took his turn at it, for we
+    were all eager to do something towards the great undertaking. Even
+    Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> would sometimes take the pestle from me when he
+    found me in the work-room, where he expected to find his friend, in
+    whose concerns he took so much interest that he felt much
+    disappointed at not being allowed to pay for the metal. But I do not
+    think my brother ever accepted pecuniary assistance from any one of
+    his friends, and on this occasion he declined the offer by saying it
+    was paid for already.</p>
+
+<p> "Among the Bath visitors were many philosophical gentlemen who used
+    to frequent the lev&eacute;es at St. James's, when in town. Colonel <span class="smcap">Walsh</span>,
+    in particular, informed my brother that from a conversation he had
+    had with His Majesty, it appeared that in the spring he was to come
+    with his seven-foot telescope to the king. Similar reports he
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+    received from many others, but they made no great impression nor
+    caused any interruption in his occupation or study, and as soon as
+    the season for the concerts was over, and the mould, etc., in
+    readiness, a day was set apart for casting, and the metal was in the
+    furnace. Unfortunately it began to leak at the moment when ready for
+    pouring, and both my brothers and the caster, with his men, were
+    obliged to run out at opposite doors, for the stone flooring (which
+    ought to have been taken up) flew about in all directions as high as
+    the ceiling. Before the second casting was attempted, everything
+    which could insure success had been attended to, and a very perfect
+    metal was found in the mould.</p>
+
+<p> "But a total stop and derangement now took place, and nearly six or
+    seven months elapsed before my brother could return to the
+    undisturbed enjoyment of his instruments and observations. For one
+    morning in Passion Week, as Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> was with my brother,
+    talking about the pending journey to town, my eldest nephew arrived
+    to pay us a visit, and brought the confirmation that his uncle was
+    expected with his instrument in town. . . . We had not one night in the
+    week, except Friday, but what was set apart for an oratorio either
+    at Bath or Bristol. Soon after Easter, a new organ being erected in
+    St. James's Church, it was opened with two performances of the
+    'Messiah;' this again took up some of my brother's time.". . . </p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In May of 1782 <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> went to London.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "But when almost double the time had elapsed which <span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>my brother could
+    safely be absent from his scholars, <span class="smcap">Alex.</span>, as well as myself, were
+    much at a loss how to answer their inquiries, for, from the letters
+    we received, we could learn nothing but that he had been introduced
+    to the king and queen, and had permission to come to the concerts at
+    Buckingham House, where the king conversed with him about
+    astronomy."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was during his absence at this time that the three following letters
+were written and received:</p>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p> "<span class="smcap">Dear Lina</span>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p> "I have had an audience of His Majesty this morning, and met with a
+    very gracious reception. I presented him with the drawing of the
+    solar system, and had the honor of explaining it to him and the
+    queen. My telescope is in three weeks' time to go to Richmond, and
+    meanwhile to be put up at Greenwich, where I shall accordingly carry
+    it to-day. So you see, <span class="smcap">Lina</span>, that you must not think of seeing me in
+    less than a month. I shall write to Miss <span class="smcap">Lee</span> myself; and other
+    scholars who inquire for me, you may tell that I cannot wait on them
+    till His Majesty shall be pleased to give me leave to return, or
+    rather to dismiss me, for till then I must attend. I will also write
+    to Mr. <span class="smcap">Palmer</span> to acquaint him with it.</p>
+
+<p> "I am in a great hurry, therefore can write no more at present. Tell
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+    <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> that everything looks very likely as if I were to stay
+    here. The king inquired after him, and after my great speculum. He
+    also gave me leave to come to hear the <span class="smcap">Griesbachs</span> play at the
+    private concert which he has every evening. My having seen the king
+    need not be kept a secret, but about my staying here it will be best
+    not to say anything, but only that I must remain here till His
+    Majesty has observed the planets with my telescope.</p>
+
+<p> "Yesterday I dined with Colonel <span class="smcap">Walsh</span>, who inquired after you. There
+    were Mr. <span class="smcap">Aubert</span> and Dr. <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span>. Dr. <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span> in public declared
+    his obligations to me for having introduced to them the high powers,
+    for Mr. <span class="smcap">Aubert</span> has so much succeeded with them that he says he looks
+    down upon 200, 300, or 400 with contempt, and immediately begins
+    with 800. He has used 2,500 very completely, and seen my fine double
+    stars with them. All my papers are printing, with the postscript and
+    all, and are allowed to be very valuable. You see, <span class="smcap">Lina</span>, I tell you
+    all these things. You know vanity is not my foible, therefore I need
+    not fear your censure. Farewell.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center">"I am, your affectionate brother,</p>
+
+<div class="address"><p>"<span class="smcap">Wm. Herschel</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p>    "Saturday Morning,</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 4em;">"probably <i>May 25, 1782</i>."</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="centermargin">TO MISS HERSCHEL.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><p>"Monday Evening, <i>June 3, 1782.</i></p></div>
+
+<p class="noindent"> "<span class="smcap">Dear&nbsp;Lina</span>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p> "I pass my time between Greenwich and London agreeably enough, but
+    am rather at a loss for work that I like. Company is not always
+    pleasing, and I would much rather be polishing a speculum. Last
+    Friday I was at the king's concert to hear <span class="smcap">George</span> play. The king
+    spoke to me as soon as he saw me, and kept me in conversation for
+    half an hour. He asked <span class="smcap">George</span> to play a solo-concerto on purpose
+    that I might hear him; and <span class="smcap">George</span> plays extremely well, is very much
+    improved, and the king likes him very much. These two last nights I
+    have been star-gazing at Greenwich with Dr. <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span> and Mr.
+    <span class="smcap">Aubert</span>. We have compared our telescopes together, and mine was found
+    very superior to any of the Royal Observatory. Double stars which
+    they could not see with their instruments I had the pleasure to show
+    them very plainly, and my mechanism is so much approved of that Dr.
+    <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span> has already ordered a model to be taken from mine, and a
+    stand to be made by it to his reflector. He is, however, now so much
+    out of love with his instrument that he begins to doubt whether it
+    <i>deserves</i> a new stand.</p>
+
+<p> "I am introduced to the best company. To-morrow I dine at Lord
+    <span class="smcap">Palmerston's</span>, next day with Sir <span class="smcap">Joseph Banks</span>, etc., etc. Among
+    opticians and astronomers nothing now is talked of but <i>what they
+    call</i> my great discoveries. Alas! this shows how far they are
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+    behind, when such trifles as I have seen and done are called
+    <i>great</i>. Let me but get at it again! I will make such telescopes,
+    and see such things&mdash;that is, I will endeavor to do so."</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="center">TO MISS HERSCHEL.</p>
+
+<div class="address"><p class="size09">"<i>July 3, 1782.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p class="noindent">"<span class="smcap">Dear Carolina</span>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p> "I have been so much employed that you will not wonder at my not
+    writing sooner. The letter you sent me last Monday came very safe to
+    me. As Dr. <span class="smcap">Watson</span> has been so good as to acquaint you and <span class="smcap">Alexander</span>
+    with my situation, I was still more easy in my silence to you. Last
+    night the King, the Queen, the Prince of Wales, the Princess Royal,
+    Princess <span class="smcap">Sophia</span>, Princess <span class="smcap">Augusta</span>, etc., Duke of <span class="smcap">Montague</span>, Dr.
+    <span class="smcap">Heberden, M. de Luc</span>, etc., etc., saw my telescope, and it was a very
+    fine evening. My instrument gave general satisfaction. The king has
+    very good eyes, and enjoys observations with telescopes exceedingly.</p>
+
+<p> "This evening, as the king and queen are gone to Kew, the princesses
+    were desirous of seeing my telescope, but wanted to know if it was
+    possible to see without going out on the grass, and were much
+    pleased when they heard that my telescope could be carried into any
+    place they liked best to have it. About eight o'clock it was moved
+    into the queen's apartments, and we waited some time in hopes of
+    seeing <i>Jupiter</i> or <i>Saturn</i>. Meanwhile I showed the princesses, and
+    several other ladies who were present, the speculum, the
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+    micrometers, the movements of the telescopes, and other things that
+    seemed to excite their curiosity. When the evening appeared to be
+    totally unpromising, I proposed an artificial <i>Saturn</i> as an object,
+    since we could not have the real one. I had beforehand prepared this
+    little piece, as I guessed by the appearance of the weather in the
+    afternoon we should have no stars to look at. This being accepted
+    with great pleasure, I had the lamps lighted up which illuminated
+    the picture of a <i>Saturn</i> (cut out in pasteboard) at the bottom of
+    the garden wall. The effect was fine, and so natural that the best
+    astronomer might have been deceived. Their royal highnesses and
+    other ladies seemed to be much pleased with the artifice.</p>
+
+<p> "I remained in the queen's apartment with the ladies till about half
+    after ten; when in conversation with them I found them extremely
+    well instructed in every subject that was introduced, and they
+    seemed to be most amiable characters. To-morrow evening they hope to
+    have better luck, and nothing will give me greater happiness than to
+    be able to show them some of those beautiful objects with which the
+    heavens are so gloriously <ins class="correction" title="Transcribers note: original missing closing quotes">ornamented."</ins></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class="smcap">Carolina's</span> diary goes on:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="thoughtbreak">"Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> returned to Bath after a fort-night or three
+    weeks' stay. From him we heard that my brother was invited to
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+    Greenwich with the telescope, where he was met by a numerous party
+    of astronomical and learned gentlemen, and trials of his instrument
+    were made. In these letters he complained of being obliged to lead
+    an idle life, having nothing to do but to pass between London and
+    Greenwich. Sir <span class="smcap">William</span> received many letters, which he was so kind
+    as to communicate to us. By these, and from those to <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> or to
+    me, we learned that the king wished to see the telescope at Windsor.
+    At last a letter, dated July 2, arrived from <span class="smcap">Therese</span>, and from this
+    and several succeeding ones we gathered that the king would not
+    suffer my brother to return to his profession again, and by his
+    writing several times for a supply of money we could only suppose
+    that he himself was in uncertainty about the time of his return.</p>
+
+<p> "In the last week of July my brother came home, and immediately
+    prepared for removing to Datchet, where he had taken a house with a
+    garden and grass-plat annexed, quite suitable for the purpose of an
+    observing-place. Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> spent nearly the whole time at
+    our house, and he was not the only friend who truly grieved at my
+    brother's going from Bath; or feared his having perhaps agreed to no
+    very advantageous offers; their fears were, in fact, not without
+    reason. . . . The prospect of entering again on the toils of teaching,
+    etc., which awaited my brother at home (the months of leisure being
+    now almost gone by), appeared to him an intolerable waste of time,
+    and by way of alternative he chose to be royal astronomer, with a
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+    salary of &pound;200 a year. Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span> was the only one to whom
+    the sum was mentioned, and he exclaimed, 'Never bought monarch honor
+    so cheap!' To every other inquirer, my brother's answer was that the
+    king had provided for him."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">On the 1st of August, 1782, the family removed to Datchet. The last
+musical duty was performed on Whit-Sunday, 1782, in St. Margaret's
+Chapel, Bath, when the anthem for the day was of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> own
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The end of the introductory epoch of his life is reached. Henceforth he
+lived in his observatory, and from his forty-fourth year onwards he only
+left it for short periods to go to London to submit his classic memoirs
+to the Royal Society. Even for these occasions he chose periods of
+moonlight, when no observations could be made.</p>
+
+<p>
+He was a private man no longer. Henceforth he belongs to the whole
+world.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Probably on the model of one of <span class="smcap">Short's</span> Gregorian
+telescopes, which were then the best instruments of the kind.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> For a description of the main points of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+processes of making reflectors, which will illustrate his strong
+mechanical talents, see <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i>, eighth edition,
+article <i>Telescope</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> These have never been published, nor is it likely at this
+day, when our measuring instruments are so greatly improved, that they
+would be of any material value to science, although of interest as
+giving the proofs of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> assiduity and skill. He was always more
+than the maker of telescopes, for he was never content until they were
+applied to the problems of astronomy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Arago</span> has implied that if <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had directed his
+telescope to <i>Uranus</i> only eleven days earlier than he did, this
+discovery would have escaped him, since at that time (March 2, 1781) the
+planet was at its <i>station</i>, and had no motion relative to the star.
+This is an entire misconception, since the new planet was detected by
+its physical appearance, and not by its motion. Does any one suppose
+that "a new and singular star" like this would have been once viewed and
+then forgotten?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Four of <i>Jupiter</i>, one of the earth, and one of <i>Saturn</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <span class="smcap">John Michell</span> had been a member of the Royal Society since
+1760: he died in 1793. He was a philosophical thinker, as is shown by
+his memoirs on the distances of the stars, and by his invention of the
+method for determining the earth's density. It is not certain that he
+was personally known to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, although his writings were familiar to
+the latter.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Alexander Wilson</span> was Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow, and is chiefly
+known to us by his theory of the nature of the solar spots, which was
+adopted and enlarged by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. He died in 1786; but the families of
+<span class="smcap">Wilson</span> and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> remained close friends.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Berliner Jahrbuch</i>, 1784, p. 211. In the <i>Connaissance
+des Tems</i> for 1784 he is called "<span class="smcap">Horochelle</span>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> At the presentation Sir <span class="smcap">Joseph Banks</span>, the President of the
+Royal Society, said: "In the name of the Royal Society I present to you
+this gold medal, the reward which they have assigned to your successful
+labors, and I exhort you to continue diligently to cultivate those
+fields of science which have produced to you a harvest of so much honor.
+Your attention to the improvement of telescopes has already amply repaid
+the labor which you have bestowed upon them; but the treasures of the
+heavens are well known to be inexhaustible. Who can say but your new
+star, which exceeds <i>Saturn</i> in its distance from the sun, may exceed
+him as much in magnificence of attendance? Who knows what new rings, new
+satellites, or what other nameless and numberless phenomena remain
+behind, waiting to reward future industry and improvement?"</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="newchap"><span class='Cpagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></div>
+<p class="chapter"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</p>
+
+<p class="centermargin">LIFE AT DATCHET, CLAY HALL, AND SLOUGH; 1782-1822.</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The new house at Datchet, which was occupied from 1782 till 1785, was a
+source of despair to <span class="smcap">Carolina Herschel</span>, who looked upon its desolate and
+isolated condition with a housekeeper's eyes. This was nothing to her
+brother, who gayly consented to live upon "eggs and bacon," now that he
+was free at last to mind the heavens. The ruinous state of the place had
+no terrors in his eyes, for was there not a laundry which would serve as
+a library, a large stable which was just the place for the grinding of
+mirrors, and a grass-plat for the small twenty-foot reflector?</p>
+
+<p>Here they set to work at astronomy; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> brother with the twenty-foot,
+the sister aiding him, and at odd times sweeping for comets. In the
+course of her life she discovered no less than eight, and five of these
+were first seen by her.</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">In 1787 <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> wrote his paper "On three Volcanoes in the Moon," which
+he had observed in April of that year. In this he mentions previous
+observations of the same sort. I do not remember that the following
+account of these has ever been put on record in English. Baron <span class="smcap">von Zach</span>
+writes from London to <span class="smcap">Bode</span>:<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Probably you have heard also of the volcanoes in the moon, which
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> has observed. . . . I will give you an account of it as I
+    heard it from his own lips. Dr. <span class="smcap">Lind</span>, a worthy physician in Windsor,
+    who has made himself known through his two journeys in China, and
+    who is a friend of our <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>, was with his wife one evening on
+    a visit to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> in Datchet [1783, May 4]. On this evening there
+    was to be an occultation of a star at the moon's dark limb. This was
+    observed by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> and Doctor <span class="smcap">Lind</span>. Mrs. <span class="smcap">Lind</span> wished also to see
+    what was occurring, and placed herself at a telescope and watched
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+    attentively.</p>
+
+<p> "Scarcely had the star disappeared before Mrs. <span class="smcap">Lind</span> thought she saw
+    it again, and exclaimed that the star had gone in front of, and not
+    behind the moon. This provoked a short astronomical lecture on the
+    question, but still she would not credit it, because she <i>saw</i>
+    differently. Finally <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> stepped to the telescope, and in fact
+    he saw a bright point on the dark disc of the moon, which he
+    followed attentively. It gradually became fainter and finally
+    vanished.". . . </p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The life at Datchet was not free from its annoyances.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Much of my brother's time was taken up in going, when the evenings
+    were clear, to the queen's lodge, to show the king, etc., objects
+    through the seven-foot. But when the days began to shorten, this was
+    found impossible, for the telescope was often (at no small expense
+    and risk of damage) obliged to be transported in the dark back to
+    Datchet, for the purpose of spending the rest of the night with
+    observations on double stars for a second catalogue. My brother was,
+    besides, obliged to be absent for a week or ten days, for the
+    purpose of bringing home the metal of the cracked thirty-foot
+    mirror, and the remaining materials from his work-room. Before the
+    furnace was taken down at Bath, a second twenty-foot mirror, twelve
+    inches diameter, was cast, which happened to be very fortunate, for
+    on the 1st of January, 1783, a very fine one cracked by frost in the
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+    tube.</p>
+
+<p> . . .  "In my brother's absence from home I was, of course, left alone
+    to amuse myself with my own thoughts, which were anything but
+    cheerful. I found I was to be trained for an assistant astronomer,
+    and, by way of encouragement, a telescope adapted for 'sweeping,'
+    consisting of a tube with two glasses, such as are commonly used in
+    a 'finder,' was given me. I was 'to sweep for comets,' and I see, by
+    my journal, that I began August 22d, 1782, to write down and
+    describe all remarkable appearances I saw in my 'sweeps,' which were
+    horizontal. But it was not till the last two months of the same year
+    that I felt the least encouragement to spend the star-light nights
+    on a grass-plot covered with dew or hoar-frost, without a human
+    being near enough to be within call. I knew too little of the real
+    heavens to be able to point out every object so as to find it again,
+    without losing much time by consulting the Atlas. But all these
+    troubles were removed when I knew my brother to be at no great
+    distance making observations, with his various instruments, on
+    double stars, planets, etc., and when I could have his assistance
+    immediately if I found a nebula or cluster of stars, of which I
+    intended to give a catalogue; but, at the end of 1783, I had only
+    marked fourteen, when my sweeping was interrupted by being employed
+    to write down my brother's observations with the large twenty-foot.
+    I had, however, the comfort to see that my brother was satisfied
+    with my endeavors to assist him when he wanted another person either
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+    to run to the clocks, write down a memorandum, fetch and carry
+    instruments, or measure the ground with poles, etc., etc., of which
+    something of the kind every moment would occur. For the assiduity
+    with which the measurements on the diameter of the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>,
+    and observations of other planets, double stars, etc., etc., were
+    made, was incredible, as may be seen by the various papers that were
+    given to the Royal Society in 1783, which papers were written in the
+    daytime, or when cloudy nights interfered. Besides this, the
+    twelve-inch speculum was perfected before the spring, and many hours
+    were spent at the turning-bench, as not a night clear enough for
+    observing ever passed but that some improvements were planned for
+    perfecting the mounting and motions of the various instruments then
+    in use, or some trials were made of new constructed eye-pieces,
+    which were mostly executed by my brother's own hands. Wishing to
+    save his time, he began to have some work of that kind done by a
+    watchmaker who had retired from business and lived on Datchet
+    Common; but the work was so bad, and the charges so unreasonable,
+    that he could not be employed. It was not till some time afterwards,
+    in his frequent visits to the meetings of the Royal Society (made in
+    moonlight nights), that he had an opportunity of looking about for
+    mathematical workmen, opticians, and founders. But the work seldom
+    answered expectation, and it was kept, to be executed with
+    improvements by <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> during the few months he spent with us.</p>
+
+<p> "The summer months passed in the most active preparation for getting
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+    the large twenty-foot ready against the next winter. The carpenters
+    and smiths of Datchet were in daily requisition, and, as soon as
+    patterns for tools and mirrors were ready, my brother went to town
+    to have them cast, and, during the three or four months <span class="smcap">Alexander</span>
+    could be absent from Bath, the mirrors and optical parts were nearly
+    completed.</p>
+
+<p> "But that the nights after a day of toil were not given to rest, may
+    be seen by the observations on <i>Mars</i>, of which a paper, dated
+    December 1, 1783, was given to the Royal Society. Some trouble,
+    also, was often thrown away, during those nights, in the attempt to
+    teach me to remeasure double stars with the same micrometers with
+    which former measures had been taken, and the small twenty-foot was
+    given me for that purpose. . . . I had also to ascertain their places
+    by a transit instrument lent for that purpose by Mr. <span class="smcap">Dalrymple</span>; but,
+    after many fruitless attempts, it was seen that the instrument was,
+    perhaps, as much in fault as my observations."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">In 1783 <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "I have now finished my third review of the heavens. The first was
+    made with a Newtonian telescope something less than seven feet focal
+    length, a power of 222, and an aperture of four and a half inches.
+    It extended only to stars of the first, second, third, and fourth
+    magnitudes. My second review was made with an instrument much
+    superior to the other, of 85.2 inches focus, 6.2 inches aperture,
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+    and power 227. It extended to all the stars of <span class="smcap">Harris's</span> maps and
+    the telescopic ones near them, as far as the eighth magnitude. The
+    Catalogue of Double Stars and the discovery of the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>,
+    were the results of that review. The third was with the same
+    instrument and aperture, but with a power of 460. This review
+    extended to all the stars of <span class="smcap">Flamsteed's</span> Catalogue, together with
+    every small star about them, to the amount of a great many thousands
+    of stars. I have, many a night, in the course of eleven or twelve
+    hours of observation, carefully and singly examined not less than
+    400 celestial objects, besides taking measures, and sometimes
+    viewing a particular star for half an hour together."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fourth review began with the twenty-foot, in 1784.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "My brother began his series of sweeps when the instrument was yet
+    in a very unfinished state, and my feelings were not very
+    comfortable when every moment I was alarmed by a crack or fall,
+    knowing him to be elevated fifteen feet or more on a temporary
+    cross-beam, instead of a safe gallery. The ladders had not even
+    their braces at the bottom; and one night, in a very high wind, he
+    had hardly touched the ground before the whole apparatus came down.
+    Some laboring men were called up to help in extricating the mirror,
+    which was, fortunately, uninjured, but much work was cut out for
+    carpenters next day. I could give a pretty long list of accidents
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+    which were near proving fatal to my brother as well as myself. To
+    make observations with such large machinery, where all around is in
+    darkness, is not unattended with danger, especially when personal
+    safety is the last thing with which the mind is occupied; even poor
+    <span class="smcap">Piazzi</span> did not go home without getting broken shins by falling over
+    the rack-bar.</p>
+
+<p> "In the long days of the summer months many ten and seven foot
+    mirrors were finished; there was nothing but grinding and polishing
+    to be seen. For ten-foot, several had been cast with ribbed backs,
+    by way of experiment, to reduce the weight in large mirrors. In my
+    leisure hours I ground seven-foot and plain mirrors from rough to
+    fining down, and was <i>indulged</i> with polishing and the last
+    finishing of a very beautiful mirror for Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span>.</p>
+
+<p> "An account of the discoveries made with the twenty-foot and the
+    improvements of the mechanical parts of the instrument during the
+    winter of 1785 is given with the catalogue of the first 1,000 new
+    nebul&aelig;. By which account it must plainly appear that the expenses of
+    these improvements, and those which were yet to be made in the
+    apparatus of the twenty-foot (which, in fact, proved to be a model
+    of a larger instrument), could not be supplied out of a salary of
+    &pound;200 a year, especially as my brother's finances had been too much
+    reduced during the six months before he received his <i>first</i>
+    quarterly payment of <i>fifty pounds</i> (which was Michaelmas, 1782).
+    Travelling from Bath to London, Greenwich, Windsor, backwards and
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+    forwards, transporting the telescope, etc., breaking up his
+    establishment at Bath and forming a new one near the court, all
+    this, even leaving such personal conveniences as he had for many
+    years been used to, out of the question, could not be obtained for a
+    trifle; a good large piece of ground was required for the use of the
+    instruments, and a habitation in which he could receive and offer a
+    bed to an astronomical friend, was necessary after a night's
+    observation.</p>
+
+<p> "It seemed to be supposed that enough had been done when my brother
+    was enabled to leave his profession that he might have time to make
+    and sell telescopes. The king ordered four ten-foot himself, and
+    many seven-foot besides had been bespoke, and much time had already
+    been expended on polishing the mirrors for the same. But all this
+    was only retarding the work of a thirty or forty foot instrument,
+    which it was my brother's chief object to obtain as soon as
+    possible; for he was then on the wrong side of forty-five, and felt
+    how great an injustice he would be doing to himself and to the cause
+    of astronomy by giving up his time to making telescopes for other
+    observers.</p>
+
+<p> "Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span>, who often in the lifetime of his father came to
+    make some stay with us at Datchet, saw my brother's difficulties,
+    and expressed great dissatisfaction. On his return to Bath he met,
+    among the visitors there, several belonging to the court, to whom he
+    gave his opinion concerning his friend and his situation very
+    freely. In consequence of this, my brother had soon after, through
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+    Sir <span class="smcap">J. Banks</span>, the promise that &pound;2,000 would be granted for enabling
+    him to make himself an instrument.</p>
+
+<p> "Immediately every preparation for beginning the great work
+    commenced. A very ingenious smith (<span class="smcap">Campion</span>), who was seeking
+    employment, was secured by my brother, and a temporary forge erected
+    in an upstairs room."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The sale of these telescopes of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> must have produced a large
+sum, for he had made before 1795 more than two hundred seven-feet, one
+hundred and fifty ten-feet, and eighty twenty-feet mirrors. For many of
+the telescopes sent abroad no stands were constructed. The mirrors and
+eye-pieces alone were furnished, and a drawing of the stand sent with
+them by which the mirrors could be mounted.</p>
+
+<p>In 1785 the cost of a seven-foot telescope, six and four-tenths inches
+aperture, stand, eye-pieces, etc., complete, was two hundred guineas, a
+ten-foot was six hundred guineas, and a twenty-foot about 2,500 to 3,000
+guineas. He had made four ten-foot telescopes like this for the king. In
+1787 <span class="smcap">Schroeter</span> got the mirrors and eye-pieces only for a
+four-and-three-quarter-inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> reflector for five guineas; those for his
+seven-foot telescope were twenty-three guineas. Later a seven-foot
+telescope, complete, was sold for one hundred guineas, and the
+twenty-five-foot reflector, made for the Madrid observatory, cost them
+75,000 francs = $15,000.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> It was ordered in 1796, but not delivered
+for several years, the Spanish government being short of money. For a
+ten and a seven foot telescope, the Prince of Canino paid &pound;2,310.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Von Magellan</span> writes to <span class="smcap">Bode</span> concerning a visit to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>:<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "I spent the night of the 6th of January at <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>, in Datchet,
+    near Windsor, and had the good luck to hit on a fine evening. He has
+    his twenty-foot Newtonian telescope in the open air and mounted in
+    his garden very simply and conveniently. It is moved by an
+    assistant, who stands below it. . . . Near the instrument is a clock
+    regulated to sidereal time. . . . In the room near it sits <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+    sister, and she has <span class="smcap">Flamsteed's</span> Atlas open before her. As he gives
+    her the word, she writes down the declination and right ascension
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+    and the other circumstances of the observation. In this way
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> examines the whole sky without omitting the least part. He
+    commonly observes with a magnifying power of one hundred and fifty,
+    and is sure that after four or five years he will have passed in
+    review every object above our horizon. He showed me the book in
+    which his observations up to this time are written, and I am
+    astonished at the great number of them. Each sweep covers 2&deg; 15&#8242; in
+    declination, and he lets each star pass at least three times through
+    the field of his telescope, so that it is impossible that anything
+    can escape him. He has already found about 900 double stars and
+    almost as many nebul&aelig;. I went to bed about one o'clock, and up to
+    that time, he had found that night four or five new nebul&aelig;. The
+    thermometer in the garden stood at 13&deg; Fahrenheit; but, in spite of
+    this, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> observes the whole night through, except that he
+    stops every three or four hours and goes in the room for a few
+    moments. For some years <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> has observed the heavens every hour
+    when the weather is clear, and this always in the open air, because
+    he says that the telescope only performs well when it is at the same
+    temperature as the air. He protects himself against the weather by
+    putting on more clothing. He has an excellent constitution, and
+    thinks about nothing else in the world but the celestial bodies. He
+    has promised me in the most cordial way, entirely in the service of
+    astronomy, and without thinking of his own interest, to see to the
+    telescopes I have ordered for European observatories, and he will
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+    himself attend to the preparation of the mirrors."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was at this time, 1783, May 8, that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> married. His wife was
+the daughter of Mr. <span class="smcap">James Baldwin</span>, a merchant of the city of London, and
+the widow of <span class="smcap">John Pitt</span>, Esq. She is described as a lady of singular
+amiability and gentleness of character. She was entirely interested in
+his scientific pursuits, and the jointure which she brought removed all
+further anxiety about money affairs. They had but one child, <span class="smcap">John
+Frederick William</span>, born March 7, 1792.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The house at Datchet became more and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> more unfit for the needs of the
+family, and in June, 1785, a move was made to Clay Hall, in Old Windsor.
+The residence here was but short, and finally a last change was made to
+Slough on April, 3d, 1786.</p>
+
+<p>The ardor of the work during these years can be judged of by a single
+sentence from <span class="smcap">Carolina Herschel's</span> diary:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "The last night at Clay Hall was spent in sweeping till daylight,
+    and by the next evening the telescope stood ready for observation at
+    Slough."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">From 1786 until his death, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> remained at Slough; his life, truly
+speaking, was in his observatory.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed true, as <span class="smcap">Arago</span> has said in his eloquent tribute to him: "On
+peut dire hardiment du jardin et de la petite maison de Slough, que
+c'est le lieu du monde o&ugrave; il a &eacute;t&eacute; fait le plus de d&eacute;couvertes. Le nom
+de ce village ne p&eacute;rira pas; les sciences le transmettront
+religieusement &agrave; nos derniers neveux."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span>'s first contribution to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> was
+printed in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> volume for 1780, his last in that for 1818. Of these
+thirty-nine volumes, there are only two (1813 and 1817) which contain no
+paper from his hand, and many volumes contain more than one, as he
+published no less than sixty-eight memoirs in this place.</p>
+
+<p>And yet it must not be thought that his was an austere and grave
+existence. Music, which he loved to enthusiasm, was still a delight to
+him. All the more that his devotion was free. The glimpses which we get
+of his life with his friends show him always cheerful, ardent, and
+devoted. Even in his later years, he had not lost a "boyish earnestness
+to explain;" his simplicity and the charm of his manner struck every
+one.</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, you know, and everybody knows, is one of the most pleasing
+and well-bred natural characters of the present age," says Dr. <span class="smcap">Burney</span>,
+who had opportunity to know.</p>
+
+<p>The portrait which is given in the frontispiece must have been painted
+about this time (1788), and the eager, ardent face shows his inner life
+far better than any words can do.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Even in his scientific writings, which everything conspired to render
+grave and sober, the almost poetic nature of his mind shows forth. In
+one of his (unpublished) note-books, now in the Royal Society's library,
+I found this entry:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "640th Sweep&mdash;November 28, 1786.&mdash;The nebula of <i>Orion</i>, which I saw
+    by the front view, was so glaring and beautiful that I could not
+    think of taking any place of its extent."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">He was quite alone under the perfectly silent sky when this was written,
+and he was at his post simply to make this and other such observations.
+But the sky was beautiful to him, and his faithful sister, <span class="smcap">Carolina</span>,
+sitting below, has preserved for us the words as they dropped from his
+lips.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of January, 1787, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> discovered two satellites to
+<i>Uranus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After he had well assured himself of their existence, but before he
+communicated his discovery to the world, he made this crucial test. He
+prepared a sketch of <i>Uranus</i> attended by his two satellites, as it
+would appear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> on the night of February 10, 1787, and when the night
+came, "the heavens displayed the original of my drawings, by showing in
+the situation I had delineated them <i>the Georgian planet attended by two
+satellites</i>. I confess that this scene appeared to me with additional
+beauty, as the little secondary planets seemed to give a dignity to the
+primary one which raises it into a more conspicuous situation among the
+great bodies of the solar system.". . . </p>
+
+<p>In a memoir of 1789, he has a few sentences which show the living way in
+which the heavens appeared to him:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="thoughtbreak">
+    "This method of viewing the heavens seems to throw them into a new
+    kind of light.
+
+    "They are now seen to resemble a luxuriant garden, which contains
+    the greatest variety of productions in different flourishing beds;
+    and one advantage we may at least reap from it is, that we can, as
+    it were, extend the range of our experience to an immense duration.
+    For is it not almost the same thing whether we live successively to
+    witness the germination, blooming, foliage, fecundity, fading,
+    withering, and corruption of a plant, or whether a vast number of
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+    specimens selected from every stage through which the plant passes
+    in the course of its existence be brought at once to our view?"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The thought here is no less finely expressed than it is profound. The
+simile is perfect, if we have the power to separate among the vast
+variety each state of being from every other, and if the very luxuriance
+of illustration in the heavens does not bewilder and overpower the mind.
+It was precisely this discriminating power that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> possessed in
+perfection.</p>
+
+<p>There is a kind of humor in the way he records a change of opinion:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="thoughtbreak">
+    "I formerly supposed the surface of <i>Saturn's</i> ring to be rough,
+    owing to luminous points like mountains seen on it, till one of
+    these was kind enough to venture off the edge of the ring and appear
+    as a satellite."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">
+In 1782 he replies with a certain concealed sharpness to the idea that
+he used magnifying powers which were too high. There is a tone almost of
+impatience, as if he were conscious he was replying to a criticism based
+on ignorance:
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "We are told that we gain nothing by magnifying too much. I grant
+    it; but shall never believe I magnify too much till by experience I
+    find that I can see better with a lower power." (1782.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">By 1786, when he returns to this subject, in answer to a formal request
+to explain his use of high magnifiers, he is quite over any irritation,
+and treats the subject almost with playfulness:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Soon after my first essay of using high powers with the Newtonian
+    telescope, I began to doubt whether an opinion which has been
+    entertained by several eminent authors, 'that vision will grow
+    indistinct when the optic pencils are less than the fiftieth part of
+    an inch,' would hold good in all cases. I perceived that according
+    to this criterion I was not entitled to see distinctly with a power
+    of much more than about 320 in a seven-foot telescope of an aperture
+    of six and four-tenths inches, whereas in many experiments I found
+    myself very well pleased with magnifiers which far exceeded such
+    narrow limits. This induced me, as it were, by way of apology to
+    myself for seeing well where I ought to have seen less distinctly,
+    to make a few experiments."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">It is needless to say that these experiments
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> proved that from the point
+of view taken by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, he was quite right, and that his high powers
+had numerous valuable applications. He goes on to say:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Had it not been for a late conversation with some of my highly
+    esteemed and learned friends, I might probably have left the papers
+    on which these experiments were recorded, among the rest of those
+    that are laid aside, when they have afforded me the information I
+    want."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The last sentence seems to be a kind of notice to his learned friends
+that there is yet more unsaid. As a warning to those to whose criticisms
+he had replied, he gives them this picture of the kind of assiduity
+which will be required, if some of his observations on double stars are
+to be repeated:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "It is in vain to look for these stars if every circumstance is not
+    favorable. The observer as well as the instrument must have been
+    long enough out in the open air to acquire the same temperature. In
+    very cold weather an hour at least will be required." (1782.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+We may gain some further insight into his character from the following
+chance extracts from his writings:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "I have all along had truth and reality in view as the sole object
+    of my endeavors." (1782.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "Not being satisfied when I thought it possible to obtain more
+    accurate measures, I employed [a more delicate apparatus]." (1783.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "To this end I have already begun a series of observations upon
+    several zones of double stars, and should the result of them be
+    against these conjectures, I shall be the first to point out their
+    fallacy." (1783.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "There is a great probability of succeeding still farther in this
+    laborious but delightful research, so as to be able at last to say
+    not only how much the annual parallax <i>is not</i>, but how much it
+    really <i>is</i>." (1782.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The nature of his philosophizing, and the limits which he set to
+himself, may be more clearly seen in further extracts:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "By taking more time [before printing these observations] I should
+    undoubtedly be enabled to speak more confidently of the <i>interior</i>
+    <i>construction of the heavens</i>, and of its various <i>nebulous</i> and
+    sidereal strata. As an apology for this prematurity it may be said
+    that, the end of all discoveries being communication, we can never
+    be too ready in giving facts and observations, whatever we may be in
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+    reasoning upon them." (1785.)</p>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "In an investigation of this delicate nature we ought to avoid two
+    opposite extremes. If we indulge a fanciful imagination, and build
+    worlds of our own, we must not wonder at our going wide from the
+    path of truth and nature. On the other hand, if we add observation
+    to observation without attempting to draw not only certain
+    conclusions but also conjectural views from them, we offend against
+    the very end for which only observations ought to be made. I will
+    endeavor to keep a proper medium, but if I should deviate from that,
+    I could wish not to fall into the latter error." (1785.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "As observations carefully made should always take the lead of
+    theories, I shall not be concerned if what I have to say contradicts
+    what has been said in my last paper on this subject." (1790.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">No course of reasoning could be more simple, more exact, more profound,
+and more beautiful than this which follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "As it has been shown that the spherical figure of a cluster is
+    owing to the action of central powers, it follows that those
+    clusters which, <i>c&aelig;teris paribus</i>, are the most complete in this
+    figure, must have been the longest exposed to the action of these
+    causes. Thus the maturity of a sidereal system may be judged from
+    the disposition of the component parts.</p>
+
+
+<p> "Hence planetary nebul&aelig; may be looked on as very
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>aged. Though we
+    cannot see any individual nebula pass through all its stages of
+    life, we can select particular ones in each peculiar stage." (1789.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">There is something almost grandiose and majestic in his statement of the
+ultimate destiny of the Galaxy:</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">"To him the fates were known</span>
+<br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Of orbs dim hovering on the skirts of space."</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "&mdash;Since the stars of the Milky Way are permanently exposed to the
+    action of a power whereby they are irresistibly drawn into groups,
+    we may be certain that from mere clustering stars they will be
+    gradually compressed, through successive stages of accumulation,
+    till they come up to what may be called the ripening period of the
+    globular form, and total insulation; from which it is evident that
+    the Milky Way must be finally broken up and cease to be a stratum of
+    scattered stars.</p>
+
+
+<p> "The state into which the incessant action of the clustering power
+    has brought it at present, is a kind of chronometer that may be used
+    to measure the time of its past and future existence; and although
+    we do not know the rate of going of this mysterious chronometer, it
+    is nevertheless certain that since the breaking up of the Milky Way
+    affords a proof that it cannot last forever, it equally bears
+    witness that its past duration cannot be admitted to be infinite."
+    (1814.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> relations with his cotemporaries were usually of the most
+pleasant character, though seldom intimate. This peace was broken but by
+one unpleasant occurrence. In the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1792,
+<span class="smcap">Schroeter</span> had communicated a series of observations made with one of
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> own telescopes on the atmospheres of <i>Venus</i>, the Moon, etc.
+It was not only an account of phenomena which had been seen; it was
+accompanied by measures, and the computations based on these led to
+heights and dimensions for mountains on <i>Venus</i> which were, to say the
+least, extravagant. The adjective will not seem too strong when we say
+that the very existence of the mountains themselves is to-day more than
+doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>The appearances seen by <span class="smcap">Schroeter</span> were described by him in perfectly
+good faith, and similar ones have been since recorded. His reasoning
+upon them was defective, and the measures which he made were practically
+valueless. This paper, printed in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal
+Society, to which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> <span class="smcap">Schroeter</span> had not before contributed, appears to have
+irritated <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt there were not wanting members of his own society who hinted
+that on the Continent, too, there were to be found great observers, and
+that here, at least, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had been anticipated even in his own
+field. I have always thought that the memoir of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> which appeared
+in the next volume of the <i>Transactions</i> (1793), <i>Observations on the
+Planet Venus</i>, was a rejoinder intended far more for the detractors at
+home than for the astronomer abroad. The review is conceived in a severe
+spirit. The first idea seems to be to crush an opposition which he
+feels. The truth is established, but its establishment is hardly the
+<i>first</i> object.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+It seems as if <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had almost allowed himself to be forced into a
+position of arrogance, which his whole life shows was entirely foreign
+to his nature. All through the review he does not once mention
+<span class="smcap">Schroeter's</span> name. He says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "A series of observations on <i>Venus</i>, begun by me in April, 1777,
+    has been continued down to the present time. . . . The result of my
+    observations would have been communicated long ago if I had not
+    flattered myself with the hope of some better success concerning the
+    diurnal motion of <i>Venus</i>, which has still eluded my constant
+    attention as far as concerns its period and direction. . . . Even at
+    this present time I should hesitate to give the following extracts
+    if it did not seem incumbent on me to examine by what accident I
+    came to overlook mountains in this planet of such enormous height as
+    to exceed four, five, or even six times the perpendicular height of
+    Chimbora&ccedil;o, the highest of our mountains. . . . The same paper contains
+    other particulars concerning <i>Venus</i> and <i>Saturn</i>. All of which
+    being things of which I have never taken any notice, it will not be
+    amiss to show, by what follows, that neither want of attention, nor
+    a deficiency of instruments, would occasion my not perceiving these
+    mountains of more than twenty-three miles in height, this jagged
+    border of <i>Venus</i>, and these flat, spherical forms on <i>Saturn</i>."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The reply of <span class="smcap">Schroeter</span> (1795) is temperate and just. It does him honor,
+and he generously gives full justice to his critic.</p>
+
+<p>It would hardly be worth while to mention this slight incident if it
+were not that during these years there certainly existed a feeling
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> that
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> undervalued the labors of his cotemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>This impression was fostered no doubt by his general habit of not
+quoting previous authorities in the fields which he was working.</p>
+
+<p>A careful reading of his papers will, I think, show that his definite
+indebtedness to his <i>cotemporaries</i> was vanishingly small. The work of
+<span class="smcap">Michell</span> and <span class="smcap">Wilson</span> he alludes to again and again, and always with
+appreciation. Certainly he seems to show a vein of annoyance that the
+papers of <span class="smcap">Christian Mayer</span>, <i>De novis in c&oelig;lo sidereo ph&aelig;nomenis</i>
+(1779), and <i>Beobachtungen von Fixsterntrabanten</i> (1778), should have
+been quoted to prove that the method proposed by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> in 1782 for
+ascertaining the parallax of the fixed stars by means of observations of
+those which were double, was not entirely original with himself.</p>
+
+<p>There is direct proof that it was so,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and if this was not
+forthcoming it would be unnecessary,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> as he has amply shown in his
+Catalogue of Double Stars. One is reminded of his remarks on the use of
+the high magnifying powers by the impatience of his comments.</p>
+
+<p>His proposal to call the newly discovered minor planets <i>asteroids</i>
+(1802) was received as a sign that he wished to discriminate between the
+discoveries of <span class="smcap">Piazzi</span> and <span class="smcap">Olbers</span> and his own discovery of <span class="smcap">Uranus</span>.[23]</p>
+
+<p>He takes pains to quietly put this on one side in one of his papers,
+showing that he was cognizant of the existence of such a feeling.</p>
+
+<p>I am tempted to resurrect from a deserved obscurity a notice of
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> <i>Observations on the Two Lately Discovered Celestial Bodies</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> (<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1802), printed in the first volume
+of the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, simply to show the kind of envy to which even
+he, the glory of England, was subject.</p>
+
+<p>The reviewer sets forth the principal results of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+observations, and, after quoting his definition of the new term
+asteroid, goes on to say:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "If a new name must be found, why not call them by some appellation
+    which shall, in some degree, be descriptive of, or at least
+    consistent with, their properties? Why not, for instance, call them
+    <i>Concentric Comets</i>, or <i>Planetary Comets</i>, or <i>Cometary Planets</i>?
+    or, if a single term must be found, why may we not coin such a
+    phrase as <i>Planetoid</i> or <i>Cometoid</i>?"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+Then follows a general arraignment of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> methods of expression
+and thought, as distinguished from his powers of mere observation. This
+distinction, it may be said, exists only in the reviewer's mind; there
+was no such distinction in fact. If ever a series of observations was
+directed by profound and reasonable thought, it was <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> own.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> passion for coining words and idioms has often
+    struck us as a weakness wholly unworthy of him. The invention of a
+    name is but a poor achievement for him who has discovered whole
+    worlds. Why, for instance, do we hear him talking of the
+    <i>space-penetrating power</i> of his instrument&mdash;a compound epithet and
+    metaphor which he ought to have left to the poets, who, in some
+    future age, shall acquire glory by celebrating his name. The other
+    papers of Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, in the late volumes of the <i>Transactions</i>,
+    do not deserve such particular attention. His catalogue of 500 new
+    nebul&aelig;, though extremely valuable to the practical astronomer, leads
+    to no general conclusions of importance, and abounds with the
+    defects which are peculiar to the Doctor's writings&mdash;a great
+    prolixity and tediousness of narration&mdash;loose and often
+    unphilosophical reflections, which give no very favorable idea of
+    his scientific powers, however great his merit may be as an
+    observer&mdash;above all, that idle fondness for inventing names without
+    any manner of occasion, to which we have already alluded, and a use
+    of novel and affected idioms.</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p> "To the speculations of the Doctor on the nature of the Sun, we have
+    many similar objections; but they are all eclipsed by the grand
+    absurdity which he has there committed, in his hasty and erroneous
+    theory concerning the influence of the solar spots on the price of
+    grain. Since the publication of Gulliver's voyage to Laputa, nothing
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+    so ridiculous has ever been offered to the world. We heartily wish
+    the Doctor had suppressed it; or, if determined to publish it, that
+    he had detailed it in language less confident and flippant."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One is almost ashamed to give space and currency to a forgotten attack,
+but it yields a kind of perspective; and it is instructive and perhaps
+useful to view <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> labors from all sides, even from wrong and
+envious ones.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the original papers, together with a knowledge of the
+circumstances in which they were written, will abundantly show that
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> ideas sprung from a profound meditation of the nature of
+things in themselves. What the origin of trains of thought prosecuted
+for years may have been we cannot say, nor could he himself have
+expressed it. A new path in science was to be found out, and he found
+it. It was not in his closet, surrounded by authorities, but under the
+open sky, that he meditated the construction of the heavens. As he says,
+"My situation permitted me not to consult large libraries; nor, indeed,
+was it very material; for as I intended to view the heavens myself,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+Nature, that great volume, appeared to me to contain the best
+catalogue."</p>
+
+<p>His remarkable memoirs on the invisible and other rays of the solar
+spectrum were received with doubt, and with open denial by many of the
+scientific bodies of Europe. The reviews and notices of his work in this
+direction were often quite beyond the bounds of a proper scientific
+criticism; but <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> maintained a dignified silence. The discoveries
+were true, the proofs were open to all, and no response was needed from
+him. He may have been sorely tempted to reply, but I am apt to believe
+that the rumors that reached him from abroad and at home did not then
+affect him as they might have done earlier. He was at his grand
+climacteric, he had passed his sixty-third year, his temper was less
+hasty than it had been in his youth, and his nerves had not yet received
+the severe strain from whose effects he suffered during the last years
+of his life.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+We have some glimpses of his personal life in the reminiscences of him
+in the <i>Diary and Letters</i> of Madame <span class="smcap">D'Arblay</span>, who knew him well:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "1786.&mdash;In the evening Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> came to tea. I had once seen
+    that very extraordinary man at Mrs. <span class="smcap">de Luc's</span>, but was happy to see
+    him again, for he has not more fame to awaken curiosity than sense
+    and modesty to gratify it. He is perfectly unassuming, yet openly
+    happy, and happy in the success of those studies which would render
+    a mind less excellently formed presumptuous and arrogant.</p>
+
+<p> "The king has not a happier subject than this man, who owes it
+    wholly to His Majesty that he is not wretched; for such was his
+    eagerness to quit all other pursuits to follow astronomy solely,
+    that he was in danger of ruin, when his talents and great and
+    uncommon genius attracted the king's patronage. He has now not only
+    his pension, which gives him the felicity of devoting all his time
+    to his darling study, but he is indulged in license from the king to
+    make a telescope according to his new ideas and discoveries, that is
+    to have no cost spared in its construction, and is wholly to be paid
+    for by His Majesty.</p>
+
+<p> "This seems to have made him happier even than the pension, as it
+    enables him to put in execution all his wonderful projects, from
+    which his expectations of future discoveries are so sanguine as to
+    make his present existence a state of almost perfect enjoyment. Mr.
+    <span class="smcap">Locke</span> himself would be quite charmed with him.</p>
+
+<p> <span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+    "He seems a man without a wish that has its object in the
+    terrestrial globe. At night Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, by the king's command,
+    came to exhibit to His Majesty and the royal family the new comet
+    lately discovered by his sister, Miss <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>; and while I was
+    playing at piquet with Mrs. <span class="smcap">Schwellenburg</span>, the Princess <span class="smcap">Augusta</span> came
+    into the room and asked her if she chose to go into the garden and
+    look at it. She declined the offer, and the princess then made it to
+    me. I was glad to accept it for all sorts of reasons. We found him
+    at his telescope. The comet was very small, and had nothing grand or
+    striking in its appearance; but it is the first lady's comet, and I
+    was very desirous to see it. Mr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> then showed me some of his
+    new discovered universes, with all the good humor with which he
+    would have taken the same trouble for a brother or a sister
+    astronomer; there is no possibility of admiring his genius more than
+    his gentleness."</p>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"> "<i>1786, December 30th</i>.&mdash;This morning my dear father carried me to
+    Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. That great and very extraordinary man received us
+    almost with open arms. He is very fond of my father, who is one of
+    the council of the Royal Society this year, as well as himself. . . .
+    At this time of day there was nothing to see but his instruments;
+    those, however, are curiosities sufficient. . . . I wished very much to
+    have seen his sister, . . . but she had been up all night, and was
+    then in bed."</p>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+    "<i>1787, September</i>.&mdash;Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is a delightful man; so
+    unassuming with his great knowledge, so willing to dispense it to
+    the ignorant, and so cheerful and easy in his general manners, that,
+    were he no genius, it would be impossible not to remark him as a
+    pleasing and sensible man."</p>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">
+    "<i>1788, October 3d</i>.&mdash;We returned to Windsor at noon, and Mrs. <span class="smcap">de
+    Luc</span> sent me a most pressing invitation to tea and to hear a little
+    music. Two young ladies were to perform at her house in a little
+    concert. Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was there, and accompanied them very sweetly
+    on the violin; his new-married wife was with him, and his sister.
+    His wife seems good-natured; she was rich, too! and astronomers are
+    as able as other men to discern that gold can glitter as well as
+    stars."</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin">DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.</p>
+
+<div class="address">
+<p class="nomargin">"<span class="smcap">Chelsea College</span>,
+
+<br /><i>September</i> 28, 1798.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p class="nomargin"> "* &nbsp; * &nbsp; * &nbsp; * &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p> "I drove through Slough in order to ask at Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> door when
+    my visit would be least inconvenient to him&mdash;that night or next
+    morning. The good soul was at dinner, but came to the door himself,
+    to press me to alight immediately and partake of his family repast;
+    and this he did so heartily that I could not resist.</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p><span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+    "I expected (not knowing that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was married) only to have
+    found Miss <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>; but there was a very old lady, the mother, I
+    believe, of Mrs. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, who was at the head of the table herself,
+    and a Scots lady (a Miss <span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, daughter of Dr. <span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, of Glasgow,
+    an eminent astronomer), Miss <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, and a little boy. They
+    rejoiced at the accident which had brought me there, and hoped I
+    would send my carriage away and take a bed with them. They were
+    sorry they had no stables for my horses.</p>
+
+<p> "We soon grew acquainted&mdash;I mean the ladies and I&mdash;and before dinner
+    was over we seemed old friends just met after a long absence. Mrs.
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is sensible, good-humored, unpretending, and well bred;
+    Miss <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> all shyness and virgin modesty; the Scots lady
+    sensible and harmless; and the little boy entertaining, promising,
+    and comical. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, you know, and everybody knows, is one of the
+    most pleasing and well-bred natural characters of the present age,
+    as well as the greatest astronomer.</p>
+
+<p> "Your health was drunk after dinner (put that into your pocket), and
+    after much social conversation and a few hearty laughs, the ladies
+    proposed to take a walk, in order, I believe, to leave <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> and
+    me together. We walked and talked round his great telescopes till it
+    grew damp and dusk, then retreated into his study to philosophize.</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p> "He made a discovery to me, which, had I known it sooner, would have
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+    overset me, and prevented my reading any part of my work.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> He
+    said that he had almost always had an aversion to poetry, which he
+    regarded as the arrangement of fine words, without any useful
+    meaning or adherence to truth; but that when truth and science were
+    united to these fine words, he liked poetry very well."</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin">1798, December 10.</p>
+
+<p class="centermargin">DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.</p>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p> "<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> has been in town for short spurts, and back again two or
+    three times, leaving Mrs. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> behind (in town) to transact law
+    business. I had him here two whole days."</p>
+
+<p> The reading of the manuscript of the <i>Poetical History of Astronomy</i>
+    was continued, "and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was so humble as to confess that I
+    knew more of the history of astronomy than he did, and had surprised
+    him with the mass of information I had got together.</p>
+
+<p> "He thanked me for the entertainment and instruction I had given
+    him. 'Can anything be grander?' and all this before he knows a word
+    of what I have said of himself&mdash;all his discoveries, as you may
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+    remember, being kept back for the twelfth and last book."</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin">DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.</p>
+
+<div class="address">
+<p class="indentreverse">"<span class="smcap">Slough</span>, <i>Monday morning.</i> <i>July</i> 22, 1799,
+<br />in bed at Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>'s, half-past
+<br />five, where I can neither sleep nor lie
+<br />idle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p> "My Dear Fanny:&mdash;I believe I told you on Friday that I was going to
+    finish the perusal of my astronomical verses to the great astronomer
+    on Saturday.</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p> "After tea Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> proposed that we two should retire into a
+    quiet room in order to resume the perusal of my work, in which no
+    progress has been made since last December. The evening was
+    finished very cheerfully; and we went to our bowers not much out of
+    humor with each other or the world. . . . After dinner we all agreed
+    to go to the terrace [at Windsor]&mdash;Mr., Mrs., and Miss H., with
+    their nice little boy, and three young ladies. Here I met with
+    almost everybody I wished and expected to see previous to the
+    king's arrival.</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p> "But now here comes Will, and I must get up, and make myself up to
+    go down to the perusal of my last book, entitled <i>Herschel</i>. So
+    good-morrow."</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="address"><p class="right">"<span class="smcap">Chelsea</span>, <i>Tuesday.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p> "Not a moment could I get to write till now. . . . I must tell you that
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> proposed to me to go with him to the king's concert at
+    night, he having permission to go when he chooses, his five nephews
+    (<span class="smcap">Griesbachs</span>) making a principal part of the band. 'And,' says he, 'I
+    know you will be welcome.'"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">An intimacy was gradually established between <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> and Dr. <span class="smcap">Burney</span>.
