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vertical-align: middle } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Gaelic Grammar + +Author: Alexander Stewart + +Release Date: May 12, 2009 [EBook #28766] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>ELEMENTS</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">OF</p> + +<h2>GAELIC GRAMMAR</h2> + +<h3>IN FOUR PARTS</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">I. OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III. OF SYNTAX</p> + +<p class="cenhead">IV. OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION</p> + +<p class="cenhead">BY</p> + +<h3>ALEXANDER STEWART</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL</span><br /> +<span class="scac">HONORARY MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND</span></p> + +<h3>Royal Celtic Society Edition.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">FOURTH EDITION REVISED.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">WITH PREFACE BY THE REV. DR M<sup>c</sup>LAUCHLAN</p> + +<h2>EDINBURGH</h2> + +<h2>JOHN GRANT, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE</h2> + +<h3>1892</h3> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page iii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiii"></a>{iii}</span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language by the Rev. Dr + Stewart of Moulin has been out of print. This has been a source of regret + to scholars and students of that tongue. Not but that there are other + Grammars of real value, which it would be unjust either to ignore or to + depreciate, and which have served, and are serving, an excellent purpose + in connection with Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has + peculiar features of its own which give it a permanent value. It is + distinguished by its simplicity, conciseness, and philosophical accuracy. + No Grammar of any language bears on its pages the marks of real and + profound scholarship, in so far as it goes, more than does the Grammar of + Dr Stewart. One cannot read a sentence of it without seeing how carefully + he had collected his materials, and with what judgment, caution, and + sagacity he has compared them and drawn his conclusions. His discussions + upon the Article, the Noun, the Verb, and the Preposition, are ample + evidence of this. It is no doubt true that a much fuller discussion is, + with the more abundant resources of modern scholarship, <!-- Page iv + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiv"></a>{iv}</span>competent and + desirable, but, so far as he goes, Dr Stewart's treatment of the subject + is of a masterly character.</p> + + <p>That there are defects to be found in the work is very true. On the + subject of Syntax his disquisitions are deficient in fulness, and there + is a want of grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first thought + desirable by the publishers and their advisers to remedy these defects by + introducing fuller notices on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable + number of grammatical exercises from other sources open to them. But it + was finally deemed best in every view of it to give Stewart's work just + as he had left it, and that is done here with the exception of a list of + subscribers' names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and Stewart are + doing the literary community a service in republishing this volume, and + thanks are specially due to the Royal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a + society which has done much to foster the interests of education in the + Highlands, and which has given substantial aid towards the accomplishment + of this undertaking.</p> + + <p class="author"><span class="sc">Thos. M<sup>c</sup>Lauchlan</span>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Edinburgh</span>, <i>1st August 1876.</i></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents." title="Contents."> +<tr><td colspan="3"> <span class="sc">Introduction.</span> </td><td align="right"> <span class="scac">PAGE</span><br /> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <br />PART I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Of Pronunciation and Orthography, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <br />PART II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <span class="scac">OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> I.—</td><td>Of the Article, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> II.—</td><td>Of Nouns, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Of Gender, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Of Declension, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page43">43</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> III.—</td><td>Of Adjectives, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Of Numeral Adjectives, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page59">59</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> IV.—</td><td>Of Pronouns, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page61">61</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> V.—</td><td>Of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Formation of the Tenses, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Irregular Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Defective Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Reciprocating state of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Impersonal use of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Auxiliary Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> VI.—</td><td>Of Adverbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> VII.—</td><td>Of Prepositions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Idiomatic phrases, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page125">125</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> VIII.—</td><td>Of Conjunctions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page134">134</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> IX.—</td><td>Of Interjections, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> +<!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span> + <br />PART III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <span class="scac">OF SYNTAX.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> I.—</td><td>Of Concord, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page137">137</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Verb with its Nominative, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page152">152</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> II.—</td><td>Of Government, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <br />PART IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <span class="scac">OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> I.—</td><td>Of Derivation, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> II.—</td><td>Of Composition, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Exercises in Reading, &c., </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span></p> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be variously + appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the vain endeavour to + restore vigour to a decaying superannuated language. Those who reckon the + extirpation of the Gaelic a necessary step toward that general extension + of the English which they deem essential to the political interest of the + Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to retard its + extinction. Those who consider that there are many parts of the + Highlands, where the inhabitants can, at present, receive no useful + knowledge whatever except through the channel of their native tongue, + will probably be of opinion that the Gaelic ought at least to be + tolerated. Yet these too may condemn as useless, if not ultimately + detrimental, any attempt to cultivate its powers, or to prolong its + existence. Others will entertain a different opinion. They will judge + from experience, as well as from the nature of the case, that no measure + merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder the progress of the + English language over the Highlands; while general convenience and + emolument, not to mention private emulation and vanity, conspire to + facilitate its introduction, and prompt the natives to its acquisition. + They <!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span>will perceive at the same time, that + while the Gaelic continues to be the common speech of + multitudes,—while the knowledge of many important facts, of many + necessary arts, of morals, of religion, and of the laws of the land, can + be conveyed to them only by means of this language,—it must be of + material service to preserve it in such a state of cultivation and + purity, as that it may be fully adequate to these valuable ends; in a + word, that while it is a living language, it may answer the purpose of a + living language.</p> + + <p>To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the whole kingdom, + it may not be impertinent to suggest one remark. The more that the human + mind is enlightened, the more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions + in knowledge. The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge + can be conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the Gaelic + language. By learning to read and to understand what he reads, in his + native tongue, an appetite is generated for those stores of science which + are accessible to him only through the medium of the English language. + Hence an acquaintance with the English is found to be necessary for + enabling him to gratify his desire after further attainments. The study + of it becomes, of course, an object of importance; it is commenced, and + prosecuted with increasing diligence. These premises seem to warrant a + conclusion which might at first appear paradoxical, that, by cultivating + the Gaelic, you effectually, though indirectly, promote the study and + diffuse the knowledge of the English.</p> + + <p>To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the medium through + which their instructions are communicated be properly adapted to that + use, and that they be enabled to avail themselves of it in the fittest + manner. A language destitute of grammatical regularity can possess + neither <!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pageix"></a>{ix}</span>perspicuity nor precision, and must + therefore be very inadequate to the purpose of conveying one's thoughts. + The Gaelic is in manifest danger of falling into this discreditable + condition, from the disuse of old idioms and distinctions, and the + admission of modern corruptions, unless means be applied to prevent its + degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot express himself with + precision without a correct knowledge of grammar. When he is conscious of + his ignorance in this respect, he must deliver himself sometimes + ambiguously or erroneously, always with diffidence and hesitation, + whereas one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and + phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to utter his + thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect.</p> + + <p>A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the hearer also, + to enable him to apprehend the full import and the precise force of the + words of the speaker. Among the readers of Gaelic, who are every day + becoming more numerous, those only who have studied it grammatically are + qualified to understand accurately what they read, and to explain it + distinctly to others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively few ever + arrive at a correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, without + the help of a treatise composed for the purpose. Whoever, therefore, + allows that the Gaelic must be employed in communicating to a large body + of people the knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, + will readily admit the extensive utility of investigating and unfolding + its grammatical principles. Impressed with this conviction, I have been + induced to offer to the public the following attempt to develop the + grammar of the Scottish Gaelic.</p> + + <p>While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to those who + wish to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which <!-- Page x --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagex"></a>{x}</span>they already possess, I + have also kept in view the gratification of others, who do not understand + the Gaelic, but yet may be desirous to examine the structure and + properties of this ancient language. To serve both these purposes, I have + occasionally introduced such observations on the analogy between the + Gaelic idiom and that of some other tongues, particularly the Hebrew, as + a moderate knowledge of these enabled me to collect. The Irish dialect of + the Gaelic is the nearest cognate of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate + acquaintance with its vocables and structure, both ancient and modern, + would have been of considerable use. This I cannot pretend to have + acquired. I have not failed, however, to consult, and to derive some + advantage from such Irish philologists as were accessible to me, + particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien, Vallancey, and Lhuyd. To these very + respectable names I have to add that of the Rev. Dr Neilson, author of + "An Introduction to the Irish Language," Dublin, 1808, and E. O'C., + author of "A Grammar of the Gaelic Language," Dublin, 1808; to the latter + of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured strictures, and some + flattering compliments, which, however unmerited, it were unhandsome not + to acknowledge. I know but one publication professedly on the subject of + Gaelic grammar written by a Scotsman<a name="footnotetag1" + href="#footnote1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>. I have consulted it also, but in + this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge.</p> + + <p>With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients in the + Gaelic, and who may cast an eye on this volume, less with a view to learn + than to criticise, while I profess a due deference to their judgment, and + declare my anxiety to obtain their favourable suffrage, I must take the + liberty to entreat their attention to the following considerations.</p> + +<p><!-- Page xi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"></a>{xi}</span></p> + + <p>The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in modern times + with a truly philosophical spirit, and has been settled on rational and + stable principles; yet, in applying these principles to explain the + grammar of a particular language, the divisions, the arrangements, and + the rules to be given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. + One set of rules may be equally just with another. For what is it that + grammatical rules do? They bring into view the various parts, + inflections, or, as they may be termed, the <i>phenomena</i> of a + language, and class them together in a certain order. If these + <i>phenomena</i> be all brought forward, and stated according as they + actually appear in the language, the rules may be said to be both just + and complete. Different sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a + different order, and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, + on a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most nearly the + order of nature, or the process of the mind in forming the several + inflections; or rather, perhaps, to that system which, from its + simplicity, or clear and comprehensive arrangement, is most fitted to + assist the memory in acquiring and retaining the parts of speech with + their several inflections.</p> + + <p>In distributing the various parts of language into their several + classes, and imposing names on them, we ought always to be guided by the + nature of that language, and to guard against adopting, with + inconsiderate servility, the distributions and technical terms of + another. This caution is the more necessary because, in our researches + into the grammar of any particular tongue, we are apt to follow + implicitly the order of the Latin grammar, on which we have been long + accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are ever ready to erect + into a model for the grammar of all languages. To force the several parts + of speech into moulds formed for the <!-- Page xii --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii"></a>{xii}</span>idioms of the Latin + tongue, and to frame them so as to suit a nomenclature adapted to the + peculiarities of Latin grammar, must have the effect of disguising or + concealing the peculiarities, and confounding the true distinctions, + which belong to the language under discussion.</p> + + <p>Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here suggested + ought never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to reject + indiscriminately all the forms and terms introduced into the grammar of + other languages. Where the same classifications which have been employed + in the grammar of the Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit + the Gaelic also, it is but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt these, + and apply to them the same names which are already familiar to us.</p> + + <p>In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, I have + endeavoured to conform to these general views. The field of investigation + was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. My task was not to fill up or + improve the plan of any former writer, but to form a plan for myself. In + the several departments of my subject that distribution was adopted + which, after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there were + terms already in use in the grammars of other languages that suited + tolerably well the divisions which it was found requisite to make, I + chose to adopt these, rather than load the treatise with novel or + uncommon terms. If their import was not sufficiently obvious already, it + was explained, either by particular description, or by reference to the + use of these terms in other grammars. In some instances it was found + necessary to employ less common terms, but in the choice of these I + endeavoured to avoid the affectation of technical nicety. I am far from + being persuaded that I am so fortunate as to have hit on the best + possible plan. I am certain that it must <!-- Page xiii --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"></a>{xiii}</span>be far from complete. + To such charges a first essay must necessarily be found liable. Still + there is room to hope that the work may not prove wholly useless or + unacceptable. Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do a + service of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits of my + labour to such as may choose to make use of them. It has been, if I + mistake not, the misfortune of Gaelic grammar that its ablest friends + have done nothing directly in its support, because they were apprehensive + that they could not do everything.</p> + + <p>I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties of dialect + used in different parts of the Highlands, may have left me unacquainted + with some genuine Gaelic idioms which ought to be noticed in a work of + this kind. The same cause may have led me to assert some things in too + general terms, not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions + which may be found in use in some particular districts. I respectfully + invite, and will thankfully receive, the correction of any person whose + more accurate and extensive information enables him to supply my + omissions, or to rectify my mistakes.</p> + + <p>In a few particulars I have differed from some of the highest living + authorities,—I mean those gentlemen whose superior abilities are so + conspicuous in the masterly translation of the sacred Scriptures with + which the Highlands of Scotland are now blessed.<a name="footnotetag2" + href="#footnote2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Here I have been careful to <!-- + Page xiv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiv"></a>{xiv}</span>state + the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In doing this, I would + always be understood to advance my opinion and propose my reasons with + the view of suggesting them to the consideration of my countrymen, rather + than in the expectation of having my conclusions universally sustained + and adopted.</p> + + <p>Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some may have formed + to themselves arrangements on the subjects different from mine. Of these + I have to request that they do not form a hasty judgment of the work from + a partial inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ + from their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with a patient + perusal of the whole, and a candid comparison of the several parts of the + system with each other. To a judicious critic, some faults and many + defects may appear, and several improvements will occur. On this + supposition, I have one request more to make: that he join his efforts + with mine in serving a common cause, interesting to our country, and dear + to every patriotic Highlander.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page xv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexv"></a>{xv}</span></p> + +<h3>ADVERTISEMENT</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">TO THE</p> + +<h2>SECOND EDITION.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the author + has endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in his power, from + books, observation, and the communications of some literary friends, to + whom he is indebted for several judicious remarks. In comparing the + opinions of different critics, it was not to be expected that all should + be found to agree together. It sometimes happened that one approved what + another would have rejected. If the author has not adopted every hint + that was offered him, but used the privilege of exercising his own + judgment, the responsibility must rest with himself. He hopes those + gentlemen who most obligingly favoured him with their remarks will + forgive him for mentioning their names, for he is unwilling to withhold + from the public the satisfaction of knowing that he has had the best + assistance which his country could afford him in compiling and modelling + his work. He thankfully acknowledges his obligations to the Rev. Dr + Robertson, of Callander; Dr Graham, of Aberfoyle; Dr Stuart, of Luss; Dr + Macleod, of Kilmarnock; and Mr Irvine, of Little Dunkeld.</p> + + <p>From these sources of emendation, omissions have been <!-- Page xvi + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvi"></a>{xvi}</span>supplied, + idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, some alterations have + been made by simplifying or compressing particular parts, and new + examples and illustrations have been introduced throughout, according as + the advantages which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his + knowledge of the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, his + former judgments. He thought it might be acceptable to Gaelic scholars to + have a few lessons subjoined as exercises in translating and analysing. + For this purpose he has selected some specimens of original prose + composition, extracted from unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest + Gaelic books that are known to be extant. These specimens, short as they + are, may suffice to exhibit something of the powers and elegances of the + language in its native purity, unmixed with foreign words and idioms, as + well as to show the manner in which it was written two or three centuries + ago.</p> + + <p>The present edition owes its existence to the generous patronage of + Sir John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick, Bart., to whom the author is happy + in avowing his obligations for the unsolicited and liberal encouragement + given him in the execution and publication of his work. To the same + gentleman he is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record + the names of those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in concert with the + honourable baronet, and at his suggestion, though residing in the remote + provinces of India, yet mindful of their country's fame, contributed a + liberal sum of money for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for + publishing the poems of Ossian in their original language. It is owing, + in a principal degree, to their munificent aid, that the anxious + expectation of the public has been at last so richly gratified by Sir + John Sinclair's elegant and elaborate edition of the poems of that tender + and lofty bard.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<h2>ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>PART I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY.</p> + + <p>The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, + h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, + u; the rest consonants.</p> + + <p>In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several + combinations, such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not + to be expected. In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a + particular language, the only obvious method is to represent them by the + letters commonly employed to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known + living language. But there are sounds in the Gaelic to which there are + none perfectly similar in English, nor perhaps in any modern European + tongue. Besides, the same combination of letters does not invariably + represent the same sound in one age that it did in a former, or that it + may do in the next. And this may be equally true of the letters of the + Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of the letters of any + other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former are to be + explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable also in + different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering the + same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the letters, + then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much will + still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. <!-- Page + 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"></a>{2}</span></p> + + <p>Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the <i>vocal + sounds</i> of speech, and that of the consonants to represent its + <i>articulations</i>, yet, as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the + consonants sometimes serve to modify the sound of the vowels with which + they are combined; while, on the other hand, the vowels often qualify the + sound of the consonants by which they are preceded or followed.</p> + + <p>It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be + employed, not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. + Yet examples are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English + words, George, sergeant, the <i>e</i> has no other effect than to give + <i>g</i> its soft sound; and in guest, guide, the <i>u</i> only serves to + give <i>g</i> its hard sound. So in the Italian words giorno, giusto, and + many others, the <i>i</i> only qualifies the sound of the preceding + consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen to take place + frequently in Gaelic orthography.</p> + + <p>Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, + it is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions.</p> + + <p>The Vowels are divided into <i>broad</i> and <i>small</i>: a, o, u, + are called <i>broad</i> vowels; e, i, <i>small</i> vowels.</p> + + <p>The Consonants are divided into <i>Mutes</i> and <i>Liquids</i>: + <i>Mutes</i>, b, c, d, f, g, m, p, t; <i>Liquids</i>, l, n, r, s<a + name="footnotetag3" href="#footnote3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>. They are also + divided into <i>Labials</i>, <i>Palatals</i>, and <i>Linguals</i>, so + named from the organs employed in pronouncing them: <i>Labials</i>, b, f, + m, p; <i>Palatals</i>, c, g; <i>Linguals</i>, d, l, n, r, s, t.</p> + + <p>The aspirate <i>h</i> is not included in any of these divisions<a + name="footnotetag4" href="#footnote4"><sup>[4]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS<a name="footnotetag5" href="#footnote5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is + often marked with an accent, especially when the <i>quantity</i> of the + vowel determines the meaning of the word; as, bàs <i>death</i>, sàil + <i>the heel</i>, càraid <i>a pair</i>, rìs <i>again</i>, mò <i>more</i>, + lòn <i>a marsh</i>; which are distinguished by the accent alone from bas + <i>the palm</i> of the hand, sail <i>a beam</i>, caraid <i>a friend</i>, + ris <i>to</i>, lon <i>the elk</i>.</p> + + <p>All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a + nasal sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are + doubled in the same syllable like <i>ee</i>, <i>oo</i>, in English.</p> + + <p>In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a + preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable<a name="footnotetag6" + href="#footnote6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>. The other syllables are short and + unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general the same + short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in these + syllables are often used indiscriminately.</p> + + <p>There are no quiescent final vowels.</p> + +<h3>A.</h3> + + <p>A has three sounds.</p> + + <p>1. The first is both long and short; long, like <i>a</i> in the + English words <i>far</i>, <i>star</i>; as, àr <i>slaughter</i>, àth <i>a + ford</i>, gràdh, <!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page4"></a>{4}</span><i>love</i>, sàruich <i>oppress</i>; short, + like <i>a</i> in <i>that</i>; as, cath <i>a battle</i>, alt <i>a + joint</i>; abuich <i>ripe</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Both long and short, before <i>dh</i> and <i>gh</i>. This sound has + none like it in English. Long, as, adhbhar <i>a cause</i>, adhradh + <i>worship</i>; short, as, lagh <i>a law</i>, magh <i>a field</i>, adharc + <i>a horn</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Short and obscure, like <i>e</i> in <i>mother</i>; as, an, a + <i>the</i>, ar <i>our</i>, ma <i>if</i>, and in the plural termination a + or an.</p> + +<h3>E.</h3> + + <p><i>E</i> has three sounds.</p> + + <p>1. Both long and short: long, like <i>e</i> in <i>where, there</i>; + as, è, sè <i>he</i>, rè <i>during</i>. This <i>e</i> is generally marked + with a grave accent. Short, like <i>e</i> in <i>met</i>; as, le + <i>with</i>, leth <i>half</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Long, as, ré <i>the moon</i>, cé <i>the earth</i>, and dé + <i>yesterday</i>. This <i>e</i> is commonly marked with an acute + accent.</p> + + <p>3. Short, like <i>e</i> in <i>mother</i>; as, duine <i>a man</i>, + ceannuichte <i>bought</i>.</p> + +<h3>I.</h3> + + <p><i>I</i> has two sounds.</p> + + <p>1. Both long and short, like <i>ee</i> in <i>seem</i>: long, as, mìn + <i>smooth</i>, righ <i>a king</i>; short, as, min <i>meal</i>, crith + <i>trembling</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Short and obscure, like <i>i</i> in <i>this</i>; as, is <i>am</i>, + <i>art</i>, &c.</p> + +<h3>O.</h3> + + <p><i>O</i> has three sounds.</p> + + <p>1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like <i>o</i> in <i>more</i>; + as, mòr <i>great</i>, òr <i>gold</i>, dòchas <i>expectation</i>; short, + like <i>o</i> in <i>hot</i>; as, mo <i>my</i>, do <i>thy</i>, dochann + <i>harm</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Both long and short: long, nearly like <i>o</i> in <i>old</i>; as, + lom <i>bare</i>, toll <i>a hole</i>; short, as, lomadh <i>making + bare</i>, tolladh <i>boring</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Both long and short, like (2) a<a name="footnotetag7" + href="#footnote7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>: long, as, foghlum <i>to learn</i>; + short, as, roghuinn <i>choice</i>, logh <i>to forgive</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>{5}</span></p> + +<h3>U.</h3> + + <p><i>U</i> has one sound, both long and short, like <i>oo</i> in + <i>fool</i>: long, as, ùr <i>fresh</i>, ùraich <i>to renew</i>; short, + as, ubh <i>an egg</i>, urras <i>a surety</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE DIPHTHONGS.</p> + + <p>There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, + eo, eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always + long; the others are sometimes long, sometimes short.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ae.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ae</i> is made up of (1) <i>a</i> long, and (1) + <i>e</i> short. This diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael <i>a + Gaul</i> or <i>Highlander</i>, and Gaelic the <i>Gaelic</i> language<a + name="footnotetag8" href="#footnote8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ai.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ai</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of the former.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>a</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: the <i>a</i> long, the + <i>i</i> short; as, fàidh <i>a prophet</i>; the <i>a</i> short, the + <i>i</i> short; as, claidheamh <i>a sword</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (2) <i>a</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: the <i>a</i> long, the + <i>i</i> short; as, saighde <i>arrows</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> often loses + its sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following + consonant<a name="footnotetag9" href="#footnote9"><sup>[9]</sup></a>; + hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>a</i> alone: long, as, fàisg <i>squeeze</i>, fàilte + <i>salutation</i>; short, as, glaic <i>a hollow</i>, tais + <i>soft</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Like (2) <i>a</i> alone: short, as, airm <i>arms</i>, gairm <i>a + call</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ao.</span></h3> + + <p>1. The sound of <i>ao</i> is like (2) <i>a</i>, long: as, caora <i>a + sheep</i>, faobhar <i>the edge of a tool</i>, saothair <i>labour</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>{6}</span></p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ea.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ea</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of one of them.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (2) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>a</i>: <i>e</i> very short, + <i>a</i> long, as, beann <i>a summit</i>, <i>pinnacle</i>, feall + <i>deceit</i>; <i>a</i> short, as, meal <i>to enjoy</i>, speal <i>a + scythe</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>a</i> frequently + loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; + hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>e</i>, long: as, dean <i>do</i>; short, as, fear <i>a + man</i>, bean <i>a woman</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Like (2) <i>e</i>, long: as, easlan <i>sick</i>; short, as, fead + <i>whistle</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>e</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>4. Like (1) <i>a</i>, long: as, cèard <i>an artificer</i>; short, as, + geal <i>white</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Like (3) <i>a</i>, short: as, itheadh <i>eating</i>, coireach + <i>faulty</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ei.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ei</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of <i>e</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>e</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, sgeimh <i>beauty</i>; <i>e</i> short, as, meidh <i>a + balance</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (2) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>e</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, feidh <i>deer</i>; <i>e</i> short, as, greigh <i>a herd</i>, + <i>stud</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>e</i> alone: long, as, mèise <i>of a plate</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Like (2) <i>e</i> alone: long, as, éigin <i>necessity</i>; short, + as, eich <i>horses</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Eo.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>eo</i> is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, + or like that of <i>o</i> alone. <!-- Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page7"></a>{7}</span></p> + + <p>1. Made up of (2) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>o</i>: <i>e</i> very short, + <i>o</i> long, as, beo <i>alive</i>, eolas <i>knowledge</i>; <i>o</i> + short, as, beothail <i>lively</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>e</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>o</i>: long, as, leomhann <i>a lion</i>; short, as, + deoch <i>drink</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Eu.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>eu</i> is like (2) <i>e</i> alone: long, as, teum + <i>to bite</i>, gleus <i>trim, entertainment</i>.</p> + + <p>One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the + pronunciation of the diphthong <i>eu</i>, which, instead of being + pronounced like long <i>e</i>, is over all the North Highlands commonly + pronounced like <i>ia</i>; as, nial, ian, fiar, for neul, eun, feur.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ia.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ia</i> is made up of the sounds of both the + vowels.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (1) <i>a</i>: both of equal length, as, + fial <i>liberal</i>, iar <i>west</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (2) <i>a</i>: of equal length, as, + fiadh <i>a deer</i>, ciall <i>common sense</i>.</p> + + <p>In cia <i>which?</i> iad <i>they</i>, <i>ia</i> is often found like + (1) <i>è</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Io.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>io</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like one of them alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (3) <i>o</i>: <i>i</i> long, <i>o</i> + short, as, diol <i>to pay</i>, fior <i>true</i>; <i>i</i> short, as, + iolach <i>a shout</i>, ionnsuidh <i>an attack</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>o</i> sometimes + loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; + hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>i</i>: long, as, iodhol <i>an idol</i>; short, as, + crios <i>a girdle</i>, biorach <i>pointed</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> <!-- Page 8 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>{8}</span>sometimes loses + its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like <i>u</i> in <i>fun</i>, short and obscure: as, cionta + <i>guilt</i>, tiondadh <i>to turn</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Iu.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>iu</i> is either made up of the sound of both the + vowels, or like <i>u</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (1) <i>u</i>: <i>i</i> short, <i>u</i> + long, as, fiù <i>worthy</i>; <i>u</i> short, as, iuchair <i>a + key</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>u</i>: long, as, diù <i>worst part, refuse</i>; short, + as, tiugh <i>thick</i>, giuthas <i>fir</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Oi.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>oi</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of <i>o</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>o</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>o</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, òigh <i>a virgin</i>; <i>o</i> short, as, troidh <i>a + foot</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (3) <i>o</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>o</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, oidhche <i>night</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>o</i> long: as, mòid <i>more</i>; short, as, toic + <i>wealth</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Like (2) <i>o</i> long: as, fòid <i>a turf</i>; short, as, fois + <i>rest</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Like (3) <i>o</i> short; as, coileach <i>a cock</i>, doire <i>a + wood</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ua.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ua</i> is made up of the sounds of both the + vowels.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>u</i> and (1) <i>a</i>, equally long; as, cuan + <i>the sea</i>, fuar <i>cold</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (1) <i>u</i> and (2) <i>a</i>; as, tuadh <i>a + hatchet</i>, sluagh <i>people</i>. <!-- Page 9 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span></p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ui.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ui</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of <i>u</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>u</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>u</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, suigheag <i>a rasp-berry</i>; <i>u</i> short, as, buidheann + <i>a company</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>u</i> long: as, dùil <i>expectation</i>, cùig + <i>five</i>; short, as, fuil <i>blood</i>, muir <i>the sea</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE TRIPHTHONGS.</p> + + <p>There are five Triphthongs, in each of which <i>i</i> is the last + letter: aoi, eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the + same sounds and powers as when they form a diphthong. The final <i>i</i> + is sounded short; but before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it + loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Aoi.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Made up of <i>ao</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, caoidh + <i>lamentation</i>, aoibhneas <i>joy</i>, laoigh <i>calves</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Like <i>ao</i>; as, caoineadh <i>wailing</i>, maoile + <i>baldness</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Eoi.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Made up of (2) <i>eo</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, geoigh + <i>geese</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>eo</i>; as, meoir <i>fingers</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Like (2) <i>eo</i>; as, deoir <i>tears</i>, treoir + <i>ability</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Iai.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Like (1) <i>ia</i>; as, fiaire <i>more awry</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Iui.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Like (2) <i>iu</i>; as, ciùil <i>of music</i>, fliuiche <i>more + wet</i>. <!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page10"></a>{10}</span></p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Uai.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>ua</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, luaithe + <i>quicker</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (2) <i>ua</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, cruaidh <i>hard</i>, + fuaim <i>sound</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>ua</i>; as, uair <i>time, an hour</i>, cluaise <i>of an + ear</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS.</p> + + <p>The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers + in English. Those called <i>mediae</i> by the writers on Greek grammar, + viz., <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, approach nearer in force to the + corresponding <i>tenues</i> <i>p</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>c</i>, than they do in + English.</p> + + <p>In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice + necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though + written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when + written double in English; as, bradan <i>a salmon</i>, cos <i>a foot</i>; + pronounced braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except + <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>.</p> + + <p>A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic + tongue<a name="footnotetag10" href="#footnote10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>. The + aspirating of a consonant has been <!-- Page 11 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>{11}</span>usually marked, in the + Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish + dialect by writing <i>h</i> after it. All the consonants have their + sounds changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on + different consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but + still formed by the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a + different organ. In others the <i>h</i> alone retains its power. And + sometimes both the <i>h</i> and the consonant to which it is subjoined + become entirely quiescent.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span></p> + + <p>In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to + depart a little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to + consider first the <i>Labials</i>, next the <i>Palatals</i>, and lastly + the <i>Linguals</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">LABIALS.</p> + +<h3>P.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>p</i> in English; as, poll <i>a pool</i>, pill + <i>return</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Like <i>ph</i> or <i>f</i> in English; as, a' phuill + <i>of the pool</i>, phill <i>returned</i><a name="footnotetag11" + href="#footnote11"><sup>[11]</sup></a>.</p> + +<h3>B.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>b</i> in English; as, baile <i>a town</i>, beo + <i>alive</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Like <i>v</i> in English, as, bhuail <i>struck</i>. In + the end of a syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often + passes into the vocal sound of <i>u</i><a name="footnotetag12" + href="#footnote12"><sup>[12]</sup></a>; as in marbh<a + name="footnotetag13" href="#footnote13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> <i>dead</i>, + garbh <i>rough</i>, dabhach <i>a vat</i>.</p> + +<h3>M.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>m</i> in English; as, mac <i>a son</i>, cam + <i>crooked</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Somewhat like <i>v</i> in English, but more feeble and + nasal; as, mhathair <i>O mother</i>, lamh <i>the hand</i>. The sound + <i>mh</i> has the same relation to that of <i>bh</i>, as the sound of + <i>m</i> has to that of <i>b</i>. Sometimes, like <i>bh</i>, it becomes a + vocal sound like a nasal <i>u</i>; as, in damh <i>an ox</i>, samhradh + <i>summer</i>: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not to + be perceived; as, comhradh <i>speech</i>, domhainn <i>deep</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>{13}</span></p> + +<h3>F.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>f</i> in English, as, faigh <i>to get</i>, fòid <i>a + turf</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara <i>O men</i>. In fhuair + <i>found</i>, the aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as + if written <i>huair</i>. It is probable that it was originally written + and pronounced fuair<a name="footnotetag14" + href="#footnote14"><sup>[14]</sup></a>; that huair is but a provincial + pronunciation<a name="footnotetag15" + href="#footnote15"><sup>[15]</sup></a>; and that to adapt the spelling in + some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written fhuair.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">PALATALS AND LINGUALS.</p> + + <p>In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been + often taken of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the + adjoining consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the + Palatal and Lingual consonants, whether <i>plain</i> or <i>aspirated</i>. + The difference between these two modes of pronunciation is, in some + consonants, abundantly striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently + discernible to an ear accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of + articulation belongs to Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected + with a <i>broad vowel</i>; the other belongs to them when connected with + a <i>small vowel</i>. Hence, the former may be called the <i>broad</i> + sound, the latter the <i>small</i> sound of a <i>Palatal</i> or a + <i>Lingual</i>.</p> + + <p>These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for + the most part, by the relative situation of the letters.</p> + +<h3>C.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>c</i> in <i>come</i>, <i>curb</i>; as, + cùl <i>the back</i>, cridhe <i>the heart</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>{14}</span></p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>c</i> in <i>care</i>, <i>cure</i>; as, taic + <i>support</i>, circe <i>of a hen</i><a name="footnotetag16" + href="#footnote16"><sup>[16]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: like the Greek <span + class="grk">χ</span>, as pronounced in Scotland, in <span + title="chôra" class="grk">χωρα</span>; as, croch + <i>to hang</i>, chaidh <i>went</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: like <span class="grk">χ</span> in <span + title="chiôn" class="grk">χιων</span>; as, chi <i>shall + see</i>, eich <i>horses</i>.</p> + +<h3>G.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>g</i> in <i>go</i>, <i>rogue</i>; as, + gabh <i>to take</i>, glor <i>speech</i>, bog <i>soft</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>g</i> in <i>give</i>, <i>fatigue</i>; as, gin + <i>to produce</i>, thig <i>shall come</i>, tilg <i>to throw</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: has no sound like it in English; ghabh + <i>took</i>, ghleidh <i>kept</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: nearly like <i>y</i> in <i>young</i>; as, ghin + <i>produced</i>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Gh</i> in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ + <i>a king</i>, tiugh <i>thick</i>, fuigheall <i>remainder</i>.</p> + +<h3>T.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: nearly like <i>t</i> in <i>tone</i>, + <i>bottom</i>; as, tog <i>to raise</i>, trom <i>heavy</i>, brat <i>a + covering</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>{15}</span></p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>ch</i> in <i>cheek</i>, <i>choose</i>; as, + tinn <i>sick</i>, caillte <i>lost</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. Like <i>h</i> in <i>house</i>; as, thig <i>shall + come</i>, throisg <i>fasted</i>, maith <i>good</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Quiescent</i>: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a + long syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when + preceded by <i>d'</i>; as, snitheach<a name="footnotetag17" + href="#footnote17"><sup>[17]</sup></a> <i>watery</i>, sìth <i>peace</i>, + an d' thug e? <i>did he give?</i> also in the pronoun thusa + <i>thou</i>.</p> + +<h3>D.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: nearly like <i>d</i> in <i>done</i>; as, dol + <i>going</i>, dlù <i>near</i>, <i>close</i>, ciod <i>what</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>j</i> in <i>June</i>, <i>jewel</i>; as, diù + <i>refuse</i>, maide <i>a stick</i>, airde <i>height</i>.</p> + + <p><i>D</i>, after <i>ch</i>, is commonly sounded like <i>c</i>; as, + bochd <i>poor</i>, pronounced as if written bochc<a name="footnotetag18" + href="#footnote18"><sup>[18]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>{16}</span></p> + + <p>3. Aspirated<a name="footnotetag19" + href="#footnote19"><sup>[19]</sup></a>. <i>Broad</i>: like broad + <i>gh</i>, as, dhruid <i>did shut</i>, gradh <i>love</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: like small <i>gh</i>; as, dhearc <i>looked</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Quiescent; as, fàidh <i>a prophet</i>, cridhe <i>a heart</i>, radh + <i>saying</i>, bualadh <i>striking</i>.</p> + + <p>RULE.—<i>The consonants c, g, t, d, have their </i><span + class="scac">SMALL</span><i> sound, when, in the same syllable, they are + preceded, or immediately followed, by a </i><span class="scac">SMALL + VOWEL</span><i>; in all other situations they have their </i><span + class="scac">BROAD</span><i> sound.</i></p> + +<h3>S.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>s</i> in <i>sun</i>, <i>this</i>; as, + speal <i>a scythe</i>, cas <i>a foot</i>, sùil <i>an eye</i>, scian <i>a + knife</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>sh</i> in <i>show</i>, <i>rash</i>; as, bris + <i>to break</i>, sèimh <i>quiet</i>, sniomh <i>to twine</i>, stéidh + <i>foundation</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated: like <i>h</i> in <i>him</i>; as, shuidh <i>sat</i>, + shrann <i>snorted</i>. Before <i>l</i> and <i>n</i>, it is almost, if not + altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich <i>healed</i>, shniomh + <i>twisted</i>. <i>S</i> followed by a <i>mute</i> consonant is never + aspirated.</p> + + <p>RULE.—<i>S has its </i><span class="scac">SMALL</span><i> sound, + when, in the same syllable, it is preceded or followed by a </i><span + class="scac">SMALL VOWEL</span><i>, with or without an intervening + Lingual. In all other situations it has its </i><span + class="scac">BROAD</span><i> sound.</i> <span class="sc">Except.</span> + <i>S</i> is <i>broad</i> in is <i>am</i>. It is <i>small</i> in so + <i>this</i>, sud <i>yon</i>. It is customary to give <i>s</i> its + <i>broad</i> sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends + with <i>r</i>, in which case the <i>r</i> also has its broad sound; as, + chuir sinn <i>we put</i>, air son <i>on account</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>{17}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of L, N, R.</span></p> + + <p>A distinction between a consonant when <i>plain</i>, and the same + consonant when <i>aspirated</i>, has been easily traced thus far. This + distinction readily discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and + orthography, but also (as will be seen in its proper place) throughout + the system of inflection. It takes place uniformly in those consonants + which have been already considered. With respect to the remaining + linguals, <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, a corresponding distinction will + be found to take place in their pronunciation, and likewise in the + changes they suffer by inflection. This close correspondence between the + changes incident to <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, and the changes which + the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason for still + using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, though + these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these three + consonants as to the rest. The powers of <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, + shall accordingly be explained under the divisions <i>plain</i> and + <i>aspirated</i>, <i>broad</i> and <i>small</i>.</p> + +<h3>L.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: has no sound like it in English; lom + <i>bare</i>, labhair <i>speak</i>, mall <i>slow</i>, alt <i>a joint</i>, + ald <i>a brook</i>, <span class="correction" title="Original reads `flat'." + >slat</span> <i>a rod</i>, dlù <i>near</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>ll</i> in <i>million</i>; as, linn <i>an + age</i>, lion <i>fill</i>, pill <i>to return</i>, slighe <i>a + way</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>l</i> in <i>loom</i>, <i>fool</i>; + as, labhair <i>spoke</i>, lom feminine of lom <i>bare</i>, mol <i>to + praise</i>, dhlù feminine of dlù <i>near</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small:</i> nearly like <i>l</i> in <i>limb</i>, <i>fill</i>; as, + a linn <i>his age</i>, lion <i>filled</i>, mil <i>honey</i>, dligheach + <i>due, lawful</i>.</p> + +<h3>N.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: has no sound like it in English; nuadh + <i>new</i>, naisg <i>bind</i>, lann <i>a blade</i>, carn <i>a heap of + stones</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>n</i> in the second syllable of + <i>opinion</i>; as, nigh <i>wash</i>, binn <i>melodious</i>, cuirn + <i>heaps of stones</i>. <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page18"></a>{18}</span></p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad:</i> like <i>n</i> in <i>no</i>, <i>on</i>; as, + nuadh feminine of nuadh <i>new</i>, naisg <i>bound</i>, shnamh + <i>swam</i>, sean <i>old</i><a name="footnotetag20" + href="#footnote20"><sup>[20]</sup></a>, chon <i>of dogs</i>, dàn <i>a + poem</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: like <i>n</i> in <i>keen</i>, <i>near</i>; as, nigh + <i>washed</i>, shniomh <i>twisted</i>, coin <i>dogs</i>, dàin + <i>poems</i>.</p> + + <p>In an when followed by a Palatal, the <i>n</i> is pronounced like + <i>ng</i> in English; as, an gille <i>the lad</i>, an comhnuidh + <i>always</i>.</p> + + <p><i>N</i>, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like + <i>r</i><a name="footnotetag21" href="#footnote21"><sup>[21]</sup></a>; + as in mnathan <i>women</i>, cnatan <i>a cold</i>, an t-snàth <i>of the + yarn</i>; pronounced mrathan, cratan, &c.</p> + +<h3>R.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Nearly like <i>r</i> in <i>roar</i>; as, ruadh + <i>reddish</i>, righ <i>a king</i>, ruith <i>run</i>, torr <i>a heap</i>, + ceartas <i>justice</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: nearly like <i>r</i> in <i>rear</i>; as, + car <i>a turn</i>, ruith <i>ran</i>, mòr <i>great</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Small</i>: has no sound like it in English; a righ <i>O + king</i>, seirbhe <i>satiety</i>, mòir gen. of mòr <i>great</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>plain</i>, <i>aspirated</i>, <i>broad</i>, and <i>small</i> + sounds of these Linguals are not distinguished in writing; but they may, + for the most part, be known from the relative position of the + letters.</p> + + <p>RULE.—<span class="scac">L, N, R</span>, <i>have their </i><span + class="scac">PLAIN</span><i> sound when, in the same syllable, they are + immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a + plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all + other situations, they have their </i><span + class="scac">ASPIRATED</span><i> sound. They have their </i><span + class="scac">SMALL</span><i> sound when, in the same syllable, they are + preceded or followed by a small vowel, with or without an intervening + Liquid; in other situations, they have their </i><span + class="scac">BROAD</span><i> sound.</i></p> + +<p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>{19}</span></p> + +<h3>H.</h3> + + <p>H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a + word beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in <i>how</i>; as, + na h-òighean <i>the virgins</i>, na h-oidhche <i>of the night</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both + singly and in their several combinations. The first column contains the + letters whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the + number of different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column + explains the sounds by examples or by references. The third column + contains Gaelic words, with their translation, in which the several + sounds are exemplified.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Vowels.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Vowels." title="Vowels."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 a </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> far star </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> àr <i>slaughter</i>, àth <i>a ford</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> that </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ar <i>to plow</i>, abuich <i>ripe</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 2 a </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> adhradh <i>worship</i>, adhbhar <i>reason</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> adharc <i>a horn</i>, adhart <i>a bolster</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 3 a </td><td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> similar </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> ma <i>if</i>, an <i>the</i>, a <i>his, her</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 e </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> there </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> è sè <i>he</i>, gnè <i>sort, kind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> met </td><td class="qspcsingle"> le <i>with</i>, leth <i>half</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 2 e </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> an dé <i>yesterday</i>, cé <i>the earth</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 3 e </td><td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> mother </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> duine <i>a man</i>, briste <i>broken</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 i </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> see </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mìn <i>smooth</i>, righ <i>a king</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> min <i>meal</i>, crith <i>a shaking</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 2 i </td><td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> this </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> is <i>am, art, is</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 o </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> more </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> mòr <i>great</i>, lòn <i>food</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> hot </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mo <i>my</i>, do <i>thy</i>, lon <i>the ouzle</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 2 o </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> old </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> lom <i>bare</i>, toll <i>a hole</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lomadh <i>making bare</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 3 o </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> (2) a </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> roghnuich <i>to choose</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"> roghuinn <i>choice</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> +<!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>{20}</span> + 1 u </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fool </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ùr <i>fresh</i>, sùgh <i>juice</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ubh <i>an egg</i>, tur <i>quite</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Diphthongs.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Diphthongs." title="Diphthongs."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ae </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> laeth <i>days</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fàidh <i>a prophet</i>, claidheamh <i>a sword</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> saidhbhir, <i>rich</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fàisg <i>squeeze</i>, tais <i>soft</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> airm <i>arms</i>, gairm <i>to call</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ao </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> faobhar <i>edge</i> of an instrument.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> beann <i>a pinnacle</i>, meal <i>enjoy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dean <i>to do, make</i>, bean <i>a woman</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> easlan <i>sick</i>, fead <i>whistle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ceard <i>an artificer</i>, geal <i>white</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> coireach <i>faulty</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sgèimh <i>beauty</i>, meidh <i>a balance</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> feidh <i>deer</i>, greigh <i>a herd</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mèise <i>of a plate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> éigin <i>necessity</i>, eich <i>horses</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> beo <i>alive</i>, beothail <i>lively</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> leomhann <i>a lion</i>, deoch <i>a drink</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 eu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> teum <i>to bite</i>, gleus <i>trim</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ia </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fial <i>liberal</i>, fiar <i>oblique</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ia </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fiadh <i>a deer</i>, biadh <i>food</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 io </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> diol <i>to pay</i>, iolach <i>a spout</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 io </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> iodhol <i>an idol</i>, crios <i>a girdle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 io </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fun </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cionta <i>guilt</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 iu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fiù <i>worth</i>, iuchair <i>a key</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 iu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> diù <i>refuse</i>, tiugh <i>thick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> òigh <i>a virgin</i>, troidh <i>a foot</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> oidhche <i>night</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mòid <i>more</i>, toic <i>wealth</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fòid <i>a turf</i>, fois <i>rest</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> coileach <i>a cock</i>, goirid <i>short</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cuan <i>the sea</i>, fuath <i>hatred</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tuadh <i>a hatchet</i>, sluagh <i>people</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>{21}</span> + 1 ui </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sùigheah <i>a raspberry</i>, buidheann <i>a company</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ui </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dùil <i>expectation</i>, fuil <i>blood</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Triphthongs.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Triphthongs." title="Triphthongs."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 aoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ao </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> caoidh <i>lamentation</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 aoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ao </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> caoin <i>mild</i>, saoil <i>to think</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 eoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> geoigh <i>geese</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 eoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> meoir <i>fingers</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 eoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> deoir <i>tears</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 iai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ia </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fiaire <i>more oblique</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 iui </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) iu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ciùil <i>of music</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 uai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> luaithe <i>quicker</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 uai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cruaidh <i>hard</i>, fuaim <i>sound</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 uai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> gluais <i>to move</i>, uair <i>time</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Consonants</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Consonants." title="Consonants."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Labials.