+They saw each other often at the meetings of the Royal Society, and
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> frequently stayed at the doctor's house. "On the first evening
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> spent at Chelsea, when I called for my <span class="smcap">Argand</span> lamp, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>,
+who had not seen one of those lamps, was surprised at the great effusion
+of light, and immediately calculated the difference between that and a
+single candle, and found it sixteen to one."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1793 we find <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> as a witness for his friend <span class="smcap">James Watt</span>, in the
+celebrated case of <span class="smcap">Watt</span> <i>vs.</i> <span class="smcap">Bull</span>, which was tried in the Court of
+Common Pleas. And from <span class="smcap">Muirhead's</span> Life of <span class="smcap">Watt</span>, it appears that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+visited <span class="smcap">Watt</span> at Heathfield in 1810.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A delightful picture of the old age of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is given by the poet
+<span class="smcap">Campbell</span>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> whose nature was fitted to perceive the beauties of a
+grand and simple character like <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>:</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="address">
+<p>"[<span class="smcap">Brighton</span>], <i>September</i> 15, 1813.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p> . . .  "I wish you had been with me the day before yesterday, when you
+    would have joined me, I am sure, deeply in admiring a great, simple,
+    good old man&mdash;Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. Do not think me vain, or at least put up
+    with my vanity, in saying that I almost flatter myself I have made
+    him my friend. I have got an invitation, and a pressing one, to go
+    to his house; and the lady who introduced me to him, says he spoke
+    of me as if he would really be happy to see me. . . . I spent all
+    Sunday with him and his family. His son is a prodigy in sciences,
+    and fond of poetry, but very unassuming. . . . Now, for the old
+    astronomer himself. His simplicity, his kindness, his anecdotes, his
+    readiness to explain&mdash;and make perfectly conspicuous too&mdash;his own
+    sublime conceptions of the universe are indescribably charming. He
+    is seventy-six, but fresh and stout; and there he sat, nearest the
+    door, at his friend's house, alternately smiling at a joke, or
+    contentedly sitting without share or notice in the conversation. Any
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+    train of conversation he follows implicitly; anything you ask he
+    labors with a sort of boyish earnestness to explain.</p>
+
+<p> "I was anxious to get from him as many particulars as I could about
+    his interview with <span class="smcap">Buonaparte</span>.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> The latter, it was reported, had
+    astonished him by his astronomical knowledge.</p>
+
+<p> "'No,' he said, 'the First Consul did surprise me by his quickness
+    and versatility on all subjects; but in science he seemed to know
+    little more than any well-educated gentleman, and of astronomy much
+    less for instance than our own king. His general air,' he said, 'was
+    something like affecting to know more than he did know.' He was
+    high, and tried to be great with <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, I suppose, without
+    success; and 'I remarked,' said the astronomer, 'his hypocrisy in
+    concluding the conversation on astronomy by observing how all these
+    glorious views gave proofs of an Almighty Wisdom.' I asked him if he
+    thought the system of <span class="smcap">Laplace</span> to be quite certain, with regard to
+    the total security of the planetary system from the effects of
+    gravitation losing its present balance? He said, No; he thought by
+    no means that the universe was secured from the chance of sudden
+    losses of parts.</p>
+
+<p> "He was convinced that there had existed a planet between <i>Mars</i> and
+    <i>Jupiter</i>, in our own system, of which the little asteroids, or
+    planetkins, lately discovered, are indubitably fragments; and
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+    'Remember,' said he, 'that though they have discovered only four of
+    those parts, there will be thousands&mdash;perhaps thirty thousand
+    more&mdash;yet discovered.' This planet he believed to have been lost by
+    explosion.</p>
+
+<p> "With great kindness and patience he referred me, in the course of
+    my attempts to talk with him, to a theorem in <span class="smcap">Newton's</span> 'Principles
+    of Natural Philosophy' in which the time that the light takes to
+    travel from the sun is proved with a simplicity which requires but a
+    few steps in reasoning. In talking of some inconceivably distant
+    bodies, he introduced the mention of this plain theorem, to remind
+    me that the progress of light could be measured in the one case as
+    well as the other. Then, speaking of himself, he said, with a
+    modesty of manner which quite overcame me, when taken together with
+    the greatness of the assertion: 'I have looked <i>further into space
+    than ever human being did before me</i>. I have observed stars, of
+    which the light, it can be proved, must take two millions of years
+    to reach this earth.'</p>
+
+<p> "I really and unfeignedly felt at this moment as if I had been
+    conversing with a supernatural intelligence. 'Nay, more,' said he,
+    'if those distant bodies had ceased to exist two millions of years
+    ago, we should still see them, as the light would travel after the
+    body was gone. . . .' These were <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> words; and if you had heard
+    him speak them, you would not think he was apt to tell more than the
+    truth.</p>
+
+<p> "After leaving <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> I felt elevated and overcome; and have in
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+    writing to you made only this memorandum of some of the most
+    interesting moments of my life."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Campbell's</span> conscientious biographer appears to have felt that the value
+of this charming account of his interview with <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was in its
+report of astronomical facts and opinions, and he adds a foot-note to
+explain that "<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> opinion never amounted to more than
+<i>hypothesis</i> having some degree of probability. Sir <span class="smcap">John Herschel</span>
+remembers his father saying, 'If that hypothesis were true, and <i>if</i> the
+planet destroyed were as large as the earth, there must have been at
+least thirty-thousand such fragments,' but always as an hypothesis&mdash;he
+was never heard to declare any degree of conviction that it was so."</p>
+
+<p>For us, the value of this sympathetic account of a day in <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+life is in its conception of the simplicity, the modesty, the "boyish
+earnestness," the elevation of thought and speech of the old
+philosopher; and in the impression made on the feelings, not the mind,
+of the poet, then thirty-five years old.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In a letter to <span class="smcap">Alison</span>, <span class="smcap">Campbell</span> reverts with great pleasure to the day
+spent with <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>:</p>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="address">"<span class="smcap">Sydenham</span>, <i>December</i> 12, 1813.</p>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p>"<span class="smcap">My Dearest Alison</span>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+
+<p> "I spent three weeks with my family at Brighton, in charming
+    weather, and was much pleased with, as well as benefited by, the
+    place. There I met a man with whom you will stare at the idea of my
+    being congenial, or having the vanity to think myself so&mdash;the great
+    <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. He is a simple, great being. . . . I once in my life looked
+    at <span class="smcap">Newton's</span> <i>Principia</i>, and attended an astronomical class at
+    Glasgow; wonderful it seemed to myself, that the great man
+    condescended to understand my questions; to become apparently
+    earnest in communicating to me as much information as my limited
+    capacity and preparation for such knowledge would admit. He invited
+    me to see him at his own abode, and so kindly that I could not
+    believe that it was mere good breeding; but a sincere wish to see me
+    again. I had a full day with him; he described to me his whole
+    interview with <span class="smcap">Buonaparte</span>; said it was not true, as reported, that
+    <span class="smcap">Buonaparte</span> understood astronomical subjects deeply, but affected
+    more than he knew.</p>
+
+<p> "In speaking of his great and chief telescope, he said with an air,
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+    not of the least pride, but with a greatness and simplicity of
+    expression that struck me with wonder, 'I have looked further into
+    space than ever human being did before me. I have observed stars, of
+    which the light takes <i>two millions</i> of years to travel to this
+    globe.' I mean to pay him a reverential visit at Slough, as soon as
+    my book is out, this winter."</p>
+
+<p class="center">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1807 <span class="smcap">Carolina Herschel</span> has this entry in her diary:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "<i>October</i> 4.&mdash;My brother came from Brighton. The same night two
+    parties from the Castle came to see the comet, and during the whole
+    month my brother had not an evening to himself. As he was then in
+    the midst of polishing the forty-foot mirror, rest became absolutely
+    necessary after a day spent in that most laborious work; and it has
+    ever been my opinion that on the 14th of October his nerves received
+    a shock of which he never got the better afterwards."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">In the spring of 1808 he was quite seriously ill; but in May the
+observing went on again. In 1809 and 1810 his principal investigations
+were upon physical subjects (<span class="smcap">Newton's</span> rings), and in 1811 the only long
+series of observations was upon the comet of that year. After 1811 the
+state of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> health required that his observations should be
+much less frequent. Much of the time after 1811 he was absent, and his
+work at home consisted largely in arranging the results of his previous
+labors, and in computations connected with them. All through the years
+1814 to 1822, <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> health was very feeble. The severe winter of
+1813-14 had told materially upon him. In 1814, however, he undertook to
+repolish the forty-foot mirror, but was obliged to give it over.</p>
+
+<p>He now found it necessary to make frequent little excursions for change
+of air and scene. His faithful sister remained at home, bringing order
+into the masses of manuscript, and copying the papers for the Royal
+Society.</p>
+
+<p>She was sick at heart, fearing that each time she saw her brother it
+would be the last. In 1818 she says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Feb. 11, I went to my brother and remained with him till the 23d.
+    We spent our time, though not in idleness, in sorrow and sadness. He
+    is not only unwell, but low in spirits."</p>
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>1818 (December 16), <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> went to London to have his portrait painted
+by <span class="smcap">Artaud</span>. While he was in London his will was made.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1819 there is a glimmer of the old-time light. In a note <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+says:</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p>    "<span class="smcap">Lina</span>:&mdash;There is a great comet. I want you to assist me. Come to
+    dine and spend the day here. If you can come soon after one o'clock,
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+    we shall have time to prepare maps and telescopes. I saw its
+    situation last night. It has a long tail.</p>
+
+<p> "<i>July 4, 1819.</i>"</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>This note has been carefully kept by his sister, and on it she has
+written: "I keep this as a relic. Every line <i>now</i> traced by the hand of
+my dear brother becomes a treasure to me."</p>
+
+<p>So the next three years passed away. Sir <span class="smcap">William</span><a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> was daily more and
+more feeble. He spent his time in putting his works in order, but could
+devote only a few moments each day to this. His sister says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "<i>Aug. 11th</i>, <i>12th</i>, <i>13th</i>, and <i>14th</i> [1822], I went as usual to
+    spend some hours of the forenoon with my brother.
+
+    "<i>Aug. 15th.</i>&mdash;I hastened to the spot where I was wont to find him,
+    with the newspaper which I was to read to him. But instead I found
+    Mrs. <span class="smcap">Monson</span>, Miss <span class="smcap">Baldwin</span>, and Mr. <span class="smcap">Bulman</span>, from Leeds, the grandson
+    of my brother's earliest acquaintance in this country. I was
+    informed my brother had been obliged to return to his room, whither
+    I flew immediately. Lady H. and the housekeeper were with him,
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+    administering everything which could be thought of for supporting
+    him. I found him much irritated at not being able to grant Mr.
+    <span class="smcap">Bulman's</span> request for some token of remembrance for his father. As
+    soon as he saw me, I was sent to the library to fetch one of his
+    last papers and a plate of the forty-foot telescope. But for the
+    universe I could not have looked twice at what I had snatched from
+    the shelf, and when he faintly asked if the breaking up of the Milky
+    Way was in it, I said 'Yes,' and he looked content. I cannot help
+    remembering this circumstance; it was the last time I was sent to
+    the library on such an occasion. That the anxious care for his
+    papers and workrooms never ended but with his life, was proved by
+    his frequent whispered inquiries if they were locked and the key
+    safe, of which I took care to assure him that they were, and the key
+    in Lady <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> hands.</p>
+
+<p> "After half an hour's vain attempt to support himself, my brother
+    was obliged to consent to be put to bed, leaving no hope ever to see
+    him rise again."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 25th of August, 1822, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> died peacefully at the age of
+eighty-four years.</p>
+
+<p>His remains lie in the little church at Upton, near Windsor, where a
+memorial tablet has been erected by his son. The epitaph is as
+follows:<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">H. S. E.
+
+<br /><span class="smcap">Gulielmus Herschel</span> Eques Guelphicus
+<br />Hanovi&aelig; natus Angliam elegit patriam
+<br />Astronomis &aelig;tatis su&aelig; pr&aelig;stantissimis
+<br />Merito annumeratus
+<br />Ut leviora sileantur inventa
+<br />Planetam ille extra Saturni orbitam
+<br />Primus detexit
+<br />Novis artis adjumentis innixus
+<br />Qu&aelig; ipse excogitavit et perfecit
+<br />C&oelig;lorum perrupit claustra
+<br />Et remotiora penetrans et explorans spatia
+<br />Incognitos astrorum ignes
+<br />Astronomorum oculis et intellectui subjecit
+<br />Qua sedulitate qua solertia
+<br />Corporum et phantasmatum
+<br />Extra systematis nostri fines lucentium
+<br />Naturam indagaverit
+<br />Quidquid paulo audacius conjecit
+<br />Ingenita temperans verecundia
+<br />Ultro testantur hodie &aelig;quales
+<br />Vera esse qu&aelig; docuit pleraque
+<br />Siquidem certiora futuris ingeniis subsidia
+<br />Debitura est astronomia
+<br />Agnoscent forte posteri
+<br />Vitam utilem innocuam amabilem
+<br />Non minus felici laborum exitu quam virtutibus
+<br />Ornatam et vere eximiam
+<br />Morte suis et bonis omnibus deflenda
+<br />Nec tamen immatura clausit
+<br />Die XXV Augusti A. D. CI&#x0186;I&#x0186;CCCXXII
+<br />&AElig;tatis vero su&aelig; LXXXIV.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Bode's</span> <i>Jahrbuch</i>, 1788, p. 144.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Zach's</span> <i>Monatlich Correspondenz</i>, 1802, p. 56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Bode's</span> <i>Jahrbuch</i>, 1788, p. 161.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Through Sir <span class="smcap">John Herschel</span> there is preserved to us an
+incident of his early boyhood, which shows the nature of the training
+his young mind received in the household at Slough.
+</p><p>
+Walking with his father, he asked him "What was the oldest of all
+things?" The father replied, after the Socratic manner, "And what do you
+suppose is the oldest of all things?" The boy was not successful in his
+answers, whereon the old astronomer took up a small stone from the
+garden walk: "There, my child, there is the oldest of all the things
+that I certainly know." On another occasion the father asked his son,
+"What sort of things do you think are most alike?" The boy replied, "The
+leaves of the same tree are most like each other." "Gather, then, a
+handful of leaves from that tree," rejoined the philosopher, "and choose
+two which are alike."&mdash;<i>Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical Society</i>,
+vol. xxxii., page 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Memoir of <span class="smcap">Caroline Herschel</span></i>, p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Of late years these expectations have been more than
+accomplished by the discovery of no fewer than four planetary bodies,
+almost all in the same place; but so small that Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> refuses to
+honor them with the name of planets, and chooses to call them asteroids,
+though for what reason it is not easy to determine, unless it be to
+deprive the discoverers of these bodies of any pretence for rating
+themselves as high in the list of astronomical discoverers as
+himself."&mdash;<i>History of the Royal Society</i>, by <span class="smcap">Thomas Thomson</span>, p. 358.
+This work was published in 1812, and therefore during the lifetime of
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Poetical History of Astronomy</i>: this work was nearly
+completed, but was never published. The whole of it was read to
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, in order that <span class="smcap">Burney</span> might have the benefit of his criticism
+on its technical terms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Memoirs of Dr. <span class="smcap">Burney</span></i>, vol. iii., p. 264.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Life and Letters of <span class="smcap">Thomas Campbell</span>, edited by <span class="smcap">William
+Beattie</span>, vol. ii., p. 234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> This interview must have taken place in 1802, during
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> journey to Paris. We have no other record of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The will of <span class="smcap">HERSCHEL</span> was dated December 17th, 1818.
+</p><p>
+"The personal effects were sworn under &pound;6,000. The copyhold and other
+lands and tenements at Upton-cum-Chalvey, in the County of Bucks, and at
+Slough, he decrees to his son, with &pound;25,000 in the 3 per cent. Reduced
+Annuities. &pound;2,000 are given to his brother <span class="smcap">Johann Dietrich</span>, and
+annuities of &pound;100 each to his brother <span class="smcap">Johann Alexander</span> and to his sister
+<span class="smcap">Carolina</span>; &pound;20 each to his nephews and nieces, and the residue (with the
+exception of astronomical instruments, telescopes, observations, etc.,
+which he declares to have given, on account of his advanced age, to his
+son for the purpose of continuing his studies) is left solely to Lady
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>."&mdash;<i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, vol. xcii., 1822, p. 650.
+</p><p>
+It is not necessary to say here how nobly Sir <span class="smcap">John Herschel</span> redeemed the
+trust confided in him. All the world knows of his Survey of the Southern
+Heavens, in which he completed the review of the sky which had been
+begun and completed for the northern heavens by the same instruments in
+his father's hands. A glance at the Bibliography at the end of this book
+will show the titles of several papers by Sir <span class="smcap">John</span>, written with the
+sole object of rendering his father's labors more complete.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> He was created a knight of the Royal Hanoverian
+Guelphic Order in 1816, and was the first President of the Royal
+Astronomical Society in 1821, his son being its first Foreign
+Secretary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Bode's</span> <i>Jahrbuch</i>, 1823, p. 222.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="newchap"><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p></div>
+<p class="chapter"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</p>
+
+<p class="centermargin">REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL.</p>
+
+
+<p>In this chapter I shall endeavor to give such explanations as will
+enable the general reader to follow the course of discovery in each
+branch of astronomy and physics, regularly through the period of
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> life, and up to the state in which he left it.</p>
+
+<p>A more detailed and precise account, which should appeal directly to the
+professional astronomer, will not be needed, since <span class="smcap">Arago</span> has already
+fulfilled this want in his "<i>Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir
+<span class="smcap">William Herschel</span></i>," published in 1842. The few misconceptions there
+contained will be easily corrected by those to whom alone they are of
+consequence. The latter class of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> readers may also consult the abstracts
+of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> memoirs, which have been given in "<i>A Subject-index and a
+Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span></i>," prepared
+by Dr. <span class="smcap">Hastings</span> and myself, and published by the Smithsonian
+Institution.</p>
+
+<p>An accurate sketch of the state of astronomy in England and on the
+Continent, in the years 1780-1820, need not be given. It will be enough
+if we remember that of the chief observatories of Europe, public and
+private, no one was actively devoted to such labors as were undertaken
+by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> at the very beginning of his career.</p>
+
+<p>His observations on variable stars, indeed, were in the same line as
+those of <span class="smcap">Pigott</span>; <span class="smcap">Flaugergues</span> and <span class="smcap">Darquier</span>, in France, had perhaps
+preceded him in minute scrutiny of the sun's surface, etc.; but, even in
+that department of observation, he at once put an immense distance
+between himself and others by the rapid and extraordinary advances in
+the size and in the excellence of his telescopes. Before his time the
+principal aids to observation were the Gregorian and Newtonian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+telescopes of <span class="smcap">Short</span>, and the small achromatics of <span class="smcap">Dollond</span>.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>We have seen, in what goes before, how his patient zeal had succeeded in
+improving upon these. There was no delay, and no rest. Steadily the art
+of making reflectors was urged forward, until he had finally in his
+hands the forty-foot telescope.</p>
+
+<p>It must be admitted that this was the limit to which the manufacture of
+powerful telescopes could be pushed in his generation. The optical and
+mechanical difficulties which prevented a farther advance required time
+for their solution; and, indeed, some of these difficulties are scarcely
+solved at this day. It may fairly be said that no reflector larger than
+three feet in aperture has yet realized our expectations.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>The Improvement of Telescopes and Optical Apparatus.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>It will be of interest to give in this place some connected account of
+the large forty-foot reflector, of four feet aperture, made by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>.
+Its history extends from 1785 to 1811. Its manufacture was considered by
+his cotemporaries as his greatest triumph. As a machine, it was
+extremely ingenious in all its parts, as may be seen from the elaborate
+description and plates of it published in the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i> for 1795. One of its mirrors certainly had good
+definition, for, by means of it, the two small satellites of <i>Saturn</i>
+(<i>Mimas</i> and <i>Enceladus</i>) were discovered, and these discoveries alone
+would make it famous. Perhaps more was expected of it by the public in
+general than it absolutely performed. Its merits were after a while
+decried, and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> even felt obliged to state why he did not always
+employ it in his observations. His reasons were perfectly valid, and
+such as any one may understand. The time required to get so large a
+machine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> into working order was a serious tax; it required more
+assistants than his twenty-foot telescope, and he says, "I have made it
+a rule never to employ a larger telescope when a smaller will answer the
+purpose."</p>
+
+<p>It still remains as a remarkable feat of engineering and an example of
+great optical and mechanical skill. It led the way to the large
+reflectors of Lord <span class="smcap">Rosse</span>, some sixty years later, and several of the
+forty-foot telescopes of the present day even have done less useful
+work. Its great feat, however, was to have added two satellites to the
+solar system. From the published accounts of it the following is taken:</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "When I resided at Bath I had long been acquainted with the theory
+    of optics and mechanics, and wanted only that experience so
+    necessary in the practical part of these sciences. This I acquired
+    by degrees at that place, where in my leisure hours, by way of
+    amusement, I made several two-foot, five-foot, seven-foot, ten-foot,
+    and twenty-foot Newtonian telescopes, beside others, of the
+    Gregorian form, of eight, twelve, and eighteen inches, and two,
+    three, five, and ten feet focal length. In this way I made not less
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+    than two hundred seven-foot, one hundred and fifty ten-foot, and
+    about eighty twenty-foot mirrors, not to mention the Gregorian
+    telescopes.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p> "The number of stands I invented for these telescopes it would not
+    be easy to assign. . . . In 1781 I began to construct a thirty-foot
+    a&euml;rial reflector, and having made a stand for it, I cast the mirror
+    thirty-six inches in diameter. This was cracked in cooling. I cast
+    it a second time, and the furnace I had built in my house broke."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">Soon after, the Georgian planet was discovered, and this interrupted the
+work for a time.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "In the year 1783 I finished a very good twenty-foot reflector with
+    a large aperture, and mounted it upon the plan of my present
+    telescope. After two years' observation with it, the great advantage
+    of such apertures appeared so clearly to me that I recurred to my
+    former intention of increasing them still further; and being now
+    sufficiently provided with experience in the work which I wished to
+    undertake, the President of the Royal Society, who is always ready
+    to promote useful undertakings, had the goodness to lay my design
+    before the king. His Majesty was graciously pleased to approve of
+    it, and with his usual liberality to support it with his royal
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+    bounty.</p>
+
+<p> "In consequence of this arrangement I began to construct the
+    forty-foot telescope about the latter end of 1785.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The woodwork
+    of the stand and machines for giving the required motions to the
+    instrument were immediately put in hand. In the whole of the
+    apparatus none but common workmen were employed, for I made drawings
+    of every part of it, by which it was easy to execute the work, as I
+    constantly inspected and directed every person's labor; though
+    sometimes there were not less than forty different workmen employed
+    at the same time. While the stand of the telescope was preparing, I
+    also began the construction of the great mirror, of which I
+    inspected the casting, grinding, and polishing, and the work was in
+    this manner carried on with no other interruption than that
+    occasioned by the removal of all the apparatus and materials from
+    where I then lived, to my present situation at Slough.</p>
+
+<p><span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+    "Here, soon after my arrival, I began to lay the foundation upon
+    which by degrees the whole structure was raised as it now stands,
+    and the speculum being highly polished and put into the tube, I had
+    the first view through it on February 19, 1787. I do not, however,
+    date the completing of the instrument till much later. For the first
+    speculum, by a mismanagement of the person who cast it, came out
+    thinner on the centre of the back than was intended, and on account
+    of its weakness would not permit a good figure to be given to it.</p>
+
+<p> "A second mirror was cast January 26, 1788, but it cracked in
+    cooling. February 16 we recast it, and it proved to be of a proper
+    degree of strength. October 24 it was brought to a pretty good
+    figure and polish, and I observed the planet <i>Saturn</i> with it. But
+    not being satisfied, I continued to work upon it till August 27,
+    1789, when it was tried upon the fixed stars, and I found it to give
+    a pretty sharp image. Large stars were a little affected with
+    scattered light, owing to many remaining scratches on the mirror.
+    August the 28th, 1789, having brought the telescope to the parallel
+    of <i>Saturn</i>, I discovered a <i>sixth</i> satellite of that planet, and
+    also saw the spots upon <i>Saturn</i> better than I had ever seen them
+    before, so that I may date the finishing of the forty-foot telescope
+    from that time."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">Another satellite of <i>Saturn</i> was discovered with the forty-foot on the
+17th of September (1789). It was used for various observations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> so late
+as 1811. On January 19, of that year, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> observed the nebula of
+<i>Orion</i> with it. This was one of his last observations.</p>
+
+<p>The final disposition of the telescope is told in the following extract
+from a letter of Sir <span class="smcap">John Herschel's</span> to Mr. <span class="smcap">Weld</span>, Secretary of the Royal
+Society:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="address"><p class="thoughtbreak"><span class="smcap">Collingwood</span>, <i>March 13, 1847</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="letter">
+<p> . . .  "In reply to your queries, respecting the forty-foot reflecting
+    telescope constructed by my father, I have to state that King <span class="smcap">George
+    III.</span> munificently defrayed the <i>entire</i> cost of that instrument
+    (including, of course, all preparatory cost in the nature of
+    construction of tools, and of the apparatus for casting, grinding,
+    and figuring the reflectors, of which two were constructed), at a
+    total cost of &pound;4,000. The woodwork of the telescope being so far
+    decayed as to be dangerous, in the year 1839 I pulled it down, and
+    piers were erected on which the tube was placed, <i>that</i> being of
+    iron and so well preserved, that, although not more than
+    one-twentieth of an inch thick, when in the horizontal position it
+    sustained within it all my family, and continues to sustain inclosed
+    within it, to this day, not only the heavier of the two reflectors,
+    but also all the more important portions of the machinery. . . . The
+    other mirror and the rest of the polishing apparatus are on the
+<span class='Lpagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+    premises. The iron grinding tools and polishers are placed
+    underneath the tube, let into the ground, and level with the surface
+    of the gravelled area in which it stands.". . . </p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The closing of the tube was done with appropriate ceremony on
+New-Year's-Day, 1840, when, after a procession through it by the family
+at Slough, a poem, written by Sir <span class="smcap">John</span>, was read, the machinery put into
+its present position, and the tube sealed.</p>
+
+<p>The memoir on the forty-foot telescope shows throughout that <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+prime object was not the making of the telescope itself, but that his
+mind was constantly directed towards the uses to which it was to be
+put&mdash;towards the questions which he wished it to answer.</p>
+
+<p>Again and again, in his various papers, he returns to the question of
+the <i>limit of vision</i>. As <span class="smcap">Bessel</span> has said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "The naked eye has its limit of vision in the stars of the sixth
+    magnitude. The light of fainter stars than these does not affect the
+    retina enough for them to be seen. A very small telescope penetrates
+    to smaller, and, in general, without doubt, to more distant stars. A
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+    more powerful one penetrates deeper into space, and as its power is
+    increased, so the boundaries of the visible universe are widened,
+    and the number of stars increased to millions and millions. Whoever
+    has followed the history of the series of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> telescopes will
+    have observed this. But <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was not content with the bare fact,
+    but strove ever to know <i>how far</i> a telescope of a certain
+    construction and size could penetrate, compared with the naked and
+    unassisted eye. These investigations were never for the discovery of
+    new facts concerning the working of his instruments; it was for the
+    knowledge of the distribution of the fixed stars in space itself
+    that he strove. . . . <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> instruments were designed to aid
+    vision to the last extent. They were only secondarily for the taking
+    of measures. His efforts were not for a knowledge of the <i>motions</i>,
+    but of the <i>constitution</i> and <i>construction</i> of the heavenly
+    bodies."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">Besides the stands for his telescopes, which were both ingenious and
+convenient, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> devised many forms of apparatus for facilitating
+the art of observation. His micrometers for measuring position angles,
+his lamp micrometer, the method of limiting apertures, and the methods
+he used for viewing the sun may be mentioned among these.</p>
+
+<p>Points in practical astronomy are considered all through the years of
+observation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> A reference to his original papers will show how numerous,
+how varied, and how valuable these are. I cannot forbear quoting here
+the account of a precaution observed during his examination of the belts
+on <i>Saturn</i> (1794).</p>
+
+<p>It is the most striking example of how fully <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> realized that the
+eye of the observer is a material part of the optical apparatus of
+astronomy. Simple as this principle may appear, it was an absolute
+novelty in his day.</p>
+
+<p>In making these observations, he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "I took care to bend my head so as to receive the picture of the
+    belt in the same direction as I did formerly. This was a precaution
+    that occurred to me, as there was a possibility that the vertical
+    diameter of the retina might be more or less sensitive than the
+    horizontal one."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">Astronomers will recognize in this the first suggestion of the processes
+which have led to important results in the hands of Dr. <span class="smcap">Otto Struve</span> and
+others in the comparison of the measures of double stars by different
+observers, each of whom has a personal habit of observation, which, if
+not corrected, may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> affect his results in the way which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was
+striving to avoid.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Relative Brightness of the Stars: Variable Stars.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>No research of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> was more laborious than the elaborate
+classification of the stars according to their comparative brightness,
+which he executed during the years 1796 to 1799. It was directly in the
+line of his main work&mdash;to find out the construction of the heavens.</p>
+
+<p>His first paper had been upon the variable star <i>Mira Ceti</i>. Here was a
+sun, shining by its native brightness, which waxed and waned like the
+moon itself. This star is periodic. It is for a long period invisible to
+the unassisted eye. Then it can just be seen, and increases in
+brightness for a little over a month, and attains a maximum brilliancy.
+From this it decreases for nearly three months, and after becoming
+invisible, remains so for five or six months. Its whole period is about
+333 days. Are all other stars constant in brightness?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> The example of
+<i>Mira Ceti</i> and of other known variables makes this at least doubtful.
+But the sun itself may vary for all that we know. It is a simple star
+like the rest.</p>
+
+<p>This question of variability in general is an important one, then. It
+can only be tested by making accurate catalogues of the relative
+brilliance of stars at various times, and by comparing these. No such
+general catalogue existed before <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> time, and led by the
+discrepancies in isolated cases, which he found between his own
+estimates and those of his predecessors, he made from observation a
+series of four catalogues, in which were set down the order of sequence
+of the stars of each constellation.</p>
+
+<p>The method adopted by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was perfectly simple in principle, though
+most laborious in practice. Suppose any number of stars, A, B, C, D, E,
+. . . etc., near enough to each other to be well compared. The process
+consists simply in writing down the names of the stars, A, B, C, etc.,
+in the order of their relative brightness. Thus if for a group of eight
+stars we have found at one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> epoch A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and if at
+another time the order was A, B, C, D, F, E, G, H, symptoms of
+variability are pointed out. Repeated observations, where the same star
+is found in different sequences, will decide the question. Thus, for the
+stars visible to the naked eye, we know exactly the state of the sky in
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> day, now nearly a century ago. Any material change cannot
+escape us. These catalogues have been singularly overlooked by the
+observers of our generation who have followed this branch of
+observation, and it was not till 1876 that they received proper
+attention and a suitable reduction (at the hands of Mr. <span class="smcap">C. S. Pierce</span>).</p>
+
+<p>We owe to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> the first trustworthy account of the stars visible to
+the naked eye, and since the date of his labors (about 1800) we have
+similar views published by <span class="smcap">Argelander</span> (1839), <span class="smcap">Heis</span> (1848), <span class="smcap">Argelander</span>
+and <span class="smcap">Sch&ouml;nfeld</span> (1857), <span class="smcap">Gould</span> (1860 and 1872), and <span class="smcap">Houzeau</span> (1875). Thus
+his labors have been well followed up.</p>
+
+<p>In the prosecution of this work <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> found stars whose light was
+progressively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> diminishing, others which regularly increased, one star
+whose light periodically varies (<i>&#945; Herculis</i>), and at least
+one star (55 <i>Herculis</i>) which has utterly disappeared. On October 10,
+1781, and April 11, 1782, he observed this latter star, but in May,
+1791, it had totally vanished. There was no trace remaining.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of the variability of <i>&#945; Herculis</i> was a more
+important one than would at first sight appear. Up to that time the only
+variable stars known were seven in number. Their-periods were four
+hundred and ninety-four, four hundred and four, three hundred and
+thirty-four, seven, six, five, and three days. These periods seemed to
+fall into two groups, one of from three hundred to five hundred days,
+the other comparatively much shorter, of three to seven days. <i>&#945; Herculis</i>
+came to occupy the middle place between these groups, its
+period being about sixty days.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of these strange and regular variations of brightness was
+supposed by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> to be the rotation of the star bodily on an axis,
+by which revolution different parts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> of its surface, of different
+brilliancy, were successively and periodically presented to us. This
+explanation it might have been difficult to receive, when the periods of
+the known variables were so markedly various in length. His own
+discovery came to bridge over the interval, and quite confirmed him in
+his belief. He returned to the subject of the revolution of stars about
+their axes again and again, and connected it with the revolution of
+satellites.</p>
+
+<p>He found that the satellites of <i>Jupiter</i> and one of <i>Saturn's</i>
+periodically changed in brightness, and by quite simple means showed
+that their periods of rotation were at least approximately the same as
+their periods of revolution about their primaries. In this case, as in
+every other, he considered a discovery in each and every one of its
+possible bearings. There are no instances where he has singularly
+overlooked the consequences of his observations.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on Double Stars.</i></p>
+
+<p>The double stars were the subject of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> earliest and of his
+latest papers. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> 1782 he published his "<i>Catalogue of Double Stars</i>,"
+and his last published memoir (1822) was on the same subject.</p>
+
+<p>The question of determining the parallax of stars first brought <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+to the discovery of double stars. If two stars, A and B, appear very
+close together, and if, in reality, the star B is very many times more
+distant from the earth than A, although seen along the same line of
+sight, then the revolution of the earth in its orbit will produce
+changes in the relative situation of A and B, and, in fact, B will
+describe a small orbit about A, due to this revolution. This idea had
+been proposed by <span class="smcap">Galileo</span>, and measures on this plan had been made by
+<span class="smcap">Long</span>, with negative results. But <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, in reviewing their work,
+declares that the stars chosen by <span class="smcap">Long</span> were not suitable to the purpose.
+It is necessary, among other things, to the success of this method, that
+it should be certain that the star B is really very much more distant
+than the star A. The only general test of the distance of stars is their
+brilliancy, and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> decided to use only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> stars for this research
+which had two components very greatly different in brightness. A must be
+very bright (and presumably near to us), and B must be very close to A,
+and very faint (and thus, presumably, very distant).</p>
+
+<p>It was in the search for such pairs of stars that the <i>Catalogue of
+Double Stars</i> (1782) was formed. <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> first idea of a double star
+made such pairs as he found, to consist of two stars <i>accidentally</i> near
+to each other. A was near to us, and appeared projected in a certain
+place on the celestial sphere. B was many times more distant, but, by
+chance, was seen along the same line, and made with A an <i>optical</i>
+double. If the two stars were at the same distance from the earth, if
+they made part of the same physical system, if one revolved around the
+other, then this method of gaining a knowledge of their distance failed.
+Even in his first memoir on the subject, a surmise that this latter
+state might occur in some cases, was expressed by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. The notes on
+some of the pairs declare that a motion of one of them was suspected.
+But this motion might be truly orbital&mdash;of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> one star about the other as
+a centre&mdash;or it might simply be that one star was moving by its own
+<i>proper</i> motion, and leaving the other behind. It was best to wait and
+see. The first Catalogue of Double Stars contained two hundred and three
+instances of such associations. These were observed from time to time,
+and new pairs discovered. The paper of <span class="smcap">Michell</span>, "An Inquiry into the
+probable Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of
+Light which they Afford, and the Particular Circumstances of their
+Situation" (1767), was read and pondered. By 1802 <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had become
+certain that there existed in the heavens real pairs of stars, both at
+the same distance from the earth, which were physically connected with
+each other. The arguments of <span class="smcap">Michell</span> have been applied by <span class="smcap">Bessel</span> to the
+case of one of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> double stars, in much the same order in which
+the argument ran in <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> own mind, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The star <i>Castor (&#945; Geminorum)</i> is a double star, where A is of
+the second, and B of the fourth, magnitude. To the naked eye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> these two
+appear as one star. With a telescope this is seen to be two stars, some
+5&#8243; apart. In the whole sky there are not above fifty such stars
+as the brighter of the two, and about four hundred of the brilliancy of
+B. These fifty and four hundred stars are scattered over the vault of
+heaven, almost at random. No law has yet been traced by which we can say
+that here or here there shall be a bright star like A, or a fainter one
+like B. In general the distribution appears to be fortuitous. How then
+can we account for one of the four hundred stars like B placed so close
+to one of the fifty like A?</p>
+
+<p>The chances are over four hundred thousand to one that the association
+in position is not accidental. This argument becomes overwhelming when
+the same association is found in many other cases. There were two
+hundred and three doubles in the Catalogue of 1782 alone, and many
+thousands are now known.</p>
+
+<p>By a process like this, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> reached his grand discovery of true
+binary systems, where one sun revolves about another. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> he saw that
+if the two stars are near together in space, they could not stand still
+in face of each other, but that they must revolve in true orbits. Here
+was the discovery which came to take the place of the detection of the
+parallaxes of the fixed stars.</p>
+
+<p>He had failed in one research, but he was led to grand conclusions. Was
+the force that these distant pairs of suns obeyed, the force of
+gravitation? This he could not settle, but his successors have done so.
+It was not till about 1827 that <span class="smcap">Savary</span>, of the Paris Observatory, showed
+that one of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> doubles was subjected to the law of gravitation,
+and thus extended the power of this law from our system to the universe
+at large. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> himself lived to see some of his double stars perform
+half a revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> discoveries, <span class="smcap">Arago</span> thinks this has "le plus d'avenir." It
+may well be so. The laws which govern our solar system have been
+extended, through his researches, to regions of unknown distance. The
+binary stars will afford the largest field for research into the laws
+which govern them, and together<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> with the clusters and groups, they will
+give a firm basis by which to study the distribution of stars in
+general, since here we have the great advantage of knowing, if not the
+real distance of the two stars from the earth, at least that this
+distance is alike for both.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on Planets and Satellites.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>After <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> first publication on the mountains of the Moon (1780),
+our satellite appears to have occupied him but little. The observation
+of volcanoes (1787) and of a lunar eclipse are his only published ones.
+The planets <i>Mercury</i>, <i>Venus</i>, <i>Mars</i>, and <i>Jupiter</i>, although they
+were often studied, were not the subjects of his more important memoirs.
+The planet <i>Saturn</i>, on the contrary, seems never to have been lost
+sight of from the time of his first view of it in 1772.</p>
+
+<p>The field of discovery always appears to be completely occupied until
+the advent of a great man, who, even by his way of putting old and
+familiar facts, shows the paths along which discoveries must come, if at
+all. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> faculty comes from profound reflection on the nature of the
+subject itself, from a sort of transmuting power which changes the words
+of the books into the things of reality. <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> paper on <i>Saturn</i>,
+in 1790, is an admirable example of this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> observations on <i>Saturn</i> began in 1772. From 1790 to 1808 he
+published six memoirs on the figure, the ring, and the satellites of
+this planet. The spheroidal shape of the ball was first discovered by
+him, and we owe much of our certain knowledge of the constitution of the
+rings to his work. The sixth and seventh satellites, <i>Mimas</i> and
+<i>Enceladus</i>, were discovered by him in 1789. The periods of rotation of
+the ball and of the ring were also fixed. In his conclusions as to the
+real figure of the rings, there is a degree of scientific caution which
+is truly remarkable, and which to-day seems almost excessive.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p><p>In his paper of 1792, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> shows that the most distant satellite of
+<i>Saturn</i>&mdash;<i>Japetus</i>&mdash;turns once on its axis in each
+revolution about its primary, just as our moon does. He says of this:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "I cannot help reflecting with some pleasure on the discovery of an
+    analogy which shows that a certain uniform plan is carried on among
+    the secondary planets of our solar system; and we may conjecture
+    that probably most of the satellites are governed by the same law;
+    especially if it be founded on such a construction of their figure
+    as makes them more ponderous towards their primary planets."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">I believe the last suggestion to have been the first statement of the
+possible arrangement of matter in satellites, which was afterwards so
+forcibly maintained by <span class="smcap">Hansen</span> in his theory of the moon. <span class="smcap">Hansen's</span>
+researches show the consequences of such an arrangement, although they
+do not prove its existence.</p>
+
+<p>It should be recorded that the explanation which is to-day received of
+the belts and bands upon <i>Jupiter</i>, is, I believe, first found in
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> memoir on <i>Venus</i> (1793). His memoir of 1797, on the
+changeable brightness of the satellites of <i>Jupiter</i>, has already been
+referred to. The times of the rotation of the satellites on their axes
+was first determined by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> from these observations, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> also
+contain accounts of the curious, and as yet unexplained, phenomena
+attending their appearances on the disc of the planet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> discovered in January, 1787, the two brighter satellites of
+<i>Uranus</i>, now called <i>Oberon</i> and <i>Titania</i>. They are among the faintest
+objects in the solar system. A later discussion of all his observations
+led him to the belief that there were four more, and he gives his
+observations and computations in full. He says that of the existence of
+additional satellites he has no doubt. Of these four, three were
+exterior to the most distant satellite <i>Oberon</i>, the other was
+"interior" to <i>Titania</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1834 that even <i>Oberon</i> and <i>Titania</i> were again
+observed (by Sir <span class="smcap">John Herschel</span>) with a telescope of twenty feet, similar
+to that which had discovered them, and not until 1847 was the true state
+of this system known, when Mr. <span class="smcap">Lassell</span> discovered <i>Ariel</i> and <i>Umbriel</i>,
+two satellites interior to <i>Titania</i>, neither of which was <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>
+"interior" satellite. In 1848 and later years Mr. <span class="smcap">Lassell</span>, by the aid of
+telescopes constructed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> by himself, fully settled the fact that only
+four satellites of this planet existed. In 1874 I examined the
+observations of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> on his supposed "interior" satellite, thinking
+that it might be possible that among the very few glimpses of it which
+he recorded, some might have belonged to <i>Ariel</i> and some to <i>Umbriel</i>,
+and that by combining rare and almost accidental observations of two
+satellites which really existed, he had come to announce the existence
+of an "interior" satellite which had no existence in fact. Such I
+believe to be the case. In 1801, April 17, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> describes an
+interior satellite in the position angle 189&deg;, distant 18&#8243; from
+the planet. At that instant <i>Umbriel</i>, one of Mr. <span class="smcap">Lassell's</span> satellites,
+was in the position 191&deg;, and distant 21&#8243; from <i>Uranus</i>, in the
+most favorable position for seeing it. The observation of 1794, March
+27, <i>may</i> belong to <i>Ariel</i>. At the best the investigation is of passing
+interest only, and has nothing to do with the question of the discovery
+of the satellites. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> discovered the two brighter ones, and it
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> only sixty years later that they were properly re-observed by Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Lassell</span>, who has the great honor of having added as many more, and who
+first settled the vexed question of satellites <i>exterior</i> to <i>Oberon</i>,
+and this with a reflecting telescope made by himself, which is
+unequalled by any other of its dimensions.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Nature of the Sun.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>In the introduction to his paper on the <i>Nature and Construction of the
+Sun and Fixed Stars</i> (1795), <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> recounts what was known of the
+nature of the sun at that time. <span class="smcap">Newton</span> had shown that it was the centre
+of the system; <span class="smcap">Galileo</span> and his successors had determined its rotation,
+the place of its equator, its real diameter, magnitude, density,
+distance, and the force of gravity on its surface. He says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "I should not wonder if, considering all this, we were induced to
+    think that nothing remained to be added; and yet we are still very
+    ignorant in regard to the internal construction of the sun." "The
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+    spots have been supposed to be solid bodies, the smoke of
+    volcanoes, the scum floating on an ocean of fluid matter, clouds,
+    opaque masses, and to be many other things." "The sun itself has
+    been called a globe of fire, though, perhaps, metaphorically." "It
+    is time now to profit by the observations we are in possession of. I
+    have availed myself of the labors of preceding astronomers, but have
+    been induced thereto by my own actual observation of the solar
+    phenomena."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> then refers to the theories advanced by his friend, Prof.
+<span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, of Glasgow, in 1774. <span class="smcap">Wilson</span> maintained that the spots were
+depressions below the sun's atmosphere, vast hollows as it were, at the
+bases of which the true surface of the sun could be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The essence of his theory was the existence of two different kinds of
+matter in the sun: one solid and non-luminous&mdash;the nucleus&mdash;the other
+gaseous and incandescent&mdash;the atmosphere. Vacant places in the
+atmosphere, however caused, would show the black surface of the solid
+mass below. These were the spots. No explanation could be given of the
+<i>facul&aelig;</i>, bright streaks, which appear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> on the sun's surface from time
+to time; but his theory accounted for the existence of the black
+<i>nuclei</i> of the spots, and for the existence of the <i>penumbr&aelig;</i> about
+these. The penumbra of a spot was formed by the thinner parts of the
+atmosphere about the vacancy which surrounded the nucleus.</p>
+
+<p>This theory of <span class="smcap">Wilson's</span> was adopted by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> as a basis for his own,
+and he brought numerous observations to confirm it, in the modified
+shape which he gave to it.</p>
+
+<p>According to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, the sun consisted of three essentially different
+parts. First, there was a solid nucleus, non-luminous, cool, and even
+capable of being inhabited. Second, above this was an atmosphere proper;
+and, lastly, outside of this was a layer in which floated the clouds, or
+bodies which gave to the solar surface its intense brilliancy:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "According to my theory, a dark spot in the sun is a place in its
+    atmosphere which happens to be free from luminous decompositions"
+    above it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two atmospheric layers, which will be of varying thickness about a
+spot, will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> account for all the shades of darkness seen in the penumbra.
+Ascending currents from the solar surface will elevate certain regions,
+and may increase the solar activity near by, and will thus give rise to
+facul&aelig;, which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> shows to be elevated above the general surface.
+It will not be necessary to give a further account of this theory. The
+data in the possession of the modern theorist is a thousand-fold that to
+be derived from <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> observations, and, while the subject of the
+internal construction of the sun is to-day unsettled, we know that many
+important, even fundamental, portions of his theory are untenable. A
+remark of his should be recorded, however, as it has played a great part
+in such theories:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "That the emission of light must waste the sun, is not a difficulty
+    that can be opposed to our hypothesis. Many of the operations of
+    Nature are carried on in her great laboratory which we cannot
+    comprehend. Perhaps the many telescopic comets may restore to the
+    sun what is lost by the emission of light."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Arguments in favor of the habitability of both sun and moon are
+contained in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> paper; but they rest more on a metaphysical than a
+scientific basis, and are to-day justly forgotten.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Motion of the Sun and of the Solar System in Space.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>In 1782 <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> writes, in regard to some of his discoveries of double
+stars:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "These may serve another very important end. I will just mention it,
+    though it is foreign to my present purpose. Several stars of the
+    first magnitude have been observed or suspected to have a proper
+    motion; hence we may surmise that our sun, with all its planets and
+    comets, may also have a motion towards some particular point of the
+    heavens. . . . If this surmise should have any foundation, it will show
+    itself in a series of some years in a kind of systematical parallax,
+    or change, due to the motion of the whole solar system."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">In 1783 he published his paper <i>On the Proper Motion of the Solar
+System</i>, which contained the proofs of his surmises of a year before.
+That certain of the stars had in fact a <i>proper</i> motion had been well
+established by the astronomers of the eighteenth century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> After all
+allowances had been made for the effects of precession and other
+displacements of a star's position which were produced by motions of the
+earth, it was found that there were still small outstanding differences
+which must be due to the motion of the star itself&mdash;its proper motion.
+The quantity of this motion was not well known for any star when
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> researches began. Before they were concluded, however,
+<span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span> had deduced the proper motions of thirty-six stars&mdash;the
+fundamental stars, so called&mdash;which included in their number <i>Sirius</i>,
+<i>Procyon</i>, <i>Arcturus</i>, and generally the brightest stars.</p>
+
+<p>It is <i>&agrave; priori</i> evident that stars, in general, must have proper
+motions, when once we admit the universality of gravitation. That any
+fixed star should be entirely at rest would require that the attractions
+on all sides of it should be exactly balanced. Any change in the
+position of this star would break up this balance, and thus, in general,
+it follows that stars must be in motion, since all of them cannot occupy
+such a critical position as has to be assumed. If but one fixed star is
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> motion, this affects all the rest, and we cannot doubt but that
+every star, our sun included, is in motion by an amount which varies
+from small to great. If the sun alone had a motion, and the other stars
+were at rest, the consequence of this would be that all the fixed stars
+would appear to be retreating <i>en masse</i> from that point in the sky
+towards which we were moving. Those nearest us would move more rapidly,
+those more distant less so. And in the same way, the stars from which
+the solar system was receding would seem to be approaching each other.
+If the stars, instead of being quite at rest, as just supposed, had
+motions proper to themselves, then we should have a double complexity.
+They would still appear to an observer in the solar system to have
+motions, and part of these motions would be truly proper to the stars,
+and part would be due to the advance of the sun itself in space.</p>
+
+<p>Observations can show us only the <i>resultant</i> of these two motions. It
+is for reasoning to separate this resultant into its two components. At
+first the question is to determine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> whether the results of observation
+indicate any solar motion at all. If there is none, the proper motions
+of stars will be directed along all possible lines. If the sun does
+truly move, then there will be a general agreement in the resultant
+motions of the stars near the ends of the line along which it moves,
+while those at the sides, so to speak, will show comparatively less
+systematic effect. It is as if one were riding in the rear of a railway
+train and watching the rails over which it has just passed. As we recede
+from any point, the rails at that point seem to come nearer and nearer
+together.</p>
+
+<p>If we were passing through a forest, we should see the trunks of the
+trees from which we were going apparently come nearer and nearer
+together, while those on the sides of us would remain at their constant
+distance, and those in front would grow further and further apart.</p>
+
+<p>These phenomena, which occur in a case where we are sensible of our own
+motion, serve to show how we may deduce a motion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> otherwise unknown,
+from the appearances which are presented by the stars in space.</p>
+
+<p>In this way, acting upon suggestions which had been thrown out
+previously to his own time by <span class="smcap">Lambert</span>, <span class="smcap">Mayer</span>, and <span class="smcap">Bradley</span>, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+demonstrated that the sun, together with all its system, was moving
+through space in an unknown and majestic orbit of its own. The centre
+round which this motion is directed cannot yet be assigned. We can only
+know the point in the heavens towards which our course is
+directed&mdash;"the apex of solar motion."</p>
+
+<p>By a study of the proper motions assigned by <span class="smcap">Maskelyne</span> to the brighter
+stars, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was able to define the position of the solar apex with
+an astonishing degree of accuracy. His calculations have been several
+times repeated with the advantage of modern analytical methods, and of
+the hundred-fold material now at our disposition, but nothing essential
+has been added to his results of 1805, which were based upon such scanty
+data; and his paper of 1782 contains the announcement of the discovery
+itself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>His second paper on the <i>Direction</i> and <i>Velocity</i> of the solar system
+(1805) is the best example that can possibly be given of his marvellous
+skill in reaching the heart of a matter, and it may be the one in which
+his philosophical powers appear in their highest exercise. For sustained
+reflection and high philosophic thought it is to be ranked with the
+researches of <span class="smcap">Newton</span> in the <i>Principia</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Construction of the Heavens.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> papers on the Construction of the Heavens, as he named it,
+extended over his whole scientific life. By this he specially means the
+method according to which the stars, the clusters, the nebul&aelig;, are
+spread through the regions of space, the causes that have led to this
+distribution, and the laws to which it is subjected.</p>
+
+<p>No single astronomical fact is unimportant in the light which it may
+throw on the scheme of the whole, and each fact is to be considered in
+this light. As an instance: his discovery of the variable star <i>&#945; Herculis</i>,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> which has a period of sixty days, was valuable in itself
+as adding one more to the number of those strange suns whose light is
+now brighter, now fainter, in a regular and periodic order. But the
+chief value of the discovery was that now we had an instance of a
+periodic star which went through all its phases in sixty days, and
+connected, as it were, the stars of short periods (three to seven days)
+with those of very long ones (three hundred to five hundred days), which
+two groups had, until then, been the only ones known. In the same way
+all his researches on the parallaxes of stars were not alone for the
+discovery of the distance of any one or two single stars, but to gain a
+unit of celestial measure, by means of which the depths of space might
+be sounded.</p>
+
+<p>Astronomy in <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> day considered the bodies of the solar system as
+separated from each other by distances, and as filling a cubical space.
+The ideas of near and far, of up and down, were preserved, in regard to
+them, by common astronomical terms. But the vast number of stars seemed
+to be thought of, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> they appear in fact to exist, lying on the surface
+of a hollow sphere. The immediate followers of <span class="smcap">Bradley</span> used these fixed
+stars as points of reference by which the motions within the solar
+system could be determined, or, like <span class="smcap">Lacaille</span> and <span class="smcap">Lalande</span>, gathered
+those immense catalogues of their positions which are so indispensable
+to the science. <span class="smcap">Michell</span> and <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> alone, in England, occupied their
+thoughts with the nature and construction of the heavens&mdash;the one in his
+study, the other through observation.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> They were concerned with all
+three of the dimensions of space.</p>
+
+<p>In his memoir of 1784, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> says:</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Hitherto the sidereal heavens have, not inadequately for the
+    purpose designed, been represented by the concave surface of a
+    sphere, in the centre of which the eye of an observer might be
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+    supposed to be placed.</p>
+
+<p> "It is true the various magnitudes of the fixed stars even then
+    plainly suggested to us, and would have better suited, the idea of
+    an expanded firmament of three dimensions; but the observations upon
+    which I am now going to enter still farther illustrate and enforce
+    the necessity of considering the heavens in this point of view. In
+    future, therefore, we shall look upon those regions into which we
+    may now penetrate by means of such large telescopes, as a naturalist
+    regards a rich extent of ground or chain of mountains containing
+    strata variously inclined and directed, as well as consisting of
+    very different materials. The surface of a globe or map, therefore,
+    will but ill delineate the interior parts of the heavens."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> method of study was founded on a mode of observation which he
+called <i>star-gauging</i>. It consisted in pointing a powerful telescope
+toward various parts of the heavens, and ascertaining by actual count
+how thick the stars were in each region. His twenty-foot reflector was
+provided with such an eye-piece that, in looking into it, he saw a
+portion of the heavens about 15&#8242; in diameter. A circle of this size on
+the celestial sphere has about one quarter the apparent surface of the
+sun, or of the full moon. On pointing the telescope in any direction, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+greater or less number of stars were visible. These were counted, and
+the direction in which the telescope pointed was noted. Gauges of this
+kind were made in all parts of the sky, and the results were tabulated
+in the order of right ascension.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an extract from the gauges, and gives the average
+number of stars in each field at the points noted in right ascension and
+north polar distance:</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table summary="Summary extract from gauges" class="text-size08">
+<tr><td class="rt" colspan="3">&nbsp;                              </td><td class="t" >N. P. D.            </td><td class="lrt"></td><td class="rt" colspan="3">&nbsp;                              </td><td class="t">N. P. D.           </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="r"  colspan="3">R. A. &nbsp;                        </td><td class="lr">78&deg; to 80&deg;. </td><td class="lr"> </td><td class="r"  colspan="3">R. A. &nbsp;                        </td><td class="l">92&deg; to 94&deg;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="rb" colspan="3">                                    </td><td class="lrb">No. of Stars.      </td><td class="lrb"></td><td class="rb" colspan="3">                                    </td><td class="lb">No. of Stars.     </td></tr>
+<tr><td          >H.</td><td>M.          </td><td class="r">&nbsp; </td><td>                               </td><td class="lr"> </td><td>          H.</td><td>M.          </td><td class="r"> &nbsp;</td><td>                             </td></tr>
+<tr><td          >11</td><td>&nbsp;6     </td><td class="r">&nbsp; </td><td>3.1                            </td><td class="lr"> </td><td>          15</td><td>10          </td><td class="r"> &nbsp;</td><td>           &nbsp;9.4         </td></tr>
+<tr><td          >12</td><td>31          </td><td class="r">&nbsp; </td><td>3.4                            </td><td class="lr"> </td><td>          15</td><td>22          </td><td class="r"> &nbsp;</td><td>           10.6              </td></tr>
+<tr><td          >12</td><td>44          </td><td class="r">&nbsp; </td><td>4.6                            </td><td class="lr"> </td><td>          15</td><td>47          </td><td class="r"> &nbsp;</td><td>           10.6              </td></tr>
+<tr><td          >12</td><td>49          </td><td class="r">&nbsp; </td><td>3.9                            </td><td class="lr"> </td><td>          16</td><td>&nbsp;8     </td><td class="r"> &nbsp;</td><td>               12.1          </td></tr>
+<tr><td          >13</td><td>&nbsp;5     </td><td class="r">&nbsp; </td><td>3.8                            </td><td class="lr"> </td><td>          16</td><td>          25</td><td class="r"> &nbsp;</td><td>                13.6         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="b">14</td><td class="b">30</td><td class="rb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bcenter">3.6            </td><td class="lrb"></td><td class="b">16</td><td class="b">37</td><td class="rb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bcenter">18.6         </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">In this small table, it is plain that a different law of clustering or
+of distribution obtains in the two regions. Such differences are still
+more marked, if we compare the extreme cases found by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, as R.
+A.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> = 19<sup>h</sup> 41<sup>m</sup>, N. P. D. = 74&deg; 33&#8242;, number of stars per field = 588;
+and R. A. = 16<sup>h</sup> 10<sup>m</sup>, N. P. D. = 113&deg; 4&#8242;, number of stars = 1.1.</p>
+
+<p>The number of stars in certain portions is very great. For example, in
+the Milky Way, near <i>Orion</i>, six fields of view promiscuously taken gave
+110, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 stars each, or a mean of 79 stars per field.