</i><br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 p </td><td class="hspcsingle"> part </td><td class="hspcsingle"> poll <i>a pool</i>, streap <i>to climb</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ph </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Philip </td><td class="hspcsingle"> phill <i>returned</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 b </td><td class="hspcsingle"> boil </td><td class="hspcsingle"> baile <i>a town</i>, breab <i>to kick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 bh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> vile </td><td class="hspcsingle"> bhuail <i>struck</i>, gabh <i>to take</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 m </td><td class="hspcsingle"> my </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mòr <i>great</i>, anam <i>life, soul</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 mh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mhothuich <i>perceived</i>, damh <i>an ox</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 f </td><td class="hspcsingle"> feel </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fill <i>to fold</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 fh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fheara <i>O men</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><i>Palatals.</i><br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 c </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cock </td><td class="hspcsingle"> can <i>to say, sing</i>, creid <i>to believe</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 c </td><td class="hspcsingle"> kick </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ceann <i>end, head</i>, reic <i>to sell</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ch </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <span title="chôra" class="grk">χωρα</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> chaidh <i>went</i>, rach <i>go</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ch </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <span title="cheimôn" class="grk">χειμων</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> chi <i>shall see</i>, crìche <i>of a boundary</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 g </td><td class="hspcsingle"> go </td><td class="hspcsingle"> gabh <i>to take</i>, rag <i>stiff</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>{22}</span> + 2 g </td><td class="hspcsingle"> give </td><td class="hspcsingle"> geinne <i>a wedge</i>, ruig <i>to reach</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ghabh <i>took</i>, ghleidh <i>kept</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> you </td><td class="hspcsingle"> gheibh <i>will get</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> righ <i>a king</i>, sluagh <i>people</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><i>Linguals.</i><br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 t </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tone </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tog <i>to raise</i>, slat <i>a rod</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 t </td><td class="hspcsingle"> chin </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tinn <i>sick</i>, àite <i>a place</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 th </td><td class="hspcsingle"> have </td><td class="hspcsingle"> thainig <i>came</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 th </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> maith <i>good</i>, fàth <i>occasion</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 d </td><td class="hspcsingle"> done </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dol <i>going</i>, dragh <i>trouble</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 d </td><td class="hspcsingle"> join </td><td class="hspcsingle"> diom <i>resentment</i>, maide <i>a stick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 dh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dhall <i>blind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 dh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (4) gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dhearc <i>looked</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 dh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> radh <i>saying</i>, bualadh <i>threshing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 s </td><td class="hspcsingle"> so </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sannt <i>desire</i>, sloc <i>a pit</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 s </td><td class="hspcsingle"> show </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sèimh <i>gentle</i>, so <i>this</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 sh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> how </td><td class="hspcsingle"> shuidh <i>sat</i>, shaoil <i>thought</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> lom <i>bare</i>, slat <i>a rod</i>, moll <i>chaff</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> million </td><td class="hspcsingle"> lìnn <i>an age</i>, caillte <i>lost</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> look </td><td class="hspcsingle"> blàth <i>blossom</i>, shlanuich <i>healed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> believe </td><td class="hspcsingle"> leum <i>leaped</i>, shleamhnuich <i>slipped</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> crann <i>a tree</i>, naomh <i>holy</i>, naisg <i>bind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> opinion </td><td class="hspcsingle"> seinn <i>to sing</i>, nigh <i>wash</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> no </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fan <i>to stay</i>, naisg <i>bound</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> near </td><td class="hspcsingle"> coin <i>dogs</i>, nigh <i>washed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 r </td><td class="hspcsingle"> roar </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fearr <i>better</i>, righ <i>a king</i>, ruith <i>run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 r </td><td class="hspcsingle"> rear </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fear <i>a man</i>, ruith <i>ran</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 r </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fir <i>men</i>, a righ <i>O king</i>, treoir <i>strength</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + + <p>There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written + language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first + committed to writing, has undergone <!-- Page 23 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span>considerable changes. In + this respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages.</p> + + <p>In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by + alphabetical characters, it is probable that the principle which + regulated the system of orthography was, that every elementary sound + should be represented by a corresponding character, either simple or + compounded, and that the same sound should be represented by the same + character. If different sounds were represented by the same letter; if + the same sound were represented by different letters; if more letters + were employed then were necessary to exhibit the sound; or if any sound + were not represented by a corresponding character; then the + <i>written</i> language would not be an adequate representation of the + <i>spoken</i>. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the first rude + attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down could be + strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the course of + a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about considerable + departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and increasing attention + to <i>euphonia</i>; contractions and elisions brought into vogue by the + carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the practice of + popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of different + nations would introduce numberless varieties into the pronunciation. + Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere to the + original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, and + preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an + uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation + and the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it + would be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to + such changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had + established, in order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due + correspondence between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the + same language.</p> + + <p>It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the + <i>speech</i> has undergone material and striking changes, <!-- Page 24 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>{24}</span>the <i>written + language</i> also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to + these changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken + language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks + suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken + and the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in + the different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the + orthography of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent + considerable alterations between the era of the <i>Decemviri</i> and the + Augustan age, corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken + place during that interval in speaking the Latin. English and French + books printed within the last century exhibit a mode of orthography very + different from what is found in books printed two or three hundred years + ago. These instances show the tendency which the written language has to + follow the lead of the spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree + of conformity to those modes of pronunciation which are from time to time + adopted by those who speak it.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any + living language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, + on all occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. + Words are written differently which are pronounced alike. The same + combinations of letters, in different situations, represent different + sounds. Letters are retained in writing, serving to point out the + derivations of words, after they have been entirely dropped in + speaking.</p> + + <p>From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that <i>written + language</i> generally follows the <i>spoken language</i> through its + various revolutions, but still at a certain distance,—not dropping + so far behind as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close + as to be led through all its fantastic deviations.</p> + + <p>Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of + any particular tongue: How near ought the <i>written language</i> to + correspond to the <i>spoken</i>, and where may a disagreement between + them be allowed with <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page25"></a>{25}</span>propriety? The following observations may + serve to throw some light on the subject of this question, though by no + means sufficient to furnish a complete answer.</p> + + <p>It is obvious that in speech the <i>articulations</i> (which are + represented by consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. + <i>Vowel sounds</i> are continually varying. In this variety chiefly + consists that diversity of tone and dialect which is found in the speech + of different districts of the same country, where the same words are + spoken. The changes, too, which are introduced by time fall with greater + effect on the vowel sounds than on the articulations. This circumstance + will strike an observer who steps into any deliberative assembly, where + the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome makes a remark on the + reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some measure, to the + pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum <i>Salem</i> aut + <i>Salim</i> nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur + Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac <i>varietate regionum</i>, eadem + verba <i>diversis sonis</i> atque accentibus proferantur." It may be + observed that the superior stability of the articulations above the vowel + sounds is the natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech + in uttering them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are + effected by minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of + the articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of + the organs.</p> + + <p>It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary + constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the + <i>articulations</i> are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and + PREDOMINANT; the <i>vowel sounds</i>, comparatively considered, are + ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.</p> + + <p>Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be + uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same + organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of + speech, as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is + sometimes felt in making a transition from one articulation to another. + <!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page26"></a>{26}</span>Thus a difficulty will occasionally occur in + pronouncing certain words, where the general analogy of inflection or of + collocation has brought together articulations which do not easily + coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of departing in such a case from the + general analogy, and altering or displacing some of those discrepant + articulations, for the sake of ease and convenience in pronunciation, and + to relieve the ear from an offensive discordant sound. Departures are + made from the general rules of speech in the case of the vowel sounds + also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with examples. These departures, + however, seem to have been made from a desire to indulge the ear in + certain national predilections or aversions which it had conceived with + regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies of speech, or + those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it will be found + that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the most part, + been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in pronunciation; + while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded from the + peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a cause + urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the + latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in + its operation.</p> + + <p>If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished + tongues, an agreement will be found among those irregularities which + affect the articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect + the vowel sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison + were made between different languages, this would accordingly be found to + be the case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has + been usually paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the + vowel sounds, inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in + which the structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently + and from peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the + most part from necessity. If this observation be found to be well + supported, we shall have the sanction of general practice in favour of + the conclusion that was formerly <!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page27"></a>{27}</span>drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, + viz., that the articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; + the vowel sounds ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.</p> + + <p>If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually + varying in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either + elude our search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small + importance, may we not judge that it would be equally vain and improper + to attempt to make <i>Writing</i> follow all these minute variations; and + that, however it may happen that the same vowel sound may be represented + in many instances by different letters, and different vowel sounds by the + same letters, yet this disagreement between <i>Speech</i> and + <i>Writing</i> must be connived at, for the sake of preserving some + degree of uniformity, where alone it can be preserved, in the <i>written + language</i>? If it appear, again, that the variations from the + established analogy which are made on the articulations are less + frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not these + variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general + correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to + be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and + without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the + same language?</p> + + <p>One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of + quiescent consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living + languages, that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have + been suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in + writing, when they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, + or the radical part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be + allowed only to a moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to + which it may be added, that the far greater part of the suppressed + articulations can be easily discovered and retraced to their roots, + without any index in the <i>written</i> any more than in the + <i>spoken</i> language to point them out. <!-- Page 28 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>{28}</span></p> + + <p>These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the + present state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the + reader in forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of + improvement.</p> + + <p>I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that + each letter or combination of letters in the written language ought + always to denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has + been given of the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this + principle has been regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the + letters represents more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity + between the several sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily + allowed that less confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a + few kindred sounds by the same letter, than would have taken place had + the characters been multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one + could have been appropriated to each minute variety of sound.</p> + + <p>It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in + the case of the consonants <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, the distinction + between their <i>plain</i> and their <i>aspirated</i> state is not marked + in writing, but that in both states the consonant is written in one way. + In the middle and end of words, as has been shown, this distinction may + be known from the relative situation of the letters. In the beginning of + certain cases and tenses of declinable words, it may often be known from + their <i>grammatical</i> connection, but is not marked by any + <i>graphical</i> index whatever. The proper reading is to be determined + by the sense of the passage, instead of the sense being understood by the + proper reading. It is not easy to discover how those who first committed + the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such a material distinction. + Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently arise from this cause, + which have been long felt and regretted. Is there room to hope that it is + not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying this defect? The + method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of any. It is to + annex to the initial <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, and <i>r</i>, in their aspirated + state, the letter <i>h</i>, just as has been <!-- Page 29 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page29"></a>{29}</span>done to all the other + consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the + system of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an + uniform process in <i>Writing</i> as it is in <i>Speech</i>, and errors + in reading and ambiguities in syntax would be avoided<a + name="footnotetag22" href="#footnote22"><sup>[22]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that + each sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or + combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are + extremely few. The sound of <i>ao</i> is represented sometimes by + <i>a</i> alone, sometimes by <i>o</i> alone. The sound of <i>gh</i> is + represented also by <i>dh</i>; and final <i>c</i> often, though + corruptly, represents the same sound with <i>chd</i>.</p> + + <p>III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought + to be employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are + probably few polished languages in which departures from this rule are + not found in abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render + it expedient to retain letters in writing many words, after the + corresponding sounds have been dropped in pronouncing the same words. + Quiescent letters, both vowels and consonants, are not unfrequent in + Gaelic. Though these quiescent letters have no sound themselves, they are + not always without effect in pronunciation, as they often determine the + sound of other letters. Most, if not all, the quiescent vowels seem to + have been introduced for this purpose. They ascertain the <i>broad</i> or + the <i>small</i> sound of the adjoining <!-- Page 30 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>{30}</span>consonants. This has been + made sufficiently clear in treating of the vowels and diphthongs + separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its <i>broad</i> sound, + both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and in like manner + has its <i>small</i> sound, both when preceded and when followed by a + small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality, and + followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been thought, + might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced with its + broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained in + Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable + and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same + quality<a name="footnotetag23" href="#footnote23"><sup>[23]</sup></a>. To + the extensive application and the rigid observance of this rule it is + owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is sufficient to + express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels, when used in + their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other, or written + indiscriminately<a name="footnotetag24" + href="#footnote24"><sup>[24]</sup></a>. From the former of these + circumstances, most of the words in the language appear loaded with + superfluous vowels; from the latter, the orthography of many words + appears, in some respects, arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial + correction of these blemishes must be desirable. It may therefore be + worth while to examine this long established canon of Gaelic orthography, + with a view to discover whether it has not been extended farther than is + necessary, and whether it ought not in many cases to be set aside.</p> + + <p>We have seen that the Labials <i>b</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>p</i>, + whether aspirated or not, have no distinction of broad and small + sound.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>{31}</span></p> + + <p>It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or + postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich <i>ripe</i>, + gabhaidh <i>will take</i>, chromainn <i>I would bow</i>, ciomaich + <i>captives</i>, have been written with a broad vowel in the second + syllable, corresponding to the broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the + letters abich, gabhidh, chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The + prepositive syllable im, when followed by a small vowel, is written im, + as in imlich <i>to lick</i>, imcheist <i>perplexity</i>. But when the + first vowel of the following syllable is broad, it has been the practice + to insert an <i>o</i> before the <i>m</i>, as in iomlan <i>complete</i>, + iomghaoth <i>a whirlwind</i>, iomluasg <i>agitation</i>. Yet the inserted + <i>o</i> serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of + inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule + in question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other + languages. From the Latin words <i>imago</i>, <i>templum</i>, + <i>liber</i>, are formed in Gaelic iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing + but a servile regard to the rule under consideration could have suggested + the insertion of a broad vowel in the first syllable of these words, + where it serves neither to guide the pronunciation, nor to point out the + derivation.</p> + + <p>Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly + unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent + consonant. Thus in gleidheadh <i>keeping</i>, itheadh <i>eating</i>, + buidheann <i>a company</i>, <span class="correction" title="Original reads `dlighecah'." + >dligheach</span> <i>lawful</i>, the aspirated consonants in the middle + are altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is + sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears + for writing a small vowel in the second syllable.</p> + + <p>Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of + vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, + or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of + this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set + aside.</p> + + <p>Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or + more syllables to the root. The final <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>{32}</span>consonant of the root + must always be considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the + adjected termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or + small, falls to be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes + it in the same syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in + the next syllable. It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more + vowels in the adjected syllable than what are sufficient to represent its + own vocal sound. The rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been + extended to the orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a + supernumerary vowel has been thrown into the termination, whenever that + was requisite to preserve the supposed necessary correspondence with the + foregoing syllable. Thus, in forming the nominative and dative plural of + many nouns, the syllables <i>an</i> and <i>ibh</i> are added to the + singular, which letters fully express the true sound of these + terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular is broad, + <i>an</i> alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an + <i>hands</i>, cluas-an <i>ears</i>. But if the last vowel be small, an + <i>e</i> is thrown into the termination; as, sùil-ean <i>eyes</i>, + sròin-ean <i>noses</i>. Now if it be observed that, in the two last + examples, the small sound of the <i>l</i> and <i>n</i> in the root is + determined by the preceding small vowel <i>i</i>, with which they are + necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters <i>an</i> + fully represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that the + <i>e</i> in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming + the dative plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, <i>ibh</i> is + added; as, sùil-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is + broad, the termination is written <i>aibh</i>; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, + where the <i>a</i>, for the reason already assigned, is totally + useless.</p> + + <p>These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, + as will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh <i>will + believe</i>, stad-aidh <i>will stop</i>; chreid-inn <i>I would + believe</i>, stad-<i>a</i>inn <i>I would stop</i>; creid-<i>e</i>am + <i>let me believe</i>, stad-am <i>let me stop</i>; creid-ibh <i>believe + ye</i>, stad-<i>a</i>ibh <i>stop ye</i>.</p> + + <p>The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, + formed by adding to their primitives the syllables <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>{33}</span><i>ach</i>, <i>achd</i>, + <i>ag</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>ail</i>, <i>as</i>; in all which <i>e</i> has + been unnecessarily introduced, when the last vowel of the preceding + syllable was small; as, sannt-ach <i>covetous</i>, toil-<i>e</i>ach + <i>willing</i>; naomh-achd <i>holiness</i>, doimhn-<i>e</i>achd + <i>depth</i>; sruth-an <i>a rivulet</i>, cuil-<i>e</i>an <i>a whelp</i>; + cauch-ag <i>a little cup</i>, cail-<i>e</i>ag <i>a girl</i>; fear-ail + <i>manly</i>, caird-<i>e</i>il <i>friendly</i><a name="footnotetag25" + href="#footnote25"><sup>[25]</sup></a>; ceart-as <i>justice</i>, + caird-<i>e</i>as <i>friendship</i>.</p> + + <p>The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general + conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit + the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of <i>the syllable to + which it belongs</i>, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless + incumbrance. There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the + present system of Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable + number of quiescent vowels<a name="footnotetag26" + href="#footnote26"><sup>[26]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>{34}</span></p> + + <p>Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are + <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, in their aspirated + state. When these occur in the inflections of declinable words, serving + to indicate the Root, or in derivatives, serving to point out the + primitive word, the omission of them might, on the whole, be unadvisable. + Even when such letters appear in their absolute form, though they have + been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it would be rash to discard them in + writing, as they often serve to show the affinity of the words in which + they are found to others in different languages, or in different dialects + of the Celtic. The aspirated form of the consonant in writing + sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its articulation is either + attenuated or wholly suppressed.</p> + + <p>The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into + apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this + purpose they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the + middle of compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather + gnethail <i>kindly</i>, made up of gnè and ail; beothail <i>lively</i>, + made up of beo <span class="correction" title="Original reads `and and' over line break." + >and</span> ail; diathan <i>gods</i>, from the singular dia; lathaibh + <i>days</i>, from the singular là, &c. It may at least bear a + question, whether it would not be better to allow the vowels to denote + the sound of the word by their own powers, without the intervention of + quiescent consonants, as has been done in <!-- Page 35 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span>mnaibh <i>women</i>, + déibh <i>gods</i>, rather than insert consonants which have nothing to do + with either the radical or the superadded articulations of the word.</p> + + <p>From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers + of Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must + have been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper + one, and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same + word. Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by + different writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with + different quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the + pronunciation, or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some + who judge of the language only from its appearance in writing, have taken + occasion to vilify it, as unfixed and nonsensical<a name="footnotetag27" + href="#footnote27"><sup>[27]</sup></a>. A proper attention to the + affinity which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, + particularly to other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the + orthography in some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become + variable<a name="footnotetag28" + href="#footnote28"><sup>[28]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate + orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a + corresponding character. From this rule there is hardly a single + deviation in Gaelic, as there is no sound in the spoken language which is + not, in some measure, <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page36"></a>{36}</span>exhibited in the written language. The fault + of the Gaelic orthography is sometimes a redundancy, but never a + deficiency of letters.</p> + + <p>A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or + particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of + this work, which it would be premature to introduce here.</p> + + <p>The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish + orthography, till after the middle of the last century. However that + system may suit the dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to + the Gaelic of this country. In the Gaelic translation of the New + Testament, printed in 1767, not only were most of the Irish idioms and + inflections which had been admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings + rejected, and the language adapted to the dialect of the Scottish + Highlands, but the orthography also was adapted to the language. In later + publications, the manner of writing the language was gradually + assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version of the sacred Scriptures + lately published has exhibited a model, both of style and orthography, + still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, and has a just title + to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little seems to be now + wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic such a degree + of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its stability. This, it + is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard to the separate, + and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the most common and + approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the Scottish Gaelic + with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of inflection + and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some generally + received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version of the + Scriptures has the only indisputable claim.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>{37}</span></p> + +<h3>PART II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.</p> + + <p>The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged + as follows:—Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, + Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are + declinable; the other four are indeclinable.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE ARTICLE.</p> + + <p>The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article + <i>the</i>. There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the + English <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>. The inflections of the article are but + few. They depend on the gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to + which it is prefixed. Hence the article is declined by gender, number, + and case, as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The article." title="The article."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td colspan="2" align="center"> Singular. </td><td colspan="2" align="center"> Plural.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc. & Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, am </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a' </td><td class="spacsingle"> na</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a' </td><td class="spacsingle"> na </td><td class="spacsingle"> nan, nam</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a', n' </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a', n' </td><td class="spacsingle"> na</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In the singular, final <i>n</i> of the article is sometimes cut off, + and its absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial + <i>a</i> of the dative singular.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF NOUNS.</p> + + <p>A Noun is the Name of any person, object, or thing whatsoever, that we + have occasion to mention. In treating of <!-- Page 38 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>{38}</span>this Part of Speech, we + have to consider the <i>Gender</i> and the <i>Declension</i> of + Nouns.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Gender.</span></p> + + <p>In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and obvious + distinction of Sex in the animal world suggested the expediency of + inventing names, not only for the particular species of animals, but also + for distinguishing their Sex. Such are <i>vir</i>, <i>femina</i>; + <i>bull</i>, <i>cow</i>; <i>coileach</i>, <i>cearc</i>, &c. To mark + at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the same word, with a + slight change on its form, was applied to both sexes: as <i>equus</i>, + <i>equa</i>; <i>lion</i>, <i>lioness</i>; <i>oglach</i>, + <i>banoglach</i>. In most languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, + not only thus by the form of the noun, but further by the form of the + adjective connected with the noun. Most adjectives were furnished with + two forms, the one of which indicated its connection with the name of a + male, the other its connection with the name of a female. The one was + called by grammarians the <i>masculine gender</i>, the other the + <i>feminine gender</i> of the adjective. Adjectives possessing thus a + two-fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other of these + forms, with whatever noun they happened to be conjoined. Even nouns + significant of inanimate objects came thus to possess one mark of nouns + discriminative of Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective + of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any noun was + observed to be usually coupled with an adjective of the masculine gender, + it was termed by grammarians a <i>masculine noun</i>; if it was found + usually coupled with an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a + <i>feminine noun</i>. Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine and + feminine came to be noted, and this also was called gender.</p> + + <p>It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in two + different acceptations. When applied to an adjective, <!-- Page 39 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>{39}</span>it signifies a + certain <i>form</i>, by which <i>bonus</i> is distinguished from + <i>bona</i>. When applied to a noun, it signifies a certain + <i>relation</i> of the word to the attributives connected with it, by + which <i>amor</i> is distinguished from <i>cupido</i>. As Sex is a + natural characteristic pertaining to living objects, so gender is a + grammatical characteristic pertaining to nouns, the names of objects + whether animate or inanimate. The gender of nouns is not, properly + speaking, indicated; it is constituted by that of the attributives + conjoined with them. If there were no distinction of gender in + adjectives, participles, &c. there could be none in nouns. When we + say that <i>amor</i> is a noun of the masculine gender, and <i>cupido</i> + a noun of the feminine gender, we do not mean to intimate any distinction + between the things signified by these nouns; we mean nothing more than to + state a grammatical fact, viz., that an adjective connected with + <i>amor</i> is always of the same form as when joined to a noun denoting + a male, and that an adjective connected with <i>cupido</i> is always of + the same form as when joined to a noun denoting a female<a + name="footnotetag29" href="#footnote29"><sup>[29]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span></p> + + <p>When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that denoted an + object devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to guess what views might + have determined the speaker to use the adjective in one gender rather + than in the other. Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by + the noun. Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some resemblance + to the qualities characteristic of Sex in living creatures. In many + instances, the form of the noun seems to have decided the point. It must + be confessed that in this mental process, the judgment has been often + swayed by trivial circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At + least it cannot be denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns whatever + are ranked under the class of masculines or of feminines, the gender of + each has been fixed by a procedure whereof the grounds cannot now be + fully investigated or ascertained. Neither the natural nor artificial + qualities or uses of the things named, nor the form of the names given + them, furnish any invariable rule by which the gender of nouns may be + known. It ought to be remembered, however, that the Gaelic is far from + being singular in this respect. The oldest language with which we are + acquainted, as well as some of the most polished modern tongues, stand in + the same predicament.</p> + + <p>The following observations may serve to give some idea of the analogy + of gender in Gaelic nouns; though they do not furnish a complete set of + rules sufficient to ascertain the gender of every noun:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span></p> + + <p><span class="sc">Masculines.</span> Nouns signifying males are + masculines; as, fear <i>a man</i>, righ <i>a king</i>, sagart <i>a + priest</i>, tarbh <i>a bull</i>, cu <i>a dog</i>.</p> + + <p>Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either Sex, are + masculine, even when the individual objects they denote are mentioned as + being of the female Sex; as, laogh <i>a calf</i>, isean <i>a gosling</i>, + uan <i>a lamb</i>, &c.<a name="footnotetag30" + href="#footnote30"><sup>[30]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>Diminutives in <i>an</i>; as, rothan <i>a little wheel</i>, dealgan + <i>a little pin</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Derivatives in <i>as</i>, which are, for the most part, abstract + nouns; as, cairdeas <i>friendship</i>, naimhdeas <i>enmity</i>, ciuineas + <i>calmness</i>, breitheamhnas <i>judgment</i>, ceartas <i>justice</i>, + maitheas <i>goodness</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Derivatives in <i>air</i>, <i>ach</i>, <i>iche</i>, which are, for the + most part, agents; as, cealgair <i>a deceiver</i>, sealgair <i>a + huntsman</i>, dorsair <i>a door-keeper</i>, marcach <i>a rider</i>, + maraiche <i>a sailor</i>, coisiche <i>a foot traveller</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Names of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland; as, darach + <i>oak</i>, giuthas <i>fir</i>, uimhseann <i>ash</i>.</p> + + <p>Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are masculine.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Feminines.</span> Nouns signifying females are + feminine; as, bean <i>a woman</i>, mathair <i>a mother</i>, bo <i>a + cow</i>, &c. Except bainionnach or boirionnach <i>a female</i>, mart + <i>a cow</i>, capull <i>a horse</i> or <i>mare</i>, but commonly <i>a + mare</i>, which are masculine, and caileann or cailinn <i>a damsel</i>, + masculine or feminine.<a name="footnotetag31" + href="#footnote31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> Mark, vi. 28.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span></p> + + <p>Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when the individual + spoken of is characterised as a male; as, gabhar fhirionn, <i>a + he-goat</i>. Psal. l. 9.</p> + + <p>Names of countries; as, Albainn <i>Scotland</i>, Eirinn + <i>Ireland</i>.</p> + + <p>Names of musical instruments; as, clarsach <i>a harp</i>, piob, <i>a + pipe</i>.</p> + + <p>Names of the heavenly bodies; as, Grian <i>sun</i>, Gealach + <i>moon</i>.</p> + + <p>Names of diseases; as, teasach <i>a fever</i>, a' ghriuthach <i>the + measles</i>, a' bhreac <i>the small-pox</i>, a' bhuidheach <i>the + jaundice</i>, a' bhuinneach, <i>a diarrhœa</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, giuthasach <i>a + fir wood</i>, iugharach <i>a yew copse</i>, seileach <i>a willow + copse</i>, droighneach <i>a thorny brake</i>.</p> + + <p>Diminutives in <i>ag</i> or <i>og</i>; as, caileag <i>a girl</i>, + cuachag <i>a little cup</i>.</p> + + <p>Derivatives in <i>achd</i>; as, iomlanachd <i>fulness</i>, + doillearachd <i>duskiness</i>, doimhneachd <i>depth</i>, rioghachd + <i>kingdom</i>, sinnsireachd <i>ancestry</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives; as, doille + <i>blindness</i>, gile <i>whiteness</i>, leisge <i>laziness</i>, buidhre + <i>deafness</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Many monosyllables in <i>ua</i> followed by one or more consonants are + feminine; as, bruach <i>a bank</i>, cruach <i>a heap</i>, cuach <i>a + cup</i>, cluas <i>an ear</i>, gruag <i>the hair of the head</i>, sguab + <i>a sheaf</i>, tuadh <i>a hatchet</i>, tuath <i>peasantry</i>.</p> + + <p>Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, except + those in <i>air</i> and <i>iche</i>, already noticed, are feminine.</p> + + <p>A few nouns are of either gender; Salm <i>a Psalm</i>, creidimh + <i>belief</i>, are used as masculine nouns in some places, and feminine + in others. Cruinne <i>the globe</i>, talamb <i>the earth, land</i>, are + masculine in the nominative; as, an cruinne-cé <i>the globe of the + earth</i>. Psal. lxxxix. 11., xc. 2.—D. Buchan. 1767. p. 12. 15; an + talamh tioram <i>the dry land</i>. Psal. xcv. <!-- Page 43 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span>5. The same nouns are + generally feminine in the genitive; as, gu crìch na cruinne <i>to the + extremity of the world</i>. Psal. xix. 4.; aghaidh na talmhainn <i>the + face of the earth</i>. Gen. i. 29. Acts xvii. 24.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Declension.</span></p> + + <p>Nouns undergo certain changes significant of Number and of + Relation.</p> + + <p>The forms significant of Number are two: the <i>Singular</i>, which + denotes one; and the <i>Plural</i>, which denotes any number greater than + one.</p> + + <p>The changes expressive of Relation are made on nouns in two ways: 1. + On the beginning of the noun; 2. On its termination. The relations + denoted by changes on the termination are different from those denoted by + changes on the beginning; they have no necessary connection together; the + one may take place in absence of the other. It seems proper, therefore, + to class the changes on the termination by themselves in one division, + and give it a name, and to class the changes on the beginning also by + themselves in another division, and give it a different name. As the + changes on the termination denote, in general, the same relations which + are denoted by the Greek and Latin cases, that seems a sufficient reason + for adopting the term case into the Gaelic Grammar, and applying it, as + in the Greek and Latin, to signify "the changes made on the + <i>termination</i> of nouns or adjectives to mark relation".<a + name="footnotetag32" href="#footnote32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> According to + this description of them, there are four cases in Gaelic. These may be + <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>{44}</span>named, like the corresponding cases in + Latin, the <i>Nominative</i>, the <i>Genitive</i>, the <i>Dative</i>, and + the <i>Vocative</i>.<a name="footnotetag33" + href="#footnote33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> The Nominative is used when any + person or thing is mentioned as the <i>subject</i> of a proposition or + question, or as the <i>object</i> of an action or affection. The Genitive + corresponds to an English noun preceded by <i>of</i>. The Dative is used + only after a preposition. The Vocative is employed when a person or thing + is addressed.</p> + + <p>The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by aspirating an + initial consonant; that is, writing <i>h</i> after it. This may be called + the <i>Aspirated</i> form of the noun. The aspirated form extends to all + the cases and numbers. A noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by + aspiration, is in the <i>Primary</i> form.</p> + + <p>The <i>accidents</i> of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A noun is + declined by Number, Case, and Initial form. The Numbers are two: + <i>Singular</i> and <i>Plural</i>. The Cases are four: <i>Nominative</i>, + <i>Genitive</i>, <i>Dative</i>, and <i>Vocative</i>. The Initial form is + twofold: the <i>Primary form</i>, and the <i>Aspirated form</i> peculiar + to nouns beginning with a consonant.</p> + + <p>In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed to depend + more on the last vowel of the nominative than on <!-- Page 45 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span>the final letter. Hence + the last vowel of the nominative, or in general of any declinable word, + may be called the <i>characteristic</i> vowel. The division of the vowels + into <i>broad</i> and <i>small</i> suggests the distribution of nouns + into two Declensions, distinguished by the quality of the characteristic + vowel. The first Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the + <i>characteristic</i> vowel is <i>broad</i>; the second Declension + comprehends those nouns whereof the <i>characteristic</i> vowel is + <i>small</i>.</p> + + <p>The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns of the</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">FIRST DECLENSION.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns of the First Declension." title="Nouns of the First Declension."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> Bard, mas. <i>a Poet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bard </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Baird</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Baird </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bard</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bard </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bardaibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bhaird </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bharda</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br />Cluas, fem. <i>an Ear</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluas </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluasan</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluaise </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluais </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluasaibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chluas </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chluasa</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>General Rule for forming the Genitive.</i>—The Genitive is + formed from the Nominative, by inserting <i>i</i> after the + characteristic vowel, as, bàs mas. <i>death</i>, Gen. sing. bàis; fuaran + m. a <i>fountain</i>, g. s. fuarain; clarsach f. <i>a harp</i>, g. s. + clarsaich. Feminine monosyllables likewise add a short <i>e</i> to the + Nominative; as, cluas f. <i>an ear</i>, g. s. cluaise; làmh <i>a + hand</i>, g. s. làimhe<a name="footnotetag34" + href="#footnote34"><sup>[34]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>{46}</span></p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules for the Genitive.</i>—1. If the nominative + ends in a vowel, the genitive is like the nominative; as, trà m. <i>a + time</i> or <i>season</i>, g. s. trà; so also beatha f. <i>life</i>, cro + m. <i>a sheepfold</i>, cliu m. <i>fame</i>, duine <i>a man</i>, Donncha + <i>Duncan</i>, a man's name, and many others. Except bo f. <i>a cow</i>, + g. s. boin; cu m. <i>a dog</i>, g. s. coin; bru f. <i>the belly</i>, g. + s. broinn or bronn.</p> + + <p>2. Nouns ending in <i>chd</i> or <i>rr</i> have the genitive like the + nominative; as, uchd m. <i>the breast</i>, sliochd m. <i>offspring</i>, + feachd m. <i>a host</i>, reachd m. <i>statute</i>, cleachd m. + <i>habit</i>, beachd m. <i>vision</i>, smachd m. <i>authority</i>, fuachd + m. <i>cold</i>, sprochd m. <i>gloom</i>, beannachd m. <i>a blessing</i>, + naomhachd f. <i>holiness</i>, earr m. <i>the tail</i>, torr m. <i>a + heap</i>. Except slochd g. s. sluichd m. <i>a pit</i>, unless this word + should rather be written sloc, like boc, cnoc, soc.</p> + + <p>3. Monosyllables ending in <i>gh</i> or <i>th</i> add <i>a</i> for the + genitive; as, lagh m. <i>law</i>, g. s. lagha; roth m. <i>a wheel</i>, g. + s. rotha; sruth m. <i>a stream</i>, g. s. srutha. Except àgh m. + <i>felicity</i>, <i>grace</i>, or <i>charm</i>, g. s. aigh<a + name="footnotetag35" href="#footnote35"><sup>[35]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>4. Monosyllables characterised by <i>io</i> either drop the <i>o</i> + or add <i>a</i> for the genitive; as, siol m. <i>seed</i>, g. s. sìl; + lion m. <i>a net</i>, g. s. lìn; crioch f. <i>a boundary</i>, g. s. + crìch; cioch f. <i>the pap</i>, g. s. cìche; fion m. <i>wine</i>, g. s. + fiona; crios m. <i>a girdle</i>, g. s. criosa; fiodh m. <i>timber</i>, g. + s. fiodha. Except Criost or Criosd m. <i>Christ</i>, which has the gen. + like the nominative.</p> + + <p>5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is <i>a</i> or + <i>o</i>, change it into <i>u</i> and insert <i>i</i> after it; as, gob + m. <i>the bill of a bird</i>, g. s. guib; crodh m. <i>kine</i>, g. s. + cruidh; bolg or balg m. <i>a bag</i>, g. s. builg; clog or clag m. <i>a + bell</i>, g. s. cluig; lorg f. <i>a staff</i>, g. s. luirge; long f. <i>a + ship</i>, g. s. luinge; alt m. <i>a <!-- Page 47 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page47"></a>{47}</span>joint</i>, g. s. uilt; + alld m. <i>a rivulet</i>, g. s. uilld; car m. <i>a turn</i>, g. s. cuir; + carn m. <i>a heap of stones</i>, g. s. cuirn. So also ceol m. + <i>music</i>, g. s. ciuil; seol m. <i>a sail</i>, g. s. siuil. Except + nouns in <i>on</i> and a few feminines, which follow the general rule; + as, bròn m. <i>sorrow</i>, g. s. bròin; lòn m. <i>food</i>, g. s. lòin; + cloch or clach f. <i>a stone</i>, g. s. cloiche; cos or cas f. <i>the + foot</i>, g. s. coise; bròg f. <i>a shoe</i>, g. s. bròige. So also clann + f. <i>children</i>, g. s. cloinne; crann m. <i>a tree</i>, g. s. croinn. + Mac m. <i>a son</i>, has its g. s. mic.</p> + + <p>6. Polysyllables characterised by <i>ea</i> change <i>ea</i> into + <i>i</i>; as, fitheach m. <i>a raven</i>, g. s. fithich; cailleach f. + <i>an old woman</i>, g. s. caillich<a name="footnotetag36" + href="#footnote36"><sup>[36]</sup></a>. These two suffer a syncope, and + add <i>e</i>; buidheann f. <i>a company</i>, g. s. buidhne; sitheann f. + <i>venison</i>, g. s. sithne.</p> + + <p>Of monosyllables characterised by <i>ea</i>, some throw away <i>a</i> + and insert <i>i</i>; as, each m. <i>a horse</i>, g. s. eich; beann f. + <i>a peak</i>, g. s. beinne; fearg f. <i>anger</i>, g. s. feirge. Some + change <i>ea</i> into <i>i</i>; as, breac m. <i>a trout</i>, g. s. bric; + fear m. <i>a man</i>, g. s. fir; ceann m. <i>a head</i>, <i>end</i>, g. + s. cinn; preas m. <i>a bush</i>, g. s. pris; breac f. <i>the + small-pox</i>, g. s. brice; cearc f. <i>a hen</i>, g. s. circe; leac f. + <i>a flag</i>, g. s. lice. Gleann m. <i>a valley</i>, adds <i>e</i>, g. + s. glinne. Some add <i>a</i> to the nominative; as, speal m. <i>a + scythe</i>, g. s. speala. Dream f. <i>people</i>, <i>race</i>, gean m. + <i>humour</i>, have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. + <i>deceit</i>, g. s. foill or feill. Geagh m. <i>a goose</i>, makes g. s. + geoigh.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span></p> + + <p>7. Nouns in <i>eu</i> followed by a liquid, change <i>u</i> into + <i>o</i> and insert <i>i</i> after it; as, neul m. <i>a cloud</i>, g. s. + neoil, eun m. <i>a bird</i>, g. s. eoin; feur m. <i>grass</i>, g. s. + feoir; meur m. <i>a finger</i>, g. s. meoir; leus m. <i>a torch</i>, g. + s. leois. Beul m. <i>the mouth</i>, g. s. beil or beoil; sgeul. m. <i>a + tale</i>, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other nouns characterised by <i>eu</i> + add <i>a</i> for the gen., as, treud m. <i>a flock</i>, g. s. treuda; + feum m. <i>use</i>, <i>need</i>, g. s. feuma; beum m. <i>a stroke</i>, g. + s. beuma. Meud m. <i>bulk</i>, beuc m. <i>a roar</i>, freumh f. <i>a + fibre</i>, <i>root</i>, hardly admit of <i>a</i>, but have their gen. + rather like the nom.</p> + + <p>8. Monosyllables characterised by <i>ia</i> change <i>ia</i> into + <i>ei</i>; as, sliabh m. <i>a moor</i>, g. s. sleibh; fiadh m. <i>a + deer</i>, g. s. feidh; biadh m. <i>food</i>, g. s. beidh or bidh; iasg m. + <i>fish</i>, g. s. <span class="correction" title="Original reads `eifg'." + >eisg</span>; grian f. <i>the sun</i>, g. s. greine; sgiath f. <i>a + wing</i>, g. s. sgeithe. Except Dia m. <i>God</i>, g. s. De; sgian f. + <i>a knife</i>, g. s. sgine.</p> + + <p>Piuthar f. <i>a sister</i>, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. <i>a + child</i>, g. s. leinibh; ceathramh m. <i>a fourth part</i>, g. s. + ceithrimh, leabaidh or leaba f. <i>a bed</i>, g. s. leapa; talamh m. + <i>earth</i>, g. s. talmhainn.</p> + + <p>The <i>Dative</i> singular of masculine nouns is like the nominative; + of feminine nouns, is like the genitive; as, tobar m. <i>a well</i>, d. + s. tobar; clarsach f. <i>a harp</i>, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich; misneach + f. <i>courage</i>, g. s. and d. s. misnich.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns.</i>—1. If + <i>e</i> was added to the nominative in forming the genitive, it is + thrown away in the dative; as, slat f. <i>a rod</i>, g. s. + slaite—d. s. slait; grian f. <i>the sun</i>, g. s. greine, d. s. + grein.</p> + + <p>2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the genitive, or if + the last vowel of the genitive is broad, the dative is like the + nominative; as, buidheann f. <i>a company</i>, g. s. buidhne, d. s. + buidheann; piuthar f. <i>a sister</i>, g. s. peathar, d. s. piuthar.</p> + + <p>The <i>Vocative</i> of masc. nouns is like the genitive; of feminine + nouns is like the nominative; as, bàs m. <i>death</i>, g. s. bàis, v. s. + bhais; cu m. <i>a dog</i>, g. s. coin, v. s. choin; grian f. <i>the + sun</i>, v. s. ghaoth. <!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page49"></a>{49}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plural Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nominative.</i> Masculine nouns which insert <i>i</i> in the gen. + sing. have their nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. <i>a + servant</i>, g. s. oglaich, n. p. oglaich; fear m. <i>a man</i>, g. s. + and n. p. fir. Many of these form their nom. plur. also by adding a short + <i>a</i> to the nominative singular. Other masculine nouns, and all + feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in <i>a</i>, to which <i>n</i> is + added, <i>euphoniæ causa</i>, before an initial vowel<a + name="footnotetag37" href="#footnote37"><sup>[37]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules</i> for forming the Nom. Plur. in <i>a</i> or + <i>an</i>.</p> + + <p>1. By adding <i>a</i> to the nom. singular; as, dubhar m. <i>a + shadow</i>, n. p. dubhara; rioghachd f. <i>a kingdom</i>, n. p. + rioghachdan. Under this Rule, some nouns suffer a syncope; as, dorus m. + <i>a door</i>, n. p. dorsa for dorusa.</p> + + <p>2. Nouns ending in <i>l</i> or <i>nn</i>, often insert <i>t</i> before + <i>a</i>; as, reul m. <i>a star</i>, n. p. reulta; beann f. <i>a + pinnacle</i>, n. p. beannta. So lòn m. <i>a marsh</i>, n. p. + lòintean.</p> + + <p>3. Some nouns in <i>ar</i> drop the <i>a</i>, and add to the nom. + sing. the syllable <i>aich</i>; and then the final <i>a</i> becomes + <i>e</i>, to correspond to the preceding small vowel; as, leabhar m. <i>a + book</i>, n. p. leabhraiche; tobar m. <i>a well</i>, n. p. tobraiche; + lann. f. <i>an enclosure</i>, inserts <i>d</i>, n. p. lanndaiche. Piuthar + f. <i>a sister</i>, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche; so + leaba f. <i>a bed</i>, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. <i>a + staff</i>, n. p. batacha; la or latha <i>a day</i>, n. p. lathachan or + laithean.</p> + + <p>4. Some polysyllables in <i>ach</i> add <i>e</i> or <i>ean</i> to the + genitive singular; as, mullach m. <i>summit</i>, g. s. mullaich, n. p. + mullaichean; otrach m. <i>a dunghill</i>, n. p. otraichean; clarsach f. + <i>a harp</i>, n. p. clarsaichean; deudach f. <i>the jaw</i>, n. p. + deudaichean. So sliabh m. <i>a moor</i>, g. s. sleibh, with <i>t</i> <!-- + Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page50"></a>{50}</span>inserted, n. p. sleibhte. Sabhul m. <i>a + barn</i>, g. s. sabhuil, n. p. saibhlean, contracted for sabhuilean.</p> + + <p>The following Nouns form their Nominative Plural irregularly: Dia m. + <i>God</i>, n. p. dée or diathan; scian f. <i>a knife</i>, n. p. sceana + or scinichean; sluagh m. <i>people</i>, n. p. sloigh; bo. f. <i>a + cow</i>, n. p. ba.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i> 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their + nominative plural like the genitive singular, have the genitive plural + like the nominative singular; as, geug f. <i>a branch</i>, g. p. geug; + coimhearsnach m. <i>a neighbour</i>, g. s. and n. p. coimhearsnach.</p> + + <p>2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in <i>a</i> or + <i>an</i>, form the genitive like the nominative; leabhar m. <i>a + book</i>, <span class="correction" title="Missing in original, taken from 1812 edition." + >n. p. and g. p. 'leabraichean'—When the nominative plural is + twofold, the genitive is so too; as 'fear' n. <i>a man</i>,</span> n. p. + fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or feara.</p> + + <p>Cu m. <i>a dog</i> has its g. p. con; caora f. <i>a sheep</i>, g. p. + caorach; sluagh m. <i>people</i>, g. p. sluagh or slogh.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i> The dative plural is formed either from the nominative + singular or from the nominative plural. If the nominative plural ends in + a consonant, the dative plural is formed by adding <i>ibh</i> to the + nominative singular; as, crann m. <i>a tree</i>, n. p. croinn, d. p. + crannaibh; mac m. <i>a son</i>, n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the + nominative plural ends in a vowel, the final vowel is changed into + <i>ibh</i>; as, tobar <i>a well</i>, n. p. tobraiche, d. p. + tobraichibh.</p> + + <p>2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which have their + nominative plural like the genitive singular, form their dative plural + like the nominative plural; as, damh <i>an ox</i>, g. s. and n. p. daimh, + d. p. daimh, not damhaibh; fiadh m. <i>a deer</i>, g. s. and n. p. and d. + p. feidh. So sluagh m. <i>people</i>, <i>host</i>, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. + and d. p. sloigh. Nouns ending in <i>ch</i>, of three or more syllables, + form their dative plural like the nominative plural, rather than in + <i>ibh</i>; as, coimhearsnach m. <i>a neighbour</i>, d. p. coimhearsnaich + rather than coimhearsnachaibh; phairiseach m. <i>a Pharisee</i>, d. p. + phairisich rather than <span class="correction" title="Original reads `phairseachaibh'." + >phairiseachaibh</span>. <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page51"></a>{51}</span></p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> The vocative plural is like the nominative plural, + terminating in <i>a</i>, but seldom in <i>an</i>; as, fear m. <i>a + man</i>, n. p. fir or feara, v. p. <i>fheara</i>; oglach m. <i>a + servant</i>, n. p. <i>oglaich</i>, v. p. <i>oglacha</i>. Except perhaps + monosyllables which never form their nominative plural in <i>a</i>, nor + their dative plural in <i>ibh</i>; as, damh m. <i>an ox</i>, n. p. daimh, + v. p. dhaimh; a shloigh, Rom. xv. 11.</p> + + <p>The irregular noun Bean f. <i>a woman</i>, is declined thus:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The irregular noun Bean." title="The irregular noun Bean."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bean </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mnai, mnathan</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mna </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Ban</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mnaoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mnathaibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bhean. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mhnathan.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">SECOND DECLENSION.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns of the Second Declension." title="Nouns of the Second Declension."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> Cealgair, mas. <i>a deceiver</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgaire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgairibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chealgair. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chealgaire.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br />Clais, fem. <i>a gully</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Clais </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Claisean</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Claise </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Clais</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Clais </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Claisibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chlais. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chlaise.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>General Rule for the Genitive.</i> The genitive of polysyllables is + like the nominative; of monosyllables is made by adding <i>e</i> to the + nominative; as, caraid m. <i>a friend</i>, g. s. caraid; aimsir f. + <i>time</i>, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. <i>a house</i>, g. s. tighe; ainm m. + <i>a name,</i> g. s. ainme; im m. <i>butter</i>, g. s. ime; craig f. <i>a + rock</i>, g. s. craige. <!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page52"></a>{52}</span></p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules for the Genitive.</i> 1. Feminine nouns in + <i>ail</i> and <i>air</i> drop the <i>i</i> and add <i>ach</i>; if the + nominative be a polysyllable, <i>ai</i> is thrown away; as, sail f. <i>a + beam</i>, g. s. salach; dail f. <i>a plain</i>, g. s. dalach; lair f. + <i>a mare</i>, g. s. làrach; cathair f. <i>a seat</i>, g. s. cathrach; + nathair f. <i>a serpent</i>, g. s. nathrach; lasair f. <i>a flame</i>, g. + s. lasrach. To these add còir f. <i>right</i>, g. s. còrach or còire.</p> + + <p>2. Monosyllables characterised by <i>oi</i> drop <i>i</i> and add + <i>a</i>; as, feoil f. <i>flesh</i>, g. s. feola; tòin f. <i>bottom</i>, + g. s. tòna; sròin f. <i>the nose</i>, g. s. sròine or sròna.</p> + + <p>3. Monosyllables characterised by <i>ui</i> change <i>ui</i> into + <i>a</i> or <i>o</i>, and add <i>a</i>; as, muir f. <i>the sea</i>, g. s. + mara; fuil f. <i>blood</i>, g. s. fola or fala; druim f. <i>a ridge</i>, + g. s. droma. Except sùil f. <i>the eye</i>, g. s. sùla; cuid f. <i>a + part</i>, g. s. codach or cuid.</p> + + <p>4. A few feminine polysyllables in <i>eir</i> form their genitive like + monosyllables; as, inneir f. <i>dung</i>, g. s. inneire; suipeir f. + <i>supper</i>, g. s. suipeire.</p> + + <p>5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their genitive like + monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. Sometimes the + characteristic vowel is retained, and sometimes it is thrown away, the + final <i>e</i> of the genitive being converted into <i>a</i>, when + requisite to suit an antecedent broad vowel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Dissyllables with genitive -e, contracted." title="Dissyllables with genitive -e, contracted."