+The most vacant space in this neighborhood gave 60 stars. So that as
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> sweeps were two degrees wide in declination, in one hour
+(15&deg;) there would pass through the field of his telescope 40,000 or more
+stars. In some of the sweeps this number was as great as 116,000 stars
+in a quarter of an hour.</p>
+
+<p>When <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> first applied his telescope to the Milky Way, he believed
+that it completely resolved the whole whitish appearance into small
+stars. This conclusion he subsequently modified. He says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "It is very probable that the great stratum called the Milky Way is
+    that in which the sun is placed, though perhaps not in the very
+    centre of its thickness.</p>
+
+<p> "We gather this from the appearance of the Galaxy, which seems to
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+    encompass the whole heavens, as it certainly must do if the sun is
+    within it. For, suppose a number of stars arranged between two
+    parallel planes, indefinitely extended every way, but at a given
+    considerable distance from each other; and calling this a sidereal
+    stratum, an eye placed somewhere within it will see all the stars in
+    the direction of the planes of the stratum projected into a great
+    circle, which will appear lucid on account of the accumulation of
+    the stars, while the rest of the heavens, at the sides, will only
+    seem to be scattered over with constellations, more or less crowded
+    according to the distance of the planes, or number of stars
+    contained in the thickness or sides of the stratum.</p>
+
+<p> "If the eye were placed somewhere without the stratum, at no very
+    great distance, the appearance of the stars within it would assume
+    the form of one of the smaller circles of the sphere, which would be
+    more or less contracted according to the distance of the eye; and,
+    if this distance were exceedingly increased, the whole stratum might
+    at last be drawn together into a lucid spot of any shape, according
+    to the length, breadth, and height of the stratum.</p>
+
+<p> "Suppose that a smaller stratum should branch out from the former in
+    a certain direction, and that it also is contained between two
+    parallel planes, so that the eye is contained within the great
+    stratum somewhere before the separation, and not far from the place
+    where the strata are still united. Then this second stratum will not
+    be projected into a bright circle like the former, but it will be
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+    seen as a lucid branch proceeding from the first, and returning
+    into it again at a distance less than a semicircle. If the bounding
+    surfaces are not parallel planes, but irregularly curved surfaces,
+    analogous appearances must result."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The Milky Way, as we see it, presents the aspect which has been just
+accounted for, in its general appearance of a girdle around the heavens
+and in its bifurcation at a certain point, and <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> explanation of
+this appearance, as just given, has never been seriously questioned. One
+doubtful point remains: are the stars scattered all through space? or
+are they near its bounding planes, or clustered in any way within this
+space so as to produce the same result to the eye as if uniformly
+distributed?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> assumed that they were nearly equably arranged all through the
+space in question. He only examined one other arrangement, <i>viz.</i>, that
+of a ring of stars surrounding the sun, and he pronounced against such
+an arrangement, for the reason that there is absolutely nothing in the
+size or brilliancy of the sun to cause us to suppose it to be the centre
+of such a gigantic system.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> No reason, except its importance to us
+personally, can be alleged for such a supposition. Every star will have
+its own appearance of a Galaxy or Milky Way, which will vary according
+to the situation of the star.</p>
+
+<p>Such an explanation will account for the general appearances of the
+Milky Way and of the rest of the sky, supposing the stars equally or
+nearly equally distributed in space. On this supposition, the system
+must be deeper where the stars appear most numerous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> endeavored, in his early memoirs, to explain this inequality of
+distribution on the fundamental assumption that the stars were nearly
+equably distributed in space. If they were so distributed, then the
+number of stars visible in any gauge would show the thickness of the
+stellar system in the direction in which the telescope was pointed. At
+each pointing, the field of view of the instrument includes all the
+visible stars situated within a cone, having its vortex at the
+observer's eye, and its base at the very limits of the system, the angle
+of the cone (at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> eye) being 15&#8242;. Then the cubes of the
+perpendiculars let fall from the eye, on the plane of the bases of the
+various visual cones, are proportional to the solid contents of the
+cones themselves, or, as the stars are supposed equally scattered within
+all the cones, the cube roots of the numbers of stars in each of the
+fields express the relative lengths of the perpendiculars. A <i>section</i>
+of the sidereal system along any great circle can be constructed from
+the data furnished by the gauges in the following way:</p>
+
+<p>The solar system is within the mass of stars. From this point lines are
+drawn along the different directions in which the gauging telescope was
+pointed. On these lines are laid off lengths proportional to the cube
+roots of the number of stars in each gauge. The irregular line joining
+the terminal points will be approximately the bounding curve of the
+stellar system in the great circle chosen. Within this line the space is
+nearly uniformly filled with stars. Without it is empty space. A similar
+section can be constructed in any other great circle, and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> combination
+of all such would give a representation of the shape of our stellar
+system. The more numerous and careful the observations, the more
+elaborate the representation, and the 863 gauges of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> are
+sufficient to mark out with great precision the main features of the
+Milky Way, and even to indicate some of its chief irregularities.</p>
+
+<p>On the fundamental assumption of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> (equable distribution), no
+other conclusion can be drawn from his statistics but the one laid down
+by him.</p>
+
+<p>This assumption he subsequently modified in some degree, and was led to
+regard his gauges as indicating not so much the <i>depth of the system</i> in
+any direction, as the <i>clustering power or tendency</i> of the stars in
+those special regions. It is clear that if in any given part of the sky,
+where, on the average, there are ten stars (say) to a field, we should
+find a certain small portion having 100 or more to a field, then, on
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> first hypothesis, rigorously interpreted, it would be
+necessary to suppose a spike-shaped protuberance directed from the
+earth, in order to explain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> the increased number of stars. If many such
+places could be found, then the probability is great that this
+explanation is wrong. We should more rationally suppose some real
+inequality of star distribution here. It is, in fact, in just such
+details that the method of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> breaks down, and a careful
+examination of his system leads to the belief that it must be greatly
+modified to cover all the known facts, while it undoubtedly has, in the
+main, a strong basis.</p>
+
+<p>The stars are certainly not uniformly distributed, and any general
+theory of the sidereal system must take into account the varied tendency
+to aggregation in various parts of the sky.</p>
+
+<p>In 1817, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> published an important memoir on the same subject, in
+which his first method was largely modified, though not abandoned. Its
+fundamental principle was stated by him as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "It is evident that we cannot mean to affirm that the stars of the
+    fifth, sixth, and seventh magnitudes are really smaller than those
+    of the first, second, or third, and that we must ascribe the cause
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+    of the difference in the apparent magnitudes of the stars to a
+    difference in their relative distances from us. On account of the
+    great number of stars in each class, we must also allow that the
+    stars of each succeeding magnitude, beginning with the first, are,
+    one with another, further from us than those of the magnitude
+    immediately preceding. The relative magnitudes give only relative
+    distances, and can afford no information as to the real distances at
+    which the stars are placed.</p>
+
+<p> "A standard of reference for the arrangement of the stars may be had
+    by comparing their distribution to a certain properly modified
+    equality of scattering. The equality which I propose does not
+    require that the stars should be at equal distances from each other,
+    nor is it necessary that all those of the same nominal magnitude
+    should be equally distant from us."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">It consisted in allotting a certain equal portion of space to every
+star, so that, on the whole, each equal portion of space within the
+stellar system contains an equal number of stars. The space about each
+star can be considered spherical. Suppose such a sphere to surround our
+own sun. Its radius will not differ greatly from the distance of the
+nearest fixed star, and this is taken as the unit of distance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Suppose a series of larger spheres, all drawn around our sun as a
+centre, and having the radii 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. The contents of the
+spheres being as the cubes of their diameters, the first sphere will
+have 3 &times; 3 &times; 3 = 27 times the volume of the unit sphere, and will
+therefore be large enough to contain 27 stars; the second will have 125
+times the volume, and will therefore contain 125 stars, and so on with
+the successive spheres. For instance, the sphere of radius 7 has room
+for 343 stars, but of this space 125 parts belong to the spheres inside
+of it; there is, therefore, room for 218 stars between the spheres of
+radii 5 and 7.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> designates the several distances of these layers of stars as
+orders; the stars between spheres 1 and 3 are of the first order of
+distance, those between 3 and 5 of the second order, and so on.
+Comparing the room for stars between the several spheres with the number
+of stars of the several magnitudes which actually exists in the sky, he
+found the result to be as follows:
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table summary="Summary by magnitude" class="padded">
+<tr><td class="t">Order of Distance.</td><td class="lrt">Number of Stars there is Room for.</td><td class="lrt">Magnitude.</td><td class="t">Number of Stars of that Magnitude.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="t">1. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lrt">  26</td><td class="lrt">1</td><td class="t">   17</td></tr>
+<tr><td          >2. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lr" >   98</td><td class="lr" >2</td><td          >   57</td></tr>
+<tr><td          >3. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lr" >  218</td><td class="lr" >3</td><td          >  206</td></tr>
+<tr><td          >4. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lr" >  386</td><td class="lr" >4</td><td          >  454</td></tr>
+<tr><td          >5. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lr" >  602</td><td class="lr" >5</td><td          >1,161</td></tr>
+<tr><td          >6. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lr" >  866</td><td class="lr" >6</td><td          >6,103</td></tr>
+<tr><td          >7. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lr" >1,178</td><td class="lr" >7</td><td          >6,146</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="b">8. . . . . . . .</td><td class="lrb">1,538</td><td class="lrb"> </td><td class="b">     </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">The result of this comparison is, that if the order of magnitudes could
+indicate the distance of the stars, it would denote at first a gradual
+and afterward a very abrupt condensation of them, at and beyond the
+region of the sixth-magnitude stars.</p>
+
+<p>If we assume the brightness of any star to be inversely proportional to
+the square of its distance, it leads to a scale of distance different
+from that adopted by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, so that a sixth-magnitude star on the
+common scale would be about of the eighth order of distance according to
+this scheme&mdash;that is, we must remove a star of the first magnitude to
+eight times its actual distance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> make it shine like a star of the
+sixth magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>On the scheme here laid down, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> subsequently assigned the <i>order</i>
+of distance of various objects, mostly star-clusters, and his estimates
+of these distances are still quoted. They rest on the fundamental
+hypothesis which has been explained, and the error in the assumption of
+equal intrinsic brilliancy for all stars affects these estimates. It is
+perhaps probable that the hypothesis of equal brilliancy for all stars
+is still more erroneous than the hypothesis of equal distribution, and
+it may well be that there is a very large range indeed in the actual
+dimensions and in the intrinsic brilliancy of stars at the same order of
+distance from us, so that the tenth-magnitude stars, for example, may be
+scattered throughout the spheres which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> would assign to the
+seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth
+magnitudes. However this may be, the fact remains that it is from
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> groundwork that future investigators must build. He found the
+whole subject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> in utter confusion. By his observations, data for the
+solution of some of the most general questions were accumulated, and in
+his memoirs, which <span class="smcap">Struve</span> well calls "immortal," he brought the
+scattered facts into order and gave the first bold outlines of a
+reasonable theory. He is the founder of a new branch of astronomy.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches for a Scale of Celestial Measures. Distances of the Stars.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>If the stars are <i>supposed</i> all of the same absolute brightness, their
+brightness to the eye will depend only upon their distance from us. If
+we call the brightness of one of the fixed stars at the distance of
+<i>Sirius</i>, which may be used as the unity of distance, 1, then if it is
+moved to the distance 2, its apparent brightness will be one-fourth; if
+to the distance 3, one-ninth; if to the distance 4, one-sixteenth, and
+so on, the apparent brightness diminishing as the square of the distance
+increases. The distance may be taken as an order of magnitude. Stars<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> at
+the <i>distances</i> two, three, four, etc., <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> called of the second,
+third, and fourth magnitudes.</p>
+
+<p>By a series of experiments, the details of which cannot be given here,
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> determined the space-penetrating power of each of his
+telescopes. The twenty-foot would penetrate into space seventy-five
+times farther than the naked eye; the twenty-five foot, ninety-six
+times; and the forty-foot, one hundred and ninety-two times. If the
+seventh-magnitude stars are those just visible to the naked eye, and if
+we still suppose all stars to be of equal intrinsic brightness, such
+seventh-magnitude stars would remain visible in the forty-foot, even if
+removed to 1,344 times the distance of <i>Sirius</i> (1,344 = 7 &times; 192). If,
+further, we suppose that the visibility of a star is strictly
+proportional to the total intensity of the light from it which strikes
+the eye, then a condensed cluster of 25,000 stars of the 1,344th
+magnitude could still be seen in the forty-foot at a distance where each
+star would have become 25,000 times fainter, that is, at about 158 times
+the distance of <i>Sirius</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> (158 &times; 158 = 24,964). The light from the
+nearest star requires some three years to reach the earth. From a star
+1,344 times farther it would require about 4,000 years, and for such a
+cluster as we have imagined no less than 600,000 years are needed. That
+is, the light by which we see such a group has not just now left it. On
+the contrary, it has been travelling through space for centuries and
+centuries since it first darted forth. It is the ancient history of such
+groups that we are studying now, and it was thus that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> declared
+that telescopes penetrated into time as well as into space.</p>
+
+<p>Other more exact researches on the relative light of stars were made by
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. These were only one more attempt to obtain a scale of
+celestial distances, according to which some notion of the limits and of
+the interior dimensions of the universe could be gained. Two telescopes,
+<i>exactly equal</i> in every respect, were chosen and placed side by side.
+Pairs of stars which were <i>exactly equal</i>, were selected by means of
+them. By diminishing the aperture of one telescope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> directed to a bright
+star, and keeping the other telescope unchanged and directed to a
+fainter star, the two stars could be equalized in light, and, from the
+relative size of the apertures, the relative light of this pair of stars
+could be accurately computed, and so on for other pairs. This was the
+first use of the method of <i>limiting apertures</i>. His general results
+were that the stars of the first magnitude would still remain visible to
+the naked eye, even if they were at a distance from us <i>twelve</i> times
+their actual distance.</p>
+
+<p>This method received a still further development at his hands. He did
+not leave it until he had gained all the information it was capable of
+giving. He prepared a set of telescopes collecting 4, 9, 16, etc. (2 &times;
+2, 3 &times; 3, 4 &times; 4, etc.), times as much light as the naked eye. These were
+to extend the determinations of distance to the telescopic stars. For
+example, a certain portion of the heavens which he examined contained no
+star visible to the naked eye, but many telescopic stars. We cannot say
+that no one of these is as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> bright in itself as some of our
+first-magnitude stars. The smallest telescope of the set showed a large
+number of stars; these must, then, be <i>twice</i> as far from us, on the
+average, as the stars just visible to the naked eye. But first-magnitude
+stars, like <i>Sirius</i>, <i>Procyon</i>, <i>Arcturus</i>, etc., become just visible
+to the eye if removed to twelve times their present distance. Hence the
+stars seen in this first telescope of the set were between twelve and
+twenty-four times as far from us as <i>Arcturus</i>, for example.</p>
+
+<p>"At least," as <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> says, "we are certain that if stars of the size
+and lustre of <i>Sirius</i>, <i>Arcturus</i>, etc., were removed into the
+profundity of space I have mentioned, they would then appear like the
+stars which I saw." With the next telescope, which collected nine times
+more light than the eye, and brought into view objects three times more
+distant, other and new stars appeared, which were then (3 &times; 12)
+thirty-six times farther from us than <i>Arcturus</i>. In the same way, the
+seven-foot reflector showed stars 204 times, the ten-foot 344<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> times,
+the twenty-foot 900 times farther from us than the average
+first-magnitude star. As the light from such a star requires three years
+to reach us, the light from the faintest stars seen by the twenty-foot
+would require 2,700 years (3 &times; 900).</p>
+
+<p>But <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was now (1817) convinced that the twenty-foot telescope
+could not penetrate to the boundaries of the Milky Way; the faintest
+stars of the Galaxy must then be farther from us even than nine hundred
+times the distance of <i>Arcturus</i>, and their light must be at least 3,000
+years old when it reaches us.</p>
+
+<p>There is no escaping a certain part of the consequences established by
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. It is indeed true that unless a particular star is of the same
+intrinsic brightness as our largest stars, this reasoning does not apply
+to it; in just so far as the average star is less bright than the
+average brightness of our largest stars, will the numbers which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+obtained be diminished. But for every star of which his hypothesis is
+true, we may assert that his conclusions are true, and no one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> can deny,
+with any show of reason, that, on the whole, his suppositions must be
+valid. On the whole, the stars which we call faint are farther from us
+than the brighter ones; and, on the whole, the brilliancy of our
+brightest and nearest stars is not very far from the brilliancy of the
+average star in space. We cannot yet define the word <i>very</i> by a
+numerical ratio.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>method</i> struck out by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was correct; it is for his
+successors to look for the special cases and limitations, to answer the
+question, At a certain distance from us, what are the variations which
+actually take place in the brilliancy and the sizes of stars? The answer
+to this question is to be found in the study of the clusters of regular
+forms, where we <i>know</i> the stars to be all at the same distance from us.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on Light and Heat, Etc.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>Frequently in the course of his astronomical work, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> found
+himself confronted by questions of physics which could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> not be
+immediately answered in the state of the science at that time. In his
+efforts to find a method for determining the dimensions of the stellar
+universe, he was finally led, as has been shown, to regard the
+brightness of a star as, in general, the best attainable measure of its
+distance from us. His work, however, was done with telescopes of various
+dimensions and powers, and it was therefore necessary to find some law
+for comparing the different results among themselves as well as with
+those given by observations with an unassisted eye. This necessity
+prompted an investigation, published in 1800, in which, after drawing
+the distinction between absolute and intrinsic brightness, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> gave
+an expression for the <i>space-penetrating power</i> of a telescope. The
+reasoning at the base of this conception was as follows.</p>
+
+<p>The ratio of the light entering the eye when directed toward a star, to
+the whole light given out by the star, would be as the area of the pupil
+of the eye to the area of the whole sphere having the star as a centre
+and our distance from the star as a radius.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> If the eye is assisted by a
+telescope, the ratio is quite different. In that case the ratio of the
+light which enters the eye to the whole light, would be as the area of
+the mirror or object-glass to the area of the whole sphere having the
+star as a centre and its distance as a radius. Thus the light received
+by the <i>eye</i> in the two cases would be as the area of the pupil is to
+the area of the object-glass. For instance, if the pupil has a diameter
+of two-fifths of an inch, and the mirror a diameter of four inches, then
+a hundred times as much light would enter the eye when assisted by the
+telescope as when unarmed, since the <i>area</i> of the pupil is
+one-hundredth the <i>area</i> of the objective.</p>
+
+<p>If a particular star is just visible to the naked eye, it will be quite
+bright if viewed with this special telescope, which makes it one hundred
+times more brilliant in appearance. If we could move the star bodily
+away from us to a distance ten times its present distance, we could thus
+reduce its brightness, as seen with the telescope, to what it was at
+first, as seen with the eye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> alone, <i>i. e.</i>, to bare visibility. Moving
+the star to ten times its present distance would increase the surface of
+the sphere which it illuminates a hundred-fold. We cannot move any
+special star, but we can examine stars of all brightnesses, and thus
+(presumably) of all distances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> argument was, then, as follows: Since with such a telescope
+one can see a star ten times as far off as is possible to the naked eye,
+this telescope has the power of penetrating into space ten times farther
+than the eye alone. But this number ten, also, expresses the ratio of
+the diameter of the objective to that of the pupil of the eye,
+consequently the general law is that the <i>space-penetrating power</i> of a
+telescope is found by dividing the diameter of the mirror in inches by
+two-fifths. The diameter of the pupil of the eye (two-fifths of an inch)
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> determined by many measures.</p>
+
+<p>This simple ratio would only hold good, however, provided no more light
+were lost by the repeated reflections and refractions in the telescope
+than in the eye. That light<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> must be so lost was evident, but no data
+existed for determining the loss. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was thus led to a long series
+of photometric experiments on the reflecting powers of the metals used
+in his mirrors, and on the amount of light transmitted by lenses.
+Applying the corrections thus deduced experimentally, he found that the
+space-penetrating power of his twenty-foot telescope, with which he made
+his star-gauges, was sixty-one times that of the unassisted eye, while
+the space-penetrating power of his great forty-foot telescope was one
+hundred and ninety-two times that of the eye. In support of his
+important conclusions <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had an almost unlimited amount of
+experimental data in the records of his observations, of which he made
+effective use.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most important of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> work in the domain of pure
+physics was published in the same year (1800), and related to radiant
+heat. The investigation of the space-penetrating powers of telescopes
+was undertaken for the sole purpose of aiding him in measuring the
+dimensions of the stellar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> universe, and there was no temptation for him
+to pursue it beyond the limits of its immediate usefulness. But here,
+though the first hint leading to remarkable discoveries was a direct
+consequence of his astronomical work, the novelty and interest of the
+phenomena observed induced him to follow the investigation very far
+beyond the mere solution of the practical question in which it
+originated.</p>
+
+<p>Having tried many varieties of shade-glasses between the eye-piece of
+his telescope and the eye, in order to reduce the inordinate degree of
+heat and light transmitted by the instrument when directed towards the
+sun, he observed that certain combinations of colored glasses permitted
+very little light to pass, but transmitted so much heat that they could
+not be used; while, on the other hand, different combinations and
+differently colored glasses would stop nearly all the heat, but allow an
+inconveniently great amount of light to pass. At the same time he
+noticed, in the various experiments, that the images of the sun were of
+different colors. This suggested the question as to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> whether there was
+not a different heating power proper to each color of the spectrum. On
+comparing the readings of sensitive thermometers exposed in different
+portions of an intense solar spectrum, he found that, beginning with the
+violet end, he came to the maximum of light long before that of heat,
+which lay at the other extremity, that is, near the red. By several
+experiments it appeared that the maximum of illumination, <i>i. e.</i>, the
+yellow, had little more than half the heat of the full red rays; and
+from other experiments he concluded that even the full red fell short of
+the maximum of heat, which, perhaps, lay even a little beyond the limits
+of the visible spectrum.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "In this case," he says, "radiant heat will at least partly, if not
+    chiefly, consist, if I may be permitted the expression, of invisible
+    light; that is to say, of rays coming from the sun, that have such a
+    momentum<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> as to be unfit for vision. And admitting, as is highly
+    probable, that the organs of sight are only adapted to receive
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+    impressions from particles of a certain momentum, it explains why
+    the maximum of illumination should be in the middle of the
+    refrangible rays; as those which have greater or less momenta are
+    likely to become equally unfit for the impression of sight."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In his second paper on this subject, published in the same year,
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> describes the experiments which led to the conclusion given
+above. This paper contains a remarkably interesting passage which
+admirably illustrates <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> philosophic method.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "To conclude, if we call light, those rays which illuminate objects,
+    and radiant heat, those which heat bodies, it may be inquired
+    whether light be essentially different from radiant heat? In answer
+    to which I would suggest that we are not allowed, by the rules of
+    philosophizing, to admit two different causes to explain certain
+    effects, if they may be accounted for by one. . . . If this be a true
+    account of the solar heat, for the support of which I appeal to my
+    experiments, it remains only for us to admit that such of the rays
+    of the sun as have the refrangibility of those which are contained
+    in the prismatic spectrum, by the construction of the organs of
+    sight, are admitted under the appearance of light and colors, and
+    that the rest, being stopped in the coats and humors of the eye, act
+    on them, as they are known to do on all the other parts of our body,
+    by occasioning a sensation of heat."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We now know that the reasoning and conclusion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> here given are entirely
+correct, but they have for their basis only a philosophical conception,
+and not a series of experiments designed especially to test their
+correctness. Such an experimental test of this important question was
+the motive for a third and last paper in this department of physics.
+This paper was published in volume ninety of the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i>, and gave the results of two hundred and nineteen
+quantitative experiments.</p>
+
+<p>Here we are at a loss to know which to admire most&mdash;the marvellous skill
+evinced in acquiring such accurate data with such inadequate means, and
+in varying and testing such a number of questions as were suggested in
+the course of the investigation&mdash;or the intellectual power shown in
+marshalling and reducing to a system such intricate and apparently
+self-contradictory phenomena. It is true that this discussion led him to
+a different conclusion from that announced in the previous paper, and,
+consequently, to a false conclusion; but almost the only escape from his
+course of reasoning lay in a principle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> which belongs to a later period
+of intellectual development than that of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> own time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> made a careful determination of the quantitative distribution
+of light and of heat in the prismatic spectrum, and discovered the
+surprising fact that not only where the light was at a maximum the heat
+was very inconsiderable, but that where there was a maximum exhibition
+of heat, there was not a trace of light.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "This consideration," he writes, "must alter the form of our
+    proposed inquiry; for the question being thus at least partly
+    decided, since it is ascertained that we have rays of heat which
+    give no light, it can only become a subject of inquiry whether some
+    of these heat-making rays may not have a power of rendering objects
+    visible, superadded to their now already established power of
+    heating bodies. This being the case, it is evident that the <i>onus
+    probandi</i> ought to lie with those who are willing to establish such
+    an hypothesis, for it does not appear that Nature is in the habit of
+    using one and the same mechanism with any two of our senses. Witness
+    the vibration of air that makes sound, the effluvia that occasion
+    smells, the particles that produce taste, the resistance or
+    repulsive powers that affect the touch&mdash;all these are evidently
+    suited to their respective organs of sense."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+It is difficult to see how the fallacy of this argument could have been
+detected by any one not familiar with the fundamental physiological law
+that the nature of a sensation is in no wise determined by the character
+of the agent producing it, but only by the character of the nerves acted
+upon; but, as already intimated, this law belongs to a later epoch than
+the one we are considering. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> thus finally concluded that light
+and radiant heat were of essentially different natures, and upon this
+supposition he explained all of the phenomena which his numerous
+experiments had shown him. So complete and satisfactory did this work
+appear to the scientific world, that for a long time the question was
+looked upon as closed, and not until thirty-five years later was there
+any dissent. Then the Italian physicist, <span class="smcap">Melloni</span>, with instrumental
+means a thousand times more delicate than that of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, and with a
+far larger store of cognate phenomena, collected during the generation
+which had elapsed, to serve as a guide, discovered the true law. This,
+as we have seen, was at first adopted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> on philosophical
+grounds, and then rejected, since he did not at that time possess the
+key which alone could have enabled him to properly interpret his
+experiments.</p>
+
+<p>It is well to summarize the capital discoveries in this field made by
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, more particularly because his claims as a discoverer seem to
+have been strangely overlooked by historians of the development of
+physical science. He, before any other investigator, showed that radiant
+heat is refracted according to the laws governing the refraction of
+light by transparent media; that a portion of the radiation from the sun
+is incapable of exciting the sensation of vision, and that this portion
+is the less refrangible; that the different colors of the spectrum
+possess very unequal heating powers, which are not proportional to their
+luminosity; that substances differ very greatly in their power of
+transmitting radiant heat, and that this power does not depend solely
+upon their color; and that the property of diffusing heat is possessed
+to a varying degree by different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> bodies, independently of their color.
+Nor should we neglect to emphasize, in this connection, the importance
+of his measurements of the intensity of the heat and light in the
+different portions of the solar spectrum. It is the more necessary to
+state <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> claims clearly, as his work has been neglected by those
+who should first have done him justice. In his "History of Physics,"
+<span class="smcap">Poggendorff</span> has no reference to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. In the collected works of
+<span class="smcap">Verdet</span>, long bibliographical notes are appended to each chapter, with
+the intention of exhibiting the progress and order of discovery. But all
+of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> work is overlooked, or indexed under the name of his son.
+One little reference in the text alone shows that his very name was not
+unknown. Even in the great work of <span class="smcap">Helmholtz</span> on physiological optics,
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> labors are not taken account of.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to account for this seemingly strange neglect. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is
+known to this generation only as an astronomer. A study of his memoirs
+will show that his physical work alone should give him a very high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> rank
+indeed, and I trust that the brief summaries, which alone can be given
+here, will have made this plain.</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">We may conclude from the time expended, the elaborate nature of the
+experiments involved, and the character of the papers devoted to their
+consideration, that the portion of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> researches in physics
+which interested him to the greatest degree, was the investigation of
+the optical phenomena known as <span class="smcap">Newton's</span> rings. In 1792 he obtained the
+two object-glasses of <span class="smcap">Huyghens</span>, which were in the possession of the
+Royal Society, for the purpose of repeating <span class="smcap">Newton's</span> experiments, and in
+1810 he read the last of his three papers on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Isaac Newton</span> had given some of his most vigorous efforts to the
+study of the phenomena of interference of light, which are exemplified
+in the colors of thin and of thick plates. The colors of thin plates are
+most conveniently studied in the regular form which they present when
+produced by a thin plate of air, limited on one side by a plane<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+polished surface, and on the other by a spherical surface of long
+radius, such as the exterior surface of a convex lens, for example. The
+colors are then arranged in concentric circles, and, though others had
+so produced them before <span class="smcap">Newton</span>, these rings have, ever since the
+publication of his remarkable work, been known by his name.</p>
+
+<p>To explain the phenomena, <span class="smcap">Newton</span> was obliged to supplement his theory of
+the corpuscular nature of light, by supposing that the inconceivably
+minute particles constituting light are not always equally susceptible
+of reflection, but that they have periodically recurring "fits of easy
+reflection" and of "easy transmission." This conception, though by no
+means unphilosophical, seemed to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> too artificial and improbable
+for ready acceptance, and his effort was to supply a more probable
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p>The developments of optical science have justified <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> in his
+objections, but we cannot accord to him must any considerable part in
+making clear the true nature of the phenomenon. Indeed, it must be
+recognized that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> his position was distinctly less advanced than that of
+<span class="smcap">Newton</span>. That great philosopher announced the true law governing the
+relation between the color and the thickness of the film. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> did
+not recognize such a relation. <span class="smcap">Newton</span> showed exactly how the phenomenon
+depended upon the obliquity at which it was viewed. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> found no
+place in his theory for this evident variation.</p>
+
+<p>In the series of experiments described in the first paper on this
+subject, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> mistook the locus of a certain set of rings which he
+was observing. This mistake, though so slight as hardly to be detected
+without the guidance of the definite knowledge acquired in later times,
+not only vitiated the conclusion from the experiments, but gave an
+erroneous direction to the whole investigation. To him these experiments
+proved that <span class="smcap">Newton's</span> conception of a periodic phenomenon was untenable.
+Thus cut loose from all hypothesis, his fertility in ideas and ingenuity
+in experimentation are as striking as ever. He tried the effect of
+having a polished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> metal as one of the surfaces limiting the thin plate
+of air. Observing the so-called "blue bow" of <span class="smcap">Newton</span> at the limit of
+total reflection in a prism, he was led to the discovery of its
+complement, the "red bow" by refraction. Here he thought he had found
+the solution of his problem, and attributed the rings to the reflection
+of the light which passed through in the red bow. Though mistaken, he
+had presented to the world of science two experiments which have since
+played very prominent parts in the undulatory theory of light, namely,
+the rings formed upon polished metal, and the bands produced by a thin
+plate near the critical angle.</p>
+
+<p>As in his later researches upon the nature of radiant heat, he was wrong
+in his conclusions, and perhaps with less excuse. His experiments were
+skilfully devised and most ingenious. His philosophizing was distinctly
+faulty. We can see not only that he was wrong, but exactly where he
+began to go wrong. Yet these papers are full of interest to the
+physicist, and by no means deserve the neglect into which they have
+fallen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Dimensions of the Stars.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> examined a number of bright stars, using extremely high
+magnifying powers, in order to determine whether the stars have sensible
+dimensions. In a good telescope stars present round and pretty uniformly
+illuminated disks. If these disks really represent the angular diameter
+of the stars, they should admit of magnifying, like other objects; but,
+instead of this, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> found that they appeared smaller as the
+telescopic power was increased. He accordingly called the disk of light
+seen in the telescope a spurious disk. This singular phenomenon gave its
+discoverer a ready criterion for determining whether a small bright body
+has an appreciable size, or only impresses the sense of sight by virtue
+of its intrinsic brightness. If the first were the case, the apparent
+size would increase with increased magnifying power, while, if the
+angular dimensions were inappreciable, the apparent size would, on the
+contrary, diminish with additional magnifying. An occasion for using
+this criterion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> came in the first years of this century, with the
+discovery of three small planets having orbits lying between those of
+<i>Mars</i> and <i>Jupiter</i>. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> gave the name <i>Asteroids</i> to these
+bodies. As the appropriateness of this term had been violently assailed,
+the discovery of <i>Juno</i>, in 1804, the third one of the group, led to a
+careful experimental study of the defining power of the telescope used,
+and of the laws governing the phenomena of spurious disks.</p>
+
+<p>With a telescope of about nine inches in aperture, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> found that
+if <i>Juno</i> subtended an angle greater than a quarter of a second of arc,
+a certain indication of the fact would have shown itself in the course
+of the experiments. This conclusion was a justification of the name
+Asteroid, since the appearance of the new planet was strictly stellar.
+On other grounds, a better name might have been selected.</p>
+
+<p>In the paper giving the results of the experiments, the phenomena of the
+spurious disks are very completely described; but they did not attract
+the attention which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> deserved, and they only became an object of
+especial interest to students of physics when they were again studied by
+the famous German optician <span class="smcap">Fraunhofer</span>, a generation later.</p>
+
+<p>Incidentally the experiments are of interest, as yielding us a measure
+of the excellence of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> telescopes, and a measure which is quite
+independent of the keenness of his vision. From them we may be sure that
+the efficiency of the nine-inch mirror used was not sensibly less than
+that of the highest theoretically attainable excellence. In this
+connection, too, we may refer to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for
+1790, pp. 468 and 475, where <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> gives observations of both
+<i>Enceladus</i> and <i>Mimas</i> seen in contact with the ball of <i>Saturn</i>. I
+have never seen so good definition, telescopic and atmospheric, as he
+must have had on these occasions.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Spectra of the Fixed Stars.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>The spectroscope was applied by <span class="smcap">Secchi</span> to the study of the spectra of
+the fixed stars<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> visible to the naked eye in the years 1863 to 1866. He
+examined the nature of the spectrum of each of the larger stars, and
+found that these stars could be arranged in three general classes or
+<i>types</i>. His results have been verified and extended by other
+astronomers, and his classification has been generally accepted.
+According to <span class="smcap">Secchi</span>, the lucid stars may be separated into three groups,
+distinguished by marked differences in their spectra. <span class="smcap">Secchi's</span> Type I.
+contains stars whose spectra are like those of <i>Sirius</i>, <i>Procyon</i>, and
+&#945; <i>Lyr&aelig;</i>; his Type II. stars like <i>Arcturus</i> and <i>Aldebaran</i>;
+his Type III. stars like &#945; <i>Orionis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> also made some trials in this direction. In the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i> for 1814 (p. 264), he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "By some experiments on the light of a few of the stars of the first
+    magnitude, made in 1798, by a prism applied to the eye-glasses of my
+    reflectors, adjustable to any angle and to any direction, I had the
+    following analyses:</p>
+
+<p> "The light of <i>Sirius</i> consists of red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
+<span class='BQpagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+    purple, and violet. &#945; <i>Orionis</i> contains the same colors,
+    but the red is more intense, and the orange and yellow are less
+    copious in proportion than they are in <i>Sirius</i>. <i>Procyon</i> contains
+    all the colors, but proportionately more blue and purple than
+    <i>Sirius</i>. <i>Arcturus</i> contains more red and orange, and less yellow
+    in proportion than <i>Sirius</i>. <i>Aldebaran</i> contains much orange and
+    very little yellow. &#945; <i>Lyr&aelig;</i> contains much yellow, green,
+    blue, and purple."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak">Here the essential peculiarities of the spectrum of each of the stars
+investigated by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is pointed out, and if we were to use his
+observations alone to classify these stars into types, we should put
+<i>Sirius</i> and <i>Procyon</i> into one type of stars which have "all the
+colors" in their spectra; <i>Arcturus</i> and <i>Aldebaran</i> would represent
+another group of stars, with a deficiency of yellow and an excess of
+orange and red in the spectrum; and &#945; <i>Orionis</i> would stand as
+a type of those stars with an excess of red and a deficiency of orange.
+&#945; <i>Lyr&aelig;</i> would represent a sub-group of the first class.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> immediate object was not classification, and his observations
+are only recorded in a passing way. But the fact remains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> that he
+clearly distinguished the essential differences of the spectra of these
+stars, and that he made these observations in support of his statement
+that the fixed stars, "like the planets, also shine with differently
+colored light. That of <i>Arcturus</i> and <i>Aldebaran</i>, for instance, is as
+different from the light of <i>Sirius</i> and <i>Capella</i> as that of <i>Mars</i> and
+<i>Saturn</i> is from the light of <i>Venus</i> and <i>Jupiter</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Of course, no special discovery can be claimed for him on these few
+instances. We can see, however, a good example of the manner in which he
+examined a subject from every side, and used the most remote evidence
+exactly in its proper place and time.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on the Variable Emission of Light and Heat from the Sun.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>It is certainly a remarkable fact that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was the first observer
+to recognize the real importance of the aperture or diameter of a
+telescope. Before his time it was generally assumed that this element
+only conditioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> the amount of light transmitted to the eye, or, in
+other words, merely determined the brightness of the image. Hence the
+conclusion that if an object is sufficiently bright, the telescope may
+be made as small as desired without loss of power. Thus, in observing
+the sun, astronomers before <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had been accustomed to reduce the
+aperture of their telescopes, in order to moderate the heat and light
+transmitted. <span class="smcap">Scheiner</span>, it is true, nearly two centuries before the time
+we are considering, had invented a method for observing the sun without
+danger, still employing the full aperture. This was by projecting the
+image of the sun on a white screen beyond the eye-piece, the telescope
+being slightly lengthened. For special purposes this ingenious method
+has even been found useful in modern times, though for sharpness of
+definition it bears much the same relation to the more usual manner of
+observing, that a photographic picture does to direct vision.</p>
+
+<p>Although <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> saw the advantages of using the whole aperture of a
+telescope in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> such observations, the practical difficulties in the way
+were very great. We have noted his attempts to find screens which would
+effectively cut off a large portion of the heat and light without
+impairing vision, and have considered, somewhat in detail, the
+remarkable discoveries in radiant heat to which these attempts led him.
+His efforts were not unsuccessful. A green glass smoked, and a glass
+cell containing a solution of black writing ink in water&mdash;were found to
+work admirably.</p>
+
+<p>Thus provided with more powerful instrumental means than had ever been
+applied to the purpose, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> turned his attention to the sun. In a
+very short time he exhausted nearly all there was to be discovered, so
+that since the publication of his last paper on this subject, in 1801,
+until the present time, there has been but a single telescopic
+phenomenon, connected with the physical appearance of the sun, which was
+unknown to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. That phenomenon is the frequent occurrence of a
+darker central shade or kernel in large spots, discovered by <span class="smcap">Dawes</span> about
+1858.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, though observing a hundred and ninety years after the earliest
+discovery of sun spots, seems to have been the first to suspect their
+periodic character. To establish this as a fact, and to measure the
+period, was left for our own times and for the indefatigable observer
+<span class="smcap">Schwabe</span>. The probable importance of such a period in its relation to
+terrestrial meteorology was not only clearly pointed out by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>,
+but he even attempted to demonstrate, from such data as were obtainable,
+the character of this influence.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no one thing which this great philosopher has done better
+exhibits the catholic character of his mind than this research. When the
+possible connection of solar and terrestrial phenomena occurred to him
+as a question to be tested, there were no available meteorological
+records, and he could find but four or five short series of
+observations, widely separated in time. To an ordinary thinker the task
+would have seemed hopeless until more data had been collected. But
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> fertile mind, though it could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> not recall lost opportunities
+for solar observations, did find a substitute for meteorological records
+in the statistics of the prices of grain during the various epochs. It
+is clear that the price of wheat must have depended upon the supply, and
+the supply, in turn, largely upon the character of the season. The
+method, as ingenious as it is, failed in <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> hands on account of
+the paucity of solar statistics; but it has since proved of value, and
+has taken its place as a recognized method of research.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="centermargin"><i>Researches on Nebul&aelig; and Clusters.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>When <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> first began to observe the nebul&aelig; in 1774, there were very
+few of these objects known. The nebul&aelig; of <i>Orion</i> and <i>Andromeda</i> had
+been known in Europe only a little over a hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>In 1784 <span class="smcap">Messier</span> published a list of sixty-eight such objects which he
+had found in his searches for comets, and twenty-eight nebul&aelig; had been
+found by <span class="smcap">Lacaille</span> in his observations at the Cape of Good Hope. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+mere discovery of these objects <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> quickly surpassed all others.
+In 1786 he published a catalogue of one thousand new nebul&aelig;, in 1789 a
+catalogue of a second thousand, and in 1802 one of five hundred. In all
+he discovered and described two thousand five hundred and eight new
+nebul&aelig; and clusters. This branch of astronomy may almost be said to be
+proper to the <span class="smcap">Herschels</span>, father and son. Sir <span class="smcap">John Herschel</span> re-observed
+all his father's nebul&aelig; in the northern hemisphere, and added many new
+ones, and in his astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope he
+recorded almost an equal number in the southern sky.</p>
+
+<p>Of the six thousand two hundred nebul&aelig; now known the <span class="smcap">Herschels</span>
+discovered at least eight-tenths. The mere discovery of twenty-five
+hundred nebul&aelig; would have been a brilliant addition to our knowledge of
+celestial statistics.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herschel</span> did more than merely point out the existence and position of
+these new bodies. Each observation was accompanied by a careful and
+minute description of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> object viewed, and with sketches and diagrams
+which gave the position of the small stars in it and near it.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>As the nebul&aelig; and clusters were discovered they were placed in classes,
+each class covering those nebul&aelig; which resembled each other in their
+general features. Even at the telescope <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> object was not
+discovery merely, but to know the inner constitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> of the heavens.
+His classes were arranged with this end, and they are to-day adopted.
+They were:</p>
+
+<table summary="classes of nebulae">
+<tr><td class="right"><span class="smcap">Class</span>&nbsp;I.</td><td class="left">"Bright nebul&aelig; (288 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">II.  </td><td class="left">"Faint nebul&aelig; (909 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">III. </td><td class="left">"Very faint nebul&aelig; (984 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">IV.  </td><td class="left">"Planetary nebul&aelig;, stars with burs, with milky chevelure, with short rays, remarkable shapes, etc. (79 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">V.   </td><td class="left">"Very large nebul&aelig; (52 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">VI.  </td><td class="left">"Very compressed and rich clusters of stars (42 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">VII. </td><td class="left">"Pretty much compressed clusters (67 in all).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">VIII.</td><td class="left">"Coarsely scattered clusters of stars" (88 in all).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The lists of these classes were the storehouses of rich material from
+which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> drew the examples by which his later opinions on the
+physical conditions of nebulous matter were enforced.</p>
+
+<p>As the nebul&aelig; were discovered and classified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> they were placed upon a
+star-map in their proper positions (1786), and, as the discoveries went
+on, the real laws of the distribution of the nebul&aelig; and of the clusters
+over the surface of the sky showed themselves more and more plainly. It
+was by this means that <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was led to the announcement of the law
+that the spaces richest in nebul&aelig; are distant from the Milky Way, etc.
+By no other means could he have detected this, and I believe this to
+have been the first example of the use of the graphical method, now
+become common in treating large masses of statistics.</p>
+
+<p>It is still in his capacity of an observer&mdash;an acute and wise one&mdash;that
+<span class="smcap">Herschel</span> is considered. But this was the least of his gifts. This vast
+mass of material was not left in this state: it served him for a
+stepping-stone to larger views of the nature and extent of the nebulous
+matter itself.</p>
+
+<p>His views on the nature of nebul&aelig; underwent successive changes. At first
+he supposed all nebul&aelig; to be but aggregations of stars. The logic was
+simple. To the naked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> eye there are many groups of stars which appear
+nebulous. <i>Praesepe</i> is, perhaps, the best example. The slightest
+telescopic power applied to such groups alters the nebulous appearance,
+and shows that it comes from the combined and confused light of discrete
+stars. Other groups which remain nebulous in a seven-foot telescope,
+become stellar in a ten-foot. The nebulosity of the ten-foot can be
+resolved into stars by the twenty-foot, and so on. The nebul&aelig; which
+remained still unresolved, it was reasonable to conclude, would yield to
+higher power, and generally a nebula was but a group of stars removed to
+a great distance. An increase of telescopic power was alone necessary to
+demonstrate this.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p> "Nebul&aelig; can be selected so that an insensible gradation shall take
+    place from a coarse cluster like the <i>Pleiades</i> down to a milky
+    nebulosity like that in <i>Orion</i>, every intermediate step being
+    represented. This tends to confirm the hypothesis that all are
+    composed of stars more or less remote".</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+<p class="thoughtbreak">So, at first, <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> believed that his twenty-foot telescope was of
+power sufficient to fathom the Milky Way, that is, to see through it and
+beyond it, and to reduce all its nebulosities to true groups of stars.</p>
+
+<p>In 1791 he published a memoir on <i>Nebulous Stars</i>, in which his views
+were completely changed. He had found a nebulous star, the sixty-ninth
+of his Class IV., to which his reasons would not apply. In the centre of
+it was a bright star; around the star was a halo gradually diminishing
+in brightness from the star outward, and perfectly circular. It was
+clear the two parts, star and nebula, were connected, and thus at the
+same distance from us.</p>
+
+<p>There were two possible solutions only. Either the whole mass was,
+<i>first</i>, composed of stars, in which case the nucleus would be
+enormously larger than the other stars of its stellar magnitude
+elsewhere in the sky, or the stars which made up the halo indefinitely
+small; or, <i>second</i>, the central nucleus was indeed a star, but a star
+surrounded with "a shining fluid, of a nature totally unknown to us."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The long strata of nebul&aelig;, which he had before described under the name
+of "telescopic Milky Ways," might well be accounted for by masses of
+this fluid lying beyond the regions of the seventh-magnitude stars. This
+fluid might exist independently of stars. If it is self-luminous, it
+seems more fit to produce a star by its condensation, than to depend
+upon the star for its own existence. Such were a few of the theorems to
+which his discovery of this nebula led him. The hypothesis of an elastic
+<i>shining fluid</i> existing in space, sometimes in connection with stars,
+sometimes distinct from them, was adopted and never abandoned. How well
+the spectroscope has confirmed this idea it is not necessary to say. We
+know the shining fluid does exist, and in late years we have seen the
+reverse of the process imagined by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. A star has actually, under
+our eyes, become a planetary nebula, and the cycle of which he gave the
+first terms is complete.</p>
+
+<p>In five separate memoirs (1802, 1811, 1814, 1817, and 1818) <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+elaborated his views of the sidereal system. The whole extent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> of his
+views must be gained from the extended memoirs themselves. Here only the
+merest outline can be given.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802 there is a marshaling of the various objects beyond our solar
+system. The stars themselves may be <i>insulated</i>, or may belong to
+<i>binary</i> or <i>multiple</i> systems, to <i>clusters</i> and groups, or to grand
+groups like the Milky Way. Nebul&aelig; may have any of the forms which have
+been described; and, in 1811, he gives examples of immense spaces in the
+sky covered with diffused and very faint nebulosity. "Its abundance
+exceeds all imagination."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> These masses of nebular matter are the
+seats of attracting forces, and these forces must produce condensation.
+When a nebula has more than one preponderating seat of attracting
+matter, it may in time be divided, and the double nebul&aelig; have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> had such
+an origin. When nebul&aelig; appear to us as round masses, they are in reality
+globular in form, and this form is at once the effect and the proof of a
+gravitating cause.</p>
+
+<p>The central brightness of nebul&aelig; points out the seat of the attraction;
+and the completeness of the approximation to a spherical form points out
+the length of time that the gravitating forces have been at work. Those
+nebul&aelig; (and clusters) which are most perfect in the globular form, have
+been longest exposed to central forces. The planetary nebul&aelig; are the
+oldest in our system. They must have a rotatory motion on their axes.</p>
+
+<p>By progressive condensation planetary nebul&aelig; may be successively
+converted into bright stellar nebul&aelig;, or into nebulous stars, and these
+again, by the effects of the same cause, into insulated or double stars.
+This chain of theorems, laid down in the memoir of 1811, is enforced in
+1814 with examples which show how the nebulous appearance may grow into
+the sidereal. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> selects from the hundreds of instances in his
+note-books, nebul&aelig; in every stage of progress, and traces the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> effect of
+condensation and of clustering power through all its course, even to the
+final breaking up of the Milky Way itself.</p>
+
+<p>The memoirs of 1817 and 1818 add little to the general view of the
+physical constitution of the heavens. They are attempts to gain a scale
+of celestial measures by which we may judge of the distances of the
+stars and clusters in which these changes are going on.</p>
+
+<p>There is little to change in <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> statement of the general
+construction of the heavens. It is the groundwork upon which we have
+still to build. Every astronomical discovery and every physical fact
+well observed is material for the elaboration of its details or for the
+correction of some of its minor points. As a scientific conception it is
+perhaps the grandest that has ever entered into the human mind. As a
+study of the height to which the efforts of one man may go, it is almost
+without a parallel. The philosopher who will add to it to-day, will have
+his facts and his methods ready to his hands. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> presents the
+almost unique example of an eager observer marshaling the multitude of
+single<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> instances, which he himself has laboriously gathered, into a
+compact and philosophic whole. In spite of minor errors and defects, his
+ideas of the nature of the sidereal universe have prevailed, and are
+to-day the unacknowledged basis of our every thought upon it. Some of
+its most secret processes have been worked out by him, and the paths
+which he pointed out are those along which our advances must be made.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding this condensed account of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> scientific labors, it
+behoves us to remember that there was nothing due to accident in his
+long life. He was born with the faculties which fitted him for the
+gigantic labors which he undertook, and he had the firm basis of energy
+and principle which kept him steadily to his work.</p>
+
+<p>As a practical astronomer he remains without an equal. In profound
+philosophy he has few superiors. By a kindly chance he can be claimed as
+the citizen of no one country. In very truth his is one of the few names
+which belong to the whole world.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <span class="smcap">James Short</span>, F.R.S. (1710-1768), and <span class="smcap">John Dollond</span>, F.R.S.
+(1706-1761), were the most celebrated makers of telescopes of their day.
+The six-foot Newtonian reflectors of <span class="smcap">Short</span> (aperture 9.4 inches), and
+the forty-six-inch achromatics of <span class="smcap">Dollond</span> (aperture 3.6 inches), were
+highly esteemed. The Royal Observatory of Greenwich possessed, in 1765,
+one of each class. In a comparative trial of <span class="smcap">Short's</span> telescope, at
+Greenwich, and one of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> first telescopes, the latter was
+adjudged greatly superior.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> At least <i>one</i> of these telescopes had the principal
+mirror made of glass instead of metal.&mdash;<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>,
+1803.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> The following extract from <span class="smcap">Fourier's</span> <i>&Eacute;loge</i> of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>
+is of interest in this connection. The sum first appropriated by the
+king was &pound;2,000. This was afterwards raised to &pound;4,000, and a sum of &pound;200
+yearly was given for maintenance.
+</p><p>
+"L'histoire doit conserver &agrave; jamais la r&eacute;ponse de ce prince &agrave; un
+&eacute;tranger c&eacute;l&egrave;bre [<span class="smcap">Lalande</span>?] qui le remerciait des sommes consid&eacute;rables
+accord&eacute;es pour les progr&egrave;s de l'astronomie. 'Je fais les d&eacute;penses de la
+guerre,' dit le roi, 'parcequ'elles sont n&eacute;cessaires; quant &agrave; celles des
+sciences, il m'est agr&eacute;able des les ordonner; leur objet ne co&ucirc;te point
+des larmes, et honore l'humanit&eacute;.'"
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Lalande's</span> own account is a little different. He says the king exclaimed:
+"Ne vaut-il pas mieux employer son argent &agrave; cela qu'&agrave; faire tuer des
+hommes?"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The memoirs on the parallaxes of stars, written by various
+astronomers from 1750 to 1800, were mainly directed to the improvement
+of the methods, or to the discovery of the parallax of some particular
+star. For example, <span class="smcap">Lacaille's</span> observations of <i>Sirius</i>, at the Cape of
+Good Hope, had resulted in a parallax of 9&#8243; for that star&mdash;a
+quantity over forty times too large.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> accepted, as did all his cotemporaries, the
+Newtonian or corpuscular theory of light.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Thus the position of small stars critically situated in
+the centre, or on the edges of the nebul&aelig; was always noted. Many of the
+descriptions are given in the published papers, but the publication of
+the diagrams would be an immense help to this branch of astronomy.
+<span class="smcap">D'Arrest</span> in his reduction of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> nebula observations (1856)
+writes: "Gewiss w&auml;re es vom h&ouml;chsten Interesse f&uuml;r die Entwickelung,
+welche hoffentlich auch dieser Zweig der beobachtenden Astronomie
+zuk&uuml;nftig erhalten wird, wenn die <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span>chen Beobachtungen in der
+Ausf&uuml;hrlichkeit in welcher sie, verschiedenen Andeutungen zufolge,
+<i>handschriftlich</i> vorhanden sind, ver&ouml;ffentlicht w&uuml;rden. Es schliesst
+sich dieser Wunsch in Betreff der Nebelflecken lebhaft an den an,
+welcher, schon vor einem Jahrzehnt nach Ver&ouml;ffentlichung der 400 noch
+unedirten <i>star-gauges</i> von gewichtigerer Seite her ge&auml;ussert wurde." In
+this all must agree who have a knowledge of the direction in which we
+must look for advances in the difficult and important questions of the
+distance, the motions, and the changes of the nebul&aelig;. Almost the only
+aid to be looked for from the older observations must come from such
+diagrams, and we may safely say that the publication of this priceless
+material, just as it stands, would carry our exact data back from 1833
+to 1786, or no less than forty-seven years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Long after <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had abandoned this idea, it continued
+current among astronomers. The successes of Lord <span class="smcap">Rosse's</span> telescope
+perpetuated to the middle of the nineteenth century an erroneous view
+which <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> had given up in 1791.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> These have never been re-observed. They should be sought
+for with a powerful refractor, taking special precautions against the
+illumination of the field of view from neighboring bright stars.
+<span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> reflectors were specially open to illusions produced in this
+way. His observations probably will remain untested until some large
+telescope is used in the way he adopted, <i>i. e.</i>, in sweeping.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="newpage"></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chapter"><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indentreverse">I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">List of the Published Writings of William Herschel on Astronomical
+Subjects.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="size09">[In chronological order.]</span></p>
+<p class="size09"><i>N.B.&mdash;In general, translations and abstracts of those which appeared
+in periodicals are not noticed here. I have made exceptions in the
+more important cases.</i></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">[Solution of a prize question. <i>See</i> this book, <a href="#Page_46">page 46</a>.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Ladies' Diary</i>, 1779.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations on the periodical star in <i>Collo Ceti</i>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1780, p. 338.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations relating to the mountains of the moon.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1780, p. 507.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations on the rotation of the planets round their
+axes, made with a view to determine whether the earth's diurnal motion
+is perfectly equable.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1781, p. 115.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Account of a comet. [Dated 13th March, 1781. This was <i>Uranus</i>.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1781, p. 492.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the parallax of the fixed stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1782, p. 82.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Catalogue of double stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1782, p. 112: translation in
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1786, p. 187.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">Description of a lamp micrometer and the method of using it.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1782, p. 163.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">A paper to obviate some doubts concerning the great magnifying powers used.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1782, p. 173.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">A letter from <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, Esq., F.R.S., to Sir <span class="smcap">Joseph Banks</span>,
+<i>Bart.</i>, P.R.S.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1783, p. 1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Aus einem Schreiben des Hrn. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> an mich [<span class="smcap">Bode</span>], datirt London, den
+13ten August, 1783.</p>
+<p class="leftbio">[This is a letter forwarding <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> memoir on the Parallax of the
+Fixed Stars, etc.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1786, p. 258.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the diameter and magnitude of the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>, with a
+description of the dark and lucid disk and periphery micrometers.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1783, p. 4.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the proper motion of the sun and solar system, with an account of
+several changes that have happened among the fixed stars since the time
+of Mr. <span class="smcap">Flamsteed</span>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1783, p. 247.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1787, p. 194, p. 224.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomische Nachrichten und Entdeckungen, aus einem franz&ouml;sischen
+Schreiben desselben an mich [<span class="smcap">Bode</span>], datirt Datchet, nahe bey Windsor,
+den 18. <ins class="correction" title="Transcribers note: original reads 'May'">Mai</ins>, 1784.</p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">[This letter is on the subject of the use of high magnifying powers, and
+gives a <i>r&eacute;sum&eacute;</i> of his recent papers.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1787, p. 211.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the remarkable appearances at the polar regions of the planet <i>Mars</i>,
+the inclination of its axis, the position of its poles and its
+spheroidical figure; with a few hints relating to its real diameter and
+atmosphere.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1784, p. 233.<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Account of some observations tending to investigate the construction of
+the heavens.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1784, p. 437.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">[<i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1788, p. 246, has a summary of this paper by Baron
+<span class="smcap">von Zach</span>. See, also, <i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1794, p. 213.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Catalogue of double stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1785, p. 40.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the construction of the heavens.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1785, p. 213.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1788, p. 238. See, also,
+<br /><i>same</i>, 1787, p. 213, and 1794, p. 213.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Aus einem Schreiben des Hrn. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> an mich [<span class="smcap">Bode</span>], datirt Clay Hall,
+nahe bey Windsor, den 20. Jul., 1785.</p>
+<p class="leftbio">[This is a letter forwarding two memoirs, and giving the prices of
+telescopes]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1788, p. 254.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Catalogue of one thousand new nebul&aelig; and clusters of stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1786, p. 457.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1791, p. 157, and
+<br /><i>same</i>, 1794, p. 213.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Investigation of the cause of that indistinctness of vision which has
+been ascribed to the smallness of the optic pencil.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1786, p. 500.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Remarks on the new comet [1786, II.].</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1787, p. 4.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">[Letter from <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> to <span class="smcap">Bode</span> on the discovery of two satellites to
+<i>Uranus</i>, dated Slough, 1787, Feb. 11.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1790, p. 253.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">An account of the discovery of two satellites revolving round the
+<i>Georgian planet</i>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1787, p. 125.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1791, p. 255.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">An account of three volcanoes in the moon.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1787, p. 229.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1791, p. 255.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Note on M. <span class="smcap">M&eacute;chain's</span> comet. [1787, I.] [Added to preceding paper.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1787, p. 232.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the <i>Georgian planet</i> and its satellites.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1788, p. 364.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1793, p. 104.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations on a comet [1788, II.].</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1789, p. 151.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Catalogue of a second thousand of new nebul&aelig; and clusters of stars, with
+a few introductory remarks on the construction of the heavens.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1789, p. 212.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1793, p. 104.
+<br />Also, <i>same</i>, 1794, p. 150.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Account of the discovery of a sixth and seventh satellite of the planet
+<i>Saturn</i>, with remarks on the construction of its ring, its atmosphere,
+its rotation on an axis, and its spheroidical figure.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1790, p. 1.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1793, p. 239;
+<br /><i>same</i>, 1796, p. 88; 1797, p. 249.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the satellites of the planet <i>Saturn</i>, and the rotation of its ring
+on an axis.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1790, p. 427.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On nebulous stars properly so called.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1791, p. 71.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1801, p. 128.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the ring of <i>Saturn</i> and the rotation of the fifth satellite upon its
+axis.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1792, p. 1.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1796, p. 88.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbionoindent">Miscellaneous observations.
+
+<br />[Account of a comet], p. 23 [1792, I.].
+
+<br />[On the periodical appearance of &#959; Ceti], p. 24.
+
+<br />[On the disappearance of the 55th <i>Herculis</i>], p. 26.
+
+<br />[Remarkable phenomenon in an eclipse of the moon], p. 27.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1792, p. 23.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations on the planet <i>Venus</i>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1793, p. 201.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations of a quintuple belt on the planet <i>Saturn</i>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1794, p. 28.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1798, p. 90.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Account of some particulars observed during the late eclipse of the sun.
+[1793, September 5th.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1794, p. 39.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the rotation of the planet <i>Saturn</i> upon its axis.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1794, p. 48.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1798, p. 74.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the nature and construction of the sun and fixed stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1795, p. 46.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, II. Suppl. Band, p. 65.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Description of a forty-foot reflecting telescope.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1795, p. 347.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, III. Suppl. <ins class="correction" title="Transcribers note: original has 'Band.,'">Band,</ins> p. 238.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Additional observations on the comet. [1796, I.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1796, p. 131.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the method of observing the changes that happen to the fixed stars;
+with some remarks on the stability of the light of our sun. To which is
+added a catalogue of comparative brightness for ascertaining the
+permanency of the lustre of stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1796, p. 166.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1809, p. 201.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the periodical star &#945; <i>Herculis</i>; with remarks tending to
+establish the rotatory motion of the stars on their axes; to which is
+added a second catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1796, p. 452.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1809, p. 201.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">A third catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars, with an
+introductory account of an index to Mr. <span class="smcap">Flamsteed's</span> observations of the
+fixed stars, contained in the second volume of the Historia C&oelig;lestis.
+To which are added several useful results derived from that index.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1797, p. 293.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1810, p. 143.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations of the changeable brightness of the satellites of
+<i>Jupiter</i>, and of the variation in their apparent magnitudes, with a
+determination of the time of their rotatory motions on their axes. To
+which is added a measure of the diameter of the second satellite, and an
+estimate of the comparative size of all the four.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1797, p. 332.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1801, p. 103.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the discovery of four additional satellites of the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>.
+The retrograde motion of its old satellites announced, and the cause of
+their disappearance at certain distances from the planet explained.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1798, p. 47.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1801, p. 231.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">A fourth catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1799, p. 121.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1810, p. 143.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the power of penetrating into space by telescopes, with a comparative
+determination of the extent of that power in natural vision, and in
+telescopes of various sizes and constructions, illustrated by select
+observations.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1800, pp. 49-85.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1804, p. 231.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">Investigation of the powers of the prismatic colors to heat and
+illuminate objects, with remarks that prove the different refrangibility
+of radiant heat. To which is added an inquiry into the method of viewing
+the sun advantageously with telescopes of large apertures and high
+magnifying powers.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1800, pp. 255-283.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1804, p. 89.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Experiments on the refrangibility of the invisible rays of the sun.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1800, pp. 284-292.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1804, p. 89.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Experiments on the solar and on the terrestrial rays that occasion heat,
+with a comparative view of the laws by which light and heat, or rather
+the rays that occasion them, are subject, in order to determine whether
+they are the same or different.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1800, pp. 293-326, 437-538.
+<br /><i>Gilbert Annal.</i>, X. (1802), pp. 68-78;
+<br /><i>same</i>, XII. (1803), pp. 521-546.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations tending to investigate the nature of the sun, in order to
+find the causes or symptoms of its variable emission of light and heat,
+with remarks on the use that may possibly be drawn from solar
+observations.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1801, pp. 265-318.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1805, p. 218, and 1806, p. 113.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Ueber den 7 Nebelfleck der 1sten classe des Herschel'schen Verzeichniss,
+und ueber <i>Ceres</i> and <i>Pallas</i>, vom Herrn Doctor <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, aus zwey
+Briefen desselben.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1805, p. 211.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Additional observations tending to investigate the symptoms of the
+variable emission of the light and heat of the sun, with trials to set
+aside darkening glasses by transmitting the solar rays through liquids,
+and a few remarks to remove objections that might be made against some
+of the arguments contained in the former paper.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1801, pp. 354-362.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations on the two lately discovered celestial bodies
+[<i>Ceres and Pallas</i>].</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1802, pp. 213-232.
+<br /><i>Nicholson Journal</i>, IV. (1808), pp. 120-130, 142-148.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Catalogue of five hundred new nebul&aelig;, nebulous stars, planetary nebul&aelig;,
+and clusters of stars, with remarks on the construction of the heavens.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1802, pp. 477-528.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1807, p. 113.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations of the transit of <i>Mercury</i> over the sun's disk, to which
+is added an investigation of the causes which often prevent the proper
+action of mirrors.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1803, pp. 214-232.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Account of the changes which have happened during the last twenty-five
+years in the relative situation of double stars, with an investigation
+of the cause to which they are owing.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1803, pp. 339-382.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1808, pp. 154-178.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Continuation of the account of the changes that have happened in the
+relative situation of double stars.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1804, pp. 353-384.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1808, p. 226.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Aus einem Schreiben des Herrn Doctor <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, datirt Slough, bey
+Windsor, den 31. May, 1804.</p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">[Relates to his theory of the relation between the solar radiation and
+the price of wheat.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1808, p. 226.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Experiments for ascertaining how far telescopes will enable us to
+determine very small angles, and to distinguish the real from the
+spurious diameters of celestial and terrestrial objects, with an
+application of the results of those experiments to a series of
+observations on the nature and magnitude of Mr. <span class="smcap">Harding's</span> lately
+discovered star [<i>Juno</i> (1804),].</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1805, pp. 31-70.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the direction and velocity of the motion of the sun and solar system.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1805, pp. 233-256.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, IV. Suppl. Band, p. 67.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations on the singular figure of the planet <i>Saturn</i>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1805, pp. 272-280.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1809, p. 197.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the quantity and velocity of solar motion.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1806, pp. 205-237.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1811, p. 224.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations and remarks on the figure, climate, and atmosphere of
+<i>Saturn</i> and its ring.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1806, pp. 455-467.
+<br /><i>Gilbert Annal.</i>, XXXIV. (1810), pp. 82-105.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1810, p. 228.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Experiments for investigating the cause of the colored concentric rings
+discovered by Sir <span class="smcap">I. Newton</span> between two object-glasses laid one upon
+another.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1807, pp. 180-233.
+<br /><i>Annal. de Chimie</i>, LXX., 1809, pp. 154-181, 293-321;
+<br /><i>same</i>, LXXI., 1809, pp. 5-40.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations on the nature of the new celestial body [<i>Vesta</i>]
+discovered by Dr. <span class="smcap">Olbers</span>, and of the comet which was expected to appear
+last January in its return from the sun. [1806, II.]</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1807, pp. 260-266.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations of a comet [1807, I.] made with a view to investigate its
+magnitude and the nature of its illumination, to which is added an
+account of a new irregularity lately perceived in the apparent figure of
+the planet <i>Saturn</i>.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1808, pp. 145-163.
+<br /><i>Gilbert Annal.</i>, XXXVI. (1810), pp. 389-393.
+<br /><i>Zach, Monat. Corresp.</i>, XX. (1809), pp. 512-514.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="leftbio">Continuation of experiments for investigating the cause of colored
+concentric rings and other appearances of a similar nature.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1809, pp. 259-302.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Supplement to the first and second part of the paper of experiments for
+investigating the cause of colored concentric rings between
+object-glasses, and other appearances of a similar nature.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1810, pp. 149-177.
+<br /><i>Gilbert Annal.</i>, XLVI., 1814, pp. 22-79.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations relating to the construction of the heavens,
+arranged for the purpose of a critical examination, the result of which
+appears to throw some new light upon the organization of the celestial
+bodies.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1811, pp. 269-336.
+<br /><i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, LXXV., 1812, pp. 121-167.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations of a comet, with remarks on the construction of its
+different parts [1811, I.].</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1812, pp. 115-143.
+<br /><i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, LXXVII., 1813, pp. 125-135.
+<br /><i>Zach, Monat. Corresp.</i>, XXVIII., 1813, pp. 455-469, 558-568.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1816, p. 185.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Observations of a second comet, with remarks on its construction
+[1811, II.].</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1812, pp. 229-237.
+<br /><i>Nicholson Journ.</i>, XXXV., 1813, pp. 193-199.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1816, p. 203.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations relating to the sidereal part of the heavens,
+and its connection with the nebulous part, arranged for the purpose of a
+critical examination.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1814. pp. 248-284.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1818, pp. 97-118.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">A series of observations of the satellites of the <i>Georgian planet</i>,
+including a passage through the node of their orbits, with an
+introductory account of the telescopic apparatus that has been used on
+this occasion, and a final<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> exposition of some calculated particulars
+deduced from the observations.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1815, pp. 293-362.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1819, p. 232-242.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations and experiments tending to investigate the
+local arrangement of the celestial bodies in space, and to determine the
+extent and condition of the Milky Way.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1817, pp. 302-331.
+<br /><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1821, p. 149.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">Astronomical observations and experiments selected for the purpose of
+ascertaining the relative distances of clusters of stars, and of
+investigating how far the power of our telescopes may be expected to
+reach into space, when directed to ambiguous celestial objects.</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1818, pp. 429-470.</p>
+
+
+<p class="leftbio">On the places of one hundred and forty-five new double stars (1821).</p>
+<p class="rightbio"><i>Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc.</i>, 1, 1822, pp. 166-181.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><a name="II_List" id="II_List"></a>II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">List of Works relating to the Life and Writings of William
+Herschel</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="size09">[Arranged alphabetically by authors.]</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="size09"><i>N.B.&mdash;In general, the notices of his life to be found in Encyclop&aelig;dias
+of Biography, etc., are not included here.</i></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Arago (F.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span> [from
+<i>Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes</i>, 1842]. Paris, 1843. 18mo.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">[See also the <i>Annuaire</i> for 1834, for an account of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> work
+on double stars.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Arago (F.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men. Translated by Admiral
+<span class="smcap">W. H. Smyth</span>, Rev. <span class="smcap">B. Powell</span>, and <span class="smcap">Robert Grant</span>, Esq. <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">First series, p. 258. Boston, 1859. 8vo.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Arago (F.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class="smcap">Herschel</span>. [Translated from the French.] </p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Smithsonian Report. 1870. p. 197. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Auwers (A.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class="smcap">William Herschel's</span> Verzeichnisse von Nebelflecken und Sternhaufen
+bearbeitet von A. <span class="smcap">Auwers.</span> </p>
+<p class="byauthor3">From the <i>K&ouml;nigsberg Observations</i>. 1862.
+Folio.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Bessel (F. W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>. [From the <i>K&ouml;nigsberger Allgemeine Zeitung</i>, 1,
+1843, No. 37, <i>et seq.</i>, reprinted in his] <i>Abhandlungen</i>, vol iii.,
+p. 468. Leipzig, 1876. 4to.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>D'Arrest (H. L.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Verzeichniss von Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel's</span> Nebelflecken <i>erster</i> und
+<i>vierter</i> Classe, aus den Beobachtungen berechnet und auf 1850
+reducirt.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Abhandlungen der Math. Phys. Classe der K. S&auml;chs Gesells. d.
+Wissenschaften</i>, Band iii. [1857], p. 359.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Dunkin (E.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Obituary Notices of Astronomers, p. 86. Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>,</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">K.C.H., F.R.S., 1738-1822.</p>
+<p class="byauthor2">London, 1879. 12mo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>F&eacute;tis (F. J.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Biographie universelle des Musiciens [Article <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>].</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Paris, 1835-37. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Forbes (J. D.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span> [being &sect; 2 of
+Dissertation vi.]. </p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, eighth edition. Vol. i.,
+<i>Dissertations</i>, p. 838.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Fourier (J.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">&Eacute;loge historique de Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, prononc&eacute; dans la s&eacute;ance
+publique de l'Acad&eacute;mie royale des sciences le 7 Juin, 1824.</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Historie de l'Acad&eacute;mie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France</i>,
+<i>tome</i> vi., <i>ann&eacute;e</i> 1823, p. lxi.<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Harding (C. L.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Des Herrn Dr. <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> Untersuchungen &uuml;ber die Natur der
+Sonnenstrahlen, aus dem englischen &uuml;bersetzt. Erstes Heft.
+[Translations from <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1800.] Celle, 1801. 16mo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Hastings (C. S.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">See <span class="smcap">Holden</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">Hastings</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">An Account of a new Comet. [1786, II.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1787, vol. LXXVII., p. 1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">An Account of the Discovery of a Comet. [1793, I.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1794, vol. LXXXIV., p. 1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Account of the Discovery of a Comet. [1795, II.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1796, vol. LXXXVI., p. 131.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Catalogue of Stars taken from <span class="smcap">Flamsteed's</span> observations contained in
+the second volume of his <i>Historia C&oelig;lestis</i>, and not inserted in
+the British Catalogue; to which is added a collection of errata
+which should be noticed in the same volume; with remarks by <span class="smcap">W.
+Herschel</span>. London, 1798. Folio.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Verzeichniss von 74 Sternen <span class="smcap">Flamsteeds</span> von denen keine beobachtungen in
+der <i>Hist. C&oelig;l. Brit.</i> vorkommen. </p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Bode's Jahrbuch</i>, 1806, p. 255</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor2">[Notice of her Life.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc.</i>, vol. 8, p. 64; <i>also</i>, <i>Memoirs
+Roy. Ast. Soc.</i>, vol. 17, p. 120.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (Carolina.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>Memoir and Correspondence of <span class="smcap">Caroline Herschel</span>. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">John
+Herschel</span>. With portraits. London, 1876. 12mo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (J. F. W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Article <i>Telescope</i>, in Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, eighth edition.
+[This article (illustrated) gives most of the important features of
+Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel's</span> manner of grinding and polishing specula.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (J. F. W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Catalogue of Nebul&aelig; and Clusters of Stars. [General and systematic
+reduction of all Sir <span class="smcap">W. Herschel's</span> observations brought into
+connection with all other similar ones.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1864. Page 1. 4to.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (J. F. W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">A Synopsis of all Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel's</span> Micrometrical Measurements,
+etc., of Double Stars, together with a Catalogue of those Stars . . .
+for 1880.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc.</i>, vol. 35, p. 21. Lond., 1867. 4to.</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (J. F. W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Additional Identifications of Double Stars in the Synoptic
+Catalogues of Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel's</span> Micrometrical Measurements,
+etc.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc.</i>, vol. 28, p. 151. London, 1868.
+8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (Mrs. John.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Memoir and Correspondence of <span class="smcap">Caroline Herschel</span>. With portraits.
+London, 1876. 12mo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">[Solution of a prize question. <i>See</i> this book, <a href="#Page_46">page 46</a>.] </p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Ladies' Diary</i>, 1779.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">The favorite Eccho Catch . . . and the preceding Glee [by <span class="smcap">S. Leach</span>].
+To which is added the . . . Catch Sung by Three Old Women . . .  in the
+Pantomime called "The Genius of Nonsense" [by <span class="smcap">H. Harington</span>].</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">London, 1780(?). Obl. folio. [A MS. copy of this was kindly
+furnished me by Dr. R. <span class="smcap">Garnett</span>, of the British Museum.]
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><i>G&ouml;ttingen Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur</i> (1783), vol.
+iii., p. 4. <span class="smcap">Lichtenberg</span> and <span class="smcap">Forster</span>, Editors.
+[Letter from <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>, giving a brief account of his life. <i>See</i>
+this book, page 3.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Herschel (W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">I. <i>Manuscripts in possession of the Royal Society.</i></p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3">1. A series of register sheets in which are entered up <i>all</i> the
+observations of <i>each</i> nebula, copied <i>verbatim</i> from the sweeps.
+2. A similar set of register sheets for <span class="smcap">Messier's</span> nebul&aelig;. 3. A
+general index of the 2,508 nebul&aelig; of <span class="smcap">W. Herschel</span>; given the class
+and number, to find the general number. 4. An index list; given
+the general number, to find the class and number. 5. A more
+complete list like 4. 6. A manuscript catalogue of all the nebul&aelig;
+and clusters, reduced to 1,800, and arranged in zones of 1&deg; in
+polar distance; by Miss <span class="smcap">Carolina Herschel</span>. 7. The original sweeps
+with the 20-foot reflector at Slough, in three small 4to and four
+folio vols. of MS.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor2">II. <i>Manuscripts in possession of the Royal Astronomical Society.</i></p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3">This library contains "the whole series of autograph observations
+of each double star [observed by <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>], brought together on
+separate sheets by Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span> and Miss <span class="smcap">Carolina
+Herschel</span>."</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Some Account of the Life and Writings of <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, Esq.
+[With a Portrait.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">The <i>European Magazine and London Review</i> for January, 1785. 8vo.
+
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Edinburgh Review</i>, vol. i., p, 426.
+[A review of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> memoir, "Observations on the two lately
+discovered bodies," from <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1802. <i>See</i> this book,
+page 96.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">"Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, from a London paper."</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">[This is a short obituary notice "furnished by a gentleman well
+acquainted with Sir <span class="smcap">William</span> and his family, and its accuracy may be
+relied on."]</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Niles' Register</i>, vol. 23, p. 154. Nov. 9, 1822. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Obituary: Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, Knt., LL.D., F.R.S.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle</i>, vol. xcii.,
+1822, p. 274. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Annual Register</i>, 1822, p. 289. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class="smcap">W. Herschel's</span> S&auml;mmtliche Schriften, Erster Band.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Ueber den Bau des
+Himmels. Mit 10 Kupfertafeln. [Edited by <span class="smcap">J. W. Pfaff</span>. A second
+edition was published in 1850.] Dresden and Leipzig, 1828. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>New York Mirror</i>, vol. vi., 1829-30, p. 388.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Living Age</i>, vol. ii., p. 125 (1844). 8vo.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">[Reprinted from <i>Chambers' Journal</i>.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Foreign Quarterly Review</i>, vol. 31, p. 438. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3">[Review of <span class="smcap">Arago's</span> "Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir <span class="smcap">William
+Herschel</span>."]</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor">[<b>Herschel (W.)</b>]</p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class="smcap">Arago's</span> Life of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Eclectic Museum</i>, vol. ii., p. 556. [Reprinted from the <i>Foreign
+Quarterly Review</i>, vol. 31.]
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Holden (E. S.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">On the Inner Satellites of <i>Uranus</i>. [Reduction of Sir <span class="smcap">William
+Herschel's</span> observations.]</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor3"><i>Proceedings Amer. Assn. Adv. Science</i>, <i>August</i>, 1874, p. 49. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Holden (E. S.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Index Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relative to nebul&aelig;, clusters,
+etc. <i>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</i>, No. 311, pp. 19-38.
+[Abstracts of Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel's</span> memoirs (on nebul&aelig;) in the
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>.]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Washington, 1877. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Holden (E. S.) and C. S. Hastings.</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">A Subject-index and a Synopsis of the scientific writings of Sir
+<span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>. [Reprinted from the <i>Report</i> of the Smithsonian
+Institution (1879).]</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Washington, 1881. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Krafft (J. G. F.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Kurze Nachricht von dem ber&uuml;hmten Astronomen <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> und einigen
+seiner Entdeckungen.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Bayreuth, 1787. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Peirce (C. S.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Photometric Researches. [A reduction of <span class="smcap">Herschel's</span> observations on
+the comparative brightness of the stars.] <i>Annals Harvard College
+Observatory</i>, vol. ix.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Leipzig, 1878. 4to.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Sommer (G. M.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class="smcap">William Herschel</span> . . . ueber den Bau des Himmels; drei abhandlungen
+aus dem englischen uebersetzt, nebst einem authentischen Auszug aus
+<span class="smcap">Kants</span> allgemeiner Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels.</p>
+<p class="byauthor3">Koenigsberg, 1791. 8vo.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Struve (W.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">&Eacute;tudes d'astronomie stellaire. Sur la voie lact&eacute;e et sur la distance
+des &eacute;toiles fixes. [P. 24 <i>et seq.</i> contains an elaborate review of
+the construction of the heavens according to <span class="smcap">Herschel</span>.] St.
+Petersburg, 1847. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Wolf (R.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2"><span class="smcap">William Herschel.</span> Zurich, 1867. 8vo.</p>
+
+
+<p class="byauthor"><b>Zach (F. von.)</b></p>
+<p class="byauthor2">Dr. <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span> [translated from <i>Public Characters</i> and
+printed in <span class="smcap">Zach's</span> <i>Monatlich Correspondenz</i>, 1802, part i., p. 70
+<i>et seq.</i>]</p>
+
+
+<p class="thoughtbreak"><a name="III_List" id="III_List"></a>III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">List of the Published Portraits of William Herschel.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">Mme. Dupiery</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">Th&ouml;nert</span>. 8vo. Early portrait. Some
+copies in red. Profile.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">F. Rehburg</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">F. W. Bollinger</span>. 8vo. Late portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">C. Westermayr</span>. 8vo. Medallion.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">C. Brand</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? 8vo. Lithograph.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">J. Sewell</span>. 8vo. Profile, 1785.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? 8vo. Profile.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">F. Bonneville</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">F. Bonneville</span>. 8vo. Profile.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">J. Russell</span>, R.A. <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">E. Scriven.</span> 8vo. Engraved from a
+crayon in the possession of his son, and published by the S. D. U. K. in
+the <i>Gallery of Portraits</i>, vol. 5.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? 8vo. <i>European Magazine</i>, Jan., 1785.
+This is a bust in profile, showing the left side of the face.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p><p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">Thomson</span>. 8vo. Published by Caxton, 1823.
+This must have been engraved before 1816 since the legend is <span class="smcap">William
+Herschel, LL.D., F.R.S.</span></p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, Lady <span class="smcap">Gordon</span>. From the painting by <span class="smcap">Abbott</span> in the National
+Portrait Gallery. <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">Joseph Brown</span>. 8vo. Published in memoir of
+<span class="smcap">Caroline Herschel</span>. This is of the date 1788, or thereabouts. <i>See</i>
+frontispiece.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">C. M&uuml;ller</span>. 4to. Medallion, 1785(?).</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">H. Pinhas</span>. 4to. Legend in Russian.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">Baisch</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? 4to. Lithograph.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">H. Gr&eacute;vedon</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? Fol. Lithograph.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">F. M&uuml;ller</span>. Fol.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">Abbott</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">Ryder</span>. Fol. 1788.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, <span class="smcap">J. Boilly</span>. <i>Engraver</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? Fol. 1822. Lithograph.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Artist</i>, &mdash;&mdash;? <i>Engraver</i>, <span class="smcap">J. Godby</span>. Fol.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="size09"><span class="smcap">R. W. S. Lutwidge</span>, Esq., F.R.A.S., has an original seal with a head of
+Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>, which is shown on the title-page of this work. A
+cut of it has been courteously furnished me by <span class="smcap">John Browning</span>, Esq.,
+F.R.A.S., etc.</p>
+
+<p class="size09">In 1787 a bust of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was made by <span class="smcap">Lockie</span> for Sir <span class="smcap">William Watson</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="size09">A picture of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> was painted by Mr. <span class="smcap">Artaud</span> about the beginning of
+1819. A portrait of <span class="smcap">Herschel</span> by <span class="smcap">Abbott</span> is in the National Portrait
+Gallery, London. There are no doubt many other paintings in England,
+though I can find notices of these only. The Royal Society of London has
+nearly a hundred portraits of its most distinguished members, but owns
+none of Sir <span class="smcap">William Herschel</span>.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+<div class="newpage"></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="INDEXOFNAMES" id="INDEXOFNAMES"></a>INDEX OF NAMES.</p>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="size09"><i>N.B.&mdash;This index is intended to refer to the proper names occurring in
+the body of the work only, and not to the Bibliography.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="index">Airy (Sir George), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Alison (Sir Archibald), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Arago (Fran&ccedil;ois), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Artaud (M.), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Aubert (Alexander), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="index">Baldwin (Miss), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Banks (Sir Joseph), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bessel (F. W.), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Blagden (Dr.), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bonaparte (Napoleon), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bradley (James), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bruhl (Count von), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bulman (Mr.), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bunsen (Chevalier), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Burney (Dr.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Campbell (Thomas), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cassini (J. D.), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cropley (Mr.), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Dalrymple (Mr.), <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">D'Arblay (Madame), <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p class="index">Darlington (Earl of), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Darquier, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">D'Arrest (H. L.), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Dawes (W. R.), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">De Luc (M.), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">De Luc (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Dollond (J.), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Engelfield (Sir Harry), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Farinelli (Miss), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Flaugergues (H.), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Fleming (Miss), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Fourier (J.), <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Frauenhofer (J.), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Galileo, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">George III., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Griesbach (George), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Griesbachs (the), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Hansen (P. A.), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Hastings (C. S.), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Heberden (Dr.), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Helmholtz (H.), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Abraham) [1651-1718], <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Alexander) [1745-1821], <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+<a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Benjamin), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Carolina) [1750-1848], <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class="index2">discovers five comets, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Carolina), her <i>Memoir</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
+<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Dietrich), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Eusebius), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Hans) [<i>circa</i> 1600], <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Isaac) [1707-1767], <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Jacob) [1734-1792], <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Sir John Frederick William) [1792-1871], <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
+<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Lady), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Major John), <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Mrs. Mary Cornwallis), <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Sophia Elizabeth), b. 1733, married Griesbach, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (William), born 1738, November <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">oboist in the band of the Guards (1755), and goes to England for the
+first time, returning in 1756, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">deserts from the Guards and goes to England (1757), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">organizes the band of the Durham militia (1760), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">leaves the band and lives with Dr. Miller, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">leads the public concerts at Wakefield and Halifax, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">organist at Halifax (1765), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">organist of the Octagon Chapel at Bath (1766), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his musical writings, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">studies Smith's harmonies and optics, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">visits Hanover, August, 1772, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">hires a small telescope, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">makes his first telescope (1774), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">visits Hanover (1775?), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">1st review of the heavens, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">2d review of the heavens, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">3d review of the heavens (1783), <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">4th review of the heavens (1785), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">manufacture of telescopes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+<a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">moves to 19 New King St., Bath, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">conducts oratorios of Handel, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">begins astronomical <i>measures</i> (1779), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">joins Philosophical Society of Bath, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">first published scientific writing (1779), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">first communication to the Royal Society (1780), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">discovery of <i>Uranus</i> (1781, March 13), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">its effect on his career, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">elected a member of the Royal Society (1781), and receives the
+Copley medal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">attempts a thirty-foot reflector, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">goes to London, 1782 (May, June, July), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">appointed Royal Astronomer (&pound;200), 1782, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">removes to Datchet, 1782, August 1, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+<p class="index2">his assiduity, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his mechanical genius, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">cost of his telescopes, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">marries Mrs. John Pitt, <i>n&eacute;e</i> Baldwin (1783), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">only child born (1792), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">removes to Slough (1786), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">LL.D. (<i>Oxon.</i>), 1786, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his account of the discovery of <i>Uranus</i> (1781, March 13), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">discovers two satellites to <i>Uranus</i>, 1787, Jan. 11, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">discovers two satellites to <i>Saturn</i>, 1789, August-September, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">invents machines for making reflectors (1788), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">began forty-foot telescope, 1785, finished it, 1789, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">biographical letter (1783), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">list of published portraits of him, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">value of his sister's assistance to him, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">letters to Carolina Herschel, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his personal character (1786-1800), <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i></p>
+<p class="index2">his relations to his cotemporaries, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
+<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">list of writings relating to him and to his works, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his literary skill, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">examples of his style, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> <i>et seq.</i></p>
+<p class="index2">failure of health, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i></p>
+<p class="index2">created a Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order (1816), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Herschel (Sir William), first president of the Royal Astronomical Society
+(1821), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his will, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his death, August 25th, 1822, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">his epitaph, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">list of his scientific writings, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">review of his scientific labors, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">the improvement of telescopes and apparatus, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">the relative brightness of the stars; variable stars, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on double stars, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on planets and satellites, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on the nature of the sun, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">the motion of the solar system in space, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on the construction of the heavens, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">scale of celestial measures; distances of the stars, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on light, heat, etc., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on the dimensions of the stars, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">on the spectra of the fixed stars, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">on the variable emission of light and heat from the sun, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">researches on nebul&aelig; and clusters, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Huyghens (C.), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">King George III., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Lacaille (N. L.), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Lalande (Jerome), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.
+<span class='IXpagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="index">Lambert (J. H.), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Lassell (W.), <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Lee (Miss), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Lichtenberg (Herr), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Lind (Dr. and Mrs.), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Long (Dr.), <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Magellan (Herr), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Maskelyne (Nevil), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Mayer (Christian), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Melloni (M.), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Messier (C.), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Michell (John), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Miller (Dr.), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Monson (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Moritzen (Anna Ilse), m. Isaac Herschel, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Napoleon I., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Newton (Sir Isaac), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Olbers (William), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Pabrich (Cappelmeister), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Palmerston (Lord), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Piazzi (Joseph), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Pierce (Charles S.), <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Pigott (J.), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Poggendorff (J. G.), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Ronzoni (Signor), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Rosse (Lord), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Savary (M.), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Secchi (Angelo), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Scheiner (C.), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Schroeter (J. H.), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Schwabe (H.), <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Short (James), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Smith (Dr. Robert), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Snetzler (Herr), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Struve (Otto von), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Thomson (Thomas), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Verdet (E.), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p> </p>
+<p class="index">Wainwright (Dr.), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Walsh (Colonel), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Watson (Sir William), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Watt (James), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Weld (R.), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Wilson (Alexander), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index">Zach (Baron von), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="newchap"><p class="center"><span class="size09">THE END.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="newpage"><a name="tnotes" id="tnotes"></a></div>
+
+<p class="center">START OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</p>
+<table summary="Transcribers notes" class="padded">
+<tr><td><b>page</b></td><td><b>line</b></td><td><b>Original text left as is</b></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>227</td><td>   3 </td><td>übersetzt</td></tr>
+<tr><td>231</td><td>  29 </td><td>uebersetzt</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 18</td><td>  24 </td><td>Biographie universelle des musiciens</td></tr>
+<tr><td>226</td><td>  24 </td><td>Biographie universelle des Musiciens</td></tr>
+<tr><td>231</td><td>  33 </td><td>Koenigsberg, 1791. 8vo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>226</td><td>   9 </td><td>Königsberger Allgemeine Zeitung</td></tr>
+<tr><td>195</td><td>   4 </td><td>Fraunhofer</td></tr>
+<tr><td>235</td><td>index</td><td>Frauenhofer (J.), 195.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>226</td><td>  29 </td><td>Vol.  (all other occurances are) vol.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>238</td><td>index</td><td>Ronzoni (Signor), 59.</td></tr>
+<tr><td> 58</td><td>  26 </td><td>Ronzini </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><b>page</b></td><td><b>line</b></td><td><b>Original text</b></td><td><b>Replaced with</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td>65</td><td>23</td><td>ornamented.</td><td>ornamented.&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>216 </td><td>25             </td><td>den 18. May</td><td>den 18. Mai</td></tr>
+<tr><td>219 </td><td>23             </td><td>Band.,</td><td>Band,</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">END OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sir William Herschel: His Life and Works, by
+Edward Singleton Holden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sir William Herschel: His Life and Works
+
+Author: Edward Singleton Holden
+
+Release Date: June 3, 2009 [EBook #29031]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Eric Hutton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL
+
+HIS LIFE AND WORKS
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Sir William Herschel]
+
+SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL
+
+
+HIS LIFE AND WORKS
+
+BY
+
+EDWARD S. HOLDEN
+
+UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON
+
+[Illustration: Coelis Exploratis]
+
+
+
+NEW YORK
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+743 AND 745 BROADWAY
+1881
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1880,
+BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS.
+
+
+
+PRESS OF J. J. LITTLE & CO.,
+
+NOS. 10 TO 20 ASTOR PLACE, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+Please see the end of the text for TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the following account of the life and works of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL,
+I have been obliged to depend strictly upon data already in print--the
+_Memoir_ of his sister, his own scientific writings and the memoirs and
+diaries of his cotemporaries. The review of his published works will, I
+trust, be of use. It is based upon a careful study of all his papers in
+the _Philosophical Transactions_ and elsewhere.
+
+A life of HERSCHEL which shall be satisfactory in every particular can
+only be written after a full examination of the materials which are
+preserved at the family seat in England; but as two generations have
+passed since his death, and as no biography yet exists which approaches
+to completeness, no apology seems to me to be needed for a
+conscientious attempt to make the best use of the scanty material which
+we do possess.
+
+This study will, I trust, serve to exhibit so much of his life as
+belongs to the whole public. His private life belongs to his family,
+until the time is come to let the world know more of the greatest of
+practical astronomers and of the inner life of one of its most profound
+philosophers,--of a great and ardent mind, whose achievements are and
+will remain the glory of England.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                                  PAGE
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY YEARS; 1738-1772,                              1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+LIFE IN BATH; 1772-1782,                            33
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+LIFE AT DATCHET, CLAY HALL, AND SLOUGH; 1782-1822,  68
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF HERSCHEL,       118
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY,                                      215
+
+
+INDEX OF NAMES,                                    235
+
+
+
+
+LIFE AND WORKS
+
+OF
+
+WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY YEARS; 1738-1772.
+
+
+Of the great modern philosophers, that one of whom least is known, is
+WILLIAM HERSCHEL. We may appropriate the words which escaped him when
+the barren region of the sky near the body of _Scorpio_ was passing
+slowly through the field of his great reflector, during one of his
+sweeps, to express our own sense of absence of light and knowledge:
+_Hier ist wahrhaftig ein Loch im Himmel._
+
+HERSCHEL prepared, about the year 1818, a biographical memorandum, which
+his sister CAROLINA placed among his papers.
+
+This has never been made public. The only thoroughly authentic sources
+of information in possession of the world, are a letter written by
+HERSCHEL himself, in answer to a pressing request for a sketch of his
+life, and the _Memoir and Correspondence of CAROLINE HERSCHEL_ (London,
+1876), a precious memorial not only of his life, but of one which
+otherwise would have remained almost unknown, and one, too, which the
+world could ill afford to lose. The latter, which has been ably edited
+by Mrs. MARY CORNWALLIS HERSCHEL,[1] is the only source of knowledge in
+regard to the early years of the great astronomer, and together with the
+all too scanty materials to be gained from a diligent search through the
+biography of the time, affords the data for those personal details of
+his life, habits, and character, which seem to complete the distinct,
+though partial conception of him which the student of his philosophical
+writings acquires.
+
+The letter referred to was published in the Goettingen Magazine of
+Science and Literature, III., 4, shortly after the name of HERSCHEL had
+become familiar to every ear through his discovery of _Uranus_, but
+while the circumstances of the discovery, and the condition of the
+amateur who made it, were still entirely unknown.
+
+The editor (LICHTENBERG) says:
+
+    "Herr HERSCHEL was good enough to send me, some time since, through
+    Herr MAGELLAN, copies of his Dissertations on Double Stars, on the
+    Parallax of the Fixed Stars, and on a new Micrometer. In the letter
+    which conveyed to him my thanks for his gift, I requested him to
+    note down a few facts in regard to his life, for publication in this
+    magazine, since various accounts, more or less incorrect, had
+    appeared in several journals. In answer, I received a very obliging
+    letter from him and what follows is that portion of it relating to
+    my request, which was sent me with full permission to make it
+    public."
+
+
+                                                "DATCHET, NEAR WINDSOR,
+                                                _Nov. 15, 1783._
+
+    "I was born in Hanover, November, 1738. My father, who was a
+    musician, destined me to the same profession, hence I was
+    instructed betimes in his art. That I might acquire a perfect
+    knowledge of the theory as well as of the practice of music, I was
+    set at an early age to study mathematics in all its
+    branches--algebra, conic sections, infinitesimal analysis, and the
+    rest.
+
+    "The insatiable desire for knowledge thus awakened resulted next in
+    a course of languages; I learned French, English, and Latin, and
+    steadfastly resolved henceforth to devote myself wholly to those
+    sciences from the pursuit of which I alone looked for all my future
+    happiness and enjoyment. I have never been either necessitated or
+    disposed to alter this resolve. My father, whose means were limited,
+    and who consequently could not be as liberal to his children as he
+    would have desired, was compelled to dispose of them in one way or
+    another at an early age; consequently in my fifteenth year I
+    enlisted in military service, only remaining in the army, however,
+    until I reached my nineteenth year, when I resigned and went over to
+    England.
+
+    "My familiarity with the organ, which I had carefully mastered
+    previously, soon procured for me the position of organist in
+    Yorkshire, which I finally exchanged for a similar situation at Bath
+    in 1766, and while here the peculiar circumstances of my post, as
+    agreeable as it was lucrative, made it possible for me to occupy
+    myself once more with my studies, especially with mathematics. When,
+    in the course of time, I took up astronomy, I determined to accept
+    nothing on faith, but to see with my own eyes everything which
+    others had seen before me. Having already some knowledge of the
+    science of optics, I resolved to manufacture my own telescopes, and
+    after many continuous, determined trials, I finally succeeded in
+    completing a so-called Newtonian instrument, seven feet in length.
+    From this I advanced to one of ten feet, and at last to one of
+    twenty, for I had fully made up my mind to carry on the improvement
+    of my telescopes as far as it could possibly be done. When I had
+    carefully and thoroughly perfected the great instrument in all its
+    parts, I made systematic use of it in my observations of the
+    heavens, first forming a determination never to pass by any, the
+    smallest, portion of them without due investigation. This habit,
+    persisted in, led to the discovery of the new planet (_Georgium
+    Sidus_). This was by no means the result of chance, but a simple
+    consequence of the position of the planet on that particular
+    evening, since it occupied precisely that spot in the heavens which
+    came in the order of the minute observations that I had previously
+    mapped out for myself. Had I not seen it just when I did, I must
+    inevitably have come upon it soon after, since my telescope was so
+    perfect that I was able to distinguish it from a fixed star in the
+    first minute of observation.
+
+    "Now to bring this sketch to a close. As the king had expressed a
+    desire to see my telescope, I took it by his command to Greenwich,
+    where it was compared with the instruments of my excellent friend,
+    Dr. MASKELYNE, not only by himself, but by other experts, who
+    pronounced it as their opinion that my instrument was superior to
+    all the rest. Thereupon the king ordered that the instrument be
+    brought to Windsor, and since it there met with marked approval, his
+    majesty graciously awarded me a yearly pension, that I might be
+    enabled to relinquish my profession of music, and devote my whole
+    time to astronomy and the improvement of the telescope. Gratitude,
+    as well as other considerations specified by me in a paper presented
+    to the Royal Society, of which I am a member, has induced me to call
+    the new planet _Georgium Sidus_.
+
+        "'Georgium Sidus.--jam nunc assuesce vocari.'--(_Virgil._)
+
+    And I hope it will retain the name."
+
+We know but little of the family of HERSCHEL. The name is undoubtedly
+Jewish, and is found in Poland, Germany, and England. We learn that the
+ancestors of the present branch left Moravia about the beginning of the
+XVIIth century, on account of their change of religion to Protestantism.
+They became possessors of land in Saxony. HANS HERSCHEL, the
+great-grandfather of WILLIAM, was a brewer in Pirna (a small town near
+Dresden). Of the two sons of HANS, one, ABRAHAM (born in 1651, died
+1718), was employed in the royal gardens at Dresden, and seems to have
+been a man of taste and skill in his calling. Of his eldest son,
+EUSEBIUS, there appears to be little trace in the records of the family.
+The second son, BENJAMIN, died in infancy; the third, ISAAC, was born in
+1707 (Jan. 14), and was thus an orphan at eleven years of age. ISAAC was
+the father of the great astronomer.
+
+He appears to have early had a passionate fondness for music, and this,
+added to a distaste for his father's calling, determined his career. He
+was taught music by an oboe-player in the royal band, and he also
+learned the violin. At the age of twenty-one he studied music for a year
+under the Cappelmeister PABRICH, at Potsdam, and in August, 1731, he
+became oboist in the band of the Guards, at Hanover. In August, 1732, he
+married ANNA ILSE MORITZEN. She appears to have been a careful and busy
+wife and mother, possessed of no special faculties which would lead us
+to attribute to her care any great part of the abilities of her son.
+She could not herself write the letters which she sent to her husband
+during his absences with his regiment. It was her firm belief that the
+separations and some of the sorrows of the family came from too much
+learning; and while she could not hinder the education of the sons of
+the family, she prevented their sisters from learning French and
+dancing. It is but just to say that the useful accomplishments of
+cooking, sewing, and the care of a household, were thoroughly taught by
+her to her two daughters. The father, ISAAC, appears to have been of a
+different mould, and to him, no doubt, the chief intellectual
+characteristics of the family are due. His position obliged him to be
+often absent from Hanover, with his regiment, but his hand appears to
+have been always present, smoothing over difficulties, and encouraging
+his sons to such learning and improvement as was to be had.
+
+His health was seriously injured by the exposures of the campaigns,
+and he was left, after the Seven Years' War, with a broken constitution.
+
+After his final return home, in 1760, his daughter gives this record of
+him--
+
+    "Copying music employed every vacant moment, even sometimes
+    throughout half the night. . . . With my brother [DIETRICH]--now a
+    little engaging creature of between four and five years old--he was
+    very much pleased, and [on the first evening of his arrival at home]
+    before he went to rest, the Adempken (a little violin) was taken
+    from the shelf and newly strung, and the daily lessons immediately
+    commenced. . . . I do not recollect that he ever desired any other
+    society than what he had opportunities of enjoying in many of the
+    parties where he was introduced by his profession, though far from
+    being of a morose disposition; he would frequently encourage my
+    mother in keeping up a social intercourse among a few acquaintances,
+    whilst his afternoon hours generally were taken up in giving lessons
+    to some scholars at home, who gladly saved him the troublesome
+    exertion of walking. . . . He also found great pleasure in seeing
+    DIETRICH'S improvement, who, young as he was, and of the most lively
+    temper imaginable, was always ready to receive his lessons, leaving
+    his little companions with the greatest cheerfulness to go to his
+    father, who was so pleased with his performances that he made him
+    play a solo on the Adempken in RAKE'S concert, being placed on a
+    table before a crowded company, for which he was very much applauded
+    and caressed, particularly by an English lady, who put a gold coin
+    in his little pocket.
+
+    "It was not long before my father had as many scholars as he could
+    find time to attend. And when they assembled at my father's to make
+    little concerts, I was frequently called to join the second violin
+    in an overture, for my father found pleasure in giving me sometimes
+    a lesson before the instruments were laid by, after practising with
+    DIETRICH, for I never was missing at those hours, sitting in a
+    corner with my knitting and listening all the while."
+
+Here, as in all her writing, CAROLINA is simple, true, direct to
+awkwardness, and unconsciously pathetic even in joy.
+
+The family of ISAAC and ANNA HERSCHEL consisted of ten children. Six of
+these lived to adult age. They were:
+
+    1. SOPHIA ELIZABETH; born 1733, married GRIESBACH, a musician in the
+       Guard, by whom she had children. Five of her sons were afterwards
+       musicians at the court, in England, where they obtained places
+       through the influence of WILLIAM.
+
+    2. HENRY ANTON JACOB; born 1734, November 20.
+
+    4. FREDERIC WILLIAM (the astronomer) born 1738, November 15.
+
+    6. JOHN ALEXANDER; born 1745, November 13.
+
+    8. CAROLINA LUCRETIA; born 1750, March 16.
+
+    10. DIETRICH; born 1755, September 13.
+
+Of this family group, the important figures to us are WILLIAM,
+ALEXANDER, and CAROLINA.
+
+JACOB was organist at the Garrison Church of Hanover in 1753, a member
+of the Guards' band in 1755, and first violin in the Hanover Court
+Orchestra in 1759. Afterwards he joined his brother WILLIAM in Bath, but
+again returned to Hanover. In 1771 he published in Amsterdam his Opus
+I., a set of six quartettes, and later, in London, he published two
+symphonies and six trios. He appears to have been a clever musician, and
+his letters to his younger brother WILLIAM are full of discussion on
+points of musical composition, etc. He died in 1792.
+
+DIETRICH, the youngest brother, shared in the musical abilities of his
+family, and when only fifteen years old was so far advanced as to be
+able to supply his brother JACOB'S place in the Court Orchestra, and to
+give his lessons to private pupils. There is no one of the family,
+except the eldest daughter, whom we do not know to have possessed marked
+ability in music, and this taste descended truly for four generations.
+In the letters of Chevalier BUNSEN,[2] he describes meeting, in 1847,
+the eldest granddaughter of WILLIAM HERSCHEL, who, he says, "is a
+musical genius."
+
+Three members of the family, WILLIAM, ALEXANDER, and CAROLINA, formed a
+group which was inseparable for many years, and while the progress of
+the lives of ALEXANDER and CAROLINA was determined by the energy and
+efforts of WILLIAM, these two lent him an aid without which his career
+would have been strangely different. It is necessary to understand a
+little better the early life of all three.
+
+The sons of the HERSCHEL family all attended the garrison school in
+Hanover until they were about fourteen years old. They were taught the
+ordinary rudiments of knowledge--to read, to write, to cipher--and a
+knowledge of French and English was added. WILLIAM especially
+distinguished himself in his studies, learning French very rapidly, and
+studying Latin and arithmetic with his master out of hours. The
+household life seems to have been active, harmonious, and intelligent,
+especially during the presence of the father, who took a great delight
+in the rapid progress of all his sons in music, and who encouraged them
+with his companionship in their studies and in their reading on all
+intellectual subjects.
+
+From the _Memoir_ of CAROLINA, on which we must depend for our
+knowledge of this early life, we take the following paragraph:
+
+    "My brothers were often introduced as solo performers and assistants
+    in the orchestra of the court, and I remember that I was frequently
+    prevented from going to sleep by the lively criticism on music on
+    coming from a concert, or by conversations on philosophical subjects,
+    which lasted frequently till morning, in which my father was a
+    lively partaker and assistant of my brother WILLIAM, by contriving
+    self-made instruments. . . . Often I would keep myself awake that
+    I might listen to their animating remarks, for it made _me so happy_
+    to see _them so happy_. But generally their conversation would
+    branch out on philosophical subjects, when my brother WILLIAM and my
+    father often argued with such warmth that my mother's interference
+    became necessary, when the names LEIBNITZ, NEWTON, and EULER
+    sounded rather too loud for the repose of her little ones, who
+    ought to be in school by seven in the morning. But it seems that
+    on the brothers retiring to their own room, where they shared
+    the same bed, my brother WILLIAM had still a great deal to say; and
+    frequently it happened that when he stopped for an assent or reply,
+    he found his hearer was gone to sleep, and I suppose it was not till
+    then that he bethought himself to do the same.
+
+    "The recollection of these happy scenes confirms me in the belief,
+    that had my brother WILLIAM not then been interrupted in his
+    philosophical pursuits, we should have had much earlier proofs of
+    his inventive genius. My father was a great admirer of astronomy,
+    and had some knowledge of that science; for I remember his taking
+    me, on a clear frosty night, into the street, to make me acquainted
+    with several of the most beautiful constellations, after we had been
+    gazing at a comet which was then visible. And I well remember with
+    what delight he used to assist my brother WILLIAM in his various
+    contrivances in the pursuit of his philosophical studies, among
+    which was a neatly turned 4-inch globe, upon which the equator and
+    ecliptic were engraved by my brother."
+
+The mechanical genius was not confined to WILLIAM, for we read that
+ALEXANDER used often to "sit by us and amuse us and himself by making
+all sorts of things out of pasteboard, or contriving how to make a
+twelve-hour cuckoo clock go a week." This ability of ALEXANDER'S was
+turned later to the best account when he became his brother WILLIAM'S
+right hand in the manufacture of reflectors, eye-pieces, and stands in
+England. His abilities were great, and a purpose which might otherwise
+have been lacking was supplied through the younger brother's ardor in
+all that he undertook.
+
+His musical talent was remarkable; he played "divinely" on the
+violoncello. He returned to Hanover in 1816, where he lived in
+comfortable independence, through the never-failing generosity of his
+brother, until his death in 1821. A notice of him in a Bristol paper
+says: "Died, March 15, 1821, at Hanover, ALEXANDER HERSCHEL, Esqr., well
+known to the public of Bath and Bristol as a performer and elegant
+musician; and who for forty-seven years was the admiration of the
+frequenters of concerts and theatres of both those cities as principal
+violoncello. To the extraordinary merits of Mr. HERSCHEL was united
+considerable acquirement in the superior branches of mechanics and
+philosophy, and his affinity to his brother, Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, was
+not less in science than in blood."
+
+We shall learn more of the sister, CAROLINA, as time goes on. Now in
+these early years she was a silent and persistent child, growing up with
+a feeling that she was uncared for and neglected, and lavishing all her
+childish affection, as she did all that of her womanly life, on her
+brother WILLIAM. Throughout her long life, "my brother" was WILLIAM,
+"my nephew" _his_ son.
+
+The brothers JACOB and WILLIAM were, with their father, members of the
+band of the Guards in 1755, when the regiment was ordered to England,
+and they were absent from Hanover a year.
+
+WILLIAM (then seventeen years old) went as oboist, and out of his
+scanty pay brought back to Hanover, in 1756, only one memento of his
+stay--a copy of LOCKE _On the Human Understanding_.
+
+He appears to have served with the Guard during part of the campaign of
+1757. His health was then delicate, and his parents "determined to
+remove him from the service--a step attended by no small
+difficulties."[3]
+
+This "removal" was hurriedly and safely effected, so hurriedly that the
+copy of LOCKE was not put in the parcels sent after him to Hamburg by
+his mother; "she, dear woman, knew no other wants than good linen and
+clothing."
+
+Thus, at last, the young WILLIAM HERSCHEL, the son of an oboe-player in
+the King's Guard, is launched in life for himself, in the year 1757, at
+the age of nineteen.
+
+All his equipment is the "good linen and clothing," a knowledge of
+French, Latin, and English, some skill in playing the violin, the organ,
+and the oboe, and an "uncommon precipitancy" in doing what there is to
+be done.
+
+A slender outfit truly; but we are not to overlook what he said of
+himself on another occasion. "I have, nevertheless, several resources in
+view, and do not despair of succeeding pretty well in the end."
+
+From 1757 to 1760--three years--we know nothing of his life. We can
+imagine what it was. His previous visit to England had given him a good
+knowledge of the language, and perhaps a few uninfluential
+acquaintances. On his return he would naturally seek these out, and, by
+means of his music, he could gain a livelihood. We first hear of him as
+charged with the organization of the music of a corps of the militia of
+Durham, under the auspices of the EARL OF DARLINGTON. "La maniere dont
+il remplit cette mission, le fit connaitre avantageusement."[4] The
+nature of the service of these militia corps, which were then forming
+all over England, is well described in the Autobiography of GIBBON.
+Every county-gentleman felt constrained to serve his country,
+and the regimental mess-rooms were filled with men of rank and fashion.
+
+In 1760 we hear of him again. He has attracted the notice of those about
+him.
+
+    "About the year 1760, as MILLER[5] was dining at Pontefract with
+    the officers of the Durham militia, one of them, knowing his love of
+    music, told him they had a young German in their band as a performer
+    on the hautboy, who had only been a few months in England, and yet
+    spoke English almost as well as a native, and who was also an
+    excellent performer on the violin; the officer added that if MILLER
+    would come into another room, this German should entertain him with
+    a solo. The invitation was gladly accepted, and MILLER heard a solo
+    of GIARDINI'S executed in a manner that surprised him. He afterwards
+    took an opportunity of having some private conversation with the
+    young musician, and asked him whether he had engaged himself for any
+    long period to the Durham militia. The answer was, 'Only from month
+    to month.' 'Leave them, then,' said the organist, 'and come and live
+    with me. I am a single man, and think we shall be happy together;
+    and, doubtless, your merit will soon entitle you to a more eligible
+    situation.' The offer was accepted as frankly as it was made, and
+    the reader may imagine with what satisfaction Dr. MILLER
+    must have remembered this act of generous feeling when he hears
+    that this young German was HERSCHEL, the Astronomer. 'My humble
+    mansion,' says MILLER, 'consisted, at that time, but of two rooms.
+    However, poor as I was, my cottage contained a library of
+    well-chosen books; and it must appear singular that a foreigner who
+    had been so short a time in England should understand even the
+    peculiarities of the language so well as to fix upon SWIFT for his
+    favorite author.'
+
+    "He took an early opportunity of introducing his new friend at
+    Mr. CROPLEY'S concerts; the first violin was resigned to him; 'and
+    never,' says the organist, 'had I heard the concertos of CORELLI,
+    GEMINIANI, and AVISON, or the overtures of HANDEL performed more
+    chastely, or more according to the original intention of the
+    composers, than by Mr. HERSCHEL. I soon lost my companion; his fame
+    was presently spread abroad; he had the offer of pupils, and was
+    solicited to lead the public concerts both at Wakefield and Halifax.
+    A new organ for the parish church of Halifax was built about this
+    time, and HERSCHEL was one of the seven candidates for the
+    organist's place. They drew lots how they were to perform in
+    succession. HERSCHEL drew the third, the second fell to Dr.
+    WAINWRIGHT of Manchester, whose finger was so rapid that old
+    SNETZLER, the organ-builder, ran about the church exclaiming:
+    '_Te tevel! te tevel! he run over te keys like one cat; he will
+    not give my piphes room for to shpeak._' 'During Mr. WAINWRIGHT'S
+    performance,' says MILLER, 'I was standing in the middle aisle with
+    HERSCHEL. 'What chance have you,' said I, 'to follow this man?' He
+    replied, 'I don't know; I am sure fingers will not do.' On which he
+    ascended the organ loft, and produced from the organ so uncommon a
+    fulness, such a volume of slow, solemn harmony, that I could by no
+    means account for the effect. After this short _ex tempore_
+    effusion, he finished with the Old Hundredth psalm-tune, which he
+    played better than his opponent.
+
+    "'_Ay, ay_,' cried old SNETZLER, '_tish is very goot, very goot
+    indeet; I vil luf tish man, for he gives my piphes room for to
+    shpeak._' Having afterwards asked Mr. HERSCHEL by what means, in the
+    beginning of his performance, he produced so uncommon an effect, he
+    replied, 'I told you fingers would not do!' and producing two pieces
+    of lead from his waistcoat pocket, 'one of these,' said he,
+    'I placed on the lowest key of the organ, and the other upon the
+    octave above; thus by accommodating the harmony, I produced the
+    effect of four hands, instead of two.'"[6]
+
+The dates in this extract are not so well defined as might be wished.
+HERSCHEL had certainly been more than a few months in England at the
+time of his meeting with Dr. MILLER, which was probably about 1760. The
+appointment as organist at Halifax was in 1765, and the pupils and
+public concerts must have filled up the intervening five years. During a
+part of this time he lived in Leeds, with the family of Mr. BULMAN, whom
+he afterwards provided with a place as clerk to the Octagon Chapel, in
+his usual generous manner.
+
+All during his life he was placing some of the less fortunate and
+energetic members of his family.
+
+We cannot be too grateful to Dr. MILLER, who, seeing his opportunity,
+used it. Their frank friendship does honor to both. HERSCHEL'S
+organ-playing, which no doubt had been begun when his brother was the
+organist of the garrison chapel at Hanover, must have been perfected at
+this time, and it was through his organ-playing that he was able to
+leave the needy life in Yorkshire.
+
+He was sure to have emerged sooner or later, but every year spared to
+him as a struggling musician was a year saved to Astronomy.
+
+During all this period, a constant correspondence was maintained
+between the family at Hanover and the absent son.
+
+Many of WILLIAM'S letters were written in English, and addressed to his
+brother JACOB, and treated of such subjects as the Theory of Music, in
+which he was already far advanced.
+
+His little sister was still faithful to the memory of her _dearest_
+brother, and his father, whose health was steadily declining, became
+painfully eager for his return. In 1764 (April 2), he returned to
+Hanover on a very brief visit. He was attached to England, he was
+prospering there, and he had no inclination towards returning to a life
+in Hanover. His sister says:
+
+    "Of the joys and pleasures which all felt at this long-wished-for
+    meeting with my--let me say my _dearest_--brother, but a small
+    portion could fall to my share; for with my constant attendance at
+    church and school, besides the time I was employed in doing the
+    drudgery of the scullery, it was but seldom I could make one in the
+    group when the family were assembled together.
+
+    "In the first week, some of the orchestra were invited to a concert,
+    at which some of my brother WILLIAM'S compositions, overtures, etc.,
+    and some of my eldest brother JACOB'S were performed, to the great
+    delight of my dear father, who hoped and expected that they would
+    be turned to some profit by publishing them, but there was no
+    printer who bid high enough.
+
+    "Sunday, the 8th, was the--to me--eventful day of my confirmation,
+    and I left home not a little proud and encouraged by my dear brother
+    WILLIAM'S approbation of my appearance in my new gown."
+
+The engagement of HERSCHEL at Halifax did not long continue. In 1766 he
+obtained an advantageous engagement as oboist at Bath, and soon after
+the position of organist at the Octagon Chapel was offered to him and
+accepted. This was a great and important change.
+
+Bath was then, as now, one of the most beautiful cities in England, and
+the resort of the fashion and rank of the kingdom, who came to take the
+waters. It is beautifully situated on both sides of the Avon, and has
+many fine walks and public buildings. The aspect of the city is markedly
+cheerful and brilliant, owing to the nature of the white stone of which
+the principal houses are built, and to the exquisite amphitheatre of
+hills in which they lie.
+
+The society was then gay and polite, and HERSCHEL was at once thrown
+into a far more intelligent atmosphere than that he had just left in
+Yorkshire. It was easy to get new books, to see new faces, to hear new
+things. The Assembly Rooms (built in 1771) were noted for their size and
+elegance; the theatre was the best out of London.
+
+His position as organist of the fashionable chapel placed him in the
+current. His charming and engaging manners made him friends. His talents
+brought him admirers and pupils, and pupils brought him money.[7]
+
+He began in 1766 a life of unceasing activity, which continued. In 1768
+he published in London a symphony (in C) for two violins, viola, bass,
+two oboes, and two horns, and in the same year two military concertos
+for two oboes, two horns, two trumpets, and two bassoons.[8] He wrote
+pieces for the harp, glees, "catches," and other songs for the
+voice. One of these, the _Echo Catch_, was published and had even
+considerable vogue.
+
+    A competent musical critic writes to me of this work: "The
+    counterpoint is clear and flowing, and is managed with considerable
+    taste and effect. It would be difficult to explain the great
+    cleverness shown in the construction of the _Catch_ without diagrams
+    to illustrate the movements of the parts. It is certainly an
+    ingenious bit of musical writing."