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Amhainn, f. <i>a river</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. aimhne, <i>contracted for</i> </td><td class="nspac"> amhainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Aghainn, Aghann f. <i>a pan</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. aighne, </td><td class="nspac"> aghainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Banais f. <i>a wedding</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. bainse, </td><td class="nspac"> banaise</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Coluinn f. <i>the body</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. colna, colla </td><td class="nspac"> coluinne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Duthaich f. <i>a country</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. duthcha, </td><td class="nspac"> duthaiche</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Fiacail f. <i>a tooth</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. fiacla, </td><td class="nspac"> fiacaile</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Gamhuinn m. <i>a steer</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. gamhna, </td><td class="nspac"> gamhuinne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Gualainn f. <i>the shoulder</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. guaille, </td><td class="nspac"> gualainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Madainn f. <i>morning</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. maidne, </td><td class="nspac"> madainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Obair f. <i>work</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. oibre, </td><td class="nspac"> obaire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Uilinn f. <i>the elbow</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. uillne, </td><td class="nspac"> uilinne</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>{53}</span></p> + + <p>6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping the + characteristic small vowel; athair m. <i>a father</i>, g. s. athar; + mathair f. <i>a mother</i>, g. s. <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `mathair'.">mathar</span>; brathair m. <i>a + brother</i>, g. s. brathar; namhaid m. <i>an enemy</i>, g. s. namhad. + Cnaimh m. <i>a bone</i>, g. s. cnamha; uaimh f. <i>a cave</i>, g. s. + uamha. Mil f. <i>honey</i>, has g. s. meala.</p> + + <p>7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their genitive like the + nominative; as, ni m. <i>a thing</i>, ti m. <i>a person</i>, ré m. <i>the + moon</i>; to which add righ m. <i>a king</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i> The dative singular is like the nominative; as, duine + m. <i>a man</i>, d. s. duine; madainn f. <i>morning</i>, d. s. + madainn.</p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> The vocative singular is like the nominative, as, + caraid m. <i>friend</i>, v. s. charaid; mathair f. <i>mother</i>, v. s. + mhathair.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plural Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nominative.—General Rule.</i> The nominative plural is formed + by adding to the nominative singular <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>, written + <i>e</i> or <i>ean</i> to correspond to a preceding small vowel; as, + piobair m. <i>a piper</i>, n. p. piobairean; aimsir f. <i>time</i>, + <i>season</i>, n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in the + nominative plural; as, caraid m. <i>a friend</i>, n. p. càirdean; + naimhaid m. <i>an enemy</i>, n. p. naimhdean; fiacail f. <i>a tooth</i>, + n. p. fiaclan.</p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules.</i> 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant is + <i>l</i> or <i>n</i>, insert <i>t</i> in the nominative plural; as, tuil + f. <i>a flood</i>, n. p. tuilte; smuain f. <i>thought</i>, n. p. + smuaintean; coille f. <i>a wood</i>, n. p. coilltean; àithne f. <i>a + command</i>, n. p. àithnte. The <i>t</i> is aspirated in dail f. <i>a + plain</i>, n. p. dailthean; sail f. <i>a beam</i>, n. p. sailthean.</p> + + <p>2. Some nouns in <i>air</i>, chiefly such as form their genitive + singular in <i>ach</i>, retain the same syllable in the nominative + plural, and insert <i>i</i> after <i>a</i>; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-." title="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Cathair, f. <i>a seat</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> g. s. cathrach, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> n. p. cathraichean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Lasair, f. <i>a flame</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> g. s. lasrach, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> n. p. lasraichean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Nathair, f. <i>a serpent</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> g. s. nathrach, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> n. p. nathraichean.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>{54}</span></p> + + <p>So also cuid f. <i>a part</i>, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. + codaichean; athair m. <i>a father</i>, n. p. aithrichean; mathair f. <i>a + mother</i>, n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. <i>a river</i>, + n. p. aimhnichean; uisge m. <i>water</i>, n. p. uisgeachan; cridhe m. + <i>the heart</i>, n. p. cridheachan.</p> + + <p>The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly; duine m. + <i>a man</i>, n. p. daoine; righ m. <i>a king</i>, n. p. righre; ni m. + <i>a thing</i>, n. p. nithe; cliamhuinn m. <i>a son-in-law</i>, or + <i>brother-in-law</i>, n. p. cleamhna.</p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i> The genitive plural of monosyllables and masculine + polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, and like the + nominative plural; as, righ m. <i>a king</i>, g. p. righ or righre. The + genitive plural of feminine polysyllables is like the nominative plural + only; as, amhainn f. <i>a river</i>, g. p. aimhnichean. Suil f. <i>the + eye</i>, has its g. p. sùl.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i> The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural + by changing the final vowel into <i>ibh</i>; as, coluinn f. <i>the + body</i>, n. p. coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. <i>the heart</i>, + n. p. cridheacha, d. p. cridheachaibh.</p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> The vocative plural is like the nominative plural; + as, duine m. <i>a man</i>, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine.</p> + + <p>Final <i>a</i> or <i>e</i> in all the singular cases of polysyllables + is occasionally cut off, especially in verse; as, leab <i>bed</i>, teang + <i>tongue</i>, coill <i>wood</i>, cridh <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Initial form of Nouns.</i></p> + + <p>In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit of the + <i>aspirated form</i>. In the vocative singular and plural the aspirated + form alone is used, except in nouns beginning with a lingual, which are + generally in the primary form, when preceded by a lingual; as, a sheann + duine <i>old man</i>. Nouns beginning with <i>s</i> followed by a mute + consonant have no aspirated form, because <i>s</i> in that situation does + not admit of the aspirate. In nouns beginning with <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, + <i>r</i>, a distinction is uniformly observed in pronouncing the initial + consonant, corresponding precisely to the distinction of primary and <!-- + Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55"></a>{55}</span>aspirated forms in nouns beginning with + other consonants. This distinction has already been fully stated in + treating of pronunciation.</p> + + <p>The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been already + mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the Gaelic. When the numerals + fichead <i>twenty</i>, ceud <i>a hundred</i>, mile <i>a thousand</i>, are + prefixed to a noun, the noun is not put in the plural, but in the + singular number, and admits no variation of case. The termination of a + noun preceded by da <i>two</i>, is the same with that of the dative + singular, except when the noun is governed in the genitive case, and then + it is put in the genitive plural<a name="footnotetag38" + href="#footnote38"><sup>[38]</sup></a>; when preceded by fichead, ceud, + &c., the termination is that of the nominative singular; thus da + laimh <i>two hands</i>, da chluais <i>two ears</i>, dà fhear <i>two + men</i>, fichead làmh <i>twenty hands</i>, ceud fear <i>a hundred + men</i>, mìle caora <i>a thousand sheep</i>, deich mìle bliadhna <i>ten + thousand years</i><a name="footnotetag39" + href="#footnote39"><sup>[39]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF ADJECTIVES.</p> + + <p>An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express some quality + of the person or thing signified by the noun.</p> + + <p>Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to other words. + These changes are made, like those on nouns, partly on the beginning, and + partly on the termination, and may be fitly denominated by the same + names. The changes on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial + consonant. The numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished + by changes on the termination. The gender is marked partly by the initial + form, partly by the termination.</p> + + <p>Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, <!-- + Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>{56}</span>in most + of their inflections, the form of nouns of the first declension, and may + be termed Adjectives of the first declension. Those adjectives whereof + the characteristic vowel is small, may be called Adjectives of the second + declension.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Example of Adjectives of the First Declension.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-." title="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-."> +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> Mòr, <i>great</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> Singular. </td> <td class="spacsingle"> Plural</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> <i>Mas.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Com. Gend.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Moire, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nominative.</i> The feminine gender is, in termination, like the + masculine.</p> + + <p>The other cases, both mas. and fem., are formed from the nominative, + according to the rules already given for forming the cases of nouns of + the first declension. Take the following examples in + adjectives:—</p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i>—<i>General rule.</i> Marbh <i>dead</i>, g. s. + m. mhairbh, f. mairbhe; dubh <i>black</i>, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe; + fadalach <i>tedious</i>, g. s. m. fhadalaich, f. fadalaich.</p> + + <p><i>Particular rules.</i> 1. Sona <i>happy</i>, g. s. m. shona, f. + sona; aosda <i>aged</i>, g. s. m. and f. aosda; beo <i>alive</i>, g. s. + m. bheo, f. beo.</p> + + <p>2. Bochd <i>poor</i>, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd; gearr <i>short</i>, + g. s. m. ghearr, f. gearr.</p> + + <p>3. Breagh <i>fine</i>, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha.</p> + + <p>4. Crion <i>little</i>, <i>diminutive</i>, g. s. m. chrìn, f. + crìne.</p> + + <p>5. Donn <i>brown</i>, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne; gorm <i>blue</i>, g. + s. m. ghuirm, f. guirme; lom <i>bare</i>, g. s. m. luim, f. luime. <!-- + Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>{57}</span>But dall + <i>blind</i>, g. s. m. dhoill, f. doille; mall <i>slow</i>, g. s. m. + mhoill, f. moille; like the nouns crann, clann.</p> + + <p>6. Cinnteach <i>certain</i>, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich; maiseach + <i>beautiful</i>, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc <i>rare</i>, g. s. + m, theirc, f. teirce; dearg <i>red</i>, g. s. m. dheirg, f. deirge; deas + <i>ready</i>, g. s. m. dheis, f. deise. Breac <i>speckled</i>, g. s. m, + bhric, f. brice; geal <i>white</i>, g. s. m. ghil, f. gile.</p> + + <p>7. Geur <i>sharp</i>, g. s. m. ghéir, f. géire; like the nouns breug, + geug.</p> + + <p>8. Liath <i>hoary</i>, g. s. m. leith, f. léithe; dian <i>keen</i>, g. + s. m. dhéin, f. déine.</p> + + <p>Irregulars. Odhar <i>pale</i>, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar + <i>deaf</i>, g. s. m. bhuidhir, f. buidhir.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i>—<i>General rule.</i> Uasal <i>noble</i>, d. s. m. + uasal f. uasail; bodhar <i>deaf</i>, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir.</p> + + <p><i>Particular rule.</i> 1. Trom <i>heavy</i>, d. s. m. trom, f. + thruim.</p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> Beag <i>small</i>, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plural.</i></p> + + <p>In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed by + adding <i>a</i> to the nom. sing.; in Polysyllables, it is like the nom. + sing.; as, crom <i>crooked</i>, pl. croma; tuirseach <i>melancholy</i>, + pl. tuirseach.</p> + + <p>A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, and suffer a + contraction; as, reamhar <i>fat</i>, pl. reamhra, contracted for + reamhara. Gen. xli. 20.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Adjectives of the Second Declension.</i></p> + + <p>All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are formed + according to the general rules for nouns of the second declension; that + is, Monosyllables add <i>e</i> for the gen. sing. fem. and for the plural + cases; Polysyllables are like the nom. sing. throughout.</p> + + <p>In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables sometimes + suffer a contraction in the plural; as, milis <i>sweet</i>, pl. milse + contracted for milise. <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>{58}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Initial Form of Adjectives.</i></p> + + <p>Adjectives admit the <i>aspirated form</i> through all the Numbers and + Cases. In Adjectives beginning with a Labial or a Palatal, the aspirated + form alone is used in the gen. and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and + voc. sing. feminine.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Comparison of Adjectives.</i></p> + + <p>There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may be called the + <i>First</i> and the <i>Second Comparative</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>First Comparative</i> is formed from the gen. sing. mas. by + adding <i>e</i>; as, geal <i>white</i>, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile; + ciontach <i>guilty</i>, g. s. m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some + Adjectives suffer a contraction in the Comparative; as, bodhar + <i>deaf</i>, comp. buidhre for buidhire; boidheach <i>pretty</i>, comp. + boidhche for boidhiche.</p> + + <p>If the last letter of the gen. be <i>a</i>, it is changed into + <i>e</i>, and <i>i</i> inserted before the last consonant; as, fada + <i>long</i>, g. s. m. fada, comp. faide; tana <i>thin</i>, g. s. m. tana, + comp. taine.</p> + + <p><i>The Second Comparative</i> is formed from the first, by changing + final <i>e</i> into <i>id</i>; as, trom <i>heavy</i>, 1. comp. truime, 2. + comp. truimid; tiugh <i>thick</i>, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. tiuighid. + Many Adjectives, especially Polysyllables, do not admit of the Second + Comparative.</p> + + <p>Both these forms of Comparison have an <i>aspirated</i> as well as a + <i>primary form</i>, but are otherwise indeclinable.</p> + + <p>The following Adjectives are compared irregularly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Comparatives." title="Irregular Comparatives."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Positive.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Math, maith, <i>good</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> fearr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> feaird.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Olc, <i>bad, evil</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> miosa, </td><td class="spacsingle"> misd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mòr, <i>great</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> mò, </td><td class="spacsingle"> mòid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Beag, <i>small</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> lugha, </td><td class="spacsingle"> lughaid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Goirid, gearr, <i>short</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> giorra, </td><td class="spacsingle"> giorraid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Duilich, <i>difficult</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> dorra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Teath, <i>hot</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> teoithe, </td><td class="spacsingle"> teoithid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Leathan, <i>broad</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> leatha, lèithne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span> + Fogus, <i>near</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> foisge.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Càirdeach, <i>akin</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> càra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Furas, <i>easy</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> fhusa,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Toigh, <i>dear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> docha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ionmhuinn, <i>beloved</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> annsa, ionnsa.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>To these may be added the nouns—</p> + + <p>Moran <i>a great number</i> or <i>quantity</i>, and Tuilleadh + <i>more</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Superlative</i>, which is but a particular mode of expressing + comparison, is the same in form with the First Comparative.</p> + + <p>An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting one of the + particles ro, glé, before the Positive; as, ro ghlic <i>very wise</i>, + glé gheal <i>very white</i>. The same effect is produced by prefixing + fior <i>true</i>, sàr <i>exceeding</i>, &c., which words are, in that + case, used adverbially; as, fior mhaiseach <i>truly beautiful</i>, sàr + mhaith <i>exceedingly good</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Cardinal Numbers.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Cardinal Numbers." title="Cardinal Numbers."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon, a h-aon, <i>one</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 40</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà, a dhà </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 50</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich is dà fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 60</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 4</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceithir. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 5</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cuig. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 200</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 6</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sè, sia. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 300</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri ceud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 7</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Seachd. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 400</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceithir cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 8</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ochd. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 500</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cuig ceud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 9</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naoi. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà mhìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 11</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon deug. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 12</td><td class="qspcsingle"> A dhà dheug. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 13</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri deug. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 21</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon thar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 200,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà cheud mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 22</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dha 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1,000,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich ceud mìle,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 23</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle de mhìltibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 30</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> &c. &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 31</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon deug thar fhichead.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun." title="Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> </td><td align="center"> Of the mas. gender. </td><td align="center"> Of the fem. gender.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear, <i>one man</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach, <i>one stone</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fir. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri clachan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich fir. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich clachan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 11</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear deug. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach dheug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 12</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear dheug. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich dheug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 13</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fir dheug. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri clachan deug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 21</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear thar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 22</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear thar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 23</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fir fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri clacha fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 30</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich fir fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich clacha fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 31</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear deug 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach dheug thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 40</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 41</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fear is dà fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Clach is dà fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 42</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear is dà fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich is da fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 50</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich is dà fhichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich is da fhichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 60</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 70</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead fear agus deich. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead clach agus deich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 101</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud fear agus a h-aon. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud clach agus a h-aon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads `309'.">300</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri cheud fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri cheud clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich mìle fear, &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich mìle clach, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Ordinal Numbers.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Ordinal Numbers." title="Ordinal Numbers."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An ceud fhear, <i>the first man</i>; a' cheud chlach, <i>the first stone</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dara fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An treas fear, an tri-amh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 4 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An ceathramh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 5 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An cuigeamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 6 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An seathamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 7 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An seachdamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> +<!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>{61}</span> + 8 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-ochdamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 9 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An naothamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An deicheamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 11 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fear deug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 12 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dara fear deug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Am ficheadamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 21 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fhear fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 22 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dara fear fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 31 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fhear deug thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 40 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dà fhicheadamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 60 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An tri ficheadamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An ceudamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 101 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fhear thar cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads `200'.">120</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 200 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An da cheudamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1000 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Am mìleamh fear, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The following numeral Nouns are applied only to persons:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Numeral Nouns applied to persons." title="Numeral Nouns applied to persons."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Dithis, <i>two persons</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 7. Seachdnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Triuir. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 8. Ochdnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 4. Ceathrar. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 9. Naoinar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 5. Cuignear. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 10. Deichnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 6. Sèanar.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p>The <i>Pronouns</i> are, for the most part, words used instead of + nouns. They may be arranged under the following divisions: Personal, + Possessive, Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite, + Compound.</p> + + <p>The <i>Personal Pronouns</i> are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons. + They have a Singular and a Plural Number, a Simple and an Emphatic Form. + They are declined thus:— <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page62"></a>{62}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Personal Pronouns." title="Personal Pronouns."> +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><i>Singular.</i></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"><i>Simple Form.</i></td><td colspan="2"><i>Emphat. F.</i></td><td colspan="2"><i>Simple F.</i></td><td colspan="4"><i>Emphat.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mi, mhi, <i>I</i>, <i>me</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mise, mhise. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinn, <i>we</i>, <i>us</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Th, thu, <i>thou</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Tusa, thusa. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Sibh, <i>ye</i>, <i>you</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Sibhse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Thu, <i>thee</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="4"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="4"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:9ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"> E, se, <i>he</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Esan.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> E, <i>him</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I, si, <i>she</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Ise. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad, siad, <i>they</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Iadsan<a name="footnotetag40" href="#footnote40"><sup>[40]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I, <i>her</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad, <i>them,</i> </td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Pronoun 'sibh' <i>you</i>, of the plural number is used almost + universally in addressing a single person of superior rank or of greater + age; while 'tu' <i>thou</i>, of the singular number is used in addressing + an inferior or an equal. But the degree of seniority or of superiority, + which is understood to entitle a person to this token of respect, varies + in different parts of the Highlands<a name="footnotetag41" + href="#footnote41"><sup>[41]</sup></a>. The Supreme Being is always + addressed by the pronoun 'tu' <i>thou</i>, of the singular number.</p> + + <p>The <i>Possessive Pronouns</i> correspond to the Personal Pronouns, + and, like them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons + singular, and 1st, 2d, and 3d persons plural. They have an Emphatic Form, + which is made by connecting the syllable <i>sa</i> with the possessive + pronoun of the 1st, 2d, <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page63"></a>{63}</span>and 3d persons singular, and 2d person + plural; <i>ne</i> with that of the 1st person plural, and <i>san</i> with + that of the 3d person plural. These syllables are placed immediately + after the nouns to which the possessive pronouns are prefixed, and + connected by a hyphen.</p> + + <p>These Pronouns are as follow:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Possessive Pronouns." title="Possessive Pronouns."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Simple.</i></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Emphatic.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Simple.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Emphatic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><i>Singular.</i></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mo, <i>my</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mo mhac-sa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Ar, <i>our</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ar mac-ne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Do, <i>thy</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> do ——sa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Bhur, 'ur, <i>your</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> bhur ——sa</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> A, <i>his</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a mhac-sa, san</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> 3. An, am, <i>their</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> an, am ——sa, san</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> A, <i>her</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a mac-sa, san </td></tr> +</table> + + <p>If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic syllable is + affixed to the adjective; as, do làmh gheal-sa <i>thy white hand</i>.</p> + + <p>The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a vowel, commonly + lose the <i>o</i>, whose absence is marked by an apostrophe; as, m' aimn + <i>my name</i>; d' athair<a name="footnotetag42" + href="#footnote42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> <i>thy father</i>. The same + pronouns when preceded by the preposition ann <i>in</i>, suffer a + transposition of their letters, and are written am, ad, one broad vowel + being substituted for another, as, ann ad chridhe <i>in thy heart</i>, 1 + Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire <i>in my thoughts</i>.</p> + + <p>The possessive pronoun a <i>his</i>, is often suppressed altogether + after a vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimhearsnaich, no oglach, no + bhanoglach, no dhamh, no asal, <i>covet not thy neighbour's wife, or his + man-servant, or his maid-servant</i>, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and + similar instances, as the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially + when the noun begins with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with certainty + from any other part of the sentence, perhaps it might <!-- Page 64 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>{64}</span>be an + improvement to retain the pronoun, even at the expense of cutting off the + final vowel of the preceding word; as, n' a oglach, n' a bhanoglaich, + &c. In many cases, however, this appears hardly practicable; as, cha + bheo athair <i>his father is not alive</i>, which could not with any + propriety be written cha bheo a athair<a name="footnotetag43" + href="#footnote43"><sup>[43]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The word fein corresponding to the English words <i>self</i>, + <i>own</i>, is subjoined occasionally both to the personal and possessive + pronouns: thus mi fein <i>myself</i>, mise fein <i>I myself</i>, thu fein + <i>thyself</i>, thusa fein <i>thou thyself</i>, or <i>thy own self</i>, + mo shluagh fein <i>my own people</i>.</p> + + <p>The other Pronouns are as follow:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Relative, Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns." title="Relative, Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td align="center"><i>Relative.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Demonstrative.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Interrogative.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> A, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> So, <i>this</i>, <i>these</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Co? <i>who?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.&D.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> An. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sin, <i>that</i>, <i>those</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cia? <i>which?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nach, <i>who not</i>, <i>which not</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sud<a name="footnotetag44" href="#footnote44"><sup>[44]</sup></a>, ud, <i>yon</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ciod, creud? <i>what?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na, <i>that which</i>, <i>what</i><a name="footnotetag45" href="#footnote45"><sup>[45]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Indefinite and Compound Pronouns." title="Indefinite and Compound Pronouns."> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Indefinite.</i></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Compound.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Eigin, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>some</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E so, <i>this one</i>, m. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E sud, <i>yon one</i>, m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ge b'e, Cia b'e </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>whoever</i><a name="footnotetag46" href="#footnote46"><sup>[46]</sup></a>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> I so, <i>this one</i>, f. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> I sud, <i>yon one</i>, f.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>{65}</span> +Eile, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>other</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad so, <i>these</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad sud, <i>yon</i>, pl.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gach, Cach, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>each</i>, <i>every</i><a name="footnotetag47" href="#footnote47"><sup>[47]</sup></a>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E sin, <i>that one</i>, m. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cach eile, <i>the rest</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cach, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>others, the rest</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad sin, <i>those</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cach a chéile, <i>each other</i><a name="footnotetag48" href="#footnote48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cuid, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>some</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF VERBS.</p> + + <p>A word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer anything, is called a + <i>Verb</i>.</p> + + <p>The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by Voices, + Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons.</p> + + <p>The <i>Voices</i> are two: Active and Passive.</p> + + <p>The <i>Moods</i> are five: the Affirmative or Indicative, the Negative + or Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. + Many, but not all, Transitive Verbs have a Passive Participle.</p> + + <p>The <i>Tenses</i> are three: the Present, the Preterite, and the + Future.</p> + + <p>The <i>Numbers</i> are two: Singular and Plural.</p> + + <p>The <i>Persons</i> are three: First, Second, and Third. The <!-- Page + 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>distinction + of number and person takes place only in a few tenses.</p> + + <p>The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by changes at + the beginning, and on the termination.</p> + + <p>The changes on the termination are made according to one model, and by + the same rules. But for the sake of stating some diversity in the + <i>initial</i> changes, it may be convenient to arrange the verbs in two + <i>conjugations</i>, whereof the first comprehends those verbs which + begin with a consonant, the second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. + Verbs beginning with <i>f</i>, followed by a vowel, are ranged under the + second conjugation, along with verbs beginning with a vowel.</p> + + <p>The verb Bi <i>be</i>, which is used as an auxiliary to other verbs, + is declined as follows:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Bi, <i>be</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative</i> or <i>Indicative Mood</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Affirmative or Indicative Mood." title="Bi, Affirmative or Indicative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Present. </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1. Ta mi, <i>I am</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha mi, <i>I was</i>,</td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh mi, <i>I will be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2. Ta thu, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha thu, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3. Ta e; </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha e; </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh se;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1. Ta sinn, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha sinn, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2. Ta sibh, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha sibh, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3. Ta iad. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha iad. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh siad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative</i> or <i>Interrogative Mood</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Negative or Interrogative Mood." title="Bi, Negative or Interrogative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="center"> Present. </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Bheil mi, <i>I am not,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh mi, <i>I was not,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi mi, <i>I shall not be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Bheil thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Bheil e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi se;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Bheil sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Bheil sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Bheil iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi siad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>{67}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Bi, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite or Imperfect. </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhithinn, <i>I would be</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Ma bhitheas mi, <i>If I shall be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhitheadh tu, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhitheadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas e;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhitheadheamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhitheadh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhitheadh sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhitheadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <br /><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bith, <i>being</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bitheam, <i>let me be</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> do bhith, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>to be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bi, bi thusa, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a bhith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bitheadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> gu bhith, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>to be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> gu bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bitheamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> iar bhith, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>after being</i>, <i>been</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bithibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> iar bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bitheadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> o bhith, <i>from being</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Compound Tenses.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Compound Tenses, Affirmative and Negative Moods." title="Bi, Compound Tenses, Affirmative and Negative Moods."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Present.</td><td align="center"> Preterite.</td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="5"> +<!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span> + <br /><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bithidh mi iar bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I have been</i>, &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I had been</i>, &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I shall have been</i>, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="5"> <br /><i>Negative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> ni,<br />&c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bheil mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Robh mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bi mi air bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>I have not been.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I had not been.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I shall not have been.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive Mood." title="Bi, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive Mood."> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite or Pluperfect. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhithinn iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I should have been, &c.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>If I shall have been, &c.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one of many + instances where there appears reason to complain of the propensity + remarked in Part I. in those who speak the Gaelic, to attenuate its + articulations by aspiration. Another corrupt way of writing ta which has + become common, is ata. This has probably taken its rise from uniting the + relative to the verb; as, an uair <i>ata</i> mi; instead of an uair <i>a + ta</i>, &c., mar <i>a ta</i>, &c. Or perhaps it may have + proceeded from a too compliant regard to a provincial pronunciation.</p> + + <p>The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal participle ro, + the same with do, and bha, throwing away the last vowel; ro bha, + robh.</p> + + <p>The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing. and 3d per. plur. are + frequently incorporated into one word, and written taim <i>I am</i>, taid + <i>they are</i>.</p> + + <p>The pres. neg. loses the initial <i>bh</i> after the participle cha + <i>not</i>, mur <i>if not</i>, nach <i>that not</i>; <i>n</i> is + inserted, <i>euphoniae causa</i>, betwixt the participle cha and the + verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 'eil, nach 'eil. This Tense is often pronounced + beil after the participle am; as, am beil e? <i>is it?</i></p> + + <p>In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the common verbal + participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, or cha d'robh mi, <i>I was + not</i>.</p> + + <p>Initial <i>b</i> of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle + cha <i>not</i>; as, cha bhi.</p> + + <p>Initial <i>bh</i> of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the + <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page69"></a>{69}</span>participles ni <i>not</i>, mur <i>if + not</i>, nach <i>that not</i>, gu <i>that</i>, nam <i>if</i>; as, mur + bithinn, nam bitheadh tu.</p> + + <p>The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by changing + <i>ithea</i> into <i>io</i>; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c.</p> + + <p>Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. They are + here given complete, because they correspond to the analogy of other + verbs; and show how accurately the various modifications of time may be + expressed by the substantive verb itself.</p> + + <p>Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail <i>to + strike</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative</i> or <i>Indicative Moods</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Affirmative or Indicative Mood." title="Buail, Affirmative or Indicative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi, <i>I struck</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh mi, <i>I will strike</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuail mi,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuail thu, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuail e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh se;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhuail sinn, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuail sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuail iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh siad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative</i> or <i>Interrogative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Negative or Interrogative Mood." title="Buail, Negative or Interrogative Mood."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi, <i>I struck not</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail mi, <i>I will not strike</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuail thu, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do <span class="correction" title="Original reads `bhuall'.">bhuail</span> e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail e;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuail sinn, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuail sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do bhuail iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>{70}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Buail, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhuailinn, <i>I would strike</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Ma bhuaileas mi, <i>If I shall strike</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh tu, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuaileadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas e;</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhuaileamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuaileadh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuaileadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <br /><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bualadh, <i>striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Buaileam, <i>let me strike</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> ag bualadh, <i>a-striking</i>, <i>striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Buail, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> iar bualadh, <i>struck</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Buaileadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> do bhualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>to strike</i>, </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Buaileamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> ri bualadh, <i>at striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Buailibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> le bualadh, <i>with striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Buaileadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> o bhualadh, <i>from striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">Compound Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ta mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bithidh mi ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I am striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>{71}</span> + </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ta mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bithidh mi iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I have struck</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had struck</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood." title="Buail, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="9"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="9"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:20ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Bheil mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Robh mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bi mi ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>I am not striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was not striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will not be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Bheil mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Robh mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bi mi iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>I have not struck</i>,&c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had not struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will not have struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Buail, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would be striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>If I shall be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would have struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>If I shall have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span> + </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me be striking,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To be striking,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iar bith ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Been striking,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me have struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To have been striking,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, <i>I was struck.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear mi, <i>I shall be struck.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuaileadh mi,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Bhuaileadh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear e;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuaileadh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuaileadh iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, <i>I was not struck</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear mi, <i>I shall not be struck</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuaileadh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do bhuaileadh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear e;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuaileadh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuaileadh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do bhuaileadh iad, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>{73}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Subjunctive & Imperative Moods." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Subjunctive & Imperative Moods."> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuailteadh mi, <i>I would be struck,</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhuailear mi, <i>If I shall be struck.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuailteadh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Bhuailteadh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear e;</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuailteadh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuailteadh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Bhuailteadh iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Buailtear mi, <i>Let me be struck,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Buailtear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Buailtear thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Buailtear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Buailtear e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Buailtear iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Participle.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> Buailte, <i>struck.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">Compound Tenses</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi buailte, <i>I am struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi buailte, <i>I was struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi buailte, <i>I shall be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>{74}</span> + </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Ta mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have been struck,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I had been struck,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I shall have been struck.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Ta thu iar do bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha thu iar do bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh tu iar do bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Ta se iar a bhualadh; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha se iar a bhualadh; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh se iar a bhualadh;</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Ta sinn iar ar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha sinn iar ar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh sinn iar ar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Ta sibh iar 'ur bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha sibh iar 'ur bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh sibh iar 'ur bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Ta siad iar am bualadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha siad iar am bualadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh siad iar am bualadh.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ni bheil mi buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'n robh mi buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'm bi mi buailte,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I am not struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I was not struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I shall not be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span> +Ni 'm bheil mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'n robh mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'm bi mi iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have not been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I had not been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I shall not have been struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi buailte,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would be struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>If I shall be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would have been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i> If I shall have been struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith buailte,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me be struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me have been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To have been struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Orduich, <i>to appoint.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Orduich, Simple Tenses." title="Orduich, Simple Tenses."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduichidh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'orduich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduich,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduichinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduicheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Orduicheam. <i>Infinit.</i> Orduchadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'orduicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduichteadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduicheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Orduichear. <i>Particip.</i> Orduichte.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>{76}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">Folaich, <i>to hide.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Folaich, Simple Tenses." title="Folaich, Simple Tenses."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaichidh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'fholaich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaich,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaichinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaicheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Folaicheam. <i>Infinit.</i> Folachadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'fholaicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaichteadh . </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaichear.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Folaichtear. <i>Particip.</i> Folaichte.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of the Verb Buail + in the first Conjugation, being formed exactly in the same manner.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Formation of the Tenses.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Initial Form.</i></p> + + <p>An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, through all + the Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite Subjunctive after the + Particles ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. An initial Consonant is occasionally + aspirated in the Future Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, + indicating their connection with the preceding word.</p> + + <p>In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Aff. and Neg. + Active and Passive. However, it often is, and always may be, omitted + before the Pret. Aff. It is sometimes omitted in the Pret. Neg. in verse, + and in common conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same Particle + do is prefixed to the Preterite through all the Moods and Voices, and to + the Fut. Subj. excepting only the Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, + gu, an, am. In this <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page77"></a>{77}</span>Conjugation, do always loses the <i>o</i> to + avoid a <i>hiatus</i>, and the <i>d</i> is aspirated in the Affirm. and + Subjunct. Moods<a name="footnotetag49" + href="#footnote49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Termination.</i></p> + + <p>In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Root are, + strictly speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a small vowel. But + where the first vowel of the Termination does not correspond in quality + to the last vowel of the Root, it has become the constant practice to + insert in the Termination a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to + produce this correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into the + Terminations even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to the uniformity of + inflection, and of no use to ascertain either the sense or the + pronunciation<a name="footnotetag50" + href="#footnote50"><sup>[50]</sup></a>. In the foregoing examples of + regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography has been followed, but in + the following rules the simple Terminations only are specified.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + + <p>The Theme or Root of the Verb is always found in the second Per. sing. + of the imperative.</p> + + <p>The <i>Preterite</i> Affirm. and Negat. is like the Root, and has no + distinction of Number or Person. In most of the editions of the Gaelic + Psalms, some inflections of the <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page78"></a>{78}</span>Preterite have been admitted, with good + effect, from the Irish Verb; such as, bhuaileas <i>I struck</i>, bhuailis + <i>thou didst strike</i>, bhuaileamar <i>we struck</i>, bhuaileadar + <i>they struck</i>. The Pret. Subj. is formed by adding to the Root + <i>inn</i> for the first pers. sing., and <i>adh</i> for the other + persons. The first pers. plur. also terminates in <i>amaid</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Future</i> Affirm. adds <i>idh</i> to the Root; in the Negat. + it is like the Root; and in the Subjunct. it adds <i>as</i>. A poetic + Future Tense terminating in <i>ann</i> or <i>onn</i>, is frequent in the + Gaelic Psalms; as, gairionn <i>will call</i>, seasfann <i>will stand</i>, + do bheirionn, <i>will give</i>, &c. The Future has no distinction of + Number or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm. and Negat. in + many Verbs was formerly <i>fidh</i>, like the Irish; of which many + examples occur in the earlier editions of the Gaelic Psalms. In later + Gaelic publications, the <i>f</i> has been uniformly set aside<a + name="footnotetag51" href="#footnote51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>. The + Termination of the first pers. and third pers. plur. is often + incorporated with the corresponding Pronoun; as, seinnam cliu <i>I will + sing praise</i>, Psal. lxi. 8., Ni fuigham bàs, ach mairfam beo, <i>I + shall not die, but shall remain alive</i>, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, + geillfid, innsid, <i>they will eat</i>, <i>they will submit</i>, <i>they + will tell</i>, Ps. xxii, 26, 29, 31. <a name="footnotetag52" + href="#footnote52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>{79}</span></p> + + <p>In the <i>Imperative</i> Mood, the second pers. sing. is the Root of + the Verb. The other persons are distinguished by these Terminations; 1st + pers. sing. <i>am</i>, 3d pers. sing. <i>adh</i>, 1st pers. plur. + <i>amaid</i>, 2d pers. plur. <i>ibh</i>, 3d pers. plur. <i>adh</i>.</p> + + <p>The Terminations peculiar to the 1st pers. sing. and plur. of the + Pret. Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of the Personal + Pronouns; as does also the Termination of the 2d pers. plur. of the + Imperative.</p> + + <p>The <i>Infinitive</i> is variously formed.</p> + + <p><i>General Rule.</i> The Infinitive is formed by adding <i>adh</i> to + the Root; as, aom <i>bow, incline</i>, Infin. aomadh; ith <i>eat</i>, + Infin. itheadh.</p> + + <p>1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, and are + commonly used in their contracted form; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives with syncope." title="Infinitives with syncope."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Caomhain, <i>spare</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Caomhnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coisin, <i>win</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Coisneadh, Cosnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Diobair, <i>deprive</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Diobradh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fògair, <i>remove</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fògradh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Foghain, <i>suffice</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Foghnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fosgail, <i>open</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fosgladh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Innis, <i>tell</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Innseadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Iobair, <i>sacrifice</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iobradh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mosgail, <i>awake</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mosgladh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Seachain, <i>avoid</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Seachnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgain, <i>begin</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Togair, <i>desire</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Togradh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming <!-- Page 80 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>{80}</span>the Infinitive, + suffer a like syncope in the Preterite Subjunctive, and in the Imperative + Mood; as, innis <i>tell</i>, Infin. innseadh, Pret. Subj. innsinn, + innseadh, innseamaid, Imperat. innseam, innseamaid, innsibh.</p> + + <p>2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infinitive like the Root; + as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives as root." title="Infinitives as root."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Caoidh, <i>lament</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ol, <i>drink</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dearmad, <i>neglect</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruith, <i>run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fàs, <i>grow</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Snamh, <i>swim</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gairm, <i>call</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sniomh, <i>twine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Meas, <i>estimate</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>3. Polysyllables in <i>ch</i>, whose characteristic Vowel is small, + either throw it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and add + <i>adh</i>; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives of polysyllables in broad Vowel and -adh." title="Infinitives of polysyllables in broad Vowel and -adh."