+
+When he left Bath (in 1782), many of these musical writings were lost,
+in his great haste to take up his new profession. One, specially, his
+sister remembers to have written out for the printer, "but he could not
+find a moment to send it off, nor answer the printer's letters." This
+was a four-part song, "In thee I bear so dear a part." He wrote very
+many anthems, chants, and psalm-tunes for the excellent cathedral choir
+of the Octagon Chapel. Unfortunately, most of this music is now not to
+be found.
+
+A notice of HERSCHEL'S life which appeared in the _European Magazine_
+for 1785, January, gives a very lively picture of his life at this
+time, and it is especially valuable as showing how he appeared to his
+cotemporaries.
+
+    "Although Mr. HERSCHEL loved music to an excess, and made a
+    considerable progress in it, he yet determined with a sort of
+    enthusiasm to devote every moment he could spare from business to
+    the pursuit of knowledge, which he regarded as the sovereign good,
+    and in which he resolved to place all his views of future happiness
+    in life.". . .
+
+    "His situation at the Octagon Chapel proved a very profitable one,
+    as he soon fell into all the public business of the concerts, the
+    Rooms, the Theatre, and the oratorios, besides many scholars and
+    private concerts. This great run of business, instead of lessening
+    his propensity to study, increased it, so that many times, after a
+    fatiguing day of fourteen or sixteen hours spent in his vocation, he
+    would retire at night with the greatest avidity to _unbend the
+    mind_, if it may be so called, with a few propositions in
+    MACLAURIN'S _Fluxions_, or other books of that sort."
+
+It was in these years that he mastered Italian and made some progress
+in Greek.
+
+    "We may hazard a natural conjecture respecting the course of
+    HERSCHEL'S early studies. Music conducted him to mathematics, or,
+    in other words, impelled him to study SMITH'S _Harmonics_. Now this
+    ROBERT SMITH was the author of _A Complete System of Optics_,
+    a masterly work, which, notwithstanding the rapid growth of that
+    branch of the science, is not yet wholly superseded. It seems to us
+    not unlikely that HERSCHEL, studying the _Harmonics_, conceived a
+    reverence for the author, who was at that time still living, so that
+    from the _Philosophy of Music_ he passed to the _Optics_, a work on
+    which SMITH'S great reputation chiefly rested; and thus undesignedly
+    prepared himself for the career on which he was shortly about to
+    enter with so much glory."[9]
+
+There is no doubt that this conjecture is a true one. The _Optics_ of
+Dr. SMITH is one of the very few books quoted by HERSCHEL throughout his
+writings, and there is every evidence of his complete familiarity with
+its conclusions and methods; and this familiarity is of the kind which a
+student acquires with his early text-books. One other work he quotes in
+the same way, LALANDE'S _Astronomy_, and this too must have been deeply
+studied.
+
+During the years 1765-1772, while HERSCHEL was following his profession
+and his studies at Bath, the family life at Hanover went on in much the
+same way.
+
+In 1765 his father ISAAC had a stroke of paralysis, which ended his
+violin-playing forever, and forced him to depend entirely upon pupils
+and copying of music for a livelihood. He died on March 22, 1767,
+leaving behind him a good name, and living in the affectionate
+remembrance of his children and of all who knew him.
+
+CAROLINA had now lost her best friend, and transferred to her brother
+WILLIAM the affection she had before divided between him and her father.
+
+    "My father wished to give me something like a polished education,
+    but my mother was particularly determined that it should be a rough,
+    but at the same time a useful one; and nothing farther she thought
+    was necessary but to send me two or three months to a sempstress to
+    be taught to make household linen. . . . My mother would not consent
+    to my being taught French, and my brother Dietrich was even denied a
+    dancing-master, because she would not permit my learning along with
+    him, though the entrance had been paid for us both; so all my father
+    could do for me was to indulge me (and please himself) sometimes
+    with a short lesson on the violin, when my mother was either in
+    good humor or out of the way. Though I have often felt myself
+    exceedingly at a loss for the want of those few accomplishments of
+    which I was thus, by an erroneous though well-meant opinion of my
+    mother, deprived, I could not help thinking but that she had cause
+    for wishing me not to know more than was necessary for being useful
+    in the family; for it was her certain belief that my brother WILLIAM
+    would have returned to his country, and my eldest brother not have
+    looked so high, if they had had a little less learning.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+    But sometimes I found it scarcely possible to get through with the
+    work required, and felt very unhappy that no time at all was left
+    for improving myself in music or fancy work, in which I had an
+    opportunity of receiving some instruction from an ingenious young
+    woman whose parents lived in the same house with us. But the time
+    wanted for spending a few hours together could only be obtained by
+    our meeting at daybreak, because by the time of the family's rising
+    at seven, I was obliged to be at my daily business. Though I had
+    neither time nor means for producing anything immediately either for
+    show or use, I was content with keeping samples of all possible
+    patterns in needlework, beads, bugles, horse-hair, etc., for I could
+    not help feeling troubled sometimes about my future destiny; yet I
+    could not bear the idea of being turned into an Abigail or
+    housemaid, and thought that with the above and such like
+    acquirements, with a little notion of music, I might obtain a place
+    as governess in some family where the want of a knowledge of French
+    would be no objection."
+
+A change was soon to come in her life too; her brother WILLIAM wrote
+to propose that she should join him at Bath--
+
+    . . . "to make the trial, if, by his instruction, I might not become
+    a useful singer for his winter concerts and oratorios; he advised my
+    brother JACOB to give me some lessons by way of beginning; but that
+    if, after a trial of two years, we should not find it answer our
+    expectation, he would bring me back again. This at first seemed to
+    be agreeable to all parties, but by the time I had set my heart upon
+    this change in my situation, JACOB began to turn the whole scheme
+    into ridicule, and, of course, he never heard the sound of my voice
+    except in speaking, and yet I was left in the harassing uncertainty
+    whether I was to go or not. I resolved at last to prepare, as far as
+    lay in my power, for both cases, by taking, in the first place,
+    every opportunity, when all were from home, to imitate, with a gag
+    between my teeth, the solo parts of concertos, _shake and all_, such
+    as I had heard them play on the violin; in consequence I had gained
+    a tolerable execution before I knew how to sing. I next began to
+    knit ruffles, which were intended for my brother WILLIAM, in case I
+    remained at home--else they were to be JACOB'S. For my mother and
+    brother D. I knitted as many cotton stockings as would last two
+    years at least."
+
+In August, 1772, her brother arrived at Hanover, to take her back to
+England with him. The journey to London was made between August 16th and
+26th, and soon after they went together to HERSCHEL'S house, No. 7 New
+King's Street, Bath.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Wife of Major JOHN HERSCHEL, of the Royal Engineers,
+grandson of Sir WILLIAM.
+
+[2] Page 127.
+
+[3] _Memoir_ of CAROLINA HERSCHEL, p. 10. Sir GEORGE AIRY,
+Astronomer Royal, relates in the _Academy_ that this "removal" was a
+desertion, as he was told by the Duke of Sussex that on the first visit
+of HERSCHEL to the king, after the discovery of the _Georgium Sidus_,
+the pardon of HERSCHEL was handed to him by the king himself, written
+out in due form.
+
+[4] FETIS; _Biographie universelle des musiciens_, tome V.
+(1839) p. 141.
+
+[5] Dr. MILLER, a noted organist, and afterwards historian of
+Doncaster.
+
+[6] _The Doctor_; by ROBERT SOUTHEY, edition of 1848, p.
+140.
+
+[7] He frequently gave thirty-five and thirty-eight lessons a
+week to pupils at this time.
+
+[8] According to FETIS. A search for these in London has led
+me to the belief that FETIS, who is usually very accurate, is here
+mistaken, and that these writings are by JACOB HERSCHEL.
+
+[9] _Foreign Quarterly Review_, volume 31.
+
+
+
+
+                           CHAPTER II.
+
+                    LIFE IN BATH; 1772-1782.
+
+
+It was to a busy life in Bath that HERSCHEL took his sister CAROLINA,
+then twenty-two years old. She was a perfectly untried girl, of very
+small accomplishments and outwardly with but little to attract. The
+basis of her character was the possibility of an unchanging devotion to
+one object; for the best years of her life this object was the happiness
+and success of her brother WILLIAM, whom she profoundly loved. Her love
+was headstrong and full of a kind of obstinate pride, which refused to
+see anything but the view she had adopted. As long as her life continued
+to be with her dearest brother, all was well with her. She had a noble
+aim, and her heart was more than full. Later on, this very singleness of
+character brought her other years of wretchedness. It is necessary to
+understand the almost spaniel-like allegiance she gave, in order to
+comprehend the value which her services were to HERSCHEL. She supplied
+him with an aid which was utterly loyal, entire, and devoted. Her
+obedience was unquestioning, her reverence amounted almost to adoration.
+In their relation, he gave everything in the way of incentive and
+initiative, and she returned her entire effort loyally.
+
+At first her business was to gain a knowledge of the language, and to
+perfect herself in singing, so that she might become a soloist in the
+concerts and oratorios which he was constantly giving.
+
+In the beginning it was not easy.
+
+    . . . "As the season for the arrival of visitors to the baths does
+    not begin till October, my brother had leisure to try my capacity for
+    becoming a useful singer for his concerts and oratorios, and being
+    very well satisfied with my voice, I had two or three lessons every
+    day, and the hours which were not spent at the harpsichord, were
+    employed in putting me in the way of managing the family. . . .
+    On the second morning, on meeting my brother at breakfast, he began
+    immediately to give me a lesson in English and arithmetic, and
+    showed me the way of booking and keeping accounts of cash received
+    and laid out. . . . By way of relaxation we talked of astronomy and
+    the bright constellations with which I had made acquaintance during
+    the fine nights we spent on the postwagen travelling through Holland.
+
+    "My brother ALEXANDER, who had been some time in England, boarded
+    and lodged with his elder brother, and, with myself, occupied the
+    attic. The first floor, which was furnished in the newest and most
+    handsome style, my brother kept for himself. The front room,
+    containing the harpsichord, was always in order to receive his
+    musical friends and scholars at little private concerts or
+    rehearsals. . . . Sundays I received a sum for the weekly expenses,
+    of which my housekeeping book (written in English) showed the amount
+    laid out, and my purse the remaining cash. One of the principal
+    things required was to market, and about six weeks after coming to
+    England I was sent alone among fishwomen, butchers, basket-women,
+    etc., and I brought home whatever in my fright I could pick up. . . .
+    My brother ALEX., who was now returned from his summer engagement,
+    used to watch me at a distance, unknown to me, till he saw me safe
+    on my way home. But all attempts to introduce any order in our
+    little household proved vain, owing to the servant my brother then
+    had. And what still further increased my difficulty was, that my
+    brother's time was entirely taken up with business, so that I only
+    saw him at meals. Breakfast was at seven o'clock or before--much too
+    early for me, who would rather have remained up all night than be
+    obliged to rise at so early an hour. . . .
+
+    "The three winter months passed on very heavily. I had to struggle
+    against _heimwehe_ (home sickness) and low spirits, and to answer my
+    sister's melancholy letters on the death of her husband, by which
+    she became a widow with six children. I knew too little English to
+    derive any consolation from the society of those who were about me,
+    so that, dinner-time excepted, I was entirely left to myself."
+
+So the winter passed.
+
+    "The time when I could hope to receive a little more of my brother's
+    instruction and attention was now drawing near; for after Easter,
+    Bath becomes very empty, only a few of his scholars, whose families
+    were resident in the neighborhood, remaining. But I was greatly
+    disappointed; for, in consequence of the harassing and fatiguing
+    life he had led during the winter months, he used to retire to bed
+    with a basin of milk or glass of water, and SMITH'S _Harmonics_ and
+    _Optics_, FERGUSON'S _Astronomy_, etc., and so went to sleep buried
+    under his favorite authors; and his first thoughts on rising were
+    how to obtain instruments for viewing those objects himself of which
+    he had been reading. There being in one of the shops a
+    two-and-a-half-foot Gregorian telescope to be let, it was for some
+    time taken in requisition, and served not only for viewing the
+    heavens, but for making experiments on its construction. . . . It soon
+    appeared that my brother was not contented with knowing what former
+    observers had seen, for he began to contrive a telescope eighteen or
+    twenty feet long (I believe after HUYGHENS' description). . . . I was
+    much hindered in my musical practice by my help being continually
+    wanted in the execution of the various contrivances, and I had to
+    amuse myself with making the tube of pasteboard for the glasses,
+    which were to arrive from London, for at that time no optician had
+    settled at Bath. But when all was finished, no one besides my
+    brother could get a glimpse of Jupiter or Saturn, for the great
+    length of the tube would not allow it to be kept in a straight line.
+    This difficulty, however, was soon removed by substituting tin
+    tubes. . . . My brother wrote to inquire the price of a reflecting
+    mirror for (I believe) a five or six foot telescope. The answer was,
+    there were none of so large a size, but a person offered to make one
+    at a price much above what my brother thought proper to give. . . .
+    About this time he bought of a Quaker, resident at Bath, who had
+    formerly made attempts at polishing mirrors, all his rubbish of
+    patterns, tools, hones, polishers, unfinished mirrors, etc., but all
+    for small Gregorians, and none above two or three inches diameter.
+
+    "But nothing serious could be attempted, for want of time, till the
+    beginning of June, when some of my brother's scholars were leaving
+    Bath; and then, to my sorrow, I saw almost every room turned into a
+    workshop. A cabinet-maker making a tube and stands of all
+    descriptions in a handsomely furnished drawing-room; ALEX. putting
+    up a huge turning machine (which he had brought in the autumn from
+    Bristol, where he used to spend the summer) in a bedroom, for
+    turning patterns, grinding glasses, and turning eye-pieces, etc. At
+    the same time music durst not lie entirely dormant during the
+    summer, and my brother had frequent rehearsals at home, where Miss
+    FARINELLI, an Italian singer, was met by several of the principal
+    performers he had engaged for the winter concerts."
+
+Finally, in 1774, he had made himself a Gregorian telescope,[10] and
+had begun to view the heavens. He was then thirty-six years old.
+
+The writer in the _European Magazine_ describes this period:
+
+    "All this time he continued his astronomical observations, and
+    nothing now seemed wanting to complete his felicity, but sufficient
+    leisure to enjoy his telescopes, to which he was so much attached,
+    that at the theatre he used frequently to run from the harpsichord
+    to look at the stars, during the time between the acts."
+
+In an extract from his _Journal No. 1_, now at the rooms of the Royal
+Society, may be seen a copy of his first observation of the Nebula of
+_Orion_, on March 4, 1774. This was made with his five-and-a-half-foot
+Gregorian reflector.
+
+It was at this time (1775), between the acts of the theatre, that he
+made his first review of the heavens, with a Newtonian telescope, of an
+aperture of four and a half inches and a magnifying power of 222 times.
+This telescope was one of the first made by himself. The review
+consisted of the examination of every star in the sky of the first,
+second, third, and fourth magnitudes, and of all planets visible. There
+are no records of these observations now extant, and they are noteworthy
+only as a preparation for more serious work.
+
+He was carrying out his resolve to see everything for himself. His
+assiduity may be judged of by the fact that between 1774 and 1781
+HERSCHEL had observed a single object--the Nebula of _Orion_--no less
+than fourteen times.
+
+The success of his first telescopes incited him to new efforts. His
+house became a complete _atelier_, where everything that could tend to
+excellence in this manufacture was tried and re-tried a hundred
+different ways. When a difficulty arose, experiments were begun which
+continued till it was conquered. When a success was gained, it was
+prosecuted to the utmost.
+
+In 1775 the first seven-foot reflector was made, in 1777 a ten-foot was
+finished, in 1778 a "very good" ten-foot took its place. It must not be
+thought that the telescopes mentioned were the only ones completed. On
+the contrary, they were but the best ones selected out of many.
+
+In 1774 a new house had been engaged, which had "more room for
+workshops," and whose roof gave space for observing. The grass-plat near
+it was soon utilized to hold the stand of a twenty-foot telescope, which
+he had even then projected. His projects were unending, no success was
+final; his mind was at the height of activity; his whole effort was
+thrown into every undertaking.
+
+The mirrors for all these telescopes were made by hand. Every portion
+of the grinding down to rough dimensions, the shaping to something near
+the correct form, the polishing till the accurately exact curves were
+obtained, all this must be done by hand. The machines for the purpose
+were not invented until 1788.[11]
+
+ALEXANDER and WILLIAM worked together at this, but most of the work was
+done by the latter. The sister's part was to attend in the workshop and
+lend a hand wherever and whenever it was needed.
+
+    . . . "My time was taken up with copying music and practising, besides
+    attendance on my brother when polishing, since by way of keeping him
+    alive I was constantly obliged to feed him by putting the victuals by
+    bits into his mouth. This was once the case when, in order to finish
+    a seven-foot mirror, he had not taken his hands from it for sixteen
+    hours together. In general he was never unemployed at meals, but was
+    always at those times contriving or making drawings of whatever
+    came in his mind. Generally I was obliged to read to him whilst
+    he was at the turning-lathe, or polishing mirrors, _Don Quixote_,
+    _Arabian Nights' Entertainment_, the novels of STERNE, FIELDING,
+    etc.; serving tea and supper without interrupting the work with
+    which he was engaged, . . . and sometimes lending a hand. I became,
+    in time, as useful a member of the workshop as a boy might be to
+    his master in the first year of his apprenticeship. . . . But as
+    I was to take a part the next year in the oratorios, I had, for a
+    whole twelvemonth, two lessons per week from Miss FLEMING, the
+    celebrated dancing-mistress, to drill me for a gentlewoman (God
+    knows how she succeeded). So we lived on without interruption.
+    My brother ALEX. was absent from Bath for some months every summer,
+    but when at home he took much pleasure in executing some turning or
+    clockmaker's work for his brother."
+
+News from Hanover put a sudden stop, for a time, to all these labors.
+The mother wrote, in the utmost distress, to say that DIETRICH had
+disappeared from his home, it was supposed with the intention of going
+to India "with a young idler not older than himself." His brother
+immediately left the lathe at which he was turning an eye-piece in
+cocoa-nut, and started for Holland, whence he proceeded to Hanover,
+failing to meet his brother, as he expected. Meanwhile the sister
+received a letter to say that DIETRICH was "laid up very ill" at an inn
+in Wapping. ALEXANDER posted to town, removed him to a lodging, and,
+after a fortnight's nursing, brought him to Bath, where, on his brother
+WILLIAM'S return, he found him being well cared for by his sister.
+
+About this time another change was made to the house 19 New King Street,
+which was the last move in Bath. It was here that the _Georgium Sidus_
+was discovered.
+
+The music still went on. The oratorios of the _Messiah_, _Judas
+Maccabeus_, and _Samson_ were to be performed under HERSCHEL'S
+direction, with an orchestra of nearly one hundred pieces. The scores
+and vocal parts of these CAROLINA copied with her own hands, and the
+_soprani_ were instructed by her, she being the leading soloist. Along
+with the music went the astronomy. Not only were new telescopes made,
+but they were made for immediate use.
+
+The variable star _Mira Ceti_ was observed, and a long series of lunar
+observations begun.
+
+    "In 1779, 1780, and 1781 I measured the heights of about one hundred
+    mountains of the moon, by three different methods.
+
+    "Some of these observations are given in _Philosophical
+    Transactions_, vol. LXX., but most remain uncalculated in my journal
+    _till some proper opportunity."[12]_
+
+While HERSCHEL was measuring these lunar mountains, in December, 1779,
+he made by chance an acquaintance of much value to him. Dr. WILLIAM
+WATSON, a Fellow of the Royal Society, distinguished for his researches
+in electricity, happened to see him at his telescope, and this led to a
+visit and an invitation to HERSCHEL to join the Philosophical Society of
+Bath, then forming. This he gladly did, and it was of use to him in many
+ways.
+
+He there formed acquaintance with men of his own way of thinking, and he
+himself became known. Better than all, he learned to measure himself
+with other men, and by his early papers read to the Society, he gained
+skill in putting his thoughts before his hearers. This skill he never
+lost, and the merely literary art of his memoirs would make his papers
+remarkable without their other merits. He is always clear, and in his
+early papers especially, he appeals to his particular audience--the
+Royal Society--in a way which shows that he is conscious of all its
+weaknesses as well as of its dignity. Later, his tone slightly changed.
+He became less anxious to win his audience, for he had become an
+authority. This knowledge lent a quiet strength to his style, but never
+induced the slightest arrogance of spirit or manner.
+
+The Bath Philosophical Society has left no printed proceedings. HERSCHEL
+was one of its earliest members, and many papers were communicated to it
+by his hand. These appear to have been of a very miscellaneous nature.
+Some of them at least would be of the highest interest to us now.
+
+In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1789, p. 220, HERSCHEL tells us
+that he communicated to that Society "certain mathematical papers"
+relating to central forces other than the force of gravity, which are or
+may be concerned in the construction of the sidereal heavens. This early
+idea was still entertained by HERSCHEL in 1789, and the mathematical
+papers referred to must be contained in the _Minutes_ of the Society,
+which on its dissolution were torn from the Minute-book and returned to
+the writers.
+
+The earliest published writing of HERSCHEL is the answer to the prize
+question in the "Ladies' Diary" for 1779, proposed by the celebrated
+LANDEN, namely:
+
+    "The length, tension, and weight of a musical string being given,
+    it is required to find how many vibrations it will make in a given
+    time, when a small given weight is fastened to its middle and
+    vibrates with it."
+
+In the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the Royal Society for 1780, are
+two papers of his. The title of the first is, _Astronomical Observations
+on the Periodical Star in Collo Ceti_, by Mr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL, of Bath.
+This was communicated to the Society by Dr. WILLIAM WATSON, Jr., and
+was read May 11, 1780, at the same time as the other paper on the
+mountains of the moon. It is to be noted that HERSCHEL was at this time
+plain "Mr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL, of Bath." It was only in 1786 that he
+became "Dr. HERSCHEL," through the Oxford degree of LL.D.
+
+Neither of these two papers is specially remarkable on its purely
+astronomical side. The problems examined were such as lay open before
+all, and the treatment of them was such as would naturally be suggested.
+
+The second of these two contained, however, a short description of his
+Newtonian telescope, and he speaks of it with a just pride: "I believe
+that for distinctness of vision this instrument is perhaps equal to any
+that was ever made." He was, at least, certain of having obtained
+excellence in the making of his instruments.
+
+In his next paper, however, read January 11, 1781, a subject is
+approached which shows a different kind of thought. It is the first
+obvious proof of the truth of the statement which he made long
+afterwards (1811), when he said: "A knowledge of the construction of
+the heavens has always been the ultimate object of my observations."
+
+The title of this paper was _Astronomical Observations on the Rotation
+of the Planets round their Axes, made with a view to determine whether
+the Earth's diurnal motion is perfectly equable_. Here the question is a
+difficult and a remote one, and the method adopted for its solution is
+perfectly suitable in principle. It marks a step onward from mere
+observations to philosophizing upon their results. In practical
+astronomy, too, we note an advance. Not only are his results given, but
+also careful estimates of the errors to be feared in them, and a
+discussion of the sources of such errors. The same volume of the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ which contains this paper, also contains
+another, _Account of a Comet_, read April 26, 1781. This comet was the
+major planet _Uranus_, or, as HERSCHEL named it, _Georgium Sidus_.
+He had found it on the night of Tuesday, March 13, 1781. "In examining
+the small stars in the neighborhood of H _Geminorum_, I perceived one that
+appeared visibly larger than the rest; being struck with its uncommon
+appearance, I compared it to H _Geminorum_ and the small star in the
+quartile between _Auriga_ and _Gemini_, and finding it so much larger
+than either of them, I suspected it to be a comet." The "comet" was
+observed over all Europe. Its orbit was computed by various astronomers,
+and its distance from the sun was found to be nineteen times that of our
+earth. This was no comet, but a new major planet. The discovery of the
+amateur astronomer of Bath was the most striking since the invention of
+the telescope. It had absolutely no parallel, for every other major
+planet had been known from time immemorial.[13]
+
+The effect of the discoveries of GALILEO was felt almost more in the
+moral than in the scientific world. The mystic number of the planets was
+broken up by the introduction of four satellites to _Jupiter_. That
+_Venus_ emulated the phases of our moon, overthrew superstition and
+seated the Copernican theory firmly. The discovery of "an innumerable
+multitude of fixed stars" in the Milky Way confounded the received
+ideas. This was the great mission of the telescope in GALILEO'S hands.
+
+The epoch of mere astronomical discovery began with the detection of the
+large satellite of _Saturn_ by HUYGHENS, in 1655. Even then superstition
+was not dead. HUYGHENS did not search for more moons, because by that
+discovery he had raised the number of known satellites to six,[14] and
+because these, with the six planets, made "the perfect number twelve."
+
+From 1671 to 1684 CASSINI discovered four more moons revolving about
+_Saturn_. Since 1684 no new body had been added to the solar system.
+It was thought complete for nearly a century.
+
+In England, the remarkable discoveries of BRADLEY (1727-62) had been in
+the field of practical astronomy, and his example had set the key-note
+for further researches. France was just about beginning the brilliant
+period of her discoveries in mathematical astronomy, and had no
+observatory devoted to investigations like HERSCHEL'S, with the possible
+exception of DARQUIER'S and FLAUGERGUES'. The observatories of SCHROETER
+and VON HAHN, in Germany, were not yet active. The field which HERSCHEL
+was created to fill was vacant, the whole world over. It was especially
+so in England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich, under MASKELYNE,
+a skilful observer, whose work was mostly confined to meridian
+observations, was no rival to a private observatory like HERSCHEL'S. The
+private observatories themselves were but small affairs; those of the
+king, at Kew, of Dr. WILSON, at Glasgow, of Mr. AUBERT, at Loampit Hill,
+of the Count VON BRUHL, in London, being perhaps the most important.
+The whole field was open. What was perhaps more remarkable, there was in
+England, during HERSCHEL'S lifetime, no astronomer, public or private,
+whose talents, even as an observer, lay in the same direction.
+
+It hardly need be said that as a philosopher in his science, he had then
+no rival, as he has had none since. His only associates even, were
+MICHELL and WILSON.[15]
+
+Without depreciating the abilities of the astronomers of England, his
+cotemporaries, we may fairly say that HERSCHEL stood a great man among a
+group of small ones.
+
+Let us endeavor to appreciate the change effected in the state of
+astronomy not only in England but in the whole world, simply by the
+discovery of _Uranus_. Suppose, for example, that the last planet in our
+system had been _Saturn_. No doubt HERSCHEL would have gone on. In spite
+of one and another difficulty, he would have made his ten-foot, his
+twenty-foot telescopes. His forty-foot would never have been built, and
+the two satellites which he found with it might not have been
+discovered. Certainly _Mimas_ would not have been. His researches on the
+construction of the heavens would have been made; those were in his
+brain, and must have been ultimated. The mass of observations of
+_Saturn_, of _Jupiter_, of _Mars_, of _Venus_, would have been made and
+published. The researches on the sun, on the "invisible rays" of heat,
+on comets and nebulae--all these might have been made, printed, and read.
+
+But these would have gone into the _Philosophical Transactions_ as the
+work of an amateur astronomer, "Mr. HERSCHEL, of Bath." They would have
+been praised, and they would have been doubted. It would have taken a
+whole generation to have appreciated them. They would have been severely
+tried, entirely on their merits, and finally they would have stood where
+they stand to-day--unrivalled. But through what increased labors these
+successes would have been gained! It is not merely that the patronage of
+the king, the subsidies for the forty-foot telescope (L4,000), the
+comparative ease of HERSCHEL'S life would have been lacking. It is more
+than this. It would have been necessary for him to have created the
+audience to which he appealed, and to have conquered the most persistent
+of enemies--indifference.
+
+Certainly, if HERSCHEL'S mind had been other than it was, the discovery
+of _Uranus_, which brought him honors from every scientific society in
+the world, and which gave him authority, might have had a hurtful
+effect. But, as he was, there was nothing which could have aided his
+career more than this startling discovery. It was needed for him. It
+completed the solar system far more by affording a free play to a
+profoundly philosophical mind, than by occupying the vacant spaces
+beyond _Saturn_.
+
+His opportunities would have been profoundly modified, though his
+personal worth would have been the same.
+
+    "The Star that from the zenith darts its beams,
+    Visible though it be to half the earth,
+    Though half a sphere be conscious of its brightness,
+    Is yet of no diviner origin,
+    No purer essence, than the One that burns
+    Like an untended watchfire, on the ridge
+    Of some dark mountain; or than those that seem
+    Humbly to hang, like twinkling winter lamps,
+    Among the branches of the leafless trees."
+
+To show how completely unknown the private astronomer of Bath was at
+this time, I transcribe a sentence from BODE'S account of the discovery
+of _Uranus_.
+
+    "In the _Gazette Litteraire_ of June, 1781, this worthy man is
+    called MERSTHEL; in JULIUS' _Journal Encyclopedique_, HERTSCHEL;
+    in a letter from Mr. MASKELYNE to M. MESSIER, HERTHEL; in another
+    letter of MASKELYNE'S to Herr MAYER, at Mannheim, HERRSCHELL; M.
+    DARQUIER calls him HERMSTEL. What may his name be? He must have been
+    born a _German_."[16]
+
+This obscurity did not long continue. The news spread quickly from
+fashionable Bath to London. On the 6th of December, 1781, HERSCHEL was
+elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, to which he was formally
+"admitted" May 30, 1782. He was forty-three years old.
+
+He also received the Copley medal in 1781 for his "discovery of a new
+and singular star."[17]
+
+    . . . "He was now frequently interrupted by visitors who were
+    introduced by some of his resident scholars, among whom I remember
+    Sir HARRY ENGELFIELD, Dr. BLAGDEN, and Dr. MASKELYNE. With the
+    latter he was engaged in a long conversation, which to me sounded
+    like quarrelling, and the first words my brother said after he was
+    gone were: 'That is a devil of a fellow.'. . .
+
+    "I suppose their names were often not known, or were forgotten; for
+    it was not till the year 1782 or 1783 that a memorandum of the names
+    of visitors was thought of.". . . "My brother now applied himself to
+    perfect his mirrors, erecting in his garden a stand for his
+    twenty-foot telescope; many trials were necessary before the
+    required motions for such an unwieldy machine could be contrived.
+    Many attempts were made by way of experiment before an intended
+    thirty-foot telescope could be completed, for which, between whiles
+    (not interrupting the observations with seven, ten, and twenty-foot,
+    and writing papers for both the Royal and Bath Philosophical
+    Societies), gauges, shapes, weight, etc., of the mirror were
+    calculated, and trials of the composition of the metal were made. In
+    short, I saw nothing else and heard nothing else talked of but these
+    things when my brothers were together. ALEX. was always very alert,
+    assisting when anything new was going forward, but he wanted
+    perseverance, and never liked to confine himself at home for many
+    hours together. And so it happened that my brother WILLIAM was
+    obliged to make trial of my abilities in copying for him catalogues,
+    tables, etc., and sometimes whole papers which were lent him for his
+    perusal. Among them was one by Mr. MICHELL and a catalogue of
+    CHRISTIAN MAYER, in Latin, which kept me employed when my brother
+    was at the telescope at night. When I found that a hand was
+    sometimes wanted when any particular measures were to be made with
+    the lamp micrometer, etc., or a fire to be kept up, or a dish of
+    coffee necessary during a long night's watching, I undertook with
+    pleasure what others might have thought a hardship. . . . Since the
+    discovery of the _Georgium Sidus_ [March 13, 1781], I believe few
+    men of learning or consequence left Bath before they had seen and
+    conversed with its discoverer, and thought themselves fortunate in
+    finding him at home on their repeated visits. Sir WILLIAM WATSON was
+    almost an intimate, for hardly a day passed but he had something to
+    communicate from the letters which he received from Sir JOSEPH
+    BANKS, and other members of the Royal Society, from which it
+    appeared that my brother was expected in town to receive the gold
+    medal. The end of November was the most precarious season for
+    absenting himself. But Sir WILLIAM WATSON went with him, and it was
+    arranged so that they set out with the diligence at night, and by
+    that means his absence did not last above three or four days, when
+    my brother returned alone, Sir WILLIAM remaining with his father.
+
+    "Now a very busy winter was commencing; for my brother had engaged
+    himself to conduct the oratorios conjointly with RONZINI, and had
+    made himself answerable for the payment of the engaged performers,
+    for his credit ever stood high in the opinion of every one he had to
+    deal with. (He lost considerably by this arrangement.) But, though
+    at times much harassed with business, the mirror for the thirty-foot
+    reflector was never out of his mind, and if a minute could but be
+    spared in going from one scholar to another, or giving one the slip,
+    he called at home to see how the men went on with the furnace, which
+    was built in a room below, even with the garden.
+
+    "The mirror was to be cast in a mould of loam, of which an immense
+    quantity was to be pounded in a mortar and sifted through a fine
+    sieve. It was an endless piece of work, and served me for many an
+    hour's exercise; and ALEX. frequently took his turn at it, for we
+    were all eager to do something towards the great undertaking. Even
+    Sir WILLIAM WATSON would sometimes take the pestle from me when he
+    found me in the work-room, where he expected to find his friend, in
+    whose concerns he took so much interest that he felt much
+    disappointed at not being allowed to pay for the metal. But I do not
+    think my brother ever accepted pecuniary assistance from any one of
+    his friends, and on this occasion he declined the offer by saying it
+    was paid for already.
+
+    "Among the Bath visitors were many philosophical gentlemen who used
+    to frequent the levees at St. James's, when in town. Colonel WALSH,
+    in particular, informed my brother that from a conversation he had
+    had with His Majesty, it appeared that in the spring he was to come
+    with his seven-foot telescope to the king. Similar reports he
+    received from many others, but they made no great impression nor
+    caused any interruption in his occupation or study, and as soon as
+    the season for the concerts was over, and the mould, etc., in
+    readiness, a day was set apart for casting, and the metal was in the
+    furnace. Unfortunately it began to leak at the moment when ready for
+    pouring, and both my brothers and the caster, with his men, were
+    obliged to run out at opposite doors, for the stone flooring (which
+    ought to have been taken up) flew about in all directions as high as
+    the ceiling. Before the second casting was attempted, everything
+    which could insure success had been attended to, and a very perfect
+    metal was found in the mould.
+
+    "But a total stop and derangement now took place, and nearly six or
+    seven months elapsed before my brother could return to the
+    undisturbed enjoyment of his instruments and observations. For one
+    morning in Passion Week, as Sir WILLIAM WATSON was with my brother,
+    talking about the pending journey to town, my eldest nephew arrived
+    to pay us a visit, and brought the confirmation that his uncle was
+    expected with his instrument in town. . . . We had not one night in
+    the week, except Friday, but what was set apart for an oratorio either
+    at Bath or Bristol. Soon after Easter, a new organ being erected in
+    St. James's Church, it was opened with two performances of the
+    'Messiah;' this again took up some of my brother's time.". . .
+
+In May of 1782 HERSCHEL went to London.
+
+    "But when almost double the time had elapsed which my brother could
+    safely be absent from his scholars, ALEX., as well as myself, were
+    much at a loss how to answer their inquiries, for, from the letters
+    we received, we could learn nothing but that he had been introduced
+    to the king and queen, and had permission to come to the concerts at
+    Buckingham House, where the king conversed with him about
+    astronomy."
+
+It was during his absence at this time that the three following letters
+were written and received:
+
+    "DEAR LINA:--
+
+    "I have had an audience of His Majesty this morning, and met with a
+    very gracious reception. I presented him with the drawing of the
+    solar system, and had the honor of explaining it to him and the
+    queen. My telescope is in three weeks' time to go to Richmond, and
+    meanwhile to be put up at Greenwich, where I shall accordingly carry
+    it to-day. So you see, LINA, that you must not think of seeing me in
+    less than a month. I shall write to Miss LEE myself; and other
+    scholars who inquire for me, you may tell that I cannot wait on them
+    till His Majesty shall be pleased to give me leave to return, or
+    rather to dismiss me, for till then I must attend. I will also write
+    to Mr. PALMER to acquaint him with it.
+
+    "I am in a great hurry, therefore can write no more at present.
+    Tell ALEXANDER that everything looks very likely as if I were to stay
+    here. The king inquired after him, and after my great speculum. He
+    also gave me leave to come to hear the GRIESBACHS play at the
+    private concert which he has every evening. My having seen the king
+    need not be kept a secret, but about my staying here it will be best
+    not to say anything, but only that I must remain here till His
+    Majesty has observed the planets with my telescope.
+
+    "Yesterday I dined with Colonel WALSH, who inquired after you. There
+    were Mr. AUBERT and Dr. MASKELYNE. Dr. MASKELYNE in public declared
+    his obligations to me for having introduced to them the high powers,
+    for Mr. AUBERT has so much succeeded with them that he says he looks
+    down upon 200, 300, or 400 with contempt, and immediately begins
+    with 800. He has used 2,500 very completely, and seen my fine double
+    stars with them. All my papers are printing, with the postscript and
+    all, and are allowed to be very valuable. You see, LINA, I tell you
+    all these things. You know vanity is not my foible, therefore I need
+    not fear your censure. Farewell.
+
+                   "I am, your affectionate brother,
+
+                                           "WM. HERSCHEL.
+
+
+    "Saturday Morning,
+
+         "probably _May 25, 1782_."
+
+                    TO MISS HERSCHEL.
+
+                                    "Monday Evening, _June 3, 1782._
+
+    "DEAR LINA:--
+
+    "I pass my time between Greenwich and London agreeably enough,
+    but am rather at a loss for work that I like. Company is not always
+    pleasing, and I would much rather be polishing a speculum. Last
+    Friday I was at the king's concert to hear GEORGE play. The king
+    spoke to me as soon as he saw me, and kept me in conversation for
+    half an hour. He asked GEORGE to play a solo-concerto on purpose
+    that I might hear him; and GEORGE plays extremely well, is very much
+    improved, and the king likes him very much. These two last nights I
+    have been star-gazing at Greenwich with Dr. MASKELYNE and Mr.
+    AUBERT. We have compared our telescopes together, and mine was found
+    very superior to any of the Royal Observatory. Double stars which
+    they could not see with their instruments I had the pleasure to show
+    them very plainly, and my mechanism is so much approved of that
+    Dr. MASKELYNE has already ordered a model to be taken from mine,
+    and a stand to be made by it to his reflector. He is, however, now
+    so much out of love with his instrument that he begins to doubt
+    whether it _deserves_ a new stand.
+
+    "I am introduced to the best company. To-morrow I dine at Lord
+    PALMERSTON'S, next day with Sir JOSEPH BANKS, etc., etc. Among
+    opticians and astronomers nothing now is talked of but _what they
+    call_ my great discoveries. Alas! this shows how far they are
+    behind, when such trifles as I have seen and done are called
+    _great_. Let me but get at it again! I will make such telescopes,
+    and see such things--that is, I will endeavor to do so."
+
+
+                         TO MISS HERSCHEL.
+
+                                                     "_July 3, 1782._"
+
+    "DEAR CAROLINA:--
+
+    "I have been so much employed that you will not wonder at my not
+    writing sooner. The letter you sent me last Monday came very safe to
+    me. As Dr. WATSON has been so good as to acquaint you and ALEXANDER
+    with my situation, I was still more easy in my silence to you. Last
+    night the King, the Queen, the Prince of Wales, the Princess Royal,
+    Princess SOPHIA, Princess AUGUSTA, etc., Duke of MONTAGUE, Dr.
+    HEBERDEN, M. DE LUC, etc., etc., saw my telescope, and it was a very
+    fine evening. My instrument gave general satisfaction. The king has
+    very good eyes, and enjoys observations with telescopes exceedingly.
+
+    "This evening, as the king and queen are gone to Kew, the princesses
+    were desirous of seeing my telescope, but wanted to know if it was
+    possible to see without going out on the grass, and were much
+    pleased when they heard that my telescope could be carried into any
+    place they liked best to have it. About eight o'clock it was moved
+    into the queen's apartments, and we waited some time in hopes of
+    seeing _Jupiter_ or _Saturn_. Meanwhile I showed the princesses, and
+    several other ladies who were present, the speculum, the
+    micrometers, the movements of the telescopes, and other things that
+    seemed to excite their curiosity. When the evening appeared to be
+    totally unpromising, I proposed an artificial _Saturn_ as an object,
+    since we could not have the real one. I had beforehand prepared this
+    little piece, as I guessed by the appearance of the weather in the
+    afternoon we should have no stars to look at. This being accepted
+    with great pleasure, I had the lamps lighted up which illuminated
+    the picture of a _Saturn_ (cut out in pasteboard) at the bottom of
+    the garden wall. The effect was fine, and so natural that the best
+    astronomer might have been deceived. Their royal highnesses and
+    other ladies seemed to be much pleased with the artifice.
+
+    "I remained in the queen's apartment with the ladies till about half
+    after ten; when in conversation with them I found them extremely
+    well instructed in every subject that was introduced, and they
+    seemed to be most amiable characters. To-morrow evening they hope to
+    have better luck, and nothing will give me greater happiness than to
+    be able to show them some of those beautiful objects with which the
+    heavens are so gloriously ornamented."
+
+CAROLINA'S diary goes on:
+
+    "Sir WILLIAM WATSON returned to Bath after a fort-night or three
+    weeks' stay. From him we heard that my brother was invited to
+    Greenwich with the telescope, where he was met by a numerous party
+    of astronomical and learned gentlemen, and trials of his instrument
+    were made. In these letters he complained of being obliged to lead
+    an idle life, having nothing to do but to pass between London and
+    Greenwich. Sir WILLIAM received many letters, which he was so kind
+    as to communicate to us. By these, and from those to ALEXANDER or to
+    me, we learned that the king wished to see the telescope at Windsor.
+    At last a letter, dated July 2, arrived from THERESE, and from this
+    and several succeeding ones we gathered that the king would not
+    suffer my brother to return to his profession again, and by his
+    writing several times for a supply of money we could only suppose
+    that he himself was in uncertainty about the time of his return.
+
+    "In the last week of July my brother came home, and immediately
+    prepared for removing to Datchet, where he had taken a house with a
+    garden and grass-plat annexed, quite suitable for the purpose of an
+    observing-place. Sir WILLIAM WATSON spent nearly the whole time at
+    our house, and he was not the only friend who truly grieved at my
+    brother's going from Bath; or feared his having perhaps agreed to no
+    very advantageous offers; their fears were, in fact, not without
+    reason. . . . The prospect of entering again on the toils of teaching,
+    etc., which awaited my brother at home (the months of leisure being
+    now almost gone by), appeared to him an intolerable waste of time,
+    and by way of alternative he chose to be royal astronomer, with a
+    salary of L200 a year. Sir WILLIAM WATSON was the only one to whom
+    the sum was mentioned, and he exclaimed, 'Never bought monarch honor
+    so cheap!' To every other inquirer, my brother's answer was that the
+    king had provided for him."
+
+On the 1st of August, 1782, the family removed to Datchet. The last
+musical duty was performed on Whit-Sunday, 1782, in St. Margaret's
+Chapel, Bath, when the anthem for the day was of HERSCHEL'S own
+composition.
+
+The end of the introductory epoch of his life is reached. Henceforth he
+lived in his observatory, and from his forty-fourth year onwards he only
+left it for short periods to go to London to submit his classic memoirs
+to the Royal Society. Even for these occasions he chose periods of
+moonlight, when no observations could be made.
+
+He was a private man no longer. Henceforth he belongs to the whole
+world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] Probably on the model of one of SHORT'S Gregorian
+telescopes, which were then the best instruments of the kind.
+
+[11] For a description of the main points of HERSCHEL'S
+processes of making reflectors, which will illustrate his strong
+mechanical talents, see _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, eighth edition,
+article _Telescope_.
+
+[12] These have never been published, nor is it likely at this
+day, when our measuring instruments are so greatly improved, that they
+would be of any material value to science, although of interest as
+giving the proofs of HERSCHEL'S assiduity and skill. He was always more
+than the maker of telescopes, for he was never content until they were
+applied to the problems of astronomy.
+
+[13] ARAGO has implied that if HERSCHEL had directed his
+telescope to _Uranus_ only eleven days earlier than he did, this
+discovery would have escaped him, since at that time (March 2, 1781) the
+planet was at its _station_, and had no motion relative to the star.
+This is an entire misconception, since the new planet was detected by
+its physical appearance, and not by its motion. Does any one suppose
+that "a new and singular star" like this would have been once viewed and
+then forgotten?
+
+[14] Four of _Jupiter_, one of the earth, and one of _Saturn_.
+
+[15] JOHN MICHELL had been a member of the Royal Society since
+1760: he died in 1793. He was a philosophical thinker, as is shown by
+his memoirs on the distances of the stars, and by his invention of the
+method for determining the earth's density. It is not certain that he
+was personally known to HERSCHEL, although his writings were familiar to
+the latter.
+
+ALEXANDER WILSON was Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow, and is chiefly
+known to us by his theory of the nature of the solar spots, which was
+adopted and enlarged by HERSCHEL. He died in 1786; but the families of
+WILSON and HERSCHEL remained close friends.
+
+[16] _Berliner Jahrbuch_, 1784, p. 211. In the _Connaissance
+des Tems_ for 1784 he is called "HOROCHELLE."
+
+[17] At the presentation Sir JOSEPH BANKS, the President of the
+Royal Society, said: "In the name of the Royal Society I present to you
+this gold medal, the reward which they have assigned to your successful
+labors, and I exhort you to continue diligently to cultivate those
+fields of science which have produced to you a harvest of so much honor.
+Your attention to the improvement of telescopes has already amply repaid
+the labor which you have bestowed upon them; but the treasures of the
+heavens are well known to be inexhaustible. Who can say but your new
+star, which exceeds _Saturn_ in its distance from the sun, may exceed
+him as much in magnificence of attendance? Who knows what new rings, new
+satellites, or what other nameless and numberless phenomena remain
+behind, waiting to reward future industry and improvement?"
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III.
+
+            LIFE AT DATCHET, CLAY HALL, AND SLOUGH; 1782-1822.
+
+
+The new house at Datchet, which was occupied from 1782 till 1785, was a
+source of despair to CAROLINA HERSCHEL, who looked upon its desolate and
+isolated condition with a housekeeper's eyes. This was nothing to her
+brother, who gayly consented to live upon "eggs and bacon," now that he
+was free at last to mind the heavens. The ruinous state of the place had
+no terrors in his eyes, for was there not a laundry which would serve as
+a library, a large stable which was just the place for the grinding of
+mirrors, and a grass-plat for the small twenty-foot reflector?
+
+Here they set to work at astronomy; the brother with the twenty-foot,
+the sister aiding him, and at odd times sweeping for comets. In the
+course of her life she discovered no less than eight, and five of these
+were first seen by her.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1787 HERSCHEL wrote his paper "On three Volcanoes in the Moon,"
+which he had observed in April of that year. In this he mentions
+previous observations of the same sort. I do not remember that the
+following account of these has ever been put on record in English.
+Baron VON ZACH writes from London to BODE:[18]
+
+    "Probably you have heard also of the volcanoes in the moon, which
+    HERSCHEL has observed. . . . I will give you an account of it as I
+    heard it from his own lips. Dr. LIND, a worthy physician in Windsor,
+    who has made himself known through his two journeys in China, and
+    who is a friend of our HERSCHEL'S, was with his wife one evening on
+    a visit to HERSCHEL in Datchet [1783, May 4]. On this evening there
+    was to be an occultation of a star at the moon's dark limb. This was
+    observed by HERSCHEL and Doctor LIND. Mrs. LIND wished also to see
+    what was occurring, and placed herself at a telescope and watched
+    attentively.
+
+    "Scarcely had the star disappeared before Mrs. LIND thought she saw
+    it again, and exclaimed that the star had gone in front of, and not
+    behind the moon. This provoked a short astronomical lecture on the
+    question, but still she would not credit it, because she _saw_
+    differently. Finally HERSCHEL stepped to the telescope, and in fact
+    he saw a bright point on the dark disc of the moon, which he
+    followed attentively. It gradually became fainter and finally
+    vanished.". . .
+
+The life at Datchet was not free from its annoyances.
+
+    "Much of my brother's time was taken up in going, when the evenings
+    were clear, to the queen's lodge, to show the king, etc., objects
+    through the seven-foot. But when the days began to shorten, this was
+    found impossible, for the telescope was often (at no small expense
+    and risk of damage) obliged to be transported in the dark back to
+    Datchet, for the purpose of spending the rest of the night with
+    observations on double stars for a second catalogue. My brother was,
+    besides, obliged to be absent for a week or ten days, for the
+    purpose of bringing home the metal of the cracked thirty-foot
+    mirror, and the remaining materials from his work-room. Before the
+    furnace was taken down at Bath, a second twenty-foot mirror, twelve
+    inches diameter, was cast, which happened to be very fortunate, for
+    on the 1st of January, 1783, a very fine one cracked by frost in the
+    tube.
+
+    . . . "In my brother's absence from home I was, of course, left alone
+    to amuse myself with my own thoughts, which were anything but
+    cheerful. I found I was to be trained for an assistant astronomer,
+    and, by way of encouragement, a telescope adapted for 'sweeping,'
+    consisting of a tube with two glasses, such as are commonly used in
+    a 'finder,' was given me. I was 'to sweep for comets,' and I see, by
+    my journal, that I began August 22d, 1782, to write down and
+    describe all remarkable appearances I saw in my 'sweeps,' which were
+    horizontal. But it was not till the last two months of the same year
+    that I felt the least encouragement to spend the star-light nights
+    on a grass-plot covered with dew or hoar-frost, without a human
+    being near enough to be within call. I knew too little of the real
+    heavens to be able to point out every object so as to find it again,
+    without losing much time by consulting the Atlas. But all these
+    troubles were removed when I knew my brother to be at no great
+    distance making observations, with his various instruments, on
+    double stars, planets, etc., and when I could have his assistance
+    immediately if I found a nebula or cluster of stars, of which I
+    intended to give a catalogue; but, at the end of 1783, I had only
+    marked fourteen, when my sweeping was interrupted by being employed
+    to write down my brother's observations with the large twenty-foot.
+    I had, however, the comfort to see that my brother was satisfied
+    with my endeavors to assist him when he wanted another person either
+    to run to the clocks, write down a memorandum, fetch and carry
+    instruments, or measure the ground with poles, etc., etc., of which
+    something of the kind every moment would occur. For the assiduity
+    with which the measurements on the diameter of the _Georgium Sidus_,
+    and observations of other planets, double stars, etc., etc., were
+    made, was incredible, as may be seen by the various papers that were
+    given to the Royal Society in 1783, which papers were written in the
+    daytime, or when cloudy nights interfered. Besides this, the
+    twelve-inch speculum was perfected before the spring, and many hours
+    were spent at the turning-bench, as not a night clear enough for
+    observing ever passed but that some improvements were planned for
+    perfecting the mounting and motions of the various instruments then
+    in use, or some trials were made of new constructed eye-pieces,
+    which were mostly executed by my brother's own hands. Wishing to
+    save his time, he began to have some work of that kind done by a
+    watchmaker who had retired from business and lived on Datchet
+    Common; but the work was so bad, and the charges so unreasonable,
+    that he could not be employed. It was not till some time afterwards,
+    in his frequent visits to the meetings of the Royal Society (made in
+    moonlight nights), that he had an opportunity of looking about for
+    mathematical workmen, opticians, and founders. But the work seldom
+    answered expectation, and it was kept, to be executed with
+    improvements by ALEXANDER during the few months he spent with us.
+
+    "The summer months passed in the most active preparation for getting
+    the large twenty-foot ready against the next winter. The carpenters
+    and smiths of Datchet were in daily requisition, and, as soon as
+    patterns for tools and mirrors were ready, my brother went to town
+    to have them cast, and, during the three or four months ALEXANDER
+    could be absent from Bath, the mirrors and optical parts were nearly
+    completed.
+
+    "But that the nights after a day of toil were not given to rest, may
+    be seen by the observations on _Mars_, of which a paper, dated
+    December 1, 1783, was given to the Royal Society. Some trouble,
+    also, was often thrown away, during those nights, in the attempt to
+    teach me to remeasure double stars with the same micrometers with
+    which former measures had been taken, and the small twenty-foot was
+    given me for that purpose. . . . I had also to ascertain their places
+    by a transit instrument lent for that purpose by Mr. DALRYMPLE; but,
+    after many fruitless attempts, it was seen that the instrument was,
+    perhaps, as much in fault as my observations."
+
+In 1783 HERSCHEL says:
+
+    "I have now finished my third review of the heavens. The first was
+    made with a Newtonian telescope something less than seven feet focal
+    length, a power of 222, and an aperture of four and a half inches.
+    It extended only to stars of the first, second, third, and fourth
+    magnitudes. My second review was made with an instrument much
+    superior to the other, of 85.2 inches focus, 6.2 inches aperture,
+    and power 227. It extended to all the stars of HARRIS'S maps and
+    the telescopic ones near them, as far as the eighth magnitude. The
+    Catalogue of Double Stars and the discovery of the _Georgium Sidus_,
+    were the results of that review. The third was with the same
+    instrument and aperture, but with a power of 460. This review
+    extended to all the stars of FLAMSTEED'S Catalogue, together with
+    every small star about them, to the amount of a great many thousands
+    of stars. I have, many a night, in the course of eleven or twelve
+    hours of observation, carefully and singly examined not less than
+    400 celestial objects, besides taking measures, and sometimes
+    viewing a particular star for half an hour together."
+
+The fourth review began with the twenty-foot, in 1784.
+
+    "My brother began his series of sweeps when the instrument was yet
+    in a very unfinished state, and my feelings were not very
+    comfortable when every moment I was alarmed by a crack or fall,
+    knowing him to be elevated fifteen feet or more on a temporary
+    cross-beam, instead of a safe gallery. The ladders had not even
+    their braces at the bottom; and one night, in a very high wind, he
+    had hardly touched the ground before the whole apparatus came down.
+    Some laboring men were called up to help in extricating the mirror,
+    which was, fortunately, uninjured, but much work was cut out for
+    carpenters next day. I could give a pretty long list of accidents
+    which were near proving fatal to my brother as well as myself. To
+    make observations with such large machinery, where all around is in
+    darkness, is not unattended with danger, especially when personal
+    safety is the last thing with which the mind is occupied; even poor
+    PIAZZI did not go home without getting broken shins by falling over
+    the rack-bar.
+
+    "In the long days of the summer months many ten and seven foot
+    mirrors were finished; there was nothing but grinding and polishing
+    to be seen. For ten-foot, several had been cast with ribbed backs,
+    by way of experiment, to reduce the weight in large mirrors. In my
+    leisure hours I ground seven-foot and plain mirrors from rough to
+    fining down, and was _indulged_ with polishing and the last
+    finishing of a very beautiful mirror for Sir WILLIAM WATSON.
+
+    "An account of the discoveries made with the twenty-foot and the
+    improvements of the mechanical parts of the instrument during the
+    winter of 1785 is given with the catalogue of the first 1,000 new
+    nebulae. By which account it must plainly appear that the expenses of
+    these improvements, and those which were yet to be made in the
+    apparatus of the twenty-foot (which, in fact, proved to be a model
+    of a larger instrument), could not be supplied out of a salary of
+    L200 a year, especially as my brother's finances had been too much
+    reduced during the six months before he received his _first_
+    quarterly payment of _fifty pounds_ (which was Michaelmas, 1782).
+    Travelling from Bath to London, Greenwich, Windsor, backwards and
+    forwards, transporting the telescope, etc., breaking up his
+    establishment at Bath and forming a new one near the court, all
+    this, even leaving such personal conveniences as he had for many
+    years been used to, out of the question, could not be obtained for a
+    trifle; a good large piece of ground was required for the use of the
+    instruments, and a habitation in which he could receive and offer a
+    bed to an astronomical friend, was necessary after a night's
+    observation.
+
+    "It seemed to be supposed that enough had been done when my brother
+    was enabled to leave his profession that he might have time to make
+    and sell telescopes. The king ordered four ten-foot himself, and
+    many seven-foot besides had been bespoke, and much time had already
+    been expended on polishing the mirrors for the same. But all this
+    was only retarding the work of a thirty or forty foot instrument,
+    which it was my brother's chief object to obtain as soon as
+    possible; for he was then on the wrong side of forty-five, and felt
+    how great an injustice he would be doing to himself and to the cause
+    of astronomy by giving up his time to making telescopes for other
+    observers.
+
+    "Sir WILLIAM WATSON, who often in the lifetime of his father came to
+    make some stay with us at Datchet, saw my brother's difficulties,
+    and expressed great dissatisfaction. On his return to Bath he met,
+    among the visitors there, several belonging to the court, to whom he
+    gave his opinion concerning his friend and his situation very
+    freely. In consequence of this, my brother had soon after, through
+    Sir J. BANKS, the promise that L2,000 would be granted for enabling
+    him to make himself an instrument.
+
+    "Immediately every preparation for beginning the great work
+    commenced. A very ingenious smith (CAMPION), who was seeking
+    employment, was secured by my brother, and a temporary forge erected
+    in an upstairs room."
+
+The sale of these telescopes of HERSCHEL'S must have produced a large
+sum, for he had made before 1795 more than two hundred seven-feet, one
+hundred and fifty ten-feet, and eighty twenty-feet mirrors. For many of
+the telescopes sent abroad no stands were constructed. The mirrors and
+eye-pieces alone were furnished, and a drawing of the stand sent with
+them by which the mirrors could be mounted.
+
+In 1785 the cost of a seven-foot telescope, six and four-tenths inches
+aperture, stand, eye-pieces, etc., complete, was two hundred guineas, a
+ten-foot was six hundred guineas, and a twenty-foot about 2,500 to 3,000
+guineas. He had made four ten-foot telescopes like this for the king.
+In 1787 SCHROETER got the mirrors and eye-pieces only for a
+four-and-three-quarter-inch reflector for five guineas; those for his
+seven-foot telescope were twenty-three guineas. Later a seven-foot
+telescope, complete, was sold for one hundred guineas, and the
+twenty-five-foot reflector, made for the Madrid observatory, cost them
+75,000 francs = $15,000.[19] It was ordered in 1796, but not delivered
+for several years, the Spanish government being short of money. For a
+ten and a seven foot telescope, the Prince of Canino paid L2,310.
+
+VON MAGELLAN writes to BODE concerning a visit to HERSCHEL:[20]
+
+    "I spent the night of the 6th of January at HERSCHEL'S, in Datchet,
+    near Windsor, and had the good luck to hit on a fine evening. He has
+    his twenty-foot Newtonian telescope in the open air and mounted in
+    his garden very simply and conveniently. It is moved by an
+    assistant, who stands below it. . . . Near the instrument is a clock
+    regulated to sidereal time. . . . In the room near it sits HERSCHEL'S
+    sister, and she has FLAMSTEED'S Atlas open before her. As he gives
+    her the word, she writes down the declination and right ascension
+    and the other circumstances of the observation. In this way
+    HERSCHEL examines the whole sky without omitting the least part. He
+    commonly observes with a magnifying power of one hundred and fifty,
+    and is sure that after four or five years he will have passed in
+    review every object above our horizon. He showed me the book in
+    which his observations up to this time are written, and I am
+    astonished at the great number of them. Each sweep covers 2 deg. 15'
+    in declination, and he lets each star pass at least three times through
+    the field of his telescope, so that it is impossible that anything
+    can escape him. He has already found about 900 double stars and
+    almost as many nebulae. I went to bed about one o'clock, and up to
+    that time, he had found that night four or five new nebulae. The
+    thermometer in the garden stood at 13 deg. Fahrenheit; but, in spite of
+    this, HERSCHEL observes the whole night through, except that he
+    stops every three or four hours and goes in the room for a few
+    moments. For some years HERSCHEL has observed the heavens every hour
+    when the weather is clear, and this always in the open air, because
+    he says that the telescope only performs well when it is at the same
+    temperature as the air. He protects himself against the weather by
+    putting on more clothing. He has an excellent constitution, and
+    thinks about nothing else in the world but the celestial bodies. He
+    has promised me in the most cordial way, entirely in the service of
+    astronomy, and without thinking of his own interest, to see to the
+    telescopes I have ordered for European observatories, and he will
+    himself attend to the preparation of the mirrors."
+
+It was at this time, 1783, May 8, that HERSCHEL married. His wife was
+the daughter of Mr. JAMES BALDWIN, a merchant of the city of London, and
+the widow of JOHN PITT, Esq. She is described as a lady of singular
+amiability and gentleness of character. She was entirely interested in
+his scientific pursuits, and the jointure which she brought removed all
+further anxiety about money affairs. They had but one child, JOHN
+FREDERICK WILLIAM, born March 7, 1792.[21]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The house at Datchet became more and more unfit for the needs of the
+family, and in June, 1785, a move was made to Clay Hall, in Old Windsor.
+The residence here was but short, and finally a last change was made to
+Slough on April, 3d, 1786.
+
+The ardor of the work during these years can be judged of by a single
+sentence from CAROLINA HERSCHEL'S diary:
+
+    "The last night at Clay Hall was spent in sweeping till daylight,
+    and by the next evening the telescope stood ready for observation at
+    Slough."
+
+From 1786 until his death, HERSCHEL remained at Slough; his life, truly
+speaking, was in his observatory.
+
+It is indeed true, as ARAGO has said in his eloquent tribute to him: "On
+peut dire hardiment du jardin et de la petite maison de Slough, que
+c'est le lieu du monde ou il a ete fait le plus de decouvertes. Le nom
+de ce village ne perira pas; les sciences le transmettront
+religieusement a nos derniers neveux."
+
+HERSCHEL'S first contribution to the _Philosophical Transactions_ was
+printed in the volume for 1780, his last in that for 1818. Of these
+thirty-nine volumes, there are only two (1813 and 1817) which contain no
+paper from his hand, and many volumes contain more than one, as he
+published no less than sixty-eight memoirs in this place.
+
+And yet it must not be thought that his was an austere and grave
+existence. Music, which he loved to enthusiasm, was still a delight to
+him. All the more that his devotion was free. The glimpses which we get
+of his life with his friends show him always cheerful, ardent, and
+devoted. Even in his later years, he had not lost a "boyish earnestness
+to explain;" his simplicity and the charm of his manner struck every
+one.
+
+"HERSCHEL, you know, and everybody knows, is one of the most pleasing
+and well-bred natural characters of the present age," says Dr. BURNEY,
+who had opportunity to know.
+
+The portrait which is given in the frontispiece must have been painted
+about this time (1788), and the eager, ardent face shows his inner life
+far better than any words can do.
+
+Even in his scientific writings, which everything conspired to render
+grave and sober, the almost poetic nature of his mind shows forth. In
+one of his (unpublished) note-books, now in the Royal Society's library,
+I found this entry:
+
+    "640th Sweep--November 28, 1786.--The nebula of _Orion_, which I saw
+    by the front view, was so glaring and beautiful that I could not
+    think of taking any place of its extent."
+
+He was quite alone under the perfectly silent sky when this was written,
+and he was at his post simply to make this and other such observations.
+But the sky was beautiful to him, and his faithful sister, CAROLINA,
+sitting below, has preserved for us the words as they dropped from his
+lips.
+
+On the 11th of January, 1787, HERSCHEL discovered two satellites to
+_Uranus_.
+
+After he had well assured himself of their existence, but before he
+communicated his discovery to the world, he made this crucial test. He
+prepared a sketch of _Uranus_ attended by his two satellites, as it
+would appear on the night of February 10, 1787, and when the night
+came, "the heavens displayed the original of my drawings, by showing in
+the situation I had delineated them _the Georgian planet attended by two
+satellites_. I confess that this scene appeared to me with additional
+beauty, as the little secondary planets seemed to give a dignity to the
+primary one which raises it into a more conspicuous situation among the
+great bodies of the solar system.". . .
+
+In a memoir of 1789, he has a few sentences which show the living way
+in which the heavens appeared to him:
+
+    "This method of viewing the heavens seems to throw them into a new
+    kind of light.
+
+    "They are now seen to resemble a luxuriant garden, which contains
+    the greatest variety of productions in different flourishing beds;
+    and one advantage we may at least reap from it is, that we can, as
+    it were, extend the range of our experience to an immense duration.
+    For is it not almost the same thing whether we live successively to
+    witness the germination, blooming, foliage, fecundity, fading,
+    withering, and corruption of a plant, or whether a vast number of
+    specimens selected from every stage through which the plant passes
+    in the course of its existence be brought at once to our view?"
+
+The thought here is no less finely expressed than it is profound. The
+simile is perfect, if we have the power to separate among the vast
+variety each state of being from every other, and if the very luxuriance
+of illustration in the heavens does not bewilder and overpower the mind.
+It was precisely this discriminating power that HERSCHEL possessed in
+perfection.
+
+There is a kind of humor in the way he records a change of opinion:
+
+    "I formerly supposed the surface of _Saturn's_ ring to be rough,
+    owing to luminous points like mountains seen on it, till one of
+    these was kind enough to venture off the edge of the ring and appear
+    as a satellite."
+
+In 1782 he replies with a certain concealed sharpness to the idea that
+he used magnifying powers which were too high. There is a tone almost of
+impatience, as if he were conscious he was replying to a criticism based
+on ignorance:
+
+    "We are told that we gain nothing by magnifying too much. I grant
+    it; but shall never believe I magnify too much till by experience I
+    find that I can see better with a lower power." (1782.)
+
+By 1786, when he returns to this subject, in answer to a formal request
+to explain his use of high magnifiers, he is quite over any irritation,
+and treats the subject almost with playfulness:
+
+    "Soon after my first essay of using high powers with the Newtonian
+    telescope, I began to doubt whether an opinion which has been
+    entertained by several eminent authors, 'that vision will grow
+    indistinct when the optic pencils are less than the fiftieth part of
+    an inch,' would hold good in all cases. I perceived that according
+    to this criterion I was not entitled to see distinctly with a power
+    of much more than about 320 in a seven-foot telescope of an aperture
+    of six and four-tenths inches, whereas in many experiments I found
+    myself very well pleased with magnifiers which far exceeded such
+    narrow limits. This induced me, as it were, by way of apology to
+    myself for seeing well where I ought to have seen less distinctly,
+    to make a few experiments."
+
+It is needless to say that these experiments proved that from the point
+of view taken by HERSCHEL, he was quite right, and that his high powers
+had numerous valuable applications. He goes on to say:
+
+    "Had it not been for a late conversation with some of my highly
+    esteemed and learned friends, I might probably have left the papers
+    on which these experiments were recorded, among the rest of those
+    that are laid aside, when they have afforded me the information I
+    want."
+
+The last sentence seems to be a kind of notice to his learned friends
+that there is yet more unsaid. As a warning to those to whose criticisms
+he had replied, he gives them this picture of the kind of assiduity
+which will be required, if some of his observations on double stars are
+to be repeated:
+
+    "It is in vain to look for these stars if every circumstance is not
+    favorable. The observer as well as the instrument must have been
+    long enough out in the open air to acquire the same temperature. In
+    very cold weather an hour at least will be required." (1782.)
+
+We may gain some further insight into his character from the following
+chance extracts from his writings:
+
+    "I have all along had truth and reality in view as the sole object
+    of my endeavors." (1782.)
+
+    "Not being satisfied when I thought it possible to obtain more
+    accurate measures, I employed [a more delicate apparatus]." (1783.)
+
+    "To this end I have already begun a series of observations upon
+    several zones of double stars, and should the result of them be
+    against these conjectures, I shall be the first to point out their
+    fallacy." (1783.)
+
+    "There is a great probability of succeeding still farther in this
+    laborious but delightful research, so as to be able at last to say
+    not only how much the annual parallax _is not_, but how much it
+    really _is_." (1782.)
+
+The nature of his philosophizing, and the limits which he set to
+himself, may be more clearly seen in further extracts:
+
+    "By taking more time [before printing these observations] I should
+    undoubtedly be enabled to speak more confidently of the _interior_
+    _construction of the heavens_, and of its various _nebulous_ and
+    sidereal strata. As an apology for this prematurity it may be said
+    that, the end of all discoveries being communication, we can never
+    be too ready in giving facts and observations, whatever we may be in
+    reasoning upon them." (1785.)
+
+    "In an investigation of this delicate nature we ought to avoid two
+    opposite extremes. If we indulge a fanciful imagination, and build
+    worlds of our own, we must not wonder at our going wide from the
+    path of truth and nature. On the other hand, if we add observation
+    to observation without attempting to draw not only certain
+    conclusions but also conjectural views from them, we offend against
+    the very end for which only observations ought to be made. I will
+    endeavor to keep a proper medium, but if I should deviate from that,
+    I could wish not to fall into the latter error." (1785.)
+
+    "As observations carefully made should always take the lead of
+    theories, I shall not be concerned if what I have to say contradicts
+    what has been said in my last paper on this subject." (1790.)
+
+No course of reasoning could be more simple, more exact, more profound,
+and more beautiful than this which follows:
+
+    "As it has been shown that the spherical figure of a cluster is
+    owing to the action of central powers, it follows that those
+    clusters which, _caeteris paribus_, are the most complete in this
+    figure, must have been the longest exposed to the action of these
+    causes. Thus the maturity of a sidereal system may be judged from
+    the disposition of the component parts.
+
+    "Hence planetary nebulae may be looked on as very aged. Though we
+    cannot see any individual nebula pass through all its stages of
+    life, we can select particular ones in each peculiar stage." (1789.)
+
+There is something almost grandiose and majestic in his statement of
+the ultimate destiny of the Galaxy:
+
+                  "To him the fates were known
+             Of orbs dim hovering on the skirts of space."
+
+    "--Since the stars of the Milky Way are permanently exposed to the
+    action of a power whereby they are irresistibly drawn into groups,
+    we may be certain that from mere clustering stars they will be
+    gradually compressed, through successive stages of accumulation,
+    till they come up to what may be called the ripening period of the
+    globular form, and total insulation; from which it is evident that
+    the Milky Way must be finally broken up and cease to be a stratum of
+    scattered stars.
+
+    "The state into which the incessant action of the clustering power
+    has brought it at present, is a kind of chronometer that may be used
+    to measure the time of its past and future existence; and although
+    we do not know the rate of going of this mysterious chronometer, it
+    is nevertheless certain that since the breaking up of the Milky Way
+    affords a proof that it cannot last forever, it equally bears
+    witness that its past duration cannot be admitted to be infinite."
+    (1814.)
+
+HERSCHEL'S relations with his cotemporaries were usually of the most
+pleasant character, though seldom intimate. This peace was broken but by
+one unpleasant occurrence. In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1792,
+SCHROETER had communicated a series of observations made with one of
+HERSCHEL'S own telescopes on the atmospheres of _Venus_, the Moon, etc.
+It was not only an account of phenomena which had been seen; it was
+accompanied by measures, and the computations based on these led to
+heights and dimensions for mountains on _Venus_ which were, to say the
+least, extravagant. The adjective will not seem too strong when we say
+that the very existence of the mountains themselves is to-day more than
+doubtful.
+
+The appearances seen by SCHROETER were described by him in perfectly
+good faith, and similar ones have been since recorded. His reasoning
+upon them was defective, and the measures which he made were practically
+valueless. This paper, printed in the _Transactions_ of the Royal
+Society, to which SCHROETER had not before contributed, appears to have
+irritated HERSCHEL.
+
+No doubt there were not wanting members of his own society who hinted
+that on the Continent, too, there were to be found great observers, and
+that here, at least, HERSCHEL had been anticipated even in his own
+field. I have always thought that the memoir of HERSCHEL which appeared
+in the next volume of the _Transactions_ (1793), _Observations on the
+Planet Venus_, was a rejoinder intended far more for the detractors at
+home than for the astronomer abroad. The review is conceived in a severe
+spirit. The first idea seems to be to crush an opposition which he
+feels. The truth is established, but its establishment is hardly the
+_first_ object.
+
+It seems as if HERSCHEL had almost allowed himself to be forced into a
+position of arrogance, which his whole life shows was entirely foreign
+to his nature. All through the review he does not once mention
+SCHROETER'S name. He says:
+
+    "A series of observations on _Venus_, begun by me in April, 1777,
+    has been continued down to the present time. . . . The result of my
+    observations would have been communicated long ago if I had not
+    flattered myself with the hope of some better success concerning the
+    diurnal motion of _Venus_, which has still eluded my constant
+    attention as far as concerns its period and direction. . . . Even at
+    this present time I should hesitate to give the following extracts
+    if it did not seem incumbent on me to examine by what accident I
+    came to overlook mountains in this planet of such enormous height as
+    to exceed four, five, or even six times the perpendicular height of
+    Chimboraco, the highest of our mountains. . . . The same paper contains
+    other particulars concerning _Venus_ and _Saturn_. All of which
+    being things of which I have never taken any notice, it will not be
+    amiss to show, by what follows, that neither want of attention, nor
+    a deficiency of instruments, would occasion my not perceiving these
+    mountains of more than twenty-three miles in height, this jagged
+    border of _Venus_, and these flat, spherical forms on _Saturn_."
+
+The reply of SCHROETER (1795) is temperate and just. It does him honor,
+and he generously gives full justice to his critic.
+
+It would hardly be worth while to mention this slight incident if it
+were not that during these years there certainly existed a feeling
+that HERSCHEL undervalued the labors of his cotemporaries.
+
+This impression was fostered no doubt by his general habit of not
+quoting previous authorities in the fields which he was working.
+
+A careful reading of his papers will, I think, show that his definite
+indebtedness to his _cotemporaries_ was vanishingly small. The work of
+MICHELL and WILSON he alludes to again and again, and always with
+appreciation. Certainly he seems to show a vein of annoyance that the
+papers of CHRISTIAN MAYER, _De novis in coelo sidereo phaenomenis_
+(1779), and _Beobachtungen von Fixsterntrabanten_ (1778), should have
+been quoted to prove that the method proposed by HERSCHEL in 1782 for
+ascertaining the parallax of the fixed stars by means of observations of
+those which were double, was not entirely original with himself.
+
+There is direct proof that it was so,[22] and if this was not
+forthcoming it would be unnecessary, as he has amply shown in his
+Catalogue of Double Stars. One is reminded of his remarks on the use of
+the high magnifying powers by the impatience of his comments.
+
+His proposal to call the newly discovered minor planets _asteroids_
+(1802) was received as a sign that he wished to discriminate between the
+discoveries of PIAZZI and OLBERS and his own discovery of URANUS.[23]
+
+He takes pains to quietly put this on one side in one of his papers,
+showing that he was cognizant of the existence of such a feeling.
+
+I am tempted to resurrect from a deserved obscurity a notice of
+HERSCHEL'S _Observations on the Two Lately Discovered Celestial Bodies_
+(_Philosophical Transactions_, 1802), printed in the first volume
+of the _Edinburgh Review_, simply to show the kind of envy to which even
+he, the glory of England, was subject.
+
+The reviewer sets forth the principal results of HERSCHEL'S
+observations, and, after quoting his definition of the new term
+asteroid, goes on to say:
+
+    "If a new name must be found, why not call them by some appellation
+    which shall, in some degree, be descriptive of, or at least
+    consistent with, their properties? Why not, for instance, call them
+    _Concentric Comets_, or _Planetary Comets_, or _Cometary Planets_?
+    or, if a single term must be found, why may we not coin such a
+    phrase as _Planetoid_ or _Cometoid_?"
+
+Then follows a general arraignment of HERSCHEL'S methods of expression
+and thought, as distinguished from his powers of mere observation. This
+distinction, it may be said, exists only in the reviewer's mind; there
+was no such distinction in fact. If ever a series of observations was
+directed by profound and reasonable thought, it was HERSCHEL'S own.
+
+    "Dr. HERSCHEL'S passion for coining words and idioms has often
+    struck us as a weakness wholly unworthy of him. The invention of a
+    name is but a poor achievement for him who has discovered whole
+    worlds. Why, for instance, do we hear him talking of the
+    _space-penetrating power_ of his instrument--a compound epithet and
+    metaphor which he ought to have left to the poets, who, in some
+    future age, shall acquire glory by celebrating his name. The other
+    papers of Dr. HERSCHEL, in the late volumes of the _Transactions_,
+    do not deserve such particular attention. His catalogue of 500 new
+    nebulae, though extremely valuable to the practical astronomer, leads
+    to no general conclusions of importance, and abounds with the
+    defects which are peculiar to the Doctor's writings--a great
+    prolixity and tediousness of narration--loose and often
+    unphilosophical reflections, which give no very favorable idea of
+    his scientific powers, however great his merit may be as an
+    observer--above all, that idle fondness for inventing names without
+    any manner of occasion, to which we have already alluded, and a use
+    of novel and affected idioms.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "To the speculations of the Doctor on the nature of the Sun, we have
+    many similar objections; but they are all eclipsed by the grand
+    absurdity which he has there committed, in his hasty and erroneous
+    theory concerning the influence of the solar spots on the price of
+    grain. Since the publication of Gulliver's voyage to Laputa, nothing
+    so ridiculous has ever been offered to the world. We heartily wish
+    the Doctor had suppressed it; or, if determined to publish it, that
+    he had detailed it in language less confident and flippant."
+
+One is almost ashamed to give space and currency to a forgotten attack,
+but it yields a kind of perspective; and it is instructive and perhaps
+useful to view HERSCHEL'S labors from all sides, even from wrong and
+envious ones.
+
+The study of the original papers, together with a knowledge of the
+circumstances in which they were written, will abundantly show that
+HERSCHEL'S ideas sprung from a profound meditation of the nature of
+things in themselves. What the origin of trains of thought prosecuted
+for years may have been we cannot say, nor could he himself have
+expressed it. A new path in science was to be found out, and he found
+it. It was not in his closet, surrounded by authorities, but under the
+open sky, that he meditated the construction of the heavens. As he says,
+"My situation permitted me not to consult large libraries; nor, indeed,
+was it very material; for as I intended to view the heavens myself,
+Nature, that great volume, appeared to me to contain the best
+catalogue."
+
+His remarkable memoirs on the invisible and other rays of the solar
+spectrum were received with doubt, and with open denial by many of the
+scientific bodies of Europe. The reviews and notices of his work in this
+direction were often quite beyond the bounds of a proper scientific
+criticism; but HERSCHEL maintained a dignified silence. The discoveries
+were true, the proofs were open to all, and no response was needed from
+him. He may have been sorely tempted to reply, but I am apt to believe
+that the rumors that reached him from abroad and at home did not then
+affect him as they might have done earlier. He was at his grand
+climacteric, he had passed his sixty-third year, his temper was less
+hasty than it had been in his youth, and his nerves had not yet received
+the severe strain from whose effects he suffered during the last years
+of his life.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have some glimpses of his personal life in the reminiscences of him
+in the _Diary and Letters_ of Madame D'ARBLAY, who knew him well:
+
+    "1786.--In the evening Mr. HERSCHEL came to tea. I had once seen
+    that very extraordinary man at Mrs. DE LUC'S, but was happy to see
+    him again, for he has not more fame to awaken curiosity than sense
+    and modesty to gratify it. He is perfectly unassuming, yet openly
+    happy, and happy in the success of those studies which would render
+    a mind less excellently formed presumptuous and arrogant.
+
+    "The king has not a happier subject than this man, who owes it
+    wholly to His Majesty that he is not wretched; for such was his
+    eagerness to quit all other pursuits to follow astronomy solely,
+    that he was in danger of ruin, when his talents and great and
+    uncommon genius attracted the king's patronage. He has now not only
+    his pension, which gives him the felicity of devoting all his time
+    to his darling study, but he is indulged in license from the king to
+    make a telescope according to his new ideas and discoveries, that is
+    to have no cost spared in its construction, and is wholly to be paid
+    for by His Majesty.
+
+    "This seems to have made him happier even than the pension, as it
+    enables him to put in execution all his wonderful projects, from
+    which his expectations of future discoveries are so sanguine as to
+    make his present existence a state of almost perfect enjoyment.
+    Mr. LOCKE himself would be quite charmed with him.
+
+    "He seems a man without a wish that has its object in the
+    terrestrial globe. At night Mr. HERSCHEL, by the king's command,
+    came to exhibit to His Majesty and the royal family the new comet
+    lately discovered by his sister, Miss HERSCHEL; and while I was
+    playing at piquet with Mrs. SCHWELLENBURG, the Princess AUGUSTA came
+    into the room and asked her if she chose to go into the garden and
+    look at it. She declined the offer, and the princess then made it to
+    me. I was glad to accept it for all sorts of reasons. We found him
+    at his telescope. The comet was very small, and had nothing grand or
+    striking in its appearance; but it is the first lady's comet, and I
+    was very desirous to see it. Mr. HERSCHEL then showed me some of his
+    new discovered universes, with all the good humor with which he
+    would have taken the same trouble for a brother or a sister
+    astronomer; there is no possibility of admiring his genius more than
+    his gentleness."
+
+    "_1786, December 30th_.--This morning my dear father carried me to
+    Dr. HERSCHEL. That great and very extraordinary man received us
+    almost with open arms. He is very fond of my father, who is one of
+    the council of the Royal Society this year, as well as himself. . . .
+    At this time of day there was nothing to see but his instruments;
+    those, however, are curiosities sufficient. . . . I wished very much
+    to have seen his sister, . . . but she had been up all night, and
+    was then in bed."
+
+    "_1787, September_.--Dr. HERSCHEL is a delightful man; so
+    unassuming with his great knowledge, so willing to dispense it to
+    the ignorant, and so cheerful and easy in his general manners, that,
+    were he no genius, it would be impossible not to remark him as a
+    pleasing and sensible man."
+
+    "_1788, October 3d_.--We returned to Windsor at noon, and Mrs. DE
+    LUC sent me a most pressing invitation to tea and to hear a little
+    music. Two young ladies were to perform at her house in a little
+    concert. Dr. HERSCHEL was there, and accompanied them very sweetly
+    on the violin; his new-married wife was with him, and his sister.
+    His wife seems good-natured; she was rich, too! and astronomers are
+    as able as other men to discern that gold can glitter as well as
+    stars."
+
+
+                    DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.
+
+                                             "CHELSEA COLLEGE,
+
+                                                 _September 28, 1798_.
+
+    "*   *   *   *   *
+
+    "I drove through Slough in order to ask at Dr. HERSCHEL'S door when
+    my visit would be least inconvenient to him--that night or next
+    morning. The good soul was at dinner, but came to the door himself,
+    to press me to alight immediately and partake of his family repast;
+    and this he did so heartily that I could not resist.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "I expected (not knowing that HERSCHEL was married) only to have
+    found Miss HERSCHEL; but there was a very old lady, the mother, I
+    believe, of Mrs. HERSCHEL, who was at the head of the table herself,
+    and a Scots lady (a Miss WILSON, daughter of Dr. WILSON, of Glasgow,
+    an eminent astronomer), Miss HERSCHEL, and a little boy. They
+    rejoiced at the accident which had brought me there, and hoped I
+    would send my carriage away and take a bed with them. They were
+    sorry they had no stables for my horses.
+
+    "We soon grew acquainted--I mean the ladies and I--and before dinner
+    was over we seemed old friends just met after a long absence. Mrs.
+    HERSCHEL is sensible, good-humored, unpretending, and well bred;
+    Miss HERSCHEL all shyness and virgin modesty; the Scots lady
+    sensible and harmless; and the little boy entertaining, promising,
+    and comical. HERSCHEL, you know, and everybody knows, is one of the
+    most pleasing and well-bred natural characters of the present age,
+    as well as the greatest astronomer.
+
+    "Your health was drunk after dinner (put that into your pocket), and
+    after much social conversation and a few hearty laughs, the ladies
+    proposed to take a walk, in order, I believe, to leave HERSCHEL and
+    me together. We walked and talked round his great telescopes till it
+    grew damp and dusk, then retreated into his study to philosophize.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "He made a discovery to me, which, had I known it sooner, would have
+    overset me, and prevented my reading any part of my work.[24] He
+    said that he had almost always had an aversion to poetry, which he
+    regarded as the arrangement of fine words, without any useful
+    meaning or adherence to truth; but that when truth and science were
+    united to these fine words, he liked poetry very well."
+
+
+                         1798, December 10.
+
+                    DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.
+
+    "HERSCHEL has been in town for short spurts, and back again two or
+    three times, leaving Mrs. HERSCHEL behind (in town) to transact law
+    business. I had him here two whole days."
+
+    The reading of the manuscript of the _Poetical History of Astronomy_
+    was continued, "and HERSCHEL was so humble as to confess that I
+    knew more of the history of astronomy than he did, and had surprised
+    him with the mass of information I had got together.
+
+    "He thanked me for the entertainment and instruction I had given
+    him. 'Can anything be grander?' and all this before he knows a word
+    of what I have said of himself--all his discoveries, as you may
+    remember, being kept back for the twelfth and last book."
+
+
+                    DR. BURNEY TO MADAME D'ARBLAY.
+
+                             "SLOUGH, _Monday morning._ _July 22, 1799_,
+                                 in bed at Dr. HERSCHEL'S, half-past
+                                 five, where I can neither sleep nor lie
+                                 idle.
+
+    "My Dear Fanny:--I believe I told you on Friday that I was going to
+    finish the perusal of my astronomical verses to the great astronomer
+    on Saturday.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "After tea Dr. HERSCHEL proposed that we two should retire into a
+    quiet room in order to resume the perusal of my work, in which no
+    progress has been made since last December. The evening was
+    finished very cheerfully; and we went to our bowers not much out of
+    humor with each other or the world. . . . After dinner we all agreed
+    to go to the terrace [at Windsor]--Mr., Mrs., and Miss H., with
+    their nice little boy, and three young ladies. Here I met with
+    almost everybody I wished and expected to see previous to the
+    king's arrival.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "But now here comes Will, and I must get up, and make myself up to
+    go down to the perusal of my last book, entitled _Herschel_. So
+    good-morrow."
+
+
+                                                "CHELSEA, _Tuesday._
+
+    "Not a moment could I get to write till now. . . . I must tell you
+    that HERSCHEL proposed to me to go with him to the king's concert at
+    night, he having permission to go when he chooses, his five nephews
+    (GRIESBACHS) making a principal part of the band. 'And,' says he,
+    'I know you will be welcome.'"
+
+An intimacy was gradually established between HERSCHEL and Dr. BURNEY.
+They saw each other often at the meetings of the Royal Society, and
+HERSCHEL frequently stayed at the doctor's house. "On the first evening
+HERSCHEL spent at Chelsea, when I called for my ARGAND lamp, HERSCHEL,
+who had not seen one of those lamps, was surprised at the great effusion
+of light, and immediately calculated the difference between that and a
+single candle, and found it sixteen to one."[25]
+
+In 1793 we find HERSCHEL as a witness for his friend JAMES WATT, in the
+celebrated case of WATT _vs._ BULL, which was tried in the Court of
+Common Pleas. And from MUIRHEAD'S Life of WATT, it appears that HERSCHEL
+visited WATT at Heathfield in 1810.
+
+A delightful picture of the old age of HERSCHEL is given by the poet
+CAMPBELL,[26] whose nature was fitted to perceive the beauties of a
+grand and simple character like HERSCHEL'S:
+
+
+                                      "[BRIGHTON], _September 15, 1813_.
+
+    . . . "I wish you had been with me the day before yesterday, when you
+    would have joined me, I am sure, deeply in admiring a great, simple,
+    good old man--Dr. HERSCHEL. Do not think me vain, or at least put up
+    with my vanity, in saying that I almost flatter myself I have made
+    him my friend. I have got an invitation, and a pressing one, to go
+    to his house; and the lady who introduced me to him, says he spoke
+    of me as if he would really be happy to see me. . . . I spent all
+    Sunday with him and his family. His son is a prodigy in sciences,
+    and fond of poetry, but very unassuming. . . . Now, for the old
+    astronomer himself. His simplicity, his kindness, his anecdotes, his
+    readiness to explain--and make perfectly conspicuous too--his own
+    sublime conceptions of the universe are indescribably charming. He
+    is seventy-six, but fresh and stout; and there he sat, nearest the
+    door, at his friend's house, alternately smiling at a joke, or
+    contentedly sitting without share or notice in the conversation.
+    Any train of conversation he follows implicitly; anything you ask he
+    labors with a sort of boyish earnestness to explain.
+
+    "I was anxious to get from him as many particulars as I could about
+    his interview with BUONAPARTE.[27] The latter, it was reported, had
+    astonished him by his astronomical knowledge.
+
+    "'No,' he said, 'the First Consul did surprise me by his quickness
+    and versatility on all subjects; but in science he seemed to know
+    little more than any well-educated gentleman, and of astronomy much
+    less for instance than our own king. His general air,' he said, 'was
+    something like affecting to know more than he did know.' He was
+    high, and tried to be great with HERSCHEL, I suppose, without
+    success; and 'I remarked,' said the astronomer, 'his hypocrisy in
+    concluding the conversation on astronomy by observing how all these
+    glorious views gave proofs of an Almighty Wisdom.' I asked him if he
+    thought the system of LAPLACE to be quite certain, with regard to
+    the total security of the planetary system from the effects of
+    gravitation losing its present balance? He said, No; he thought by
+    no means that the universe was secured from the chance of sudden
+    losses of parts.
+
+    "He was convinced that there had existed a planet between _Mars_
+    and _Jupiter_, in our own system, of which the little asteroids, or
+    planetkins, lately discovered, are indubitably fragments; and
+    'Remember,' said he, 'that though they have discovered only four of
+    those parts, there will be thousands--perhaps thirty thousand
+    more--yet discovered.' This planet he believed to have been lost by
+    explosion.
+
+    "With great kindness and patience he referred me, in the course of
+    my attempts to talk with him, to a theorem in NEWTON'S 'Principles
+    of Natural Philosophy' in which the time that the light takes to
+    travel from the sun is proved with a simplicity which requires but a
+    few steps in reasoning. In talking of some inconceivably distant
+    bodies, he introduced the mention of this plain theorem, to remind
+    me that the progress of light could be measured in the one case as
+    well as the other. Then, speaking of himself, he said, with a
+    modesty of manner which quite overcame me, when taken together with
+    the greatness of the assertion: 'I have looked _further into space
+    than ever human being did before me_. I have observed stars, of
+    which the light, it can be proved, must take two millions of years
+    to reach this earth.'
+
+    "I really and unfeignedly felt at this moment as if I had been
+    conversing with a supernatural intelligence. 'Nay, more,' said he,
+    'if those distant bodies had ceased to exist two millions of years
+    ago, we should still see them, as the light would travel after the
+    body was gone. . . .' These were HERSCHEL'S words; and if you had
+    heard him speak them, you would not think he was apt to tell more
+    than the truth.
+
+    "After leaving HERSCHEL I felt elevated and overcome; and have in
+    writing to you made only this memorandum of some of the most
+    interesting moments of my life."
+
+CAMPBELL'S conscientious biographer appears to have felt that the value
+of this charming account of his interview with HERSCHEL was in its
+report of astronomical facts and opinions, and he adds a foot-note to
+explain that "HERSCHEL'S opinion never amounted to more than
+_hypothesis_ having some degree of probability. Sir JOHN HERSCHEL
+remembers his father saying, 'If that hypothesis were true, and _if_ the
+planet destroyed were as large as the earth, there must have been at
+least thirty-thousand such fragments,' but always as an hypothesis--he
+was never heard to declare any degree of conviction that it was so."
+
+For us, the value of this sympathetic account of a day in HERSCHEL'S
+life is in its conception of the simplicity, the modesty, the "boyish
+earnestness," the elevation of thought and speech of the old
+philosopher; and in the impression made on the feelings, not the mind,
+of the poet, then thirty-five years old.
+
+In a letter to ALISON, CAMPBELL reverts with great pleasure to the day
+spent with HERSCHEL:
+
+                                         "SYDENHAM, _December 12, 1813_.
+
+"MY DEAREST ALISON:--
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    "I spent three weeks with my family at Brighton, in charming
+    weather, and was much pleased with, as well as benefited by, the
+    place. There I met a man with whom you will stare at the idea of my
+    being congenial, or having the vanity to think myself so--the great
+    HERSCHEL. He is a simple, great being. . . . I once in my life
+    looked at NEWTON'S _Principia_, and attended an astronomical class
+    at Glasgow; wonderful it seemed to myself, that the great man
+    condescended to understand my questions; to become apparently
+    earnest in communicating to me as much information as my limited
+    capacity and preparation for such knowledge would admit. He invited
+    me to see him at his own abode, and so kindly that I could not
+    believe that it was mere good breeding; but a sincere wish to see me
+    again. I had a full day with him; he described to me his whole
+    interview with BUONAPARTE; said it was not true, as reported, that
+    BUONAPARTE understood astronomical subjects deeply, but affected
+    more than he knew.
+
+    "In speaking of his great and chief telescope, he said with an air,
+    not of the least pride, but with a greatness and simplicity of
+    expression that struck me with wonder, 'I have looked further into
+    space than ever human being did before me. I have observed stars, of
+    which the light takes _two millions_ of years to travel to this
+    globe.' I mean to pay him a reverential visit at Slough, as soon as
+    my book is out, this winter."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1807 CAROLINA HERSCHEL has this entry in her diary:
+
+    "_October_ 4.--My brother came from Brighton. The same night two
+    parties from the Castle came to see the comet, and during the whole
+    month my brother had not an evening to himself. As he was then in
+    the midst of polishing the forty-foot mirror, rest became absolutely
+    necessary after a day spent in that most laborious work; and it has
+    ever been my opinion that on the 14th of October his nerves received
+    a shock of which he never got the better afterwards."
+
+In the spring of 1808 he was quite seriously ill; but in May the
+observing went on again. In 1809 and 1810 his principal investigations
+were upon physical subjects (NEWTON'S rings), and in 1811 the only long
+series of observations was upon the comet of that year. After 1811 the
+state of HERSCHEL'S health required that his observations should be
+much less frequent. Much of the time after 1811 he was absent, and his
+work at home consisted largely in arranging the results of his previous
+labors, and in computations connected with them. All through the years
+1814 to 1822, HERSCHEL'S health was very feeble. The severe winter of
+1813-14 had told materially upon him. In 1814, however, he undertook to
+repolish the forty-foot mirror, but was obliged to give it over.
+
+He now found it necessary to make frequent little excursions for change
+of air and scene. His faithful sister remained at home, bringing order
+into the masses of manuscript, and copying the papers for the Royal
+Society.
+
+She was sick at heart, fearing that each time she saw her brother it
+would be the last. In 1818 she says:
+
+    "Feb. 11, I went to my brother and remained with him till the 23d.
+    We spent our time, though not in idleness, in sorrow and sadness.
+    He is not only unwell, but low in spirits."
+
+In 1818 (December 16), HERSCHEL went to London to have his portrait
+painted by ARTAUD. While he was in London his will was made.[28]
+
+In 1819 there is a glimmer of the old-time light. In a note HERSCHEL
+says:
+
+    "LINA:--There is a great comet. I want you to assist me. Come to
+    dine and spend the day here. If you can come soon after one o'clock,
+    we shall have time to prepare maps and telescopes. I saw its
+    situation last night. It has a long tail.
+
+    "_July 4, 1819._"
+
+This note has been carefully kept by his sister, and on it she has
+written: "I keep this as a relic. Every line _now_ traced by the hand of
+my dear brother becomes a treasure to me."
+
+So the next three years passed away. Sir WILLIAM[29] was daily more and
+more feeble. He spent his time in putting his works in order, but could
+devote only a few moments each day to this. His sister says:
+
+    "_Aug. 11th_, _12th_, _13th_, and _14th_ [1822], I went as usual to
+    spend some hours of the forenoon with my brother.
+
+    "_Aug. 15th._--I hastened to the spot where I was wont to find him,
+    with the newspaper which I was to read to him. But instead I found
+    Mrs. MONSON, Miss BALDWIN, and Mr. BULMAN, from Leeds, the grandson
+    of my brother's earliest acquaintance in this country. I was
+    informed my brother had been obliged to return to his room, whither
+    I flew immediately. Lady H. and the housekeeper were with him,
+    administering everything which could be thought of for supporting
+    him. I found him much irritated at not being able to grant Mr.
+    BULMAN'S request for some token of remembrance for his father. As
+    soon as he saw me, I was sent to the library to fetch one of his
+    last papers and a plate of the forty-foot telescope. But for the
+    universe I could not have looked twice at what I had snatched from
+    the shelf, and when he faintly asked if the breaking up of the Milky
+    Way was in it, I said 'Yes,' and he looked content. I cannot help
+    remembering this circumstance; it was the last time I was sent to
+    the library on such an occasion. That the anxious care for his
+    papers and workrooms never ended but with his life, was proved by
+    his frequent whispered inquiries if they were locked and the key
+    safe, of which I took care to assure him that they were, and the key
+    in Lady HERSCHEL'S hands.
+
+    "After half an hour's vain attempt to support himself, my brother
+    was obliged to consent to be put to bed, leaving no hope ever to see
+    him rise again."
+
+On the 25th of August, 1822, HERSCHEL died peacefully at the age of
+eighty-four years.
+
+His remains lie in the little church at Upton, near Windsor, where a
+memorial tablet has been erected by his son. The epitaph is as
+follows:[30]
+
+                             H. S. E.
+
+                GULIELMUS HERSCHEL Eques Guelphicus
+               Hanoviae natus Angliam elegit patriam
+               Astronomis aetatis suae praestantissimis
+                       Merito annumeratus
+                  Ut leviora sileantur inventa
+               Planetam ille extra Saturni orbitam
+                          Primus detexit
+                  Novis artis adjumentis innixus
+                 Quae ipse excogitavit et perfecit
+                   Coelorum perrupit claustra
+            Et remotiora penetrans et explorans spatia
+                    Incognitos astrorum ignes
+            Astronomorum oculis et intellectui subjecit
+                    Qua sedulitate qua solertia
+                      Corporum et phantasmatum
+             Extra systematis nostri fines lucentium
+                       Naturam indagaverit
+                Quidquid paulo audacius conjecit
+                  Ingenita temperans verecundia
+                  Ultro testantur hodie aequales
+                  Vera esse quae docuit pleraque
+           Siquidem certiora futuris ingeniis subsidia
+                     Debitura est astronomia
+                     Agnoscent forte posteri
+                 Vitam utilem innocuam amabilem
+         Non minus felici laborum exitu quam virtutibus
+                     Ornatam et vere eximiam
+               Morte suis et bonis omnibus deflenda
+                    Nec tamen immatura clausit
+                Die XXV Augusti A. D. CI[C]I[C]CCCXXII
+                      AEtatis vero suae LXXXIV.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] BODE'S _Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 144.
+
+[19] ZACH'S _Monatlich Correspondenz_, 1802, p. 56.
+
+[20] BODE'S _Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 161.
+
+[21] Through Sir JOHN HERSCHEL there is preserved to us an
+incident of his early boyhood, which shows the nature of the training
+his young mind received in the household at Slough.
+
+Walking with his father, he asked him "What was the oldest of all
+things?" The father replied, after the Socratic manner, "And what do you
+suppose is the oldest of all things?" The boy was not successful in his
+answers, whereon the old astronomer took up a small stone from the
+garden walk: "There, my child, there is the oldest of all the things
+that I certainly know." On another occasion the father asked his son,
+"What sort of things do you think are most alike?" The boy replied,
+"The leaves of the same tree are most like each other." "Gather, then,
+a handful of leaves from that tree," rejoined the philosopher,
+"and choose two which are alike."--_Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
+Society_, vol. xxxii., page 123.
+
+[22] _Memoir of CAROLINE HERSCHEL_, p. 42.
+
+[23] "Of late years these expectations have been more than
+accomplished by the discovery of no fewer than four planetary bodies,
+almost all in the same place; but so small that Dr. HERSCHEL refuses to
+honor them with the name of planets, and chooses to call them asteroids,
+though for what reason it is not easy to determine, unless it be to
+deprive the discoverers of these bodies of any pretence for rating
+themselves as high in the list of astronomical discoverers as
+himself."--_History of the Royal Society_, by THOMAS THOMSON, p. 358.
+This work was published in 1812, and therefore during the lifetime of
+HERSCHEL.
+
+[24] _Poetical History of Astronomy_: this work was nearly
+completed, but was never published. The whole of it was read to
+HERSCHEL, in order that BURNEY might have the benefit of his criticism
+on its technical terms.
+
+[25] _Memoirs of Dr. BURNEY_, vol. iii., p. 264.
+
+[26] Life and Letters of THOMAS CAMPBELL, edited by WILLIAM
+BEATTIE, vol. ii., p. 234.
+
+[27] This interview must have taken place in 1802, during
+HERSCHEL'S journey to Paris. We have no other record of it.
+
+[28] The will of HERSCHEL was dated December 17th, 1818.
+
+"The personal effects were sworn under L6,000. The copyhold and other
+lands and tenements at Upton-cum-Chalvey, in the County of Bucks, and at
+Slough, he decrees to his son, with L25,000 in the 3 per cent. Reduced
+Annuities. L2,000 are given to his brother JOHANN DIETRICH, and
+annuities of L100 each to his brother JOHANN ALEXANDER and to his sister
+CAROLINA; L20 each to his nephews and nieces, and the residue (with the
+exception of astronomical instruments, telescopes, observations, etc.,
+which he declares to have given, on account of his advanced age, to his
+son for the purpose of continuing his studies) is left solely to Lady
+HERSCHEL."--_Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xcii., 1822, p. 650.
+
+It is not necessary to say here how nobly Sir JOHN HERSCHEL redeemed the
+trust confided in him. All the world knows of his Survey of the Southern
+Heavens, in which he completed the review of the sky which had been
+begun and completed for the northern heavens by the same instruments in
+his father's hands. A glance at the Bibliography at the end of this book
+will show the titles of several papers by Sir JOHN, written with the
+sole object of rendering his father's labors more complete.
+
+[29] He was created a knight of the Royal Hanoverian
+Guelphic Order in 1816, and was the first President of the Royal
+Astronomical Society in 1821, his son being its first Foreign
+Secretary.
+
+[30] BODE'S _Jahrbuch_, 1823, p. 222.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV.
+
+          REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+
+In this chapter I shall endeavor to give such explanations as will
+enable the general reader to follow the course of discovery in each
+branch of astronomy and physics, regularly through the period of
+HERSCHEL'S life, and up to the state in which he left it.
+
+A more detailed and precise account, which should appeal directly to the
+professional astronomer, will not be needed, since ARAGO has already
+fulfilled this want in his "_Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir
+WILLIAM HERSCHEL_," published in 1842. The few misconceptions there
+contained will be easily corrected by those to whom alone they are of
+consequence. The latter class of readers may also consult the abstracts
+of HERSCHEL'S memoirs, which have been given in "_A Subject-index and a
+Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL_," prepared
+by Dr. HASTINGS and myself, and published by the Smithsonian
+Institution.
+
+An accurate sketch of the state of astronomy in England and on the
+Continent, in the years 1780-1820, need not be given. It will be enough
+if we remember that of the chief observatories of Europe, public and
+private, no one was actively devoted to such labors as were undertaken
+by HERSCHEL at the very beginning of his career.
+
+His observations on variable stars, indeed, were in the same line as
+those of PIGOTT; FLAUGERGUES and DARQUIER, in France, had perhaps
+preceded him in minute scrutiny of the sun's surface, etc.; but, even in
+that department of observation, he at once put an immense distance
+between himself and others by the rapid and extraordinary advances in
+the size and in the excellence of his telescopes. Before his time the
+principal aids to observation were the Gregorian and Newtonian
+telescopes of SHORT, and the small achromatics of DOLLOND.[31]
+
+We have seen, in what goes before, how his patient zeal had succeeded in
+improving upon these. There was no delay, and no rest. Steadily the art
+of making reflectors was urged forward, until he had finally in his
+hands the forty-foot telescope.
+
+It must be admitted that this was the limit to which the manufacture of
+powerful telescopes could be pushed in his generation. The optical and
+mechanical difficulties which prevented a farther advance required time
+for their solution; and, indeed, some of these difficulties are scarcely
+solved at this day. It may fairly be said that no reflector larger than
+three feet in aperture has yet realized our expectations.
+
+
+           _The Improvement of Telescopes and Optical Apparatus._
+
+It will be of interest to give in this place some connected account of
+the large forty-foot reflector, of four feet aperture, made by HERSCHEL.
+Its history extends from 1785 to 1811. Its manufacture was considered by
+his cotemporaries as his greatest triumph. As a machine, it was
+extremely ingenious in all its parts, as may be seen from the elaborate
+description and plates of it published in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ for 1795. One of its mirrors certainly had good
+definition, for, by means of it, the two small satellites of _Saturn_
+(_Mimas_ and _Enceladus_) were discovered, and these discoveries alone
+would make it famous. Perhaps more was expected of it by the public in
+general than it absolutely performed. Its merits were after a while
+decried, and HERSCHEL even felt obliged to state why he did not always
+employ it in his observations. His reasons were perfectly valid, and
+such as any one may understand. The time required to get so large a
+machine into working order was a serious tax; it required more
+assistants than his twenty-foot telescope, and he says, "I have made it
+a rule never to employ a larger telescope when a smaller will answer the
+purpose."
+
+It still remains as a remarkable feat of engineering and an example of
+great optical and mechanical skill. It led the way to the large
+reflectors of Lord ROSSE, some sixty years later, and several of the
+forty-foot telescopes of the present day even have done less useful
+work. Its great feat, however, was to have added two satellites to the
+solar system. From the published accounts of it the following is taken:
+
+    "When I resided at Bath I had long been acquainted with the theory
+    of optics and mechanics, and wanted only that experience so
+    necessary in the practical part of these sciences. This I acquired
+    by degrees at that place, where in my leisure hours, by way of
+    amusement, I made several two-foot, five-foot, seven-foot, ten-foot,
+    and twenty-foot Newtonian telescopes, beside others, of the
+    Gregorian form, of eight, twelve, and eighteen inches, and two,
+    three, five, and ten feet focal length. In this way I made not less
+    than two hundred seven-foot, one hundred and fifty ten-foot, and
+    about eighty twenty-foot mirrors, not to mention the Gregorian
+    telescopes.[32]
+
+    "The number of stands I invented for these telescopes it would not
+    be easy to assign. . . . In 1781 I began to construct a thirty-foot
+    aerial reflector, and having made a stand for it, I cast the mirror
+    thirty-six inches in diameter. This was cracked in cooling. I cast
+    it a second time, and the furnace I had built in my house broke."
+
+Soon after, the Georgian planet was discovered, and this interrupted the
+work for a time.
+
+    "In the year 1783 I finished a very good twenty-foot reflector with
+    a large aperture, and mounted it upon the plan of my present
+    telescope. After two years' observation with it, the great advantage
+    of such apertures appeared so clearly to me that I recurred to my
+    former intention of increasing them still further; and being now
+    sufficiently provided with experience in the work which I wished to
+    undertake, the President of the Royal Society, who is always ready
+    to promote useful undertakings, had the goodness to lay my design
+    before the king. His Majesty was graciously pleased to approve of
+    it, and with his usual liberality to support it with his royal
+    bounty.
+
+    "In consequence of this arrangement I began to construct the
+    forty-foot telescope about the latter end of 1785.[33] The woodwork
+    of the stand and machines for giving the required motions to the
+    instrument were immediately put in hand. In the whole of the
+    apparatus none but common workmen were employed, for I made drawings
+    of every part of it, by which it was easy to execute the work, as I
+    constantly inspected and directed every person's labor; though
+    sometimes there were not less than forty different workmen employed
+    at the same time. While the stand of the telescope was preparing, I
+    also began the construction of the great mirror, of which I
+    inspected the casting, grinding, and polishing, and the work was in
+    this manner carried on with no other interruption than that
+    occasioned by the removal of all the apparatus and materials from
+    where I then lived, to my present situation at Slough.
+
+    "Here, soon after my arrival, I began to lay the foundation upon
+    which by degrees the whole structure was raised as it now stands,
+    and the speculum being highly polished and put into the tube, I had
+    the first view through it on February 19, 1787. I do not, however,
+    date the completing of the instrument till much later. For the first
+    speculum, by a mismanagement of the person who cast it, came out
+    thinner on the centre of the back than was intended, and on account
+    of its weakness would not permit a good figure to be given to it.
+
+    "A second mirror was cast January 26, 1788, but it cracked in
+    cooling. February 16 we recast it, and it proved to be of a proper
+    degree of strength. October 24 it was brought to a pretty good
+    figure and polish, and I observed the planet _Saturn_ with it. But
+    not being satisfied, I continued to work upon it till August 27,
+    1789, when it was tried upon the fixed stars, and I found it to give
+    a pretty sharp image. Large stars were a little affected with
+    scattered light, owing to many remaining scratches on the mirror.
+    August the 28th, 1789, having brought the telescope to the parallel
+    of _Saturn_, I discovered a _sixth_ satellite of that planet, and
+    also saw the spots upon _Saturn_ better than I had ever seen them
+    before, so that I may date the finishing of the forty-foot telescope
+    from that time."
+
+Another satellite of _Saturn_ was discovered with the forty-foot on the
+17th of September (1789). It was used for various observations so late
+as 1811. On January 19, of that year, HERSCHEL observed the nebula of
+_Orion_ with it. This was one of his last observations.
+
+The final disposition of the telescope is told in the following extract
+from a letter of Sir JOHN HERSCHEL'S to Mr. WELD, Secretary of the Royal
+Society:
+
+                                       "COLLINGWOOD, _March 13, 1847_.
+
+    . . . "In reply to your queries, respecting the forty-foot
+    reflecting telescope constructed by my father, I have to state that
+    King GEORGE III. munificently defrayed the _entire_ cost of that
+    instrument (including, of course, all preparatory cost in the nature
+    of construction of tools, and of the apparatus for casting, grinding,
+    and figuring the reflectors, of which two were constructed), at a
+    total cost of L4,000. The woodwork of the telescope being so far
+    decayed as to be dangerous, in the year 1839 I pulled it down, and
+    piers were erected on which the tube was placed, _that_ being of
+    iron and so well preserved, that, although not more than
+    one-twentieth of an inch thick, when in the horizontal position it
+    sustained within it all my family, and continues to sustain inclosed
+    within it, to this day, not only the heavier of the two reflectors,
+    but also all the more important portions of the machinery. . . .
+    The mirror and the rest of the polishing apparatus are on the
+    premises. The iron grinding tools and polishers are placed
+    underneath the tube, let into the ground, and level with the surface
+    of the gravelled area in which it stands.". . .
+
+The closing of the tube was done with appropriate ceremony on
+New-Year's-Day, 1840, when, after a procession through it by the family
+at Slough, a poem, written by Sir JOHN, was read, the machinery put into
+its present position, and the tube sealed.
+
+The memoir on the forty-foot telescope shows throughout that HERSCHEL'S
+prime object was not the making of the telescope itself, but that his
+mind was constantly directed towards the uses to which it was to be
+put--towards the questions which he wished it to answer.
+
+Again and again, in his various papers, he returns to the question of
+the _limit of vision_. As BESSEL has said:
+
+    "The naked eye has its limit of vision in the stars of the sixth
+    magnitude. The light of fainter stars than these does not affect the
+    retina enough for them to be seen. A very small telescope penetrates
+    to smaller, and, in general, without doubt, to more distant stars.
+    A more powerful one penetrates deeper into space, and as its power is
+    increased, so the boundaries of the visible universe are widened,
+    and the number of stars increased to millions and millions. Whoever
+    has followed the history of the series of HERSCHEL'S telescopes will
+    have observed this. But HERSCHEL was not content with the bare fact,
+    but strove ever to know _how far_ a telescope of a certain
+    construction and size could penetrate, compared with the naked and
+    unassisted eye. These investigations were never for the discovery of
+    new facts concerning the working of his instruments; it was for the
+    knowledge of the distribution of the fixed stars in space itself
+    that he strove. . . . HERSCHEL'S instruments were designed to aid
+    vision to the last extent. They were only secondarily for the taking
+    of measures. His efforts were not for a knowledge of the _motions_,
+    but of the _constitution_ and _construction_ of the heavenly
+    bodies."
+
+Besides the stands for his telescopes, which were both ingenious and
+convenient, HERSCHEL devised many forms of apparatus for facilitating
+the art of observation. His micrometers for measuring position angles,
+his lamp micrometer, the method of limiting apertures, and the methods
+he used for viewing the sun may be mentioned among these.
+
+Points in practical astronomy are considered all through the years of
+observation. A reference to his original papers will show how numerous,
+how varied, and how valuable these are. I cannot forbear quoting here
+the account of a precaution observed during his examination of the belts
+on _Saturn_ (1794).
+
+It is the most striking example of how fully HERSCHEL realized that the
+eye of the observer is a material part of the optical apparatus of
+astronomy. Simple as this principle may appear, it was an absolute
+novelty in his day.
+
+In making these observations, he says:
+
+    "I took care to bend my head so as to receive the picture of the
+    belt in the same direction as I did formerly. This was a precaution
+    that occurred to me, as there was a possibility that the vertical
+    diameter of the retina might be more or less sensitive than the
+    horizontal one."
+
+Astronomers will recognize in this the first suggestion of the processes
+which have led to important results in the hands of Dr. OTTO STRUVE and
+others in the comparison of the measures of double stars by different
+observers, each of whom has a personal habit of observation, which, if
+not corrected, may affect his results in the way which HERSCHEL was
+striving to avoid.
+
+
+           _Researches on the Relative Brightness of the
+                     Stars: Variable Stars._
+
+No research of HERSCHEL'S was more laborious than the elaborate
+classification of the stars according to their comparative brightness,
+which he executed during the years 1796 to 1799. It was directly in the
+line of his main work--to find out the construction of the heavens.
+
+His first paper had been upon the variable star _Mira Ceti_. Here was a
+sun, shining by its native brightness, which waxed and waned like the
+moon itself. This star is periodic. It is for a long period invisible to
+the unassisted eye. Then it can just be seen, and increases in
+brightness for a little over a month, and attains a maximum brilliancy.
+From this it decreases for nearly three months, and after becoming
+invisible, remains so for five or six months. Its whole period is about
+333 days. Are all other stars constant in brightness? The example of
+_Mira Ceti_ and of other known variables makes this at least doubtful.
+But the sun itself may vary for all that we know. It is a simple star
+like the rest.
+
+This question of variability in general is an important one, then.
+It can only be tested by making accurate catalogues of the relative
+brilliance of stars at various times, and by comparing these. No such
+general catalogue existed before HERSCHEL'S time, and led by the
+discrepancies in isolated cases, which he found between his own
+estimates and those of his predecessors, he made from observation a
+series of four catalogues, in which were set down the order of sequence
+of the stars of each constellation.
+
+The method adopted by HERSCHEL was perfectly simple in principle, though
+most laborious in practice. Suppose any number of stars, A, B, C, D, E,
+. . . etc., near enough to each other to be well compared. The process
+consists simply in writing down the names of the stars, A, B, C, etc.,
+in the order of their relative brightness. Thus if for a group of eight
+stars we have found at one epoch A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and if at
+another time the order was A, B, C, D, F, E, G, H, symptoms of
+variability are pointed out. Repeated observations, where the same star
+is found in different sequences, will decide the question. Thus, for the
+stars visible to the naked eye, we know exactly the state of the sky in
+HERSCHEL'S day, now nearly a century ago. Any material change cannot
+escape us. These catalogues have been singularly overlooked by the
+observers of our generation who have followed this branch of
+observation, and it was not till 1876 that they received proper
+attention and a suitable reduction (at the hands of Mr. C. S. PIERCE).