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ceannaich, <i>buy</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceannachadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Smuainich, <i>think</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Smuaineachadh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Most Monosyllables in <i>sg</i>, and a few others, follow the same + Rule; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives of monosyllables in broad Vowel and -adh." title="Infinitives of monosyllables in broad Vowel and -adh."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coisg, <i>check</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cosgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Naisg, <i>bind</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nasgadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fàisg, <i>wring</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fàsgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Paisg, <i>wrap</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Pasgadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Loisg, <i>burn</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Losgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Blais, <i>taste</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Blasadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Luaisg, <i>rock</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Luasgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buail, <i>strike</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bualadh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>4. Many Verbs, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it + away, or convert it into a broad Vowel, without adding <i>adh</i>; + as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives where characteristic Vowel is small." title="Infinitives where characteristic Vowel is small."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Amhairc, <i>look</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Amharc. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iomain, <i>drive</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ioman.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Amais, <i>reach</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Amas. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leighis, <i>cure</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leigheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Caill, <i>lose</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Call. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sguir, <i>cease</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sgur.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ceangail, <i>bind</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceangal. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Siubhail, <i>travel</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Siubhal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cuir, <i>put</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cur. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tachrais, <i>wind</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tachras.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coimhid, <i>keep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Coimhead. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tiondaidh, <i>turn</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tiondadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fulaing, <i>suffer</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fulang. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toirmisg, <i>forbid</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toirmeasg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fuirich, <i>stay</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fuireach. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toinail, <i>gather</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toinal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Guil, <i>weep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gul. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgail, <i>contrive</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgal.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span></p> + + <p>5. The following Verbs in <i>air</i> add <i>t</i> to the + Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, verbs in -air add t to the Root." title="Infinitives, verbs in -air add t to the Root."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Agair, <i>claim</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Agairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bagair, <i>threaten</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bagairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Casgair, <i>slaughter</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Casgairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Freagair, <i>answer</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Freagairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iomair, <i>use</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iomairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Labhair, <i>speak</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Labhairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Lomair, <i>shear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Lomairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saltair, <i>trample</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saltairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tabhair, <i>give</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tabhairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tachair, <i>meet</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tachairt.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>6. These Monosyllables add <i>sinn</i> to the Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding sinn to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding sinn to the Root."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beir, <i>bear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beirsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Creid, <i>believe</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Creidsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faic, <i>see</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faicsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Goir, <i>crow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Goirsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Mair, <i>continue</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Mairsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saoil, <i>think</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saoilsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tréig, <i>forsake</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tréigsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuig, <i>understand</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuigsinn, or Tuigeil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Ruig, <i>reach</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Ruigsinn, or Ruigheachd. </td></tr> +</table> + + <p>7. These Monosyllables add <i>tuinn</i> or <i>tinn</i> to the + Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding tuinn or tinn to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding tuinn or tinn to the Root."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bean, <i>touch</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beantuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Buin, <i>take away</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Buntuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Can, <i>say, sing</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cantuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cinn, <i>grow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cinntinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cluinn, <i>hear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cluinntinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fan, <i>stay</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fantuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Gin, <i>produce</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Giontuinn, or Gionmhuin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Lean, <i>follow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Leantuinn, or Leanmhuin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Meal, <i>enjoy</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Mealtuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Pill, <i>return</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Pilltinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Seall, <i>look</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Sealltuinn.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>{82}</span></p> + + <p>8. The following Monosyllables add <i>ail</i> to the Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding ail to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding ail to the Root."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cum, <i>hold</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cumail. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leag, <i>cast down</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leagail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gabh, <i>take</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gabhail. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tog, <i>raise</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Togail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fàg, <i>leave</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fàgail. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tuig, <i>understand</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tuigeil.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>9. These Monosyllables add <i>amh</i> to the Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding amh to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding amh to the Root."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caith, <i>spend</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caitheamh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Dean, <i>do, make</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Deanamh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Feith, <i>wait</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Feitheamh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Seas, <i>stand</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Seasamh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Infinitives." title="Irregular Infinitives."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beuc, <i>roar</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beucaich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bùir, <i>bellow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bùirich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Geum, <i>low</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Geumnaich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Glaodh, <i>cry</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Glaodhaich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caisd, <i>listen</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caisdeachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eisd, <i>hearken</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eisdeachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Marcaich, <i>ride</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Marcachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Thig, <i>come</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teachd, tighinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faigh, <i>find</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faghail, faotainn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eirich, <i>rise</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eirigh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iarr, <i>request</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iarraidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Taisg, <i>lay up</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tasgaidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Coidil, <i>sleep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Codal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fuaigh, <i>sew</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fuaghal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Gluais, <i>move</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Gluasad, gluasachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuit, <i>fall</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuiteam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teirig, <i>wear out</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teireachduinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teasairg, <i>deliver</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teasairgin.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Compound Tenses.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the first order</i> are made up of the + several simple Tenses of the auxiliary verb Bi <i>be</i>, and the + Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag <i>at</i>. Between two + Consonants, ag commonly loses the <i>g</i>, and is written <i>a'</i>; as, + <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>{83}</span>ta + iad a' deanamh <i>they are doing</i>. Between two Vowels, the <i>a</i> is + dropped, and the <i>g</i> is retained; as, ta mi 'g iarruidh <i>I am + asking</i>. When preceded by a Consonant, and followed by a Vowel, the + Preposition is written entire, as, ta iad ag iarruidh <i>they are + asking</i>. When preceded by a Vowel, and followed by a Consonant, it is + often suppressed altogether; as, ta mi deanamh <i>I am doing</i><a + name="footnotetag53" href="#footnote53"><sup>[53]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the second order</i> are made up of the + simple Tenses of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar + <i>after</i><a name="footnotetag54" + href="#footnote54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Simple Tenses.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>Preterite</i> Affirm. and Negat. is formed from the same Tense + in the Active, by adding <i>adh</i>. The Preter. Subj. adds + <i>teadh</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Future</i> is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the + Terminations in the Affirm. and Subj. into <i>ar</i>, (more properly + <i>far</i>, as of old) and adding the same syllable in the Negative.</p> + + <p>The <i>Imperative</i> is formed from the Imperat. Act. by adding to + the second pers. sing. <i>tar</i>, <i>thar</i>, or <i>ar</i>.<a + name="footnotetag55" href="#footnote55"><sup>[55]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>{84}</span></p> + + <p>The <i>Participle</i> is formed by adding <i>te</i> to the Root<a + name="footnotetag56" href="#footnote56"><sup>[56]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>There is no distinction of Number or Person in the Tenses of the + Passive Voice.</p> + + <p>Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope + in the Pret. Aff. and Neg. throughout the Future Tense, and in the + Imperative.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Compound Tense.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the first order</i> are made up of the + simple Tenses of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span></p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the second order</i> are made up of the + simple Tenses of <i>Bi</i> and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition + <i>iar</i> and the Possessive Pronoun corresponding in Person to the + Pronoun, or to the Noun, which is the Nominative to the verb.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>Affirmative</i> or <i>Indicative</i> Mood expresses + affirmation, and is used in affirmative propositions only, as, Do bhuail + mi <i>I struck</i>, bha mi ag bualadh <i>I was striking</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Negative</i> or <i>Interrogative</i> Mood is used in negative + propositions and interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni + <i>not</i>, cha <i>not</i>, nach <i>which not</i>, <i>that not</i>, + <i>not?</i> mur <i>if not</i>; also, gu, gur, <i>that</i>, an, am, + whether used relatively or interrogatively; as, cha d'fholaich mi <i>I + did not hide</i>, mur buail sinn <i>if we shall not strike</i>, nach robh + iad <i>that they were not</i>, gu robh iad <i>that they were</i>; am + buail mi? <i>shall I strike?</i> It is used in the Future Tense after ged + <i>although</i>; as, ged bhuail e mi, <i>though he strike me</i><a + name="footnotetag57" href="#footnote57"><sup>[57]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Subjunctive</i> Mood is used in the Preterite, either with or + without conjunctions; as, bhuailinn <i>I would strike</i>, na'm, mur, + nach, &c., buailinn <i>if, unless, &c., I should strike</i>. In + the Future it is used only after the conjunctions ma <i>if</i>, o, o'n + <i>since</i>, and the Relative <i>a</i> expressed or understood; as, ma + bhuaileas mi <i>if I shall strike</i>, am fear a bhuaileas mi <i>the man + <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>{86}</span>who + will strike me</i>, or <i>the man whom I shall strike</i>; an uair a + bhuaileas mi, tra bhuaileas mi <i>the time [in] which I shall strike, i. + e., when I shall strike</i>; c'uin [cia ùine] a bhuaileas mi? <i>what + [is] the time [in] which I shall strike? i. e., when shall I + strike?</i></p> + + <p>The <i>Imperative</i> Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, command, + or request; as, buaileam <i>let me strike</i>, buailibh <i>strike + ye</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Infinitive</i><a name="footnotetag58" + href="#footnote58"><sup>[58]</sup></a> is, in all respects, a noun, + denoting the action or energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a + Preposition which marks the time of the action; as, ag bualadh <i>at + striking</i>, am bualadh <i>the striking, the threshing</i>. It assumes a + regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh; as, urlar-bualaidh <i>a + threshing floor</i>. The Infinitive sometimes loses the termination, and + is regularly declined in its abridged form; thus, cruinnich + <i>assemble</i>, inf. cruinneach-adh per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. + cruinnich; hence, àite-cruinnich <i>a place of meeting</i>, Acts xix. 29, + 31, so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm xxx. 10, liv. + 4, ionad-foluich, Psalm xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich, Matt. v. + 31<a name="footnotetag59" href="#footnote59"><sup>[59]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speaking, be + denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag + <i>at</i>, corresponds in meaning to the present Participle; and preceded + by iar <i>after</i>, it corresponds to the participle of the past time; + as, ag bualadh <i>at striking</i>, or <i>striking</i>; iar bualadh + <i>after striking</i>, or <i>struck</i><a name="footnotetag60" + href="#footnote60"><sup>[60]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span></p> + + <p>Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposition <i>ag</i> + before them, and may be considered as Infinitives of Verbs, whereof the + other parts are not in use; as, ag atharrais <i>mimicking</i>, ag + gàireachdaich <i>laughing</i>, a' fanoid, a' magadh <i>mocking</i>, + <i>jeering</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span></p> + + <p>The <i>Participle</i> passive is an adjective, denoting the completion + of the action or energy expressed by the verb; as, arbhar buailte + <i>threshed corn</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Simple Tenses</i> which belong to all verbs are the Preterite + or Future, besides which the verb Bi to <i>be</i>, and the defective verb + Is I <i>am</i>, have a Present Tense<a name="footnotetag61" + href="#footnote61"><sup>[61]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Present</i> expresses present existence, state, or energy.</p> + + <p>The <i>Preterite Affirmative</i> and <i>Negative</i> expresses past + time indefinitely. The <i>Preterite Subjunctive</i> corresponds to the + English Tenses formed by the auxiliaries <i>would</i>, <i>could</i>, + &c. In general it denotes that the action or energy of the verb takes + place eventually or conditionally. The Pret. Aff. or <!-- Page 89 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>{89}</span>Neg. is used + sometimes in this sense, like the English, when the Pret. Subj. occurred + in the preceding clause of a sentence, as, na'm biodh tus' an so, cha d' + fhuair mo bhrathair bàs, <i>if thou hadst been here, my brother had not + [would not have] died</i>; mur bitheamaid air deanamh moille bha sinn a + nis air pilltinn air ar n-ais, <i>if we had not lingered, we had [should + have] now returned</i>, Gen. xliii. 10.</p> + + <p>The <i>Future</i> <span class="correction" title="Original reads `makes'." + >marks</span> future time indefinitely. This Tense is used in a peculiar + sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action or event takes place + uniformly, habitually, according to ordinary practice, or the course of + nature. Thus; Blessed is he that <i>considereth</i> the poor, expressed + according to the Gaelic idiom, would be, Blessed is he that <i>will + consider</i>, &c. A wise son <i>maketh</i> a glad father, in Gaelic + would run, A wise son <i>will make</i>, &c. Your patient, I am told, + is in a bad way; he neither <i>enjoys</i> rest, nor <i>takes</i> + medicine. Nay, his situation is worse than you know of; yesterday, he + became delirious, and is now almost unmanageable; he <i>tosses</i> his + arms, and <i>endeavours</i> to beat every one within his reach. In + Gaelic, <i>will enjoy—will take—will toss—will + endeavour</i>. In like manner, a great many Gaelic Proverbs express a + general truth by means of the Future tense; <i>e.g.</i>, bithidh dùil ri + fear feachd, ach cha bhi dùil ri fear lic, <i>There </i>is<i> hope that a + man may return from war, but there </i>is<i> no hope that a man may + return from the grave</i>; literally, there <i>will be</i> + hope—there <i>will be</i> no hope. Teirgidh gach ni r' a + chaitheamh, <i>every thing</i> wears <i>out in the using</i>; + literally,—<i>will wear</i> out<a name="footnotetag62" + href="#footnote62"><sup>[62]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Compound Tenses</i> mark different modifications of time, <!-- + Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span>which + will be easily understood by analysing their component parts.</p> + + <p>In the <i>Active Voice</i>, the compound tenses of the first order + denote that the action is going on, but not completed at the time + specified by the auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts; as, ta mi ag bualadh, + <i>I am at striking</i>, i.e., <i>I am striking</i>; bha mi ag <span + class="correction" title="Original reads `buaiadh'.">bualadh</span> an + dé, <i>I was striking yesterday</i>.</p> + + <p>Those of the second order denote that the action is newly completed + and past, at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi iar bualadh, + <i>I am after striking</i>, i.e., <i>I have struck</i>, <i>Je viens de + frapper</i>; Bha mi iar bualadh, <i>I was striking</i>, i.e., <i>I had + struck</i>.</p> + + <p>In the <i>Passive Voice</i>, the compound tenses of the first order + denote that the action is <i>finished</i> at the time marked by the + auxiliary verb; ta mi buailte, <i>I am struck</i>.</p> + + <p>Those of the second order denote that the action is <i>newly + finished</i> at the time marked by the auxiliary<a name="footnotetag63" + href="#footnote63"><sup>[63]</sup></a>; ta mi iar mo bhualadh, <i>I am + after my striking</i>, or, <i>I am after the striking of me</i>, which + has always a passive signification; that is, it is always understood, + from this form of expression, that <i>striking</i> is the action of some + agent different from the person struck. It is equivalent to <i>I have + been struck</i>, <i>Je viens d'etre frappé</i>.</p> + + <p>A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these last, having + the preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes used, and in a passive + sense, denoting that the action is <i>going on</i> at the time marked by + the auxiliary; as, tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, <i>the house is at its + building</i>, i.e., <i>a-building</i>; sea bliadhna agus da fhichead bha + 'n teampull 'g a thogail, <i>forty and six years was this temple in + building</i>. John ii. 20, 1 Kings vi. 7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, + <i>the cows were a-milking</i>; bidh deudaichean 'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' + Collect." p. 82. So <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page91"></a>{91}</span>in English, the book is a-printing; the + deed's a-doing now, "Douglas," Act 1.</p> + + <p>The following scheme shows the different modifications of time, as + expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, brought together into + one view, and compared with the corresponding Tenses of the Greek Verb in + Moor's Greek Grammar.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses." title="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses."> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> ACTIVE VOICE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <i>Indicative or Affirmative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Present Tense.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tuptô" class="grk">τυπτω</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I strike, or am striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etupton" class="grk">ἐτυπτον</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I was striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh mi </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tupsô" class="grk">τυψω</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I will strike, or be striking.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bithidh mi ag bualadh </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuail mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etupsa" class="grk">ἐτυψα</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tetupha" class="grk">τετυφα</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I have struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi iar bualadh,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etetuphein" class="grk">ἐτετυφειν</span>,</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I had struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Interrogative or Negative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am bheil mi ag bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Am I striking?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An robh mi ag bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Was I striking?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am buail mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Shall I strike?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> +<!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>{92}</span> +Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An do bhuail mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Did I strike?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am bheil mi iar bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Have I struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An robh mi iar bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Had I struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuailinn, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="etupton an" class="grk">ἐτυπτον ἀν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I would strike.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn ag bualadh,</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Ma bhuaileas mi, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> If I shall strike.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn iar bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etupsa an" class="grk">ἐτυψα ἀν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I would have struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Buaileam, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Let me strike.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tupte" class="grk">τυπτε</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Strike.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Am bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="to tuptein" class="grk">το τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> The striking.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> A' bhualaidh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tou tuptein" class="grk">του τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Of the striking.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ag bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="en tôi tuptein" class="grk">ἐν τῳ τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> A-striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <i>Indicative or Affirmative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi 'g am bhualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tuptomai" class="grk">τυπτομαι</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I am in striking<a name="footnotetag64" href="#footnote64"><sup>[64]</sup></a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi 'g am bhualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etuptomên" class="grk">ἐτυπτομην</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I was in striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> +<!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span> +Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailear mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tuphthêsomai" class="grk">τυφθησομαι</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I shall be struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bithidh mi buailte,</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuaileadh mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etuphthên" class="grk">ἐτυφθην</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I was struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tetummenos eimi" class="grk">τετυμμενος εἰμι</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I have been struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi iar mo bhualadh</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tetummenos ên" class="grk">τετυμμενος ἠν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I had been struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi iar mo bhualadh</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Interrogative or Negative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am buailear mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Shall I be struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An do bhuaileadh mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Was I struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Am bheil mi buailte? </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2" align="right"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> Have I been struck?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Am bheil mi iar mo bhualadh?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> An robh mi buailte? </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2" align="right"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> Had I been struck?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> An robh mi iar mo bhualadh?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuailteadh mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etuptomên an" class="grk">ἐτυπτομην αν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I should be struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Ma bhuailtear mi, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> If I shall be struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> +<!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>{94}</span> +Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="etuphthên an" class="grk">ἐτυφθην αν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I should have been struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Buailtear mi, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Let me be struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailtear thu, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tuptou" class="grk">τυπτου</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Be thou struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br />Participle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tetummenos" class="grk">τετυμμενος</span> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Struck.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see how + correctly the various modifications of time, as distinguished and + arranged by Mr Harris, are expressed in the Gaelic verb, by the + auxiliaries, bi <i>be</i>, and dol <i>going</i>. See <i>Hermes B. I. c. + 7.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses." title="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses."> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Aorist of the Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tuptô" class="grk">Τυπτω</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ——</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Aorist of the Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Etupsa" class="grk">Ετυψα</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuail mi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Aorist of the Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tupsô" class="grk">Τυψω</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh mi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Inceptive Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Mellô tuptein" class="grk">Μελλω τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I am going to strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi dol a bhualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Middle or extended Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tunchanô tuptôn" class="grk">Τυγχανω τυπτων</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I am striking, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi ag bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Completive Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tetupha" class="grk">Τετυφα</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I have struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi iar bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Inceptive Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Emellon tuptein" class="grk">Εμελλον τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I was going to strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi dol a bhualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>{95}</span> +Middle or extended Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Etupton" class="grk">Ετυπτον</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I was striking, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi ag bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Completive Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Etetuphein" class="grk">Ετετυφειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I had struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi iar bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Inceptive future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Mellêsô tuptein" class="grk">Μελλησω τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall be going to strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi dol a bhualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Middle or extended Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Esomai tuptôn" class="grk">Εσομαι τυπτων</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall be striking, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi ag bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Completive Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Esomai tetuphôs" class="grk">Εσομαι τετυφως</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall have struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi iar bualadh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation." title="Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation."> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Beir, <i>bear.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beiridh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheireas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Beiream. <i>Infin.</i> Beirsinn, breith.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Beirthear.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>{96}</span> +Cluinn, <i>hear.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chuala, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinnidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Cuala, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chluinnin, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chluinneas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Cluinneam. <i>Infin.</i> Cluinntinn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do Chualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinnear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Cualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinnear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chluinnteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chluinnear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Cluinntear.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Dean, <i>do</i> or <i>make.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dheanainn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Deanam. <i>Infin.</i> Deanamh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rinneadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rinneadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deanar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dheantadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Deantar. <i>Particip.</i> Deanta.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Rach, <i>go.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chaidh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Théid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Deachaidh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Téid<a name="footnotetag65" href="#footnote65"><sup>[65]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Rachainn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Théid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Racham. <i>Infin.</i> Dol.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>{97}</span> +Ruig, <i>reach.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruigidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruig.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Ruiginn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruigeas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Ruigeam. <i>Infin.</i> Ruigsinn, ruigheachd.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Tabhair,<a name="footnotetag66" href="#footnote66"><sup>[66]</sup></a> <i>give.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do thug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' thug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tabhair.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirinn, tabhairinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Tabhaiream, thugam. <i>Infin.</i> Tabhairt.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do thugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' thugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tabhairear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirteadh, tugtadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Thugthar.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Thig, <i>come.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do thainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Thig.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' thainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tig<a name="footnotetag67" href="#footnote67"><sup>[67]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Thiginn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Thig.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Thigeam. <i>Infin.</i> Tighinn, teachd.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation." title="Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation."> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Abair,<a name="footnotetag68" href="#footnote68"><sup>[68]</sup></a> <i>say.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Thubhairt, dubhairt, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Their.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dubhairt, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Abair.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Theirinn, abairinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Their.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Abaiream. <i>Infin.</i> Radh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dubhradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Theirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dubhradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Abairear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Theirteadh, abairteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Theirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Abairear<a name="footnotetag69" href="#footnote69"><sup>[69]</sup></a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Faic, <i>see.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chunnaic, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Faca, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chithinn, faicinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faiceam. <i>Infin.</i> Faicsinn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chunnacadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Facadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faicear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chiteadh, faicteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faicthear. <i>Infin.</i> Faicsinn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>{99}</span> +Faigh, <i>get.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Fhuair, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D'fhuair, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faigh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Gheibhinn, faighinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faigheam. <i>Infin.</i> Faghail, faotainn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Fhuaradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibhear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' fhuaradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faighear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Gheibhteadh, faighteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibhear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faightear.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double Preterite + Subjunctive. The latter form of it, which is derived regularly from the + Root, is used after the same particles which are prefixed to the Negative + Mood, <i>viz.</i> ni, cha, nach, mur, gu, an, am.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Defective Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>The following defective verbs are in common use.</p> + + <p>Arsa <i>said</i>, <i>quoth</i>, indeclinable; used only in the Pret. + Aff. through all the persons; arsa Donull, <i>quoth Donald</i>.</p> + + <p>Tiucainn <i>come along</i>, tiucainnibh <i>come ye along</i>, used + only in the 2d pers. sing. and plur. of the Imperative.</p> + + <p>Theab mi <i>I was near to, I had almost</i>; used through all the + persons of the Pret. Aff. and Neg.; as, theab iad bhith caillte <i>they + had nearly perished</i>.</p> + + <p>Is mi <i>I am</i>, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are + declined as follows:— <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>{100}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Is mi, Affirmative Mood." title="Is mi, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Present. </td><td align="center"> Preterite.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Is mi, <i>I am, it is I.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu mhi, <i>I was, it was I.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Is tu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu tu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Is e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' e.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Is sinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Is sibh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Is iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Is mi, Negative Mood." title="Is mi, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni,<br />cha,<br />nach,<br />&c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 mi, <i>I am not</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu mhi, <i>I was not</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 tu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu tu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' e.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 sinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 sibh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Is mi, Subjunctive Mood." title="Is mi, Subjunctive Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Ma 's mi, <i>If I be, it be I.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nam bu mhi, <i>If I were, it were I.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 's tu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu tu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 's e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' e.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 's sinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 's sibh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 's iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' iad.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are the two + syllables <i>is</i> and <i>bu</i>. Each of these syllables <!-- Page 101 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>{101}</span>commonly loses + the vowel when it comes in apposition with another vowel.</p> + + <p>It is remarkable, that in the Pres. Neg. the Verb disappears + altogether, and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, nach, gur, &c., and + the subsequent Pronoun, or Noun, are always understood to convey a + proposition, or a question, as unequivocally as though a Verb had been + expressed; as, cha tu <i>thou art not</i>, nach e? <i>is he not? is it + not he?</i> am mise e? <i>is it I?</i> cha luchd-brathaidh sinn <i>we are + not spies</i>, Gen. xlii. 31. Am mò thusa na Abraham? <i>Art thou greater + than Abraham?</i> gur còir urnuigh a dheanamh <i>that it is proper to + pray</i>, Luke xviii. 1<a name="footnotetag70" + href="#footnote70"><sup>[70]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>{102}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Reciprocating State of Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, either Personal + or Possessive, that it shall denote the agent to be also the object of + the action. This may be called the <i>reciprocating state</i> of the + Verb. It is declined as follows:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Buail thu fein, <i>strike thyself</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Affirmative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh mi mi fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuail mi mi fein, </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I will strike myself.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I struck myself.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Do bhuail thu thu fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh tu thu fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Do bhuail se e fein; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh se e fein.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Do bhuail sinn sinn fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh sinn sinn fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Do bhuail sibh sibh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh sibh sibh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Do bhuail siad iad fein. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh siad iad fein.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Negative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> cha,<br />&c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuail mi mi fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I struck not myself.</i> </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I shall not strike myself.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods." title="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods."> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuailinn mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuaileas mi mi fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I would strike myself.</i></td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I shall strike myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> +<!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>{103}</span> + <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Buaileam mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buaileamaid sinn fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>Let me strike myself.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Buail thu fein. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailibh sibh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Buaileadh e e fein. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buaileadh iad iad fein.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods." title="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g am bhualadh fein, <i>striking myself</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g ad bhualadh fein, <i>striking thyself</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g a bhualadh fein, <i>striking himself</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g ar bualadh fein, <i>striking ourselves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g 'ur bualadh fein, <i>striking yourselves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g am bualadh fein, <i>striking themselves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> iar mo bhualadh fein, <i>after striking myself</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> gu mo bhualadh fein, <i>to strike myself</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">Compound Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi 'g am bhualadh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bidh mi 'g am bhualadh fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I am striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will be striking myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>{104}</span> +Ta mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bidh mi iar mo, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I have struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I shall have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni bheil mi 'g am, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni robh mi 'g am, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni'm bi mi 'g am bhualadh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I am not striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was not striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I shall not be striking myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni bheil mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni robh mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni'm bi mi iar mo, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I have not struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had not struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I shall not have struck myself.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn 'g am, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi 'g am,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I would be striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>If I shall be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2.Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar mo, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I would have struck</i>, &c. </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>If I shall have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>{105}</span> +<i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> 1. <i>Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith 'g am bhualadh fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>To be striking myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam 'g am bhualadh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iar bith 'g am bhualadh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>Let me be striking myself.</i> </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>To have been striking myself.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in its + reciprocating state, retains its original form throughout its several + Moods, Tenses, and Persons. In the <i>simple Tenses</i>, the Personal + Pronoun immediately following the Verb is the Nominative to the Verb. The + same pronoun repeated is to be understood as in the objective state. The + word fein, corresponding to the English <i>self</i>, accompanies the last + Pronoun.</p> + + <p>In the <i>compound Tenses</i>, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is placed + first; then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nominative, then the + Prep. <i>ag</i> abridged to <i>'g</i> in the compound Tenses of the first + order, iar in those of the second order; after which follows the + Possessive Pronoun, corresponding in Person to that which is the + Nominative to the Verb; and lastly the Infinitive, which is the noun to + the Possessive Pronoun. Mo and do are here changed, by Metathesis and the + substitution of one broad vowel for another, into am and ad. Ta mi 'g am + bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, <i>I am at my own striking, i.e., + I am at the striking of myself</i>, equivalent to, <i>I am striking + myself</i>. The reciprocal fein is sometimes omitted in the compound + Tenses, but is generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent their + being mistaken for the same persons when used without reciprocation: ta e + 'g a bhualadh, <i>he is striking him</i>, ta e 'g a bhualadh fein, <i>he + is striking himself</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Impersonal Use of Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of a Passive + Voice, yet are used <i>impersonally</i> in the 3d Pers. Sing. of the + Passive Tenses. This impersonal use of the Passive of intransitive Verbs + is founded on the same principle with the Latin Impersonals + <i>concurritur</i>, <i>pugnatum est</i>, <!-- Page 106 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>&c., which are + equivalent to <i>concursus fit</i>, <i>pugna facta est</i>. So in Gælic, + gluaisfear leam, <i>I will move</i>, Psal. cxvi. 9; gluaisfear leo, + <i>they will move</i>, Psal. cxix. 3; ghuileadh leinn, <i>we did + weep</i>, flebatur a nobis, Psal. cxxxvii. 1, Edit. Edinb. 1787; cha + bhithear saor o pheacadh, <i>there wanteth not sin</i>, Prov. x. 19.</p> + + <p>To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain part of the + Verb which has not yet been mentioned. It resembles in form the Fut. + Negat. Passive; buailear, faicear, faighear, &c. In signification, it + is Active, Present, and Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when + the speaker wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences + narrated as present, and passing actually in view, instead of the + Preterite Tenses, he adopts the Part of the Verb now described, employing + it in an impersonal acceptation, without a Nominative to it expressed. + One or two examples will serve to exhibit the use and effect of this + anomalous Tense:—Shuidh an òg bhean air sgeir, is a sùil air an + lear. Chunnaic i long a' teachd air barraibh nan tonn. Dh' aithnich i + aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe 'n a com. Gun mhoille gun tamh, + <i>buailear</i> dh' fhios na traighe; agus <i>faighear</i> an laoch, 's a + dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus: The young woman sat on a rock, + and her eye on the sea. She spied a ship coming on the tops of the waves. + She perceived the likeness of her lover, and her heart bounded in her + breast. Without delay or stop, she <i>hastens</i> to the shore; and + <i>finds</i> the hero, with his men around him. Again: Mar sin chuir sinn + an oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' imich sinn air ar turus. O bha + sinn 'n ar coigrich anns an tir, <i>gabhar</i> suas gu mullach an + t-sleibh, <i>direar</i> an tulach gu grad, agus <i>seallar</i> mu 'n + cuairt air gach taobh. <i>Faicear</i> thall fa 'r comhair sruth cas ag + ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. Thus we passed the night. In the morning + we pursued our journey. As we were strangers in the land, we + <i>strike</i> up to the top of the moor, <i>ascend</i> the hill with + speed, and <i>look</i> around us on every side. We <i>see</i> over + against us a rapid stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. <!-- + Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page107"></a>{107}</span></p> + + <p>The scrupulous chastenesss of style maintained in the Gaelic version + of the Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded this form of expression. + It is, however, universally known and acknowledged, as an established + idiom of the Gaelic, very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and + in animated narration almost indispensable<a name="footnotetag71" + href="#footnote71"><sup>[71]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Auxiliary Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>It has been already shown how bi <i>be</i>, is used as an Auxiliary in + the declension of all verbs. There are two other verbs which are + occasionally employed in a similar capacity; the one with an Active the + other with a Passive effect. These are dean to <i>do</i> or <i>make</i>, + and rach to <i>go</i>.</p> + + <p>The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive of any verb, + correspond to the English auxiliary <i>do</i>, <i>did</i>. It sometimes + adds to the emphasis, but not to the sense. The following are examples of + this Auxiliary combined with the Infinitive of an <i>Intransitive</i> + verb:—Rinn e seasamh <i>he made standing</i>, i.e., <i>he did + stand;</i> dean suidhe <i>make sitting</i>, i.e., <i>sit down</i>; + dheanainn gul agus caoidh <i>I would make weeping <!-- Page 108 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span>and lamentation</i>, + i.e., <i>I would weep and lament.</i> The same arrangement takes place + when the Auxiliary is combined with the Infinitive of a <i>Transitive</i> + verb, accompanied by a possessive pronoun; as, rinn e mo bhualadh <i>he + made my striking</i>, i.e., <i>he made [or caused] the striking of + me</i>, or, <i>he did strike me</i>; cha dean mi do mholadh, <i>I will + not make your praising</i>, i.e., <i>I will not praise you</i>; dean do + gharadh, <i>make your warming</i>, dean do gharadh fein, <i>make your own + warming</i>, i.e., <i>warm yourself.</i></p> + + <p>The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive of a + transitive verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the verb; as, chaidh + mo bhualadh <i>my striking went</i>, i.e., <i>came to pass</i>, or + <i>happened</i>, equivalent to <i>I was struck</i>; rachadh do mharbhadh + <i>your killing would happen</i>, i.e., <i>you would be killed.</i></p> + + <p>In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is combined + with a transitive verb, as above, the possessive pronoun may be exchanged + for the corresponding personal pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by + the preposition <i>do</i> before the Infinitive. The preposition in this + case is attenuated into <i>a</i>, which, before a verb of the second + conjugation is dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh <i>he struck + me</i>, rinn e mis' a bhualadh <i>he struck</i> <span + class="scac">ME</span>, chaidh mo bhualadh <i>I was struck</i>, chaidh + mis' a bhualadh <i>I myself was struck</i>. In like manner, a noun, or a + demonstrative pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; as, + chaidh an ceannard a mharbhadh<a name="footnotetag72" + href="#footnote72"><sup>[72]</sup></a>, agus na daoine chur san ruaig, + <i>the leader was killed, and the men put to flight</i>; theid am + buachaill a bhualadh, agus an treud a sgapadh, <i>the shepherd will be + smitten, and the sheep scattered</i>; is math a chaidh sin innseadh + dhuit, <i>that was well told you</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF ADVERBS.</p> + + <p>An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a single + indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any other circumstance + or modification of an action or attribute. The number of simple Adverbs + in Gaelic is but small. Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, + are sufficiently numerous. Any adjective may be converted into an + adverbial expression, by prefixing to it the preposition gu <i>to</i>; + as, fìrinneach <i>true</i>, gu fìrinneach <i>[corresponding] to [what is] + true</i>, <span title="kata to alêthes" class="grk" + >κατα το + αληθες</span>, i.e., <i>truly</i>. + Adverbs of this form need not be enumerated. It may be useful, however, + to give a list of other adverbs and adverbial phrases, most commonly in + use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal translation of their + component parts, and also the English expression which corresponds most + nearly to the sense of the Gaelic phrase.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Adverbs of Time.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A cheana; already, truly.</p> + <p>A chianamh; a little while ago.</p> + <p>A chlisge; quickly, in a trice.</p> + <p>A choidhche, Choidh; for ever.</p> + <p>A nis, Nise; now.</p> + <p>A rìs, Rithist; again.</p> + <p>Ainmic, Ainmeach; seldom.</p> + <p>Air ball; <i>on [the] spot</i>, immediately.</p> + <p>Air dheireadh; hindmost.</p> + <p>Air thoiseach; foremost.</p> + <p>Air tùs; in the beginning, at first.</p> + <p>Air uairibh; <i>at times</i>, sometimes.</p> +<!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>{110}</span> + <p>Am bliadhna; this year.</p> + <p>Am feadh; whilst.</p> + <p>Am feasd; for ever.</p> + <p>Am màireach; to-morrow.</p> + <p>An ceart uair; <i>the very hour</i>, presently.</p> + <p>An comhnuidh; <i>in continuation</i>, continually.</p> + <p>An dé; yesterday.</p> + <p>An deigh laimh; <i>behind hand</i>, afterwards.</p> + <p>An diugh; <i>the [present] day</i>, to-day<a name="footnotetag73" href="#footnote73"><sup>[73]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>An ear-thrath, An iar-thraith; <i>the after time</i>, the day after to-morrow.</p> + <p>An nochd; <i>the [present] night</i>, to-night.</p> + <p>An raoir, An reidhr; yesternight.</p> + <p>An sin; <i>in that [time]</i>, then.</p> + <p>An trath; <i>the time</i>, when.</p> + <p>An tràth so, An tràs'; <i>this time</i>, at present.</p> + <p>An uair; <i>the time</i>, when.</p> + <p>An uiridh; last year.</p> + <p>Aon uair; <i>one time</i>, once.</p> + <p>Cia fhada; how long.</p> + <p>Cia minic, Cia tric; how often.</p> + <p>C'uine; <i>what time</i>, when.</p> + <p>Do la, A la; by day<a name="footnotetag74" href="#footnote74"><sup>[74]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>Dh' oidhche; by night<a href="#footnote74"><sup>[74]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>Do ghnàth; <i>[according] to custom</i>, always.</p> + <p>Fa dheoidh; <i>at the end</i>, at last.</p> + <p>Fathast, Fòs; yet, still.</p> +<!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>{111}</span> + <p>Gu bràth<a name="footnotetag75" href="#footnote75"><sup>[75]</sup></a>, Gu la bhràth; <i>to the general conflagration</i>, for ever.</p> + <p>Gu dìlinn<a href="#footnote75"><sup>[75]</sup></a>; <i>to the expiration of time</i>, or <i>till the deluge</i>, for ever.</p> + <p>Gu minic; often.</p> + <p>Gu siorruidh; <i>to ever-flowing</i>, for ever.</p> + <p>Gu suthainn; for ever.</p> + <p>Gu tric; often.</p> + <p>Idir; at all.</p> + <p>Mar tha; <i>as it is</i>, already.</p> + <p>Mu dheireadh; at last.</p> + <p>O cheann tamuill; a while ago.</p> + <p>O chian; <i>from far</i>, of old, long ago.</p> + <p>Rè seal, Rè tamuill; for a time.</p> + <p>Riamh; ever, said of past time only.</p> + <p>Roimh làimh; before hand.</p> + <p>Uair eigin; some time.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Adverbs of Place.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A bhos, Bhos; on this side, here below.</p> + <p>A leth taobh; to one side, aside.</p> + <p>A mach, A muigh; without, out.</p> + <p>A mhàn<a name="footnotetag76" href="#footnote76"><sup>[76]</sup></a>; downwards, down.</p> + <p>An aird; <i>to the height</i>, upwards, up.</p> + <p>A nall, Nall; to this side.</p> + <p>A nuas; <i>from above</i>, down hither.</p> + <p>A null, Null, nunn; to the other side.</p> +<!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>{112}</span> + <p>A thaobh; aside.</p> + <p>Air aghaidh, Air adhart; <i>on [the] face</i>, forward.</p> + <p>Air ais; backwards.</p> + <p>Air dheireadh; hindmost.</p> + <p>Air thoiseach; foremost.</p> + <p>Am fad, An céin; afar.</p> + <p>An gar; close to.</p> + <p>An laimh; in hand, in custody.</p> + <p>An sin; <i>in that [place]</i>, there.</p> + <p>An so; <i>in this [place]</i>, here.</p> + <p>An sud; <i>in yon [place]</i>, yonder.</p> + <p>An taice; close adjoining, in contact.</p> + <p>Asteach, Astigh;<a name="footnotetag77" href="#footnote77"><sup>[77]</sup></a> within, in.</p> + <p>C' àite; <i>what place</i>, where.</p> + <p>Cia an taobh; <i>what side</i>, whither.</p> + <p>C' ionadh; <i>what place</i>, whither.</p> + <p>Fad as; afar off.</p> + <p>Fad air astar; far away.</p> + <p>Far; where,—relatively.</p> + <p>Fogus, Am fogus; near.</p> + <p>H-uig' agus uaith; to and fro.</p> + <p>Iolar, Ioras; below there, below yonder.</p> + <p>Le leathad; <i>by a descent</i>, downwards.</p> + <p>Leis; <i>along with it</i>, down a stream, declivity, &c.</p> + <p>Mu 'n cuairt; <i>by the circuit</i>, around.</p> + <p>Ri bruthach; <i>to an ascent</i>, upwards.</p> + <p>Ris; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered.</p> + <p>Seachad; past, aside.</p> + <p>Sios, a sios; downwards.</p> + <p>Suas, a suas; upwards.</p> +<!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span> + <p>Shios; below there, below yonder.</p> + <p>Shuas; above there, above yonder.</p> + <p>Tarsuing; across.</p> + <p>Thairis; over.</p> + <p>Thall; on the other side.</p> + <p>Uthard; above there, above yonder.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Deas<a name="footnotetag78" href="#footnote78"><sup>[78]</sup></a>; south.</p> + <p>Gu deas; southward.</p> + <p>A deas; from the south.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Iar<a name="footnotetag79" href="#footnote79"><sup>[79]</sup></a>, Siar; west.</p> + <p>Gus an aird an iar; westward.</p> + <p>O'n iar; from the west.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tuath; north.</p> + <p>Gu tuath; northward.</p> + <p>A tuath; from the north.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ear, Oir, Soir; east.</p> + <p>Gus an aird an ear; eastward.</p> + <p>O'n ear; from the east.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Adverbs of Manner.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Air achd; in a manner.</p> + <p>Air a' chuthach, Air boile; distracted, mad.</p> + <p>Air chall; lost.</p> + <p>Air chòir; aright.</p> + <p>Air chor; in a manner.</p> + <p>Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow.</p> + <p>Air chuairt; sojourning.</p> + <p>Air chuimhne; in remembrance.</p> + <p>Air éigin; with difficulty, scarcely.</p> + <p>Air fogradh; in exile, in a fugitive state.</p> +<!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"></a>{114}</span> + <p>Air ghleus; in trim.</p> + <p>Air iomadan; adrift.</p> + <p>Air iomroll; astray.</p> + <p>Air iunndrain; amissing.</p> + <p>Air lagh; trimmed for action, as a bow bent, a firelock cocked, &c.</p> + <p>Air leth; apart, separately.</p> + <p>Air seacharan; astray.</p> + <p>Air sgeul; found, not lost.</p> + <p>Amhàin; only.