+
+We owe to HERSCHEL the first trustworthy account of the stars visible
+to the naked eye, and since the date of his labors (about 1800) we have
+similar views published by ARGELANDER (1839), HEIS (1848), ARGELANDER
+and SCHOeNFELD (1857), GOULD (1860 and 1872), and HOUZEAU (1875). Thus
+his labors have been well followed up.
+
+In the prosecution of this work HERSCHEL found stars whose light was
+progressively diminishing, others which regularly increased, one star
+whose light periodically varies (_[alpha] Herculis_), and at least
+one star (55 _Herculis_) which has utterly disappeared. On October 10,
+1781, and April 11, 1782, he observed this latter star, but in May,
+1791, it had totally vanished. There was no trace remaining.
+
+The discovery of the variability of _[alpha] Herculis_ was a more
+important one than would at first sight appear. Up to that time the only
+variable stars known were seven in number. Their periods were four
+hundred and ninety-four, four hundred and four, three hundred and
+thirty-four, seven, six, five, and three days. These periods seemed to
+fall into two groups, one of from three hundred to five hundred days,
+the other comparatively much shorter, of three to seven days.
+_[alpha] Herculis_ came to occupy the middle place between these groups,
+its period being about sixty days.
+
+The cause of these strange and regular variations of brightness was
+supposed by HERSCHEL to be the rotation of the star bodily on an axis,
+by which revolution different parts of its surface, of different
+brilliancy, were successively and periodically presented to us. This
+explanation it might have been difficult to receive, when the periods of
+the known variables were so markedly various in length. His own
+discovery came to bridge over the interval, and quite confirmed him in
+his belief. He returned to the subject of the revolution of stars about
+their axes again and again, and connected it with the revolution of
+satellites.
+
+He found that the satellites of _Jupiter_ and one of _Saturn's_
+periodically changed in brightness, and by quite simple means showed
+that their periods of rotation were at least approximately the same as
+their periods of revolution about their primaries. In this case, as in
+every other, he considered a discovery in each and every one of its
+possible bearings. There are no instances where he has singularly
+overlooked the consequences of his observations.
+
+
+                    _Researches on Double Stars._
+
+The double stars were the subject of HERSCHEL'S earliest and of his
+latest papers. In 1782 he published his "_Catalogue of Double Stars_,"
+and his last published memoir (1822) was on the same subject.
+
+The question of determining the parallax of stars first brought HERSCHEL
+to the discovery of double stars. If two stars, A and B, appear very
+close together, and if, in reality, the star B is very many times more
+distant from the earth than A, although seen along the same line of
+sight, then the revolution of the earth in its orbit will produce
+changes in the relative situation of A and B, and, in fact, B will
+describe a small orbit about A, due to this revolution. This idea had
+been proposed by GALILEO, and measures on this plan had been made by
+LONG, with negative results. But HERSCHEL, in reviewing their work,
+declares that the stars chosen by LONG were not suitable to the purpose.
+It is necessary, among other things, to the success of this method, that
+it should be certain that the star B is really very much more distant
+than the star A. The only general test of the distance of stars is their
+brilliancy, and HERSCHEL decided to use only stars for this research
+which had two components very greatly different in brightness. A must be
+very bright (and presumably near to us), and B must be very close to A,
+and very faint (and thus, presumably, very distant).
+
+It was in the search for such pairs of stars that the _Catalogue of
+Double Stars_ (1782) was formed. HERSCHEL'S first idea of a double star
+made such pairs as he found, to consist of two stars _accidentally_ near
+to each other. A was near to us, and appeared projected in a certain
+place on the celestial sphere. B was many times more distant, but, by
+chance, was seen along the same line, and made with A an _optical_
+double. If the two stars were at the same distance from the earth, if
+they made part of the same physical system, if one revolved around the
+other, then this method of gaining a knowledge of their distance failed.
+Even in his first memoir on the subject, a surmise that this latter
+state might occur in some cases, was expressed by HERSCHEL. The notes on
+some of the pairs declare that a motion of one of them was suspected.
+But this motion might be truly orbital--of one star about the other as
+a centre--or it might simply be that one star was moving by its own
+_proper_ motion, and leaving the other behind. It was best to wait and
+see. The first Catalogue of Double Stars contained two hundred and three
+instances of such associations. These were observed from time to time,
+and new pairs discovered. The paper of MICHELL, "An Inquiry into the
+probable Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of
+Light which they Afford, and the Particular Circumstances of their
+Situation" (1767), was read and pondered. By 1802 HERSCHEL had become
+certain that there existed in the heavens real pairs of stars, both at
+the same distance from the earth, which were physically connected with
+each other. The arguments of MICHELL have been applied by BESSEL to the
+case of one of HERSCHEL'S double stars, in much the same order in which
+the argument ran in HERSCHEL'S own mind, as follows:
+
+The star _Castor_ (_[alpha] Geminorum_) is a double star, where A is of
+the second, and B of the fourth, magnitude. To the naked eye these two
+appear as one star. With a telescope this is seen to be two stars, some
+5" apart. In the whole sky there are not above fifty such stars
+as the brighter of the two, and about four hundred of the brilliancy of
+B. These fifty and four hundred stars are scattered over the vault of
+heaven, almost at random. No law has yet been traced by which we can say
+that here or here there shall be a bright star like A, or a fainter one
+like B. In general the distribution appears to be fortuitous. How then
+can we account for one of the four hundred stars like B placed so close
+to one of the fifty like A?
+
+The chances are over four hundred thousand to one that the association
+in position is not accidental. This argument becomes overwhelming when
+the same association is found in many other cases. There were two
+hundred and three doubles in the Catalogue of 1782 alone, and many
+thousands are now known.
+
+By a process like this, HERSCHEL reached his grand discovery of true
+binary systems, where one sun revolves about another. For he saw that
+if the two stars are near together in space, they could not stand still
+in face of each other, but that they must revolve in true orbits. Here
+was the discovery which came to take the place of the detection of the
+parallaxes of the fixed stars.
+
+He had failed in one research, but he was led to grand conclusions.
+Was the force that these distant pairs of suns obeyed, the force of
+gravitation? This he could not settle, but his successors have done so.
+It was not till about 1827 that SAVARY, of the Paris Observatory, showed
+that one of HERSCHEL'S doubles was subjected to the law of gravitation,
+and thus extended the power of this law from our system to the universe
+at large. HERSCHEL himself lived to see some of his double stars perform
+half a revolution.
+
+Of HERSCHEL'S discoveries, ARAGO thinks this has "le plus d'avenir."
+It may well be so. The laws which govern our solar system have been
+extended, through his researches, to regions of unknown distance. The
+binary stars will afford the largest field for research into the laws
+which govern them, and together with the clusters and groups, they will
+give a firm basis by which to study the distribution of stars in
+general, since here we have the great advantage of knowing, if not the
+real distance of the two stars from the earth, at least that this
+distance is alike for both.
+
+
+                  _Researches on Planets and Satellites._
+
+After HERSCHEL'S first publication on the mountains of the Moon (1780),
+our satellite appears to have occupied him but little. The observation
+of volcanoes (1787) and of a lunar eclipse are his only published ones.
+The planets _Mercury_, _Venus_, _Mars_, and _Jupiter_, although they
+were often studied, were not the subjects of his more important memoirs.
+The planet _Saturn_, on the contrary, seems never to have been lost
+sight of from the time of his first view of it in 1772.
+
+The field of discovery always appears to be completely occupied until
+the advent of a great man, who, even by his way of putting old and
+familiar facts, shows the paths along which discoveries must come, if at
+all. This faculty comes from profound reflection on the nature of the
+subject itself, from a sort of transmuting power which changes the words
+of the books into the things of reality. HERSCHEL'S paper on _Saturn_,
+in 1790, is an admirable example of this.
+
+HERSCHEL'S observations on _Saturn_ began in 1772. From 1790 to 1808 he
+published six memoirs on the figure, the ring, and the satellites of
+this planet. The spheroidal shape of the ball was first discovered by
+him, and we owe much of our certain knowledge of the constitution of the
+rings to his work. The sixth and seventh satellites, _Mimas_ and
+_Enceladus_, were discovered by him in 1789. The periods of rotation of
+the ball and of the ring were also fixed. In his conclusions as to the
+real figure of the rings, there is a degree of scientific caution which
+is truly remarkable, and which to-day seems almost excessive.
+
+In his paper of 1792, HERSCHEL shows that the most distant satellite of
+_Saturn_--_Japetus_--turns once on its axis in each revolution about its
+primary, just as our moon does. He says of this:
+
+    "I cannot help reflecting with some pleasure on the discovery of an
+    analogy which shows that a certain uniform plan is carried on among
+    the secondary planets of our solar system; and we may conjecture
+    that probably most of the satellites are governed by the same law;
+    especially if it be founded on such a construction of their figure
+    as makes them more ponderous towards their primary planets."
+
+I believe the last suggestion to have been the first statement of the
+possible arrangement of matter in satellites, which was afterwards so
+forcibly maintained by HANSEN in his theory of the moon. HANSEN'S
+researches show the consequences of such an arrangement, although they
+do not prove its existence.
+
+It should be recorded that the explanation which is to-day received of
+the belts and bands upon _Jupiter_, is, I believe, first found in
+HERSCHEL'S memoir on _Venus_ (1793). His memoir of 1797, on the
+changeable brightness of the satellites of _Jupiter_, has already been
+referred to. The times of the rotation of the satellites on their axes
+was first determined by HERSCHEL from these observations, which also
+contain accounts of the curious, and as yet unexplained, phenomena
+attending their appearances on the disc of the planet.
+
+HERSCHEL discovered in January, 1787, the two brighter satellites of
+_Uranus_, now called _Oberon_ and _Titania_. They are among the faintest
+objects in the solar system. A later discussion of all his observations
+led him to the belief that there were four more, and he gives his
+observations and computations in full. He says that of the existence of
+additional satellites he has no doubt. Of these four, three were
+exterior to the most distant satellite _Oberon_, the other was
+"interior" to _Titania_.
+
+It was not until 1834 that even _Oberon_ and _Titania_ were again
+observed (by Sir JOHN HERSCHEL) with a telescope of twenty feet, similar
+to that which had discovered them, and not until 1847 was the true state
+of this system known, when Mr. LASSELL discovered _Ariel_ and _Umbriel_,
+two satellites interior to _Titania_, neither of which was HERSCHEL'S
+"interior" satellite. In 1848 and later years Mr. LASSELL, by the aid of
+telescopes constructed by himself, fully settled the fact that only
+four satellites of this planet existed. In 1874 I examined the
+observations of HERSCHEL on his supposed "interior" satellite, thinking
+that it might be possible that among the very few glimpses of it which
+he recorded, some might have belonged to _Ariel_ and some to _Umbriel_,
+and that by combining rare and almost accidental observations of two
+satellites which really existed, he had come to announce the existence
+of an "interior" satellite which had no existence in fact. Such I
+believe to be the case. In 1801, April 17, HERSCHEL describes an
+interior satellite in the position angle 189 deg., distant 18" from
+the planet. At that instant _Umbriel_, one of Mr. LASSELL'S satellites,
+was in the position 191 deg., and distant 21" from _Uranus_, in the
+most favorable position for seeing it. The observation of 1794, March
+27, _may_ belong to _Ariel_. At the best the investigation is of passing
+interest only, and has nothing to do with the question of the discovery
+of the satellites. HERSCHEL discovered the two brighter ones, and it
+was only sixty years later that they were properly re-observed by Mr.
+LASSELL, who has the great honor of having added as many more, and who
+first settled the vexed question of satellites _exterior_ to _Oberon_,
+and this with a reflecting telescope made by himself, which is
+unequalled by any other of its dimensions.
+
+
+                    _Researches on the Nature of the Sun._
+
+In the introduction to his paper on the _Nature and Construction of the
+Sun and Fixed Stars_ (1795), HERSCHEL recounts what was known of the
+nature of the sun at that time. NEWTON had shown that it was the centre
+of the system; GALILEO and his successors had determined its rotation,
+the place of its equator, its real diameter, magnitude, density,
+distance, and the force of gravity on its surface. He says:
+
+    "I should not wonder if, considering all this, we were induced to
+    think that nothing remained to be added; and yet we are still very
+    ignorant in regard to the internal construction of the sun." "The
+    spots have been supposed to be solid bodies, the smoke of
+    volcanoes, the scum floating on an ocean of fluid matter, clouds,
+    opaque masses, and to be many other things." "The sun itself has
+    been called a globe of fire, though, perhaps, metaphorically." "It
+    is time now to profit by the observations we are in possession of.
+    I have availed myself of the labors of preceding astronomers, but
+    have been induced thereto by my own actual observation of the solar
+    phenomena."
+
+HERSCHEL then refers to the theories advanced by his friend, Prof.
+WILSON, of Glasgow, in 1774. WILSON maintained that the spots were
+depressions below the sun's atmosphere, vast hollows as it were, at the
+bases of which the true surface of the sun could be seen.
+
+The essence of his theory was the existence of two different kinds of
+matter in the sun: one solid and non-luminous--the nucleus--the other
+gaseous and incandescent--the atmosphere. Vacant places in the
+atmosphere, however caused, would show the black surface of the solid
+mass below. These were the spots. No explanation could be given of the
+_faculae_, bright streaks, which appear on the sun's surface from time
+to time; but his theory accounted for the existence of the black
+_nuclei_ of the spots, and for the existence of the _penumbrae_ about
+these. The penumbra of a spot was formed by the thinner parts of the
+atmosphere about the vacancy which surrounded the nucleus.
+
+This theory of WILSON'S was adopted by HERSCHEL as a basis for his own,
+and he brought numerous observations to confirm it, in the modified
+shape which he gave to it.
+
+According to HERSCHEL, the sun consisted of three essentially different
+parts. First, there was a solid nucleus, non-luminous, cool, and even
+capable of being inhabited. Second, above this was an atmosphere proper;
+and, lastly, outside of this was a layer in which floated the clouds, or
+bodies which gave to the solar surface its intense brilliancy:
+
+    "According to my theory, a dark spot in the sun is a place in its
+    atmosphere which happens to be free from luminous decompositions"
+    above it.
+
+The two atmospheric layers, which will be of varying thickness about a
+spot, will account for all the shades of darkness seen in the penumbra.
+Ascending currents from the solar surface will elevate certain regions,
+and may increase the solar activity near by, and will thus give rise to
+faculae, which HERSCHEL shows to be elevated above the general surface.
+It will not be necessary to give a further account of this theory. The
+data in the possession of the modern theorist is a thousand-fold that to
+be derived from HERSCHEL'S observations, and, while the subject of the
+internal construction of the sun is to-day unsettled, we know that many
+important, even fundamental, portions of his theory are untenable.
+A remark of his should be recorded, however, as it has played a great
+part in such theories:
+
+    "That the emission of light must waste the sun, is not a difficulty
+    that can be opposed to our hypothesis. Many of the operations of
+    Nature are carried on in her great laboratory which we cannot
+    comprehend. Perhaps the many telescopic comets may restore to the
+    sun what is lost by the emission of light."
+
+Arguments in favor of the habitability of both sun and moon are
+contained in this paper; but they rest more on a metaphysical than a
+scientific basis, and are to-day justly forgotten.
+
+
+             _Researches on the Motion of the Sun and of
+                    the Solar System in Space._
+
+In 1782 HERSCHEL writes, in regard to some of his discoveries of double
+stars:
+
+    "These may serve another very important end. I will just mention it,
+    though it is foreign to my present purpose. Several stars of the
+    first magnitude have been observed or suspected to have a proper
+    motion; hence we may surmise that our sun, with all its planets and
+    comets, may also have a motion towards some particular point of the
+    heavens. . . . If this surmise should have any foundation, it will show
+    itself in a series of some years in a kind of systematical parallax,
+    or change, due to the motion of the whole solar system."
+
+In 1783 he published his paper _On the Proper Motion of the Solar
+System_, which contained the proofs of his surmises of a year before.
+That certain of the stars had in fact a _proper_ motion had been well
+established by the astronomers of the eighteenth century. After all
+allowances had been made for the effects of precession and other
+displacements of a star's position which were produced by motions of the
+earth, it was found that there were still small outstanding differences
+which must be due to the motion of the star itself--its proper motion.
+The quantity of this motion was not well known for any star when
+HERSCHEL'S researches began. Before they were concluded, however,
+MASKELYNE had deduced the proper motions of thirty-six stars--the
+fundamental stars, so called--which included in their number _Sirius_,
+_Procyon_, _Arcturus_, and generally the brightest stars.
+
+It is _a priori_ evident that stars, in general, must have proper
+motions, when once we admit the universality of gravitation. That any
+fixed star should be entirely at rest would require that the attractions
+on all sides of it should be exactly balanced. Any change in the
+position of this star would break up this balance, and thus, in general,
+it follows that stars must be in motion, since all of them cannot occupy
+such a critical position as has to be assumed. If but one fixed star is
+in motion, this affects all the rest, and we cannot doubt but that
+every star, our sun included, is in motion by an amount which varies
+from small to great. If the sun alone had a motion, and the other stars
+were at rest, the consequence of this would be that all the fixed stars
+would appear to be retreating _en masse_ from that point in the sky
+towards which we were moving. Those nearest us would move more rapidly,
+those more distant less so. And in the same way, the stars from which
+the solar system was receding would seem to be approaching each other.
+If the stars, instead of being quite at rest, as just supposed, had
+motions proper to themselves, then we should have a double complexity.
+They would still appear to an observer in the solar system to have
+motions, and part of these motions would be truly proper to the stars,
+and part would be due to the advance of the sun itself in space.
+
+Observations can show us only the _resultant_ of these two motions.
+It is for reasoning to separate this resultant into its two components.
+At first the question is to determine whether the results of observation
+indicate any solar motion at all. If there is none, the proper motions
+of stars will be directed along all possible lines. If the sun does
+truly move, then there will be a general agreement in the resultant
+motions of the stars near the ends of the line along which it moves,
+while those at the sides, so to speak, will show comparatively less
+systematic effect. It is as if one were riding in the rear of a railway
+train and watching the rails over which it has just passed. As we recede
+from any point, the rails at that point seem to come nearer and nearer
+together.
+
+If we were passing through a forest, we should see the trunks of the
+trees from which we were going apparently come nearer and nearer
+together, while those on the sides of us would remain at their constant
+distance, and those in front would grow further and further apart.
+
+These phenomena, which occur in a case where we are sensible of our own
+motion, serve to show how we may deduce a motion, otherwise unknown,
+from the appearances which are presented by the stars in space.
+
+In this way, acting upon suggestions which had been thrown out
+previously to his own time by LAMBERT, MAYER, and BRADLEY, HERSCHEL
+demonstrated that the sun, together with all its system, was moving
+through space in an unknown and majestic orbit of its own. The centre
+round which this motion is directed cannot yet be assigned. We can
+only know the point in the heavens towards which our course is
+directed--"the apex of solar motion."
+
+By a study of the proper motions assigned by MASKELYNE to the brighter
+stars, HERSCHEL was able to define the position of the solar apex with
+an astonishing degree of accuracy. His calculations have been several
+times repeated with the advantage of modern analytical methods, and of
+the hundred-fold material now at our disposition, but nothing essential
+has been added to his results of 1805, which were based upon such scanty
+data; and his paper of 1782 contains the announcement of the discovery
+itself.
+
+His second paper on the _Direction_ and _Velocity_ of the solar system
+(1805) is the best example that can possibly be given of his marvellous
+skill in reaching the heart of a matter, and it may be the one in which
+his philosophical powers appear in their highest exercise. For sustained
+reflection and high philosophic thought it is to be ranked with the
+researches of NEWTON in the _Principia_.
+
+
+           _Researches on the Construction of the Heavens._
+
+HERSCHEL'S papers on the Construction of the Heavens, as he named it,
+extended over his whole scientific life. By this he specially means the
+method according to which the stars, the clusters, the nebulae, are
+spread through the regions of space, the causes that have led to this
+distribution, and the laws to which it is subjected.
+
+No single astronomical fact is unimportant in the light which it may
+throw on the scheme of the whole, and each fact is to be considered in
+this light. As an instance: his discovery of the variable star
+_[alpha] Herculis_, which has a period of sixty days, was valuable in
+itself as adding one more to the number of those strange suns whose
+light is now brighter, now fainter, in a regular and periodic order.
+But the chief value of the discovery was that now we had an instance of
+a periodic star which went through all its phases in sixty days, and
+connected, as it were, the stars of short periods (three to seven days)
+with those of very long ones (three hundred to five hundred days), which
+two groups had, until then, been the only ones known. In the same way
+all his researches on the parallaxes of stars were not alone for the
+discovery of the distance of any one or two single stars, but to gain a
+unit of celestial measure, by means of which the depths of space might
+be sounded.
+
+Astronomy in HERSCHEL'S day considered the bodies of the solar system as
+separated from each other by distances, and as filling a cubical space.
+The ideas of near and far, of up and down, were preserved, in regard to
+them, by common astronomical terms. But the vast number of stars seemed
+to be thought of, as they appear in fact to exist, lying on the surface
+of a hollow sphere. The immediate followers of BRADLEY used these fixed
+stars as points of reference by which the motions within the solar
+system could be determined, or, like LACAILLE and LALANDE, gathered
+those immense catalogues of their positions which are so indispensable
+to the science. MICHELL and HERSCHEL alone, in England, occupied their
+thoughts with the nature and construction of the heavens--the one in his
+study, the other through observation.[34] They were concerned with all
+three of the dimensions of space.
+
+In his memoir of 1784, HERSCHEL says:
+
+    "Hitherto the sidereal heavens have, not inadequately for the
+    purpose designed, been represented by the concave surface of a
+    sphere, in the centre of which the eye of an observer might be
+    supposed to be placed.
+
+    "It is true the various magnitudes of the fixed stars even then
+    plainly suggested to us, and would have better suited, the idea of
+    an expanded firmament of three dimensions; but the observations upon
+    which I am now going to enter still farther illustrate and enforce
+    the necessity of considering the heavens in this point of view. In
+    future, therefore, we shall look upon those regions into which we
+    may now penetrate by means of such large telescopes, as a naturalist
+    regards a rich extent of ground or chain of mountains containing
+    strata variously inclined and directed, as well as consisting of
+    very different materials. The surface of a globe or map, therefore,
+    will but ill delineate the interior parts of the heavens."
+
+HERSCHEL'S method of study was founded on a mode of observation which he
+called _star-gauging_. It consisted in pointing a powerful telescope
+toward various parts of the heavens, and ascertaining by actual count
+how thick the stars were in each region. His twenty-foot reflector was
+provided with such an eye-piece that, in looking into it, he saw a
+portion of the heavens about 15' in diameter. A circle of this size on
+the celestial sphere has about one quarter the apparent surface of the
+sun, or of the full moon. On pointing the telescope in any direction, a
+greater or less number of stars were visible. These were counted, and
+the direction in which the telescope pointed was noted. Gauges of this
+kind were made in all parts of the sky, and the results were tabulated
+in the order of right ascension.
+
+The following is an extract from the gauges, and gives the average
+number of stars in each field at the points noted in right ascension and
+north polar distance:
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------
+              |    N. P. D.       ||           |    N. P. D.
+      R. A.   |78 deg. to 80 deg. ||   R. A.   |92 deg. to 94 deg.
+              |  No. of Stars.    ||           | No. of Stars.
+  ------------|-------------------||-----------|-------------------
+      H.  M.  |                   ||  H.  M.   |
+      11   6  |       3.1         ||  15  10   |      9.4
+      12  31  |       3.4         ||  15  22   |     10.6
+      12  44  |       4.6         ||  15  47   |     10.6
+      12  49  |       3.9         ||  16   8   |     12.1
+      13   5  |       3.8         ||  16  25   |     13.6
+      14  30  |       3.6         ||  16  37   |     18.6
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In this small table, it is plain that a different law of clustering or
+of distribution obtains in the two regions. Such differences are still
+more marked, if we compare the extreme cases found by HERSCHEL, as
+R. A. = 19h 41m, N. P. D. = 74 deg. 33', number of stars per field = 588;
+and R. A. = 16h 10m, N. P. D. = 113 deg. 4', number of stars = 1.1.
+
+The number of stars in certain portions is very great. For example, in
+the Milky Way, near _Orion_, six fields of view promiscuously taken gave
+110, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 stars each, or a mean of 79 stars per field.
+The most vacant space in this neighborhood gave 60 stars. So that as
+HERSCHEL'S sweeps were two degrees wide in declination, in one hour
+(15 deg.) there would pass through the field of his telescope 40,000 or
+more stars. In some of the sweeps this number was as great as 116,000
+stars in a quarter of an hour.
+
+When HERSCHEL first applied his telescope to the Milky Way, he believed
+that it completely resolved the whole whitish appearance into small
+stars. This conclusion he subsequently modified. He says:
+
+    "It is very probable that the great stratum called the Milky Way is
+    that in which the sun is placed, though perhaps not in the very
+    centre of its thickness.
+
+    "We gather this from the appearance of the Galaxy, which seems to
+    encompass the whole heavens, as it certainly must do if the sun is
+    within it. For, suppose a number of stars arranged between two
+    parallel planes, indefinitely extended every way, but at a given
+    considerable distance from each other; and calling this a sidereal
+    stratum, an eye placed somewhere within it will see all the stars in
+    the direction of the planes of the stratum projected into a great
+    circle, which will appear lucid on account of the accumulation of
+    the stars, while the rest of the heavens, at the sides, will only
+    seem to be scattered over with constellations, more or less crowded
+    according to the distance of the planes, or number of stars
+    contained in the thickness or sides of the stratum.
+
+    "If the eye were placed somewhere without the stratum, at no very
+    great distance, the appearance of the stars within it would assume
+    the form of one of the smaller circles of the sphere, which would be
+    more or less contracted according to the distance of the eye; and,
+    if this distance were exceedingly increased, the whole stratum might
+    at last be drawn together into a lucid spot of any shape, according
+    to the length, breadth, and height of the stratum.
+
+    "Suppose that a smaller stratum should branch out from the former in
+    a certain direction, and that it also is contained between two
+    parallel planes, so that the eye is contained within the great
+    stratum somewhere before the separation, and not far from the place
+    where the strata are still united. Then this second stratum will not
+    be projected into a bright circle like the former, but it will be
+    seen as a lucid branch proceeding from the first, and returning
+    into it again at a distance less than a semicircle. If the bounding
+    surfaces are not parallel planes, but irregularly curved surfaces,
+    analogous appearances must result."
+
+The Milky Way, as we see it, presents the aspect which has been just
+accounted for, in its general appearance of a girdle around the heavens
+and in its bifurcation at a certain point, and HERSCHEL'S explanation of
+this appearance, as just given, has never been seriously questioned. One
+doubtful point remains: are the stars scattered all through space? or
+are they near its bounding planes, or clustered in any way within this
+space so as to produce the same result to the eye as if uniformly
+distributed?
+
+HERSCHEL assumed that they were nearly equably arranged all through the
+space in question. He only examined one other arrangement, _viz._, that
+of a ring of stars surrounding the sun, and he pronounced against such
+an arrangement, for the reason that there is absolutely nothing in the
+size or brilliancy of the sun to cause us to suppose it to be the centre
+of such a gigantic system. No reason, except its importance to us
+personally, can be alleged for such a supposition. Every star will have
+its own appearance of a Galaxy or Milky Way, which will vary according
+to the situation of the star.
+
+Such an explanation will account for the general appearances of the
+Milky Way and of the rest of the sky, supposing the stars equally or
+nearly equally distributed in space. On this supposition, the system
+must be deeper where the stars appear most numerous.
+
+HERSCHEL endeavored, in his early memoirs, to explain this inequality of
+distribution on the fundamental assumption that the stars were nearly
+equably distributed in space. If they were so distributed, then the
+number of stars visible in any gauge would show the thickness of the
+stellar system in the direction in which the telescope was pointed.
+At each pointing, the field of view of the instrument includes all the
+visible stars situated within a cone, having its vortex at the
+observer's eye, and its base at the very limits of the system, the angle
+of the cone (at the eye) being 15'. Then the cubes of the
+perpendiculars let fall from the eye, on the plane of the bases of the
+various visual cones, are proportional to the solid contents of the
+cones themselves, or, as the stars are supposed equally scattered within
+all the cones, the cube roots of the numbers of stars in each of the
+fields express the relative lengths of the perpendiculars. A _section_
+of the sidereal system along any great circle can be constructed from
+the data furnished by the gauges in the following way:
+
+The solar system is within the mass of stars. From this point lines are
+drawn along the different directions in which the gauging telescope was
+pointed. On these lines are laid off lengths proportional to the cube
+roots of the number of stars in each gauge. The irregular line joining
+the terminal points will be approximately the bounding curve of the
+stellar system in the great circle chosen. Within this line the space is
+nearly uniformly filled with stars. Without it is empty space. A similar
+section can be constructed in any other great circle, and a combination
+of all such would give a representation of the shape of our stellar
+system. The more numerous and careful the observations, the more
+elaborate the representation, and the 863 gauges of HERSCHEL are
+sufficient to mark out with great precision the main features of the
+Milky Way, and even to indicate some of its chief irregularities.
+
+On the fundamental assumption of HERSCHEL (equable distribution), no
+other conclusion can be drawn from his statistics but the one laid down
+by him.
+
+This assumption he subsequently modified in some degree, and was led to
+regard his gauges as indicating not so much the _depth of the system_ in
+any direction, as the _clustering power or tendency_ of the stars in
+those special regions. It is clear that if in any given part of the sky,
+where, on the average, there are ten stars (say) to a field, we should
+find a certain small portion having 100 or more to a field, then, on
+HERSCHEL'S first hypothesis, rigorously interpreted, it would be
+necessary to suppose a spike-shaped protuberance directed from the
+earth, in order to explain the increased number of stars. If many such
+places could be found, then the probability is great that this
+explanation is wrong. We should more rationally suppose some real
+inequality of star distribution here. It is, in fact, in just such
+details that the method of HERSCHEL breaks down, and a careful
+examination of his system leads to the belief that it must be greatly
+modified to cover all the known facts, while it undoubtedly has, in the
+main, a strong basis.
+
+The stars are certainly not uniformly distributed, and any general
+theory of the sidereal system must take into account the varied tendency
+to aggregation in various parts of the sky.
+
+In 1817, HERSCHEL published an important memoir on the same subject, in
+which his first method was largely modified, though not abandoned. Its
+fundamental principle was stated by him as follows:
+
+    "It is evident that we cannot mean to affirm that the stars of the
+    fifth, sixth, and seventh magnitudes are really smaller than those
+    of the first, second, or third, and that we must ascribe the cause
+    of the difference in the apparent magnitudes of the stars to a
+    difference in their relative distances from us. On account of the
+    great number of stars in each class, we must also allow that the
+    stars of each succeeding magnitude, beginning with the first, are,
+    one with another, further from us than those of the magnitude
+    immediately preceding. The relative magnitudes give only relative
+    distances, and can afford no information as to the real distances at
+    which the stars are placed.
+
+    "A standard of reference for the arrangement of the stars may be had
+    by comparing their distribution to a certain properly modified
+    equality of scattering. The equality which I propose does not
+    require that the stars should be at equal distances from each other,
+    nor is it necessary that all those of the same nominal magnitude
+    should be equally distant from us."
+
+It consisted in allotting a certain equal portion of space to every
+star, so that, on the whole, each equal portion of space within the
+stellar system contains an equal number of stars. The space about each
+star can be considered spherical. Suppose such a sphere to surround our
+own sun. Its radius will not differ greatly from the distance of the
+nearest fixed star, and this is taken as the unit of distance.
+
+Suppose a series of larger spheres, all drawn around our sun as a
+centre, and having the radii 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. The contents of the
+spheres being as the cubes of their diameters, the first sphere will
+have 3 x 3 x 3 = 27 times the volume of the unit sphere, and will
+therefore be large enough to contain 27 stars; the second will have 125
+times the volume, and will therefore contain 125 stars, and so on with
+the successive spheres. For instance, the sphere of radius 7 has room
+for 343 stars, but of this space 125 parts belong to the spheres inside
+of it; there is, therefore, room for 218 stars between the spheres of
+radii 5 and 7.
+
+HERSCHEL designates the several distances of these layers of stars as
+orders; the stars between spheres 1 and 3 are of the first order of
+distance, those between 3 and 5 of the second order, and so on.
+Comparing the room for stars between the several spheres with the number
+of stars of the several magnitudes which actually exists in the sky, he
+found the result to be as follows:
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+    Order of  |  Number of   |             |  Number of
+    Distance. | Stars there  |  Magnitude. | Stars of that
+              | is Room for. |             |  Magnitude.
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+    1........ |      26      |      1      |      17
+    2........ |      98      |      2      |      57
+    3........ |     218      |      3      |     206
+    4........ |     386      |      4      |     454
+    5........ |     602      |      5      |   1,161
+    6........ |     866      |      6      |   6,103
+    7........ |   1,178      |      7      |   6,146
+    8........ |   1,538      |             |
+  ---------------------------------------------------------
+
+The result of this comparison is, that if the order of magnitudes could
+indicate the distance of the stars, it would denote at first a gradual
+and afterward a very abrupt condensation of them, at and beyond the
+region of the sixth-magnitude stars.
+
+If we assume the brightness of any star to be inversely proportional to
+the square of its distance, it leads to a scale of distance different
+from that adopted by HERSCHEL, so that a sixth-magnitude star on the
+common scale would be about of the eighth order of distance according to
+this scheme--that is, we must remove a star of the first magnitude to
+eight times its actual distance to make it shine like a star of the
+sixth magnitude.
+
+On the scheme here laid down, HERSCHEL subsequently assigned the _order_
+of distance of various objects, mostly star-clusters, and his estimates
+of these distances are still quoted. They rest on the fundamental
+hypothesis which has been explained, and the error in the assumption of
+equal intrinsic brilliancy for all stars affects these estimates. It is
+perhaps probable that the hypothesis of equal brilliancy for all stars
+is still more erroneous than the hypothesis of equal distribution, and
+it may well be that there is a very large range indeed in the actual
+dimensions and in the intrinsic brilliancy of stars at the same order of
+distance from us, so that the tenth-magnitude stars, for example, may be
+scattered throughout the spheres which HERSCHEL would assign to the
+seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth
+magnitudes. However this may be, the fact remains that it is from
+HERSCHEL'S groundwork that future investigators must build. He found the
+whole subject in utter confusion. By his observations, data for the
+solution of some of the most general questions were accumulated, and in
+his memoirs, which STRUVE well calls "immortal," he brought the
+scattered facts into order and gave the first bold outlines of a
+reasonable theory. He is the founder of a new branch of astronomy.
+
+
+            _Researches for a Scale of Celestial Measures.
+                        Distances of the Stars._
+
+If the stars are _supposed_ all of the same absolute brightness, their
+brightness to the eye will depend only upon their distance from us. If
+we call the brightness of one of the fixed stars at the distance of
+_Sirius_, which may be used as the unity of distance, 1, then if it is
+moved to the distance 2, its apparent brightness will be one-fourth; if
+to the distance 3, one-ninth; if to the distance 4, one-sixteenth, and
+so on, the apparent brightness diminishing as the square of the distance
+increases. The distance may be taken as an order of magnitude. Stars at
+the _distances_ two, three, four, etc., HERSCHEL called of the second,
+third, and fourth magnitudes.
+
+By a series of experiments, the details of which cannot be given here,
+HERSCHEL determined the space-penetrating power of each of his
+telescopes. The twenty-foot would penetrate into space seventy-five
+times farther than the naked eye; the twenty-five foot, ninety-six
+times; and the forty-foot, one hundred and ninety-two times. If the
+seventh-magnitude stars are those just visible to the naked eye, and if
+we still suppose all stars to be of equal intrinsic brightness, such
+seventh-magnitude stars would remain visible in the forty-foot, even if
+removed to 1,344 times the distance of _Sirius_ (1,344 = 7 x 192).
+If, further, we suppose that the visibility of a star is strictly
+proportional to the total intensity of the light from it which strikes
+the eye, then a condensed cluster of 25,000 stars of the 1,344th
+magnitude could still be seen in the forty-foot at a distance where each
+star would have become 25,000 times fainter, that is, at about 158 times
+the distance of _Sirius_ (158 x 158 = 24,964). The light from the
+nearest star requires some three years to reach the earth. From a star
+1,344 times farther it would require about 4,000 years, and for such a
+cluster as we have imagined no less than 600,000 years are needed. That
+is, the light by which we see such a group has not just now left it.
+On the contrary, it has been travelling through space for centuries and
+centuries since it first darted forth. It is the ancient history of such
+groups that we are studying now, and it was thus that HERSCHEL declared
+that telescopes penetrated into time as well as into space.
+
+Other more exact researches on the relative light of stars were made by
+HERSCHEL. These were only one more attempt to obtain a scale of
+celestial distances, according to which some notion of the limits and of
+the interior dimensions of the universe could be gained. Two telescopes,
+_exactly equal_ in every respect, were chosen and placed side by side.
+Pairs of stars which were _exactly equal_, were selected by means of
+them. By diminishing the aperture of one telescope directed to a bright
+star, and keeping the other telescope unchanged and directed to a
+fainter star, the two stars could be equalized in light, and, from the
+relative size of the apertures, the relative light of this pair of stars
+could be accurately computed, and so on for other pairs. This was the
+first use of the method of _limiting apertures_. His general results
+were that the stars of the first magnitude would still remain visible to
+the naked eye, even if they were at a distance from us _twelve_ times
+their actual distance.
+
+This method received a still further development at his hands. He did
+not leave it until he had gained all the information it was capable of
+giving. He prepared a set of telescopes collecting 4, 9, 16, etc.
+(2 x 2, 3 x 3, 4 x 4, etc.), times as much light as the naked eye.
+These were to extend the determinations of distance to the telescopic
+stars. For example, a certain portion of the heavens which he examined
+contained no star visible to the naked eye, but many telescopic stars.
+We cannot say that no one of these is as bright in itself as some of our
+first-magnitude stars. The smallest telescope of the set showed a large
+number of stars; these must, then, be _twice_ as far from us, on the
+average, as the stars just visible to the naked eye. But first-magnitude
+stars, like _Sirius_, _Procyon_, _Arcturus_, etc., become just visible
+to the eye if removed to twelve times their present distance. Hence the
+stars seen in this first telescope of the set were between twelve and
+twenty-four times as far from us as _Arcturus_, for example.
+
+"At least," as HERSCHEL says, "we are certain that if stars of the size
+and lustre of _Sirius_, _Arcturus_, etc., were removed into the
+profundity of space I have mentioned, they would then appear like the
+stars which I saw." With the next telescope, which collected nine times
+more light than the eye, and brought into view objects three times more
+distant, other and new stars appeared, which were then (3 x 12)
+thirty-six times farther from us than _Arcturus_. In the same way, the
+seven-foot reflector showed stars 204 times, the ten-foot 344 times,
+the twenty-foot 900 times farther from us than the average
+first-magnitude star. As the light from such a star requires three years
+to reach us, the light from the faintest stars seen by the twenty-foot
+would require 2,700 years (3 x 900).
+
+But HERSCHEL was now (1817) convinced that the twenty-foot telescope
+could not penetrate to the boundaries of the Milky Way; the faintest
+stars of the Galaxy must then be farther from us even than nine hundred
+times the distance of _Arcturus_, and their light must be at least 3,000
+years old when it reaches us.
+
+There is no escaping a certain part of the consequences established by
+HERSCHEL. It is indeed true that unless a particular star is of the same
+intrinsic brightness as our largest stars, this reasoning does not apply
+to it; in just so far as the average star is less bright than the
+average brightness of our largest stars, will the numbers which HERSCHEL
+obtained be diminished. But for every star of which his hypothesis is
+true, we may assert that his conclusions are true, and no one can deny,
+with any show of reason, that, on the whole, his suppositions must be
+valid. On the whole, the stars which we call faint are farther from us
+than the brighter ones; and, on the whole, the brilliancy of our
+brightest and nearest stars is not very far from the brilliancy of the
+average star in space. We cannot yet define the word _very_ by a
+numerical ratio.
+
+The _method_ struck out by HERSCHEL was correct; it is for his
+successors to look for the special cases and limitations, to answer the
+question, At a certain distance from us, what are the variations which
+actually take place in the brilliancy and the sizes of stars? The answer
+to this question is to be found in the study of the clusters of regular
+forms, where we _know_ the stars to be all at the same distance from us.
+
+
+                    _Researches on Light and Heat, Etc._
+
+Frequently in the course of his astronomical work, HERSCHEL found
+himself confronted by questions of physics which could not be
+immediately answered in the state of the science at that time. In his
+efforts to find a method for determining the dimensions of the stellar
+universe, he was finally led, as has been shown, to regard the
+brightness of a star as, in general, the best attainable measure of its
+distance from us. His work, however, was done with telescopes of various
+dimensions and powers, and it was therefore necessary to find some law
+for comparing the different results among themselves as well as with
+those given by observations with an unassisted eye. This necessity
+prompted an investigation, published in 1800, in which, after drawing
+the distinction between absolute and intrinsic brightness, HERSCHEL gave
+an expression for the _space-penetrating power_ of a telescope. The
+reasoning at the base of this conception was as follows.
+
+The ratio of the light entering the eye when directed toward a star, to
+the whole light given out by the star, would be as the area of the pupil
+of the eye to the area of the whole sphere having the star as a centre
+and our distance from the star as a radius. If the eye is assisted by a
+telescope, the ratio is quite different. In that case the ratio of the
+light which enters the eye to the whole light, would be as the area of
+the mirror or object-glass to the area of the whole sphere having the
+star as a centre and its distance as a radius. Thus the light received
+by the _eye_ in the two cases would be as the area of the pupil is to
+the area of the object-glass. For instance, if the pupil has a diameter
+of two-fifths of an inch, and the mirror a diameter of four inches, then
+a hundred times as much light would enter the eye when assisted by the
+telescope as when unarmed, since the _area_ of the pupil is
+one-hundredth the _area_ of the objective.
+
+If a particular star is just visible to the naked eye, it will be quite
+bright if viewed with this special telescope, which makes it one hundred
+times more brilliant in appearance. If we could move the star bodily
+away from us to a distance ten times its present distance, we could thus
+reduce its brightness, as seen with the telescope, to what it was at
+first, as seen with the eye alone, _i. e._, to bare visibility. Moving
+the star to ten times its present distance would increase the surface of
+the sphere which it illuminates a hundred-fold. We cannot move any
+special star, but we can examine stars of all brightnesses, and thus
+(presumably) of all distances.
+
+HERSCHEL'S argument was, then, as follows: Since with such a telescope
+one can see a star ten times as far off as is possible to the naked eye,
+this telescope has the power of penetrating into space ten times farther
+than the eye alone. But this number ten, also, expresses the ratio of
+the diameter of the objective to that of the pupil of the eye,
+consequently the general law is that the _space-penetrating power_ of a
+telescope is found by dividing the diameter of the mirror in inches by
+two-fifths. The diameter of the pupil of the eye (two-fifths of an inch)
+HERSCHEL determined by many measures.
+
+This simple ratio would only hold good, however, provided no more light
+were lost by the repeated reflections and refractions in the telescope
+than in the eye. That light must be so lost was evident, but no data
+existed for determining the loss. HERSCHEL was thus led to a long series
+of photometric experiments on the reflecting powers of the metals used
+in his mirrors, and on the amount of light transmitted by lenses.
+Applying the corrections thus deduced experimentally, he found that the
+space-penetrating power of his twenty-foot telescope, with which he made
+his star-gauges, was sixty-one times that of the unassisted eye, while
+the space-penetrating power of his great forty-foot telescope was one
+hundred and ninety-two times that of the eye. In support of his
+important conclusions HERSCHEL had an almost unlimited amount of
+experimental data in the records of his observations, of which he made
+effective use.
+
+By far the most important of HERSCHEL'S work in the domain of pure
+physics was published in the same year (1800), and related to radiant
+heat. The investigation of the space-penetrating powers of telescopes
+was undertaken for the sole purpose of aiding him in measuring the
+dimensions of the stellar universe, and there was no temptation for him
+to pursue it beyond the limits of its immediate usefulness. But here,
+though the first hint leading to remarkable discoveries was a direct
+consequence of his astronomical work, the novelty and interest of the
+phenomena observed induced him to follow the investigation very far
+beyond the mere solution of the practical question in which it
+originated.
+
+Having tried many varieties of shade-glasses between the eye-piece of
+his telescope and the eye, in order to reduce the inordinate degree of
+heat and light transmitted by the instrument when directed towards the
+sun, he observed that certain combinations of colored glasses permitted
+very little light to pass, but transmitted so much heat that they could
+not be used; while, on the other hand, different combinations and
+differently colored glasses would stop nearly all the heat, but allow an
+inconveniently great amount of light to pass. At the same time he
+noticed, in the various experiments, that the images of the sun were of
+different colors. This suggested the question as to whether there was
+not a different heating power proper to each color of the spectrum. On
+comparing the readings of sensitive thermometers exposed in different
+portions of an intense solar spectrum, he found that, beginning with the
+violet end, he came to the maximum of light long before that of heat,
+which lay at the other extremity, that is, near the red. By several
+experiments it appeared that the maximum of illumination, _i. e._, the
+yellow, had little more than half the heat of the full red rays; and
+from other experiments he concluded that even the full red fell short of
+the maximum of heat, which, perhaps, lay even a little beyond the limits
+of the visible spectrum.
+
+    "In this case," he says, "radiant heat will at least partly, if not
+    chiefly, consist, if I may be permitted the expression, of invisible
+    light; that is to say, of rays coming from the sun, that have such a
+    momentum[35] as to be unfit for vision. And admitting, as is highly
+    probable, that the organs of sight are only adapted to receive
+    impressions from particles of a certain momentum, it explains why
+    the maximum of illumination should be in the middle of the
+    refrangible rays; as those which have greater or less momenta are
+    likely to become equally unfit for the impression of sight."
+
+In his second paper on this subject, published in the same year,
+HERSCHEL describes the experiments which led to the conclusion given
+above. This paper contains a remarkably interesting passage which
+admirably illustrates HERSCHEL'S philosophic method.
+
+    "To conclude, if we call light, those rays which illuminate objects,
+    and radiant heat, those which heat bodies, it may be inquired
+    whether light be essentially different from radiant heat? In answer
+    to which I would suggest that we are not allowed, by the rules of
+    philosophizing, to admit two different causes to explain certain
+    effects, if they may be accounted for by one. . . . If this be a true
+    account of the solar heat, for the support of which I appeal to my
+    experiments, it remains only for us to admit that such of the rays
+    of the sun as have the refrangibility of those which are contained
+    in the prismatic spectrum, by the construction of the organs of
+    sight, are admitted under the appearance of light and colors, and
+    that the rest, being stopped in the coats and humors of the eye, act
+    on them, as they are known to do on all the other parts of our body,
+    by occasioning a sensation of heat."
+
+We now know that the reasoning and conclusion here given are entirely
+correct, but they have for their basis only a philosophical conception,
+and not a series of experiments designed especially to test their
+correctness. Such an experimental test of this important question was
+the motive for a third and last paper in this department of physics.
+This paper was published in volume ninety of the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, and gave the results of two hundred and nineteen
+quantitative experiments.
+
+Here we are at a loss to know which to admire most--the marvellous skill
+evinced in acquiring such accurate data with such inadequate means, and
+in varying and testing such a number of questions as were suggested in
+the course of the investigation--or the intellectual power shown in
+marshalling and reducing to a system such intricate and apparently
+self-contradictory phenomena. It is true that this discussion led him to
+a different conclusion from that announced in the previous paper, and,
+consequently, to a false conclusion; but almost the only escape from his
+course of reasoning lay in a principle which belongs to a later period
+of intellectual development than that of HERSCHEL'S own time.
+
+HERSCHEL made a careful determination of the quantitative distribution
+of light and of heat in the prismatic spectrum, and discovered the
+surprising fact that not only where the light was at a maximum the heat
+was very inconsiderable, but that where there was a maximum exhibition
+of heat, there was not a trace of light.
+
+    "This consideration," he writes, "must alter the form of our
+    proposed inquiry; for the question being thus at least partly
+    decided, since it is ascertained that we have rays of heat which
+    give no light, it can only become a subject of inquiry whether some
+    of these heat-making rays may not have a power of rendering objects
+    visible, superadded to their now already established power of
+    heating bodies. This being the case, it is evident that the _onus
+    probandi_ ought to lie with those who are willing to establish such
+    an hypothesis, for it does not appear that Nature is in the habit of
+    using one and the same mechanism with any two of our senses. Witness
+    the vibration of air that makes sound, the effluvia that occasion
+    smells, the particles that produce taste, the resistance or
+    repulsive powers that affect the touch--all these are evidently
+    suited to their respective organs of sense."
+
+It is difficult to see how the fallacy of this argument could have been
+detected by any one not familiar with the fundamental physiological law
+that the nature of a sensation is in no wise determined by the character
+of the agent producing it, but only by the character of the nerves acted
+upon; but, as already intimated, this law belongs to a later epoch than
+the one we are considering. HERSCHEL thus finally concluded that light
+and radiant heat were of essentially different natures, and upon this
+supposition he explained all of the phenomena which his numerous
+experiments had shown him. So complete and satisfactory did this work
+appear to the scientific world, that for a long time the question was
+looked upon as closed, and not until thirty-five years later was there
+any dissent. Then the Italian physicist, MELLONI, with instrumental
+means a thousand times more delicate than that of HERSCHEL, and with a
+far larger store of cognate phenomena, collected during the generation
+which had elapsed, to serve as a guide, discovered the true law. This,
+as we have seen, was at first adopted by HERSCHEL on philosophical
+grounds, and then rejected, since he did not at that time possess the
+key which alone could have enabled him to properly interpret his
+experiments.
+
+It is well to summarize the capital discoveries in this field made by
+HERSCHEL, more particularly because his claims as a discoverer seem to
+have been strangely overlooked by historians of the development of
+physical science. He, before any other investigator, showed that radiant
+heat is refracted according to the laws governing the refraction of
+light by transparent media; that a portion of the radiation from the sun
+is incapable of exciting the sensation of vision, and that this portion
+is the less refrangible; that the different colors of the spectrum
+possess very unequal heating powers, which are not proportional to their
+luminosity; that substances differ very greatly in their power of
+transmitting radiant heat, and that this power does not depend solely
+upon their color; and that the property of diffusing heat is possessed
+to a varying degree by different bodies, independently of their color.
+Nor should we neglect to emphasize, in this connection, the importance
+of his measurements of the intensity of the heat and light in the
+different portions of the solar spectrum. It is the more necessary to
+state HERSCHEL'S claims clearly, as his work has been neglected by those
+who should first have done him justice. In his "History of Physics,"
+POGGENDORFF has no reference to HERSCHEL. In the collected works of
+VERDET, long bibliographical notes are appended to each chapter, with
+the intention of exhibiting the progress and order of discovery. But all
+of HERSCHEL'S work is overlooked, or indexed under the name of his son.
+One little reference in the text alone shows that his very name was not
+unknown. Even in the great work of HELMHOLTZ on physiological optics,
+HERSCHEL'S labors are not taken account of.
+
+It is easy to account for this seemingly strange neglect. HERSCHEL is
+known to this generation only as an astronomer. A study of his memoirs
+will show that his physical work alone should give him a very high rank
+indeed, and I trust that the brief summaries, which alone can be given
+here, will have made this plain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We may conclude from the time expended, the elaborate nature of the
+experiments involved, and the character of the papers devoted to their
+consideration, that the portion of HERSCHEL'S researches in physics
+which interested him to the greatest degree, was the investigation of
+the optical phenomena known as NEWTON'S rings. In 1792 he obtained the
+two object-glasses of HUYGHENS, which were in the possession of the
+Royal Society, for the purpose of repeating NEWTON'S experiments, and in
+1810 he read the last of his three papers on the subject.
+
+Sir ISAAC NEWTON had given some of his most vigorous efforts to the
+study of the phenomena of interference of light, which are exemplified
+in the colors of thin and of thick plates. The colors of thin plates are
+most conveniently studied in the regular form which they present when
+produced by a thin plate of air, limited on one side by a plane
+polished surface, and on the other by a spherical surface of long
+radius, such as the exterior surface of a convex lens, for example.
+The colors are then arranged in concentric circles, and, though others
+had so produced them before NEWTON, these rings have, ever since the
+publication of his remarkable work, been known by his name.
+
+To explain the phenomena, NEWTON was obliged to supplement his theory of
+the corpuscular nature of light, by supposing that the inconceivably
+minute particles constituting light are not always equally susceptible
+of reflection, but that they have periodically recurring "fits of easy
+reflection" and of "easy transmission." This conception, though by no
+means unphilosophical, seemed to HERSCHEL too artificial and improbable
+for ready acceptance, and his effort was to supply a more probable
+explanation.
+
+The developments of optical science have justified HERSCHEL in his
+objections, but we cannot accord to him must any considerable part in
+making clear the true nature of the phenomenon. Indeed, it must be
+recognized that his position was distinctly less advanced than that of
+NEWTON. That great philosopher announced the true law governing the
+relation between the color and the thickness of the film. HERSCHEL did
+not recognize such a relation. NEWTON showed exactly how the phenomenon
+depended upon the obliquity at which it was viewed. HERSCHEL found no
+place in his theory for this evident variation.
+
+In the series of experiments described in the first paper on this
+subject, HERSCHEL mistook the locus of a certain set of rings which he
+was observing. This mistake, though so slight as hardly to be detected
+without the guidance of the definite knowledge acquired in later times,
+not only vitiated the conclusion from the experiments, but gave an
+erroneous direction to the whole investigation. To him these experiments
+proved that NEWTON'S conception of a periodic phenomenon was untenable.
+Thus cut loose from all hypothesis, his fertility in ideas and ingenuity
+in experimentation are as striking as ever. He tried the effect of
+having a polished metal as one of the surfaces limiting the thin plate
+of air. Observing the so-called "blue bow" of NEWTON at the limit of
+total reflection in a prism, he was led to the discovery of its
+complement, the "red bow" by refraction. Here he thought he had found
+the solution of his problem, and attributed the rings to the reflection
+of the light which passed through in the red bow. Though mistaken, he
+had presented to the world of science two experiments which have since
+played very prominent parts in the undulatory theory of light, namely,
+the rings formed upon polished metal, and the bands produced by a thin
+plate near the critical angle.
+
+As in his later researches upon the nature of radiant heat, he was wrong
+in his conclusions, and perhaps with less excuse. His experiments were
+skilfully devised and most ingenious. His philosophizing was distinctly
+faulty. We can see not only that he was wrong, but exactly where he
+began to go wrong. Yet these papers are full of interest to the
+physicist, and by no means deserve the neglect into which they have
+fallen.
+
+
+               _Researches on the Dimensions of the Stars._
+
+HERSCHEL examined a number of bright stars, using extremely high
+magnifying powers, in order to determine whether the stars have sensible
+dimensions. In a good telescope stars present round and pretty uniformly
+illuminated disks. If these disks really represent the angular diameter
+of the stars, they should admit of magnifying, like other objects; but,
+instead of this, HERSCHEL found that they appeared smaller as the
+telescopic power was increased. He accordingly called the disk of light
+seen in the telescope a spurious disk. This singular phenomenon gave its
+discoverer a ready criterion for determining whether a small bright body
+has an appreciable size, or only impresses the sense of sight by virtue
+of its intrinsic brightness. If the first were the case, the apparent
+size would increase with increased magnifying power, while, if the
+angular dimensions were inappreciable, the apparent size would, on the
+contrary, diminish with additional magnifying. An occasion for using
+this criterion came in the first years of this century, with the
+discovery of three small planets having orbits lying between those of
+_Mars_ and _Jupiter_. HERSCHEL gave the name _Asteroids_ to these
+bodies. As the appropriateness of this term had been violently assailed,
+the discovery of _Juno_, in 1804, the third one of the group, led to a
+careful experimental study of the defining power of the telescope used,
+and of the laws governing the phenomena of spurious disks.
+
+With a telescope of about nine inches in aperture, HERSCHEL found that
+if _Juno_ subtended an angle greater than a quarter of a second of arc,
+a certain indication of the fact would have shown itself in the course
+of the experiments. This conclusion was a justification of the name
+Asteroid, since the appearance of the new planet was strictly stellar.
+On other grounds, a better name might have been selected.
+
+In the paper giving the results of the experiments, the phenomena of the
+spurious disks are very completely described; but they did not attract
+the attention which they deserved, and they only became an object of
+especial interest to students of physics when they were again studied by
+the famous German optician FRAUNHOFER, a generation later.
+
+Incidentally the experiments are of interest, as yielding us a measure
+of the excellence of HERSCHEL'S telescopes, and a measure which is quite
+independent of the keenness of his vision. From them we may be sure that
+the efficiency of the nine-inch mirror used was not sensibly less than
+that of the highest theoretically attainable excellence. In this
+connection, too, we may refer to the _Philosophical Transactions_ for
+1790, pp. 468 and 475, where HERSCHEL gives observations of both
+_Enceladus_ and _Mimas_ seen in contact with the ball of _Saturn_.
+I have never seen so good definition, telescopic and atmospheric, as he
+must have had on these occasions.
+
+
+              _Researches on the Spectra of the Fixed Stars._
+
+The spectroscope was applied by SECCHI to the study of the spectra of
+the fixed stars visible to the naked eye in the years 1863 to 1866.
+He examined the nature of the spectrum of each of the larger stars,
+and found that these stars could be arranged in three general classes or
+_types_. His results have been verified and extended by other
+astronomers, and his classification has been generally accepted.
+According to SECCHI, the lucid stars may be separated into three groups,
+distinguished by marked differences in their spectra. SECCHI'S Type I.
+contains stars whose spectra are like those of _Sirius_, _Procyon_, and
+_[alpha] Lyrae_; his Type II. stars like _Arcturus_ and _Aldebaran_;
+his Type III. stars like _[alpha] Orionis_.
+
+HERSCHEL also made some trials in this direction. In the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ for 1814 (p. 264), he says:
+
+    "By some experiments on the light of a few of the stars of the first
+    magnitude, made in 1798, by a prism applied to the eye-glasses of my
+    reflectors, adjustable to any angle and to any direction, I had the
+    following analyses:
+
+    "The light of _Sirius_ consists of red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
+    purple, and violet. _[alpha] Orionis_ contains the same colors,
+    but the red is more intense, and the orange and yellow are less
+    copious in proportion than they are in _Sirius_. _Procyon_ contains
+    all the colors, but proportionately more blue and purple than
+    _Sirius_. _Arcturus_ contains more red and orange, and less yellow
+    in proportion than _Sirius_. _Aldebaran_ contains much orange and
+    very little yellow. _[alpha] Lyrae_ contains much yellow, green,
+    blue, and purple."
+
+Here the essential peculiarities of the spectrum of each of the stars
+investigated by HERSCHEL is pointed out, and if we were to use his
+observations alone to classify these stars into types, we should put
+_Sirius_ and _Procyon_ into one type of stars which have "all the
+colors" in their spectra; _Arcturus_ and _Aldebaran_ would represent
+another group of stars, with a deficiency of yellow and an excess of
+orange and red in the spectrum; and _[alpha] Orionis_ would stand as
+a type of those stars with an excess of red and a deficiency of orange.
+_[alpha] Lyrae_ would represent a sub-group of the first class.
+
+HERSCHEL'S immediate object was not classification, and his observations
+are only recorded in a passing way. But the fact remains that he
+clearly distinguished the essential differences of the spectra of these
+stars, and that he made these observations in support of his statement
+that the fixed stars, "like the planets, also shine with differently
+colored light. That of _Arcturus_ and _Aldebaran_, for instance, is as
+different from the light of _Sirius_ and _Capella_ as that of _Mars_ and
+_Saturn_ is from the light of _Venus_ and _Jupiter_."
+
+Of course, no special discovery can be claimed for him on these few
+instances. We can see, however, a good example of the manner in which he
+examined a subject from every side, and used the most remote evidence
+exactly in its proper place and time.
+
+
+          _Researches on the Variable Emission of Light
+                  and Heat from the Sun._
+
+It is certainly a remarkable fact that HERSCHEL was the first observer
+to recognize the real importance of the aperture or diameter of a
+telescope. Before his time it was generally assumed that this element
+only conditioned the amount of light transmitted to the eye, or, in
+other words, merely determined the brightness of the image. Hence the
+conclusion that if an object is sufficiently bright, the telescope may
+be made as small as desired without loss of power. Thus, in observing
+the sun, astronomers before HERSCHEL had been accustomed to reduce the
+aperture of their telescopes, in order to moderate the heat and light
+transmitted. SCHEINER, it is true, nearly two centuries before the time
+we are considering, had invented a method for observing the sun without
+danger, still employing the full aperture. This was by projecting the
+image of the sun on a white screen beyond the eye-piece, the telescope
+being slightly lengthened. For special purposes this ingenious method
+has even been found useful in modern times, though for sharpness of
+definition it bears much the same relation to the more usual manner of
+observing, that a photographic picture does to direct vision.
+
+Although HERSCHEL saw the advantages of using the whole aperture of a
+telescope in such observations, the practical difficulties in the way
+were very great. We have noted his attempts to find screens which would
+effectively cut off a large portion of the heat and light without
+impairing vision, and have considered, somewhat in detail, the
+remarkable discoveries in radiant heat to which these attempts led him.
+His efforts were not unsuccessful. A green glass smoked, and a glass
+cell containing a solution of black writing ink in water--were found to
+work admirably.
+
+Thus provided with more powerful instrumental means than had ever been
+applied to the purpose, HERSCHEL turned his attention to the sun. In a
+very short time he exhausted nearly all there was to be discovered, so
+that since the publication of his last paper on this subject, in 1801,
+until the present time, there has been but a single telescopic
+phenomenon, connected with the physical appearance of the sun, which was
+unknown to HERSCHEL. That phenomenon is the frequent occurrence of a
+darker central shade or kernel in large spots, discovered by DAWES about
+1858.
+
+HERSCHEL, though observing a hundred and ninety years after the earliest
+discovery of sun spots, seems to have been the first to suspect their
+periodic character. To establish this as a fact, and to measure the
+period, was left for our own times and for the indefatigable observer
+SCHWABE. The probable importance of such a period in its relation to
+terrestrial meteorology was not only clearly pointed out by HERSCHEL,
+but he even attempted to demonstrate, from such data as were obtainable,
+the character of this influence.
+
+Perhaps no one thing which this great philosopher has done better
+exhibits the catholic character of his mind than this research. When the
+possible connection of solar and terrestrial phenomena occurred to him
+as a question to be tested, there were no available meteorological
+records, and he could find but four or five short series of
+observations, widely separated in time. To an ordinary thinker the task
+would have seemed hopeless until more data had been collected. But
+HERSCHEL'S fertile mind, though it could not recall lost opportunities
+for solar observations, did find a substitute for meteorological records
+in the statistics of the prices of grain during the various epochs.
+It is clear that the price of wheat must have depended upon the supply,
+and the supply, in turn, largely upon the character of the season.
+The method, as ingenious as it is, failed in HERSCHEL'S hands on account
+of the paucity of solar statistics; but it has since proved of value,
+and has taken its place as a recognized method of research.
+
+
+                    _Researches on Nebulae and Clusters._
+
+When HERSCHEL first began to observe the nebulae in 1774, there were
+very few of these objects known. The nebulae of _Orion_ and _Andromeda_
+had been known in Europe only a little over a hundred years.
+
+In 1784 MESSIER published a list of sixty-eight such objects which he
+had found in his searches for comets, and twenty-eight nebulae had been
+found by LACAILLE in his observations at the Cape of Good Hope. In the
+mere discovery of these objects HERSCHEL quickly surpassed all others.
+In 1786 he published a catalogue of one thousand new nebulae, in 1789 a
+catalogue of a second thousand, and in 1802 one of five hundred. In all
+he discovered and described two thousand five hundred and eight new
+nebulae and clusters. This branch of astronomy may almost be said to be
+proper to the HERSCHELS, father and son. Sir JOHN HERSCHEL re-observed
+all his father's nebulae in the northern hemisphere, and added many new
+ones, and in his astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope he
+recorded almost an equal number in the southern sky.
+
+Of the six thousand two hundred nebulae now known the HERSCHELS
+discovered at least eight-tenths. The mere discovery of twenty-five
+hundred nebulae would have been a brilliant addition to our knowledge of
+celestial statistics.
+
+HERSCHEL did more than merely point out the existence and position of
+these new bodies. Each observation was accompanied by a careful and
+minute description of the object viewed, and with sketches and diagrams
+which gave the position of the small stars in it and near it.[36]
+
+As the nebulae and clusters were discovered they were placed in classes,
+each class covering those nebulae which resembled each other in their
+general features. Even at the telescope HERSCHEL'S object was not
+discovery merely, but to know the inner constitution of the heavens.
+His classes were arranged with this end, and they are to-day adopted.
+They were:
+
+  CLASS I. "Bright nebulae (288 in all).
+       II. "Faint nebulae (909 in all).
+      III. "Very faint nebulae (984 in all).
+       IV. "Planetary nebulae, stars with burs, with milky chevelure,
+              with short rays, remarkable shapes, etc. (79 in all).
+        V. "Very large nebulae (52 in all).
+       VI. "Very compressed and rich clusters of stars (42 in all).
+      VII. "Pretty much compressed clusters (67 in all).
+     VIII. "Coarsely scattered clusters of stars" (88 in all).
+
+The lists of these classes were the storehouses of rich material from
+which HERSCHEL drew the examples by which his later opinions on the
+physical conditions of nebulous matter were enforced.
+
+As the nebulae were discovered and classified they were placed upon a
+star-map in their proper positions (1786), and, as the discoveries went
+on, the real laws of the distribution of the nebulae and of the clusters
+over the surface of the sky showed themselves more and more plainly. It
+was by this means that HERSCHEL was led to the announcement of the law
+that the spaces richest in nebulae are distant from the Milky Way, etc.
+By no other means could he have detected this, and I believe this to
+have been the first example of the use of the graphical method, now
+become common in treating large masses of statistics.
+
+It is still in his capacity of an observer--an acute and wise one--that
+HERSCHEL is considered. But this was the least of his gifts. This vast
+mass of material was not left in this state: it served him for a
+stepping-stone to larger views of the nature and extent of the nebulous
+matter itself.
+
+His views on the nature of nebulae underwent successive changes. At first
+he supposed all nebulae to be but aggregations of stars. The logic was
+simple. To the naked eye there are many groups of stars which appear
+nebulous. _Praesepe_ is, perhaps, the best example. The slightest
+telescopic power applied to such groups alters the nebulous appearance,
+and shows that it comes from the combined and confused light of discrete
+stars. Other groups which remain nebulous in a seven-foot telescope,
+become stellar in a ten-foot. The nebulosity of the ten-foot can be
+resolved into stars by the twenty-foot, and so on. The nebulae which
+remained still unresolved, it was reasonable to conclude, would yield to
+higher power, and generally a nebula was but a group of stars removed to
+a great distance. An increase of telescopic power was alone necessary to
+demonstrate this.[37]
+
+    "Nebulae can be selected so that an insensible gradation shall take
+    place from a coarse cluster like the _Pleiades_ down to a milky
+    nebulosity like that in _Orion_, every intermediate step being
+    represented. This tends to confirm the hypothesis that all are
+    composed of stars more or less remote."
+
+So, at first, HERSCHEL believed that his twenty-foot telescope was of
+power sufficient to fathom the Milky Way, that is, to see through it and
+beyond it, and to reduce all its nebulosities to true groups of stars.
+
+In 1791 he published a memoir on _Nebulous Stars_, in which his views
+were completely changed. He had found a nebulous star, the sixty-ninth
+of his Class IV., to which his reasons would not apply. In the centre of
+it was a bright star; around the star was a halo gradually diminishing
+in brightness from the star outward, and perfectly circular. It was
+clear the two parts, star and nebula, were connected, and thus at the
+same distance from us.
+
+There were two possible solutions only. Either the whole mass was,
+_first_, composed of stars, in which case the nucleus would be
+enormously larger than the other stars of its stellar magnitude
+elsewhere in the sky, or the stars which made up the halo indefinitely
+small; or, _second_, the central nucleus was indeed a star, but a star
+surrounded with "a shining fluid, of a nature totally unknown to us."
+
+The long strata of nebulae, which he had before described under the name
+of "telescopic Milky Ways," might well be accounted for by masses of
+this fluid lying beyond the regions of the seventh-magnitude stars. This
+fluid might exist independently of stars. If it is self-luminous, it
+seems more fit to produce a star by its condensation, than to depend
+upon the star for its own existence. Such were a few of the theorems to
+which his discovery of this nebula led him. The hypothesis of an elastic
+_shining fluid_ existing in space, sometimes in connection with stars,
+sometimes distinct from them, was adopted and never abandoned. How well
+the spectroscope has confirmed this idea it is not necessary to say.
+We know the shining fluid does exist, and in late years we have seen the
+reverse of the process imagined by HERSCHEL. A star has actually, under
+our eyes, become a planetary nebula, and the cycle of which he gave the
+first terms is complete.
+
+In five separate memoirs (1802, 1811, 1814, 1817, and 1818) HERSCHEL
+elaborated his views of the sidereal system. The whole extent of his
+views must be gained from the extended memoirs themselves. Here only the
+merest outline can be given.
+
+In 1802 there is a marshaling of the various objects beyond our solar
+system. The stars themselves may be _insulated_, or may belong to
+_binary_ or _multiple_ systems, to _clusters_ and groups, or to grand
+groups like the Milky Way. Nebulae may have any of the forms which have
+been described; and, in 1811, he gives examples of immense spaces in the
+sky covered with diffused and very faint nebulosity. "Its abundance
+exceeds all imagination."[38] These masses of nebular matter are the
+seats of attracting forces, and these forces must produce condensation.
+When a nebula has more than one preponderating seat of attracting
+matter, it may in time be divided, and the double nebulae have had such
+an origin. When nebulae appear to us as round masses, they are in reality
+globular in form, and this form is at once the effect and the proof of a
+gravitating cause.
+
+The central brightness of nebulae points out the seat of the attraction;
+and the completeness of the approximation to a spherical form points out
+the length of time that the gravitating forces have been at work. Those
+nebulae (and clusters) which are most perfect in the globular form, have
+been longest exposed to central forces. The planetary nebulae are the
+oldest in our system. They must have a rotatory motion on their axes.
+
+By progressive condensation planetary nebulae may be successively
+converted into bright stellar nebulae, or into nebulous stars, and these
+again, by the effects of the same cause, into insulated or double stars.
+This chain of theorems, laid down in the memoir of 1811, is enforced in
+1814 with examples which show how the nebulous appearance may grow into
+the sidereal. HERSCHEL selects from the hundreds of instances in his
+note-books, nebulae in every stage of progress, and traces the effect of
+condensation and of clustering power through all its course, even to the
+final breaking up of the Milky Way itself.
+
+The memoirs of 1817 and 1818 add little to the general view of the
+physical constitution of the heavens. They are attempts to gain a scale
+of celestial measures by which we may judge of the distances of the
+stars and clusters in which these changes are going on.
+
+There is little to change in HERSCHEL'S statement of the general
+construction of the heavens. It is the groundwork upon which we have
+still to build. Every astronomical discovery and every physical fact
+well observed is material for the elaboration of its details or for the
+correction of some of its minor points. As a scientific conception it is
+perhaps the grandest that has ever entered into the human mind. As a
+study of the height to which the efforts of one man may go, it is almost
+without a parallel. The philosopher who will add to it to-day, will have
+his facts and his methods ready to his hands. HERSCHEL presents the
+almost unique example of an eager observer marshaling the multitude of
+single instances, which he himself has laboriously gathered, into a
+compact and philosophic whole. In spite of minor errors and defects, his
+ideas of the nature of the sidereal universe have prevailed, and are
+to-day the unacknowledged basis of our every thought upon it. Some of
+its most secret processes have been worked out by him, and the paths
+which he pointed out are those along which our advances must be made.
+
+In concluding this condensed account of HERSCHEL'S scientific labors,
+it behoves us to remember that there was nothing due to accident in his
+long life. He was born with the faculties which fitted him for the
+gigantic labors which he undertook, and he had the firm basis of energy
+and principle which kept him steadily to his work.
+
+As a practical astronomer he remains without an equal. In profound
+philosophy he has few superiors. By a kindly chance he can be claimed as
+the citizen of no one country. In very truth his is one of the few names
+which belong to the whole world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] JAMES SHORT, F.R.S. (1710-1768), and JOHN DOLLOND, F.R.S.
+(1706-1761), were the most celebrated makers of telescopes of their day.
+The six-foot Newtonian reflectors of SHORT (aperture 9.4 inches), and
+the forty-six-inch achromatics of DOLLOND (aperture 3.6 inches), were
+highly esteemed. The Royal Observatory of Greenwich possessed, in 1765,
+one of each class. In a comparative trial of SHORT'S telescope, at
+Greenwich, and one of HERSCHEL'S first telescopes, the latter was
+adjudged greatly superior.
+
+[32] At least _one_ of these telescopes had the principal
+mirror made of glass instead of metal.--_Philosophical Transactions_,
+1803.
+
+[33] The following extract from FOURIER'S _Eloge_ of HERSCHEL
+is of interest in this connection. The sum first appropriated by the
+king was L2,000. This was afterwards raised to L4,000, and a sum of L200
+yearly was given for maintenance.
+
+"L'histoire doit conserver a jamais la reponse de ce prince a un
+etranger celebre [LALANDE?] qui le remerciait des sommes considerables
+accordees pour les progres de l'astronomie. 'Je fais les depenses de la
+guerre,' dit le roi, 'parcequ'elles sont necessaires; quant a celles des
+sciences, il m'est agreable des les ordonner; leur objet ne coute point
+des larmes, et honore l'humanite.'"
+
+LALANDE'S own account is a little different. He says the king exclaimed:
+"Ne vaut-il pas mieux employer son argent a cela qu'a faire tuer des
+hommes?"
+
+[34] The memoirs on the parallaxes of stars, written by various
+astronomers from 1750 to 1800, were mainly directed to the improvement
+of the methods, or to the discovery of the parallax of some particular
+star. For example, LACAILLE'S observations of _Sirius_, at the Cape of
+Good Hope, had resulted in a parallax of 9" for that star--a
+quantity over forty times too large.
+
+[35] HERSCHEL accepted, as did all his cotemporaries, the
+Newtonian or corpuscular theory of light.
+
+[36] Thus the position of small stars critically situated in
+the centre, or on the edges of the nebulae was always noted. Many of the
+descriptions are given in the published papers, but the publication of
+the diagrams would be an immense help to this branch of astronomy.
+D'ARREST in his reduction of HERSCHEL'S nebula observations (1856)
+writes: "Gewiss waere es vom hoechsten Interesse fuer die Entwickelung,
+welche hoffentlich auch dieser Zweig der beobachtenden Astronomie
+zukuenftig erhalten wird, wenn die HERSCHEL'Schen Beobachtungen in der
+Ausfuehrlichkeit in welcher sie, verschiedenen Andeutungen zufolge,
+_handschriftlich_ vorhanden sind, veroeffentlicht wuerden. Es schliesst
+sich dieser Wunsch in Betreff der Nebelflecken lebhaft an den an,
+welcher, schon vor einem Jahrzehnt nach Veroeffentlichung der 400 noch
+unedirten _star-gauges_ von gewichtigerer Seite her geaeussert wurde."
+In this all must agree who have a knowledge of the direction in which we
+must look for advances in the difficult and important questions of the
+distance, the motions, and the changes of the nebulae. Almost the only
+aid to be looked for from the older observations must come from such
+diagrams, and we may safely say that the publication of this priceless
+material, just as it stands, would carry our exact data back from 1833
+to 1786, or no less than forty-seven years.
+
+[37] Long after HERSCHEL had abandoned this idea, it continued
+current among astronomers. The successes of Lord ROSSE'S telescope
+perpetuated to the middle of the nineteenth century an erroneous view
+which HERSCHEL had given up in 1791.
+
+[38] These have never been re-observed. They should be sought
+for with a powerful refractor, taking special precautions against the
+illumination of the field of view from neighboring bright stars.
+HERSCHEL'S reflectors were specially open to illusions produced in this
+way. His observations probably will remain untested until some large
+telescope is used in the way he adopted, _i. e._, in sweeping.
+
+
+
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+I.--LIST OF THE PUBLISHED WRITINGS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL ON ASTRONOMICAL
+    SUBJECTS.
+
+                       [In chronological order.]
+
+_N.B.--In general, translations and abstracts of those which appeared
+in periodicals are not noticed here. I have made exceptions in the
+more important cases._
+
+[Solution of a prize question. _See_ this book, page 46.]
+                              _Ladies' Diary_, 1779.
+
+
+Astronomical observations on the periodical star in _Collo Ceti_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1780, p. 338.
+
+
+Astronomical observations relating to the mountains of the moon.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1780, p. 507.
+
+
+Astronomical observations on the rotation of the planets round their
+axes, made with a view to determine whether the earth's diurnal motion
+is perfectly equable.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1781, p. 115.
+
+
+Account of a comet. [Dated 13th March, 1781. This was _Uranus_.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1781, p. 492.
+
+
+On the parallax of the fixed stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 82.
+
+
+Catalogue of double stars.
+                       _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 112: translation in
+                         _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1786, p. 187.
+
+
+Description of a lamp micrometer and the method of using it.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 163.
+
+
+A paper to obviate some doubts concerning the great magnifying powers used.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1782, p. 173.
+
+
+A letter from WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Esq., F.R.S., to Sir JOSEPH BANKS,
+_Bart._, P.R.S.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1783, p. 1.
+
+
+Aus einem Schreiben des Hrn. HERSCHEL an mich [BODE], datirt London, den
+13ten August, 1783.
+[This is a letter forwarding HERSCHEL'S memoir on the Parallax of the
+Fixed Stars, etc.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1786, p. 258.
+
+
+On the diameter and magnitude of the _Georgium Sidus_, with a
+description of the dark and lucid disk and periphery micrometers.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1783, p. 4.
+
+
+On the proper motion of the sun and solar system, with an account of
+several changes that have happened among the fixed stars since the time
+of Mr. FLAMSTEED.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1783, p. 247.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1787, p. 194, p. 224.
+
+
+Astronomische Nachrichten und Entdeckungen, aus einem franzoesischen
+Schreiben desselben an mich [BODE], datirt Datchet, nahe bey Windsor,
+den 18. Mai, 1784.
+
+[This letter is on the subject of the use of high magnifying powers, and
+gives a _resume_ of his recent papers.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1787, p. 211.
+
+
+On the remarkable appearances at the polar regions of the planet _Mars_,
+the inclination of its axis, the position of its poles and its
+spheroidical figure; with a few hints relating to its real diameter and
+atmosphere.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1784, p. 233.
+
+
+Account of some observations tending to investigate the construction of
+the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1784, p. 437.
+
+
+[_Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 246, has a summary of this paper by Baron
+VON ZACH. See, also, _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1794, p. 213.]
+
+
+Catalogue of double stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1785, p. 40.
+
+
+On the construction of the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1785, p. 213.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 238.
+                      See, also, _same_, 1787, p. 213, and 1794, p. 213.
+
+
+Aus einem Schreiben des Hrn. HERSCHEL an mich [BODE], datirt Clay Hall,
+nahe bey Windsor, den 20. Jul., 1785.
+[This is a letter forwarding two memoirs, and giving the prices of
+telescopes]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1788, p. 254.
+
+
+Catalogue of one thousand new nebulae and clusters of stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1786, p. 457.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1791, p. 157,
+                              and _same_, 1794, p. 213.
+
+
+Investigation of the cause of that indistinctness of vision which has
+been ascribed to the smallness of the optic pencil.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1786, p. 500.
+
+
+Remarks on the new comet [1786, II.].
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 4.
+
+
+[Letter from HERSCHEL to BODE on the discovery of two satellites to
+_Uranus_, dated Slough, 1787, Feb. 11.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1790, p. 253.
+
+
+An account of the discovery of two satellites revolving round the
+_Georgian planet_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 125.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1791, p. 255.
+
+
+An account of three volcanoes in the moon.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 229.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1791, p. 255.
+
+
+Note on M. MECHAIN'S comet. [1787, I.] [Added to preceding paper.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1787, p. 232.
+
+
+On the _Georgian planet_ and its satellites.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1788, p. 364.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1793, p. 104.
+
+
+Observations on a comet [1788, II.].
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1789, p. 151.
+
+
+Catalogue of a second thousand of new nebulae and clusters of stars, with
+a few introductory remarks on the construction of the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1789, p. 212.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1793, p. 104.
+                              Also, _same_, 1794, p. 150.
+
+
+Account of the discovery of a sixth and seventh satellite of the planet
+_Saturn_, with remarks on the construction of its ring, its atmosphere,
+its rotation on an axis, and its spheroidical figure.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1790, p. 1.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1793, p. 239;
+                              _same_, 1796, p. 88; 1797, p. 249.
+
+
+On the satellites of the planet _Saturn_, and the rotation of its ring
+on an axis.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1790, p. 427.
+
+
+On nebulous stars properly so called.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1791, p. 71.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1801, p. 128.
+
+
+On the ring of _Saturn_ and the rotation of the fifth satellite upon its
+axis.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1792, p. 1.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1796, p. 88.
+
+
+Miscellaneous observations.
+
+[Account of a comet], p. 23 [1792, I.].
+
+[On the periodical appearance of omicron Ceti], p. 24.
+
+[On the disappearance of the 55th _Herculis_], p. 26.
+
+[Remarkable phenomenon in an eclipse of the moon], p. 27.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1792, p. 23.
+
+
+Observations on the planet _Venus_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1793, p. 201.
+
+
+Observations of a quintuple belt on the planet _Saturn_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1794, p. 28.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1798, p. 90.
+
+
+Account of some particulars observed during the late eclipse of the sun.
+[1793, September 5th.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1794, p. 39.
+
+
+On the rotation of the planet _Saturn_ upon its axis.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1794, p. 48.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1798, p. 74.
+
+
+On the nature and construction of the sun and fixed stars.
+                             _Phil. Trans._, 1795, p. 46.
+                             _Bode's Jahrbuch_, II. Suppl. Band, p. 65.
+
+
+Description of a forty-foot reflecting telescope.
+                             _Phil. Trans._, 1795, p. 347.
+                             _Bode's Jahrbuch_, III. Suppl. Band, p. 238.
+
+
+Additional observations on the comet. [1796, I.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1796, p. 131.
+
+
+On the method of observing the changes that happen to the fixed stars;
+with some remarks on the stability of the light of our sun. To which is
+added a catalogue of comparative brightness for ascertaining the
+permanency of the lustre of stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1796, p. 166.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1809, p. 201.
+
+
+On the periodical star _[alpha] Herculis_; with remarks tending to
+establish the rotatory motion of the stars on their axes; to which is
+added a second catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1796, p. 452.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1809, p. 201.
+
+
+A third catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars, with an
+introductory account of an index to Mr. FLAMSTEED'S observations of the
+fixed stars, contained in the second volume of the Historia Coelestis.
+To which are added several useful results derived from that index.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1797, p. 293.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1810, p. 143.
+
+
+Observations of the changeable brightness of the satellites of
+_Jupiter_, and of the variation in their apparent magnitudes, with a
+determination of the time of their rotatory motions on their axes. To
+which is added a measure of the diameter of the second satellite, and an
+estimate of the comparative size of all the four.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1797, p. 332.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1801, p. 103.
+
+
+On the discovery of four additional satellites of the _Georgium Sidus_.
+The retrograde motion of its old satellites announced, and the cause of
+their disappearance at certain distances from the planet explained.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1798, p. 47.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1801, p. 231.
+
+
+A fourth catalogue of the comparative brightness of the stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1799, p. 121.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1810, p. 143.
+
+
+On the power of penetrating into space by telescopes, with a comparative
+determination of the extent of that power in natural vision, and in
+telescopes of various sizes and constructions, illustrated by select
+observations.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 49-85.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1804, p. 231.
+
+
+Investigation of the powers of the prismatic colors to heat and
+illuminate objects, with remarks that prove the different refrangibility
+of radiant heat. To which is added an inquiry into the method of viewing
+the sun advantageously with telescopes of large apertures and high
+magnifying powers.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 255-283.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1804, p. 89.
+
+
+Experiments on the refrangibility of the invisible rays of the sun.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 284-292.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1804, p. 89.
+
+
+Experiments on the solar and on the terrestrial rays that occasion heat,
+with a comparative view of the laws by which light and heat, or rather
+the rays that occasion them, are subject, in order to determine whether
+they are the same or different.
+                               _Phil. Trans._, 1800, pp. 293-326, 437-538.
+                               _Gilbert Annal._, X. (1802), pp. 68-78;
+                               _same_, XII. (1803), pp. 521-546.
+
+
+Observations tending to investigate the nature of the sun, in order to
+find the causes or symptoms of its variable emission of light and heat,
+with remarks on the use that may possibly be drawn from solar
+observations.
+                       _Phil. Trans._, 1801, pp. 265-318.
+                       _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1805, p. 218, and 1806, p. 113.
+
+
+Ueber den 7 Nebelfleck der 1sten classe des Herschel'schen Verzeichniss,
+und ueber _Ceres_ und _Pallas_, vom Herrn Doctor HERSCHEL, aus zwey
+Briefen desselben.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1805, p. 211.
+
+
+Additional observations tending to investigate the symptoms of the
+variable emission of the light and heat of the sun, with trials to set
+aside darkening glasses by transmitting the solar rays through liquids,
+and a few remarks to remove objections that might be made against some
+of the arguments contained in the former paper.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1801, pp. 354-362.
+
+
+Observations on the two lately discovered celestial bodies
+[_Ceres and Pallas_].
+                  _Phil. Trans._, 1802, pp. 213-232.
+                  _Nicholson Journal_, IV. (1808), pp. 120-130, 142-148.
+
+
+Catalogue of five hundred new nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae,
+and clusters of stars, with remarks on the construction of the heavens.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1802, pp. 477-528.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1807, p. 113.
+
+
+Observations of the transit of _Mercury_ over the sun's disk, to which
+is added an investigation of the causes which often prevent the proper
+action of mirrors.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1803, pp. 214-232.
+
+
+Account of the changes which have happened during the last twenty-five
+years in the relative situation of double stars, with an investigation
+of the cause to which they are owing.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1803, pp. 339-382.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1808, pp. 154-178.
+
+
+Continuation of the account of the changes that have happened in the
+relative situation of double stars.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1804, pp. 353-384.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1808, p. 226.
+
+
+Aus einem Schreiben des Herrn Doctor HERSCHEL, datirt Slough, bey
+Windsor, den 31. May, 1804.
+
+[Relates to his theory of the relation between the solar radiation and
+the price of wheat.]
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1808, p. 226.
+
+
+Experiments for ascertaining how far telescopes will enable us to
+determine very small angles, and to distinguish the real from the
+spurious diameters of celestial and terrestrial objects, with an
+application of the results of those experiments to a series of
+observations on the nature and magnitude of Mr. HARDING'S lately
+discovered star [_Juno_ (1804),].
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1805, pp. 31-70.
+
+
+On the direction and velocity of the motion of the sun and solar system.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1805, pp. 233-256.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, IV. Suppl. Band, p. 67.
+
+
+Observations on the singular figure of the planet _Saturn_.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1805, pp. 272-280.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1809, p. 197.
+
+
+On the quantity and velocity of solar motion.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1806, pp. 205-237.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1811, p. 224.
+
+
+Observations and remarks on the figure, climate, and atmosphere of
+_Saturn_ and its ring.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1806, pp. 455-467.
+                              _Gilbert Annal._, XXXIV. (1810), pp. 82-105.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1810, p. 228.
+
+
+Experiments for investigating the cause of the colored concentric rings
+discovered by Sir I. NEWTON between two object-glasses laid one upon
+another.
+                   _Phil. Trans._, 1807, pp. 180-233.
+                   _Annal. de Chimie_, LXX., 1809, pp. 154-181, 293-321;
+                   _same_, LXXI., 1809, pp. 5-40.
+
+
+Observations on the nature of the new celestial body [_Vesta_]
+discovered by Dr. OLBERS, and of the comet which was expected to appear
+last January in its return from the sun. [1806, II.]
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1807, pp. 260-266.
+
+
+Observations of a comet [1807, I.] made with a view to investigate its
+magnitude and the nature of its illumination, to which is added an
+account of a new irregularity lately perceived in the apparent figure of
+the planet _Saturn_.
+                        _Phil. Trans._, 1808, pp. 145-163.
+                        _Gilbert Annal._, XXXVI. (1810), pp. 389-393.
+                        _Zach, Monat. Corresp._, XX. (1809), pp. 512-514.
+
+
+Continuation of experiments for investigating the cause of colored
+concentric rings and other appearances of a similar nature.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1809, pp. 259-302.
+
+
+Supplement to the first and second part of the paper of experiments for
+investigating the cause of colored concentric rings between
+object-glasses, and other appearances of a similar nature.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1810, pp. 149-177.
+                              _Gilbert Annal._, XLVI., 1814, pp. 22-79.
+
+
+Astronomical observations relating to the construction of the heavens,
+arranged for the purpose of a critical examination, the result of which
+appears to throw some new light upon the organization of the celestial
+bodies.
+                           _Phil. Trans._, 1811, pp. 269-336.
+                           _Journ. de Phys._, LXXV., 1812, pp. 121-167.
+
+
+Observations of a comet, with remarks on the construction of its
+different parts [1811, I.].
+           _Phil. Trans._, 1812, pp. 115-143.
+           _Journ. de Phys._, LXXVII., 1813, pp. 125-135.
+           _Zach, Monat. Corresp._, XXVIII., 1813, pp. 455-469, 558-568.
+           _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1816, p. 185.
+
+
+Observations of a second comet, with remarks on its construction
+[1811, II.].
+                           _Phil. Trans._, 1812, pp. 229-237.
+                           _Nicholson Journ._, XXXV., 1813, pp. 193-199.
+                           _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1816, p. 203.
+
+
+Astronomical observations relating to the sidereal part of the heavens,
+and its connection with the nebulous part, arranged for the purpose of a
+critical examination.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1814. pp. 248-284.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1818, pp. 97-118.
+
+
+A series of observations of the satellites of the _Georgian planet_,
+including a passage through the node of their orbits, with an
+introductory account of the telescopic apparatus that has been used on
+this occasion, and a final exposition of some calculated particulars
+deduced from the observations.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1815, pp. 293-362.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1819, p. 232-242.
+
+
+Astronomical observations and experiments tending to investigate the
+local arrangement of the celestial bodies in space, and to determine the
+extent and condition of the Milky Way.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1817, pp. 302-331.
+                              _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1821, p. 149.
+
+
+Astronomical observations and experiments selected for the purpose of
+ascertaining the relative distances of clusters of stars, and of
+investigating how far the power of our telescopes may be expected to
+reach into space, when directed to ambiguous celestial objects.
+                              _Phil. Trans._, 1818, pp. 429-470.
+
+
+On the places of one hundred and forty-five new double stars (1821).
+                            _Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc._, 1, 1822, pp. 166-181.
+
+
+
+II.--LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF WILLIAM
+HERSCHEL.
+
+                 [Arranged alphabetically by authors.]
+
+_N.B.--In general, the notices of his life to be found in Encyclopaedias
+of Biography, etc., are not included here._
+
+
+ARAGO (F.)
+    Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL [from
+_Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes_, 1842]. Paris, 1843. 18mo.
+        [See also the _Annuaire_ for 1834, for an account of HERSCHEL'S
+        work on double stars.]
+
+
+ARAGO (F.)
+    Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men. Translated by Admiral
+      W. H. SMYTH, Rev. B. POWELL, and ROBERT GRANT, Esq. HERSCHEL.
+        First series, p. 258. Boston, 1859. 8vo.
+
+
+ARAGO (F.)
+    HERSCHEL. [Translated from the French.]
+        Smithsonian Report. 1870. p. 197. 8vo.
+
+
+AUWERS (A.)
+    WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Verzeichnisse von Nebelflecken und Sternhaufen
+      bearbeitet von A. AUWERS.
+        From the _Koenigsberg Observations_. 1862. Folio.
+
+
+BESSEL (F. W.)
+    Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL. [From the _Koenigsberger Allgemeine Zeitung_, 1,
+      1843, No. 37, _et seq._, reprinted in his] _Abhandlungen_, vol iii.,
+      p. 468. Leipzig, 1876. 4to.
+
+
+D'ARREST (H. L.)
+    Verzeichniss von Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Nebelflecken _erster_ und
+      _vierter_ Classe, aus den Beobachtungen berechnet und auf 1850
+      reducirt.
+        _Abhandlungen der Math. Phys. Classe der K. Saechs Gesells. d.
+          Wissenschaften_, Band iii. [1857], p. 359.
+
+
+DUNKIN (E.)
+    Obituary Notices of Astronomers, p. 86. Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL,
+      K.C.H., F.R.S., 1738-1822.
+        London, 1879. 12mo.
+
+
+FETIS (F. J.)
+    Biographie universelle des Musiciens [Article HERSCHEL].
+        Paris, 1835-37. 8vo.
+
+
+FORBES (J. D.)
+    Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL [being Sec. 2 of Dissertation vi.].
+        Encyclopaedia Britannica, eighth edition.
+        Vol. i.,_Dissertations_, p. 838.
+
+
+FOURIER (J.)
+    Eloge historique de Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, prononce dans la seance
+      publique de l'Academie royale des sciences le 7 Juin, 1824.
+
+       _Historie de l'Academie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France_,
+         _tome_ vi., _annee_ 1823, p. lxi.
+
+
+HARDING (C. L.)
+    Des Herrn Dr. HERSCHEL'S Untersuchungen ueber die Natur der
+      Sonnenstrahlen, aus dem englischen uebersetzt. Erstes Heft.
+      [Translations from _Phil. Trans._, 1800.] Celle, 1801. 16mo.
+
+
+HASTINGS (C. S.)
+    See HOLDEN _and_ HASTINGS.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    An Account of a new Comet. [1786, II.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1787, vol. LXXVII., p. 1.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    An Account of the Discovery of a Comet. [1793, I.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1794, vol. LXXXIV., p. 1.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    Account of the Discovery of a Comet. [1795, II.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1796, vol. LXXXVI., p. 131.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    Catalogue of Stars taken from FLAMSTEED'S observations contained in
+      the second volume of his _Historia Coelestis_, and not inserted
+      in the British Catalogue; to which is added a collection of errata
+      which should be noticed in the same volume; with remarks by W.
+      HERSCHEL. London, 1798. Folio.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Carolina.)
+    Verzeichniss von 74 Sternen FLAMSTEEDS von denen keine beobachtungen
+      in der _Hist. Coel. Brit._ vorkommen.
+        _Bode's Jahrbuch_, 1806, p. 255
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (Carolina.)]
+    [Notice of her Life.]
+        _Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 8, p. 64; _also_, _Memoirs
+          Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 17, p. 120.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (Carolina.)]
+    Memoir and Correspondence of CAROLINE HERSCHEL. By Mrs. JOHN
+      HERSCHEL. With portraits. London, 1876. 12mo.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    Article _Telescope_, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, eighth edition.
+      [This article (illustrated) gives most of the important features of
+      Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S manner of grinding and polishing specula.]
+
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars. [General and systematic
+      reduction of all Sir W. HERSCHEL'S observations brought into
+      connection with all other similar ones.]
+        _Phil. Trans._, 1864. Page 1. 4to.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    A Synopsis of all Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Micrometrical Measurements,
+      etc., of Double Stars, together with a Catalogue of those Stars . . .
+      for 1880.
+        _Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 35, p. 21. Lond., 1867. 4to.
+
+HERSCHEL (J. F. W.)
+    Additional Identifications of Double Stars in the Synoptic
+      Catalogues of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S Micrometrical Measurements,
+      etc.
+        _Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc._, vol. 28, p. 151. London, 1868.
+         8vo.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (Mrs. John.)
+    Memoir and Correspondence of CAROLINE HERSCHEL. With portraits.
+        London, 1876. 12mo.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    [Solution of a prize question. _See_ this book, page 46.]
+        _Ladies' Diary_, 1779.
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    The favorite Eccho Catch . . . and the preceding Glee [by S. LEACH].
+      To which is added the . . . Catch Sung by Three Old Women . . .
+      in the Pantomime called "The Genius of Nonsense" [by H. HARINGTON].
+        London, 1780(?). Obl. folio. [A MS. copy of this was kindly
+        furnished me by Dr. R. GARNETT, of the British Museum.]
+
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    _Goettingen Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur_ (1783), vol.
+      iii., p. 4. LICHTENBERG and FORSTER, Editors.
+        [Letter from HERSCHEL, giving a brief account of his life. _See_
+        this book, page 3.]
+
+
+HERSCHEL (W.)
+    I. _Manuscripts in possession of the Royal Society._
+
+       1. A series of register sheets in which are entered up _all_ the
+          observations of _each_ nebula, copied _verbatim_ from the
+          sweeps. 2. A similar set of register sheets for MESSIER'S nebulae.
+          3. A general index of the 2,508 nebulae of W. HERSCHEL; given the
+          class and number, to find the general number. 4. An index list;
+          given the general number, to find the class and number.
+          5. A more complete list like 4. 6. A manuscript catalogue of
+          all the nebulae and clusters, reduced to 1,800, and arranged
+          in zones of 1 deg. in polar distance; by Miss CAROLINA HERSCHEL.
+          7. The original sweeps with the 20-foot reflector at Slough,
+          in three small 4to and four folio vols. of MS.
+
+
+II. _Manuscripts in possession of the Royal Astronomical Society._
+
+        This library contains "the whole series of autograph observations
+          of each double star [observed by HERSCHEL], brought together on
+          separate sheets by Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL and Miss CAROLINA
+          HERSCHEL."
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    Some Account of the Life and Writings of WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Esq.
+      [With a Portrait.]
+        The _European Magazine and London Review_ for January, 1785. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Edinburgh Review_, vol. i., p, 426.
+            [A review of HERSCHEL'S memoir, "Observations on the two
+            lately discovered bodies," from _Phil. Trans._, 1802. _See_
+            this book, page 96.]
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        "Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, from a London paper."
+
+        [This is a short obituary notice "furnished by a gentleman well
+          acquainted with Sir WILLIAM and his family, and its accuracy may
+          be relied on."]
+
+        _Niles' Register_, vol. 23, p. 154. Nov. 9, 1822. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    Obituary: Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Knt., LL.D., F.R.S.
+        _The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle_, vol. xcii.,
+          1822, p. 274. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Annual Register_, 1822, p. 289. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    W. HERSCHEL'S Saemmtliche Schriften, Erster Band.
+        Ueber den Bau des Himmels. Mit 10 Kupfertafeln.
+          [Edited by J. W. PFAFF. A second edition was published in 1850.]
+          Dresden and Leipzig, 1828. 8vo.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _New York Mirror_, vol. vi., 1829-30, p. 388.
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Living Age_, vol. ii., p. 125 (1844). 8vo.
+        [Reprinted from _Chambers' Journal_.]
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+        _Foreign Quarterly Review_, vol. 31, p. 438. 8vo.
+
+        [Review of ARAGO'S "Analyse de la vie et des travaux de Sir WILLIAM
+          HERSCHEL."]
+
+
+[HERSCHEL (W.)]
+    ARAGO'S Life of HERSCHEL.
+
+        _Eclectic Museum_, vol. ii., p. 556. [Reprinted from the _Foreign
+          Quarterly Review_, vol. 31.]
+
+
+HOLDEN (E. S.)
+    On the Inner Satellites of _Uranus_. [Reduction of Sir WILLIAM
+      HERSCHEL'S observations.]
+
+        _Proceedings Amer. Assn. Adv. Science_, _August_, 1874, p. 49.
+         8vo.
+
+
+HOLDEN (E. S.)
+    Index Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relative to nebulae, clusters,
+      etc. _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, No. 311, pp. 19-38.
+    [Abstracts of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL'S memoirs (on nebulae) in the
+      _Philosophical Transactions_.]
+
+        Washington, 1877. 8vo.
+
+
+HOLDEN (E. S.) and C. S. HASTINGS.
+    A Subject-index and a Synopsis of the scientific writings of Sir
+      WILLIAM HERSCHEL. [Reprinted from the _Report_ of the Smithsonian
+      Institution (1879).]
+
+        Washington, 1881. 8vo.
+
+
+KRAFFT (J. G. F.)
+    Kurze Nachricht von dem beruehmten Astronomen HERSCHEL und einigen
+      seiner Entdeckungen.
+
+        Bayreuth, 1787. 8vo.
+
+PEIRCE (C. S.)
+    Photometric Researches. [A reduction of HERSCHEL'S observations on
+      the comparative brightness of the stars.] _Annals Harvard College
+      Observatory_, vol. ix.
+
+        Leipzig, 1878. 4to.
+
+
+SOMMER (G. M.)
+    WILLIAM HERSCHEL . . . ueber den Bau des Himmels; drei abhandlungen
+      aus dem englischen uebersetzt, nebst einem authentischen Auszug
+      aus KANTS allgemeiner Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels.
+
+        Koenigsberg, 1791. 8vo.
+
+
+STRUVE (W.)
+    Etudes d'astronomie stellaire. Sur la voie lactee et sur la distance
+      des etoiles fixes. [P. 24 _et seq._ contains an elaborate review
+      of the construction of the heavens according to HERSCHEL.] St.
+      Petersburg, 1847. 8vo.
+
+
+WOLF (R.)
+    WILLIAM HERSCHEL. Zurich, 1867. 8vo.
+
+
+ZACH (F. von.)
+    Dr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL [translated from _Public Characters_ and
+      printed in ZACH'S _Monatlich Correspondenz_, 1802, part i., p. 70
+      _et seq._]
+
+
+III.--LIST OF THE PUBLISHED PORTRAITS OF WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+_Artist_, MME. DUPIERY. _Engraver_, THOeNERT. 8vo. Early portrait. Some
+  copies in red. Profile.
+
+_Artist_, F. REHBURG. _Engraver_, F. W. BOLLINGER. 8vo. Late portrait.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, C. WESTERMAYR. 8vo. Medallion.
+
+_Artist_, C. BRAND. _Engraver_, ----? 8vo. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, J. SEWELL. 8vo. Profile, 1785.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, ----? 8vo. Profile.
+
+_Artist_, F. BONNEVILLE. _Engraver_, F. BONNEVILLE. 8vo. Profile.
+
+_Artist_, J. RUSSELL, R.A. _Engraver_, E. SCRIVEN. 8vo. Engraved from a
+  crayon in the possession of his son, and published by the S. D. U. K.
+  in the _Gallery of Portraits_, vol. 5.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, ----? 8vo. _European Magazine_, Jan., 1785.
+  This is a bust in profile, showing the left side of the face.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, THOMSON. 8vo. Published by Caxton, 1823.
+This must have been engraved before 1816 since the legend is WILLIAM
+HERSCHEL, LL.D., F.R.S.
+
+_Artist_, Lady GORDON. From the painting by ABBOTT in the National
+Portrait Gallery. _Engraver_, JOSEPH BROWN. 8vo. Published in memoir of
+CAROLINE HERSCHEL. This is of the date 1788, or thereabouts. _See_
+frontispiece.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, C. MUeLLER. 4to. Medallion, 1785(?).
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, H. PINHAS. 4to. Legend in Russian.
+
+_Artist_, BAISCH. _Engraver_, ----? 4to. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, H. GREVEDON. _Engraver_, ----? Fol. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, F. MUeLLER. Fol.
+
+_Artist_, ABBOTT. _Engraver_, RYDER. Fol. 1788.
+
+_Artist_, J. BOILLY. _Engraver_, ----? Fol. 1822. Lithograph.
+
+_Artist_, ----? _Engraver_, J. GODBY. Fol.
+
+
+R. W. S. LUTWIDGE, Esq., F.R.A.S., has an original seal with a head of
+Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, which is shown on the title-page of this work. A
+cut of it has been courteously furnished me by JOHN BROWNING, Esq.,
+F.R.A.S., etc.
+
+In 1787 a bust of HERSCHEL was made by LOCKIE for Sir WILLIAM WATSON.
+
+A picture of HERSCHEL was painted by Mr. ARTAUD about the beginning of
+1819. A portrait of HERSCHEL by ABBOTT is in the National Portrait
+Gallery, London. There are no doubt many other paintings in England,
+though I can find notices of these only. The Royal Society of London has
+nearly a hundred portraits of its most distinguished members, but owns
+none of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
+
+
+
+
+                            INDEX OF NAMES.
+
+
+_N.B.--This index is intended to refer to the proper names occurring in
+the body of the work only, and not to the Bibliography._
+
+
+  Airy (Sir George), 17.
+
+  Alison (Sir Archibald), 111.
+
+  Arago (Francois), 49, 81, 139.
+
+  Artaud (M.), 114.
+
+  Aubert (Alexander), 52, 62, 63.
+
+
+  Baldwin (Miss), 115.
+
+  Banks (Sir Joseph), 56, 58, 64.
+
+  Bessel (F. W.), 127, 137.
+
+  Blagden (Dr.), 57.
+
+  Bonaparte (Napoleon), 108, 111.
+
+  Bradley (James), 51, 153.
+
+  Bruhl (Count von), 52.
+
+  Bulman (Mr.), 22, 115, 116.
+
+  Bunsen (Chevalier), 12.
+
+  Burney (Dr.), 82, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106.
+
+
+  Campbell (Thomas), 107.
+
+  Cassini (J. D.), 51.
+
+  Cropley (Mr.), 20.
+
+
+  Dalrymple (Mr.), 73.
+
+  D'Arblay (Madame), 100 _et seq._
+
+  Darlington (Earl of), 18.
+
+  Darquier, 51, 119.
+
+  D'Arrest (H. L.), 204.
+
+  Dawes (W. R.), 200.
+
+  De Luc (M.), 64.
+
+  De Luc (Mrs.), 100, 102.
+
+  Dollond (J.), 120.
+
+
+  Engelfield (Sir Harry), 57.
+
+
+  Farinelli (Miss), 38.
+
+  Flaugergues (H.), 51, 119.
+
+  Fleming (Miss), 42.
+
+  Fourier (J.), 124.
+
+  Frauenhofer (J.), 195.
+
+
+  Galileo, 50, 135.
+
+  George III., 64, 77, 124, 126.
+
+  Griesbach (George), 63.
+
+  Griesbachs (the), 62, 106.
+
+
+  Hansen (P. A.), 142.
+
+  Hastings (C. S.), 119.
+
+  Heberden (Dr.), 64.
+
+  Helmholtz (H.), 188.
+
+  Herschel (Abraham) [1651-1718], 6.
+
+  Herschel (Alexander) [1745-1821], 10, 12, 14, 15, 35, 38, 41, 57, 61,
+    62, 66, 72, 73, 114.
+
+  Herschel (Benjamin), 7.
+
+  Herschel (Carolina) [1750-1848], 2, 10, 11, 12, 16, 23, 29, 33, 41, 43,
+    68;
+    discovers five comets, 69, 70, 78, 83, 103, 105, 112, 113, 114, 115.
+
+  Herschel (Carolina), her _Memoir_ quoted, 2, 9, 13, 23, 29, 31, 34, 36,
+    41, 57, 61, 63, 64, 65, 70, 74.
+
+  Herschel (Dietrich), 9, 10, 11, 29, 42, 114.
+
+  Herschel (Eusebius), 7.
+
+  Herschel (Hans) [_circa_ 1600], 6.
+
+  Herschel (Isaac) [1707-1767], 7, 8, 29.
+
+  Herschel (Jacob) [1734-1792], 10, 11, 16, 23, 30.
+
+  Herschel (Sir John Frederick William) [1792-1871], 80, 103, 105, 114,
+    126, 127, 143, 203.
+
+  Herschel (Lady), 80, 102, 103, 105, 114.
+
+  Herschel (Major John), 2.
+
+  Herschel (Mrs. Mary Cornwallis), 2.
+
+  Herschel (Sophia Elizabeth), b. 1733, married Griesbach, 10.
+
+  Herschel (William), born 1738, November 15; 10.
+    oboist in the band of the Guards (1755), and goes to England for the
+      first time, returning in 1756, 16.
+    deserts from the Guards and goes to England (1757), 17.
+    organizes the band of the Durham militia (1760), 18.
+    leaves the band and lives with Dr. Miller, 19.
+    leads the public concerts at Wakefield and Halifax, 20.
+    organist at Halifax (1765), 22.
+    organist of the Octagon Chapel at Bath (1766), 24.
+    his musical writings, 26.
+    studies Smith's harmonies and optics, 28.
+    visits Hanover, August, 1772, 32.
+    hires a small telescope, 37.
+    makes his first telescope (1774), 38.
+    visits Hanover (1775?), 42.
+    1st review of the heavens, 39, 73.
+    2d review of the heavens, 73.
+    3d review of the heavens (1783), 73.
+    4th review of the heavens (1785), 74.
+    manufacture of telescopes, 40, 59, 75, 77, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124,
+      125, 126, 127.
+    moves to 19 New King St., Bath, 43.
+    conducts oratorios of Handel, 43.
+    begins astronomical _measures_ (1779), 44.
+    joins Philosophical Society of Bath, 45.
+    first published scientific writing (1779), 46.
+    first communication to the Royal Society (1780), 47.
+    discovery of _Uranus_ (1781, March 13), 49.
+    its effect on his career, 53.
+    elected a member of the Royal Society (1781), and receives the
+      Copley medal, 56.
+    attempts a thirty-foot reflector, 59.
+    goes to London, 1782 (May, June, July), 61.
+    appointed Royal Astronomer (L200), 1782, 67.
+    removes to Datchet, 1782, August 1, 67.
+    his assiduity, 72, 77, 79, 81.
+    his mechanical genius, 14, 41, 121.
+    cost of his telescopes, 77.
+    marries Mrs. John Pitt, _nee_ Baldwin (1783), 80.
+    only child born (1792), 80.
+    removes to Slough (1786), 81.
+    LL.D. (_Oxon._), 1786, 47.
+    his account of the discovery of _Uranus_ (1781, March 13), 4.
+    discovers two satellites to _Uranus_, 1787, Jan. 11, 84.
+    discovers two satellites to _Saturn_, 1789, August-September, 125.
+    invents machines for making reflectors (1788), 41.
+    began forty-foot telescope, 1785, finished it, 1789, 121.
+    biographical letter (1783), 3.
+    list of published portraits of him, 232.
+    value of his sister's assistance to him, 34.
+    letters to Carolina Herschel, 61, 63, 64, 114.
+    his personal character (1786-1800), 100 _et seq._
+    his relations to his cotemporaries, 85, 86, 87, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97,
+      98, 99.
+    list of writings relating to him and to his works, 225.
+    his literary skill, 45.
+    examples of his style, 83 _et seq._
+    failure of health, 112 _et seq._
+    created a Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order (1816), 115.
+
+  Herschel (Sir William), first president of the Royal Astronomical Society
+       (1821), 115.
+    his will, 114.
+    his death, August 25th, 1822, 116.
+    his epitaph, 117.
+    list of his scientific writings, 215.
+    review of his scientific labors, 118.
+    the improvement of telescopes and apparatus, 121.
+    the relative brightness of the stars; variable stars, 130.
+    researches on double stars, 134.
+    researches on planets and satellites, 140.
+    researches on the nature of the sun, 145, 186, 198.
+    the motion of the solar system in space, 149.
+    researches on the construction of the heavens, 154.
+    scale of celestial measures; distances of the stars, 170.
+    researches on light, heat, etc., 176.
+    researches on the dimensions of the stars, 193.
+    on the spectra of the fixed stars, 195.
+    on the variable emission of light and heat from the sun, 198.
+    researches on nebulae and clusters, 202.
+
+  Huyghens (C.), 50, 189.
+
+
+  King George III., 64, 77, 124, 126.
+
+
+  Lacaille (N. L.), 156, 202.
+
+  Lalande (Jerome), 28, 124, 156.
+
+  Lambert (J. H.), 153.
+
+  Lassell (W.), 143.
+
+  Lee (Miss), 61.
+
+  Lichtenberg (Herr), 3.
+
+  Lind (Dr. and Mrs.), 69.
+
+  Long (Dr.), 135.
+
+
+  Magellan (Herr), 3, 78.
+
+  Maskelyne (Nevil), 5, 51, 57, 62, 63, 150, 153.
+
+  Mayer (Christian), 94, 153.
+
+  Melloni (M.), 186.
+
+  Messier (C.), 202.
+
+  Michell (John), 52, 94, 137, 156.
+
+  Miller (Dr.), 19, 20, 21, 22.
+
+  Monson (Mrs.), 115.
+
+  Moritzen (Anna Ilse), m. Isaac Herschel, 7, 8.
+
+
+  Napoleon I., 108, 111.
+
+  Newton (Sir Isaac), 189, 190, 191, 192.
+
+
+  Olbers (William), 95.
+
+
+  Pabrich (Cappelmeister), 7.
+
+  Palmerston (Lord), 64.
+
+  Piazzi (Joseph), 75, 95.
+
+  Pierce (Charles S.), 132.
+
+  Pigott (J.), 119.
+
+  Poggendorff (J. G.), 188.
+
+
+  Ronzoni (Signor), 59.
+
+  Rosse (Lord), 122, 207.
+
+
+  Savary (M.), 139.
+
+  Secchi (Angelo), 195, 196.
+
+  Scheiner (C.), 199.
+
+  Schroeter (J. H.), 51, 77, 91, 92, 93.
+
+  Schwabe (H.), 201.
+
+  Short (James), 120.
+
+  Smith (Dr. Robert), 28.
+
+  Snetzler (Herr), 20, 21.
+
+  Struve (Otto von), 129.
+
+
+  Thomson (Thomas), 95.
+
+
+  Verdet (E.), 188.
+
+
+  Wainwright (Dr.), 20.
+
+  Walsh (Colonel), 62.
+
+  Watson (Sir William), 44, 58, 60, 64, 65, 66, 67, 75, 76.
+
+  Watt (James), 106.
+
+  Weld (R.), 126.
+
+  Wilson (Alexander), 52, 94, 146.
+
+
+  Zach (Baron von), 69.
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+START OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+I have used [alpha] to represent the greek letter used in the text.
+
+
+  page line  In the Original text, left as is.
+  227    3   uebersetzt
+  231   29   uebersetzt
+   18   24   Biographie universelle des musiciens
+  226   24   Biographie universelle des Musiciens
+  231   33   Koenigsberg, 1791. 8vo.
+  226    9   Koenigsberger Allgemeine Zeitung
+  195    4   Fraunhofer
+  235 index  Frauenhofer (J.), 195.
+  226   29   Vol.  (all other occurances are) vol.
+  238 index  Ronzoni (Signor), 59.
+   58   26   Ronzini
+
+
+  Original
+  page line  Original text                    Replaced with
+   65   23   ornamented.                      ornamented."
+  117   31   [C] for letter C reversed        CI[C]I[C]CCCXXII
+  216   25   den 18. May                      den 18. Mai
+  219   23   Suppl. Band., p. 238.            Suppl. Band, p. 238.
+
+
+END OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sir William Herschel: His Life and
+Works, by Edward Singleton Holden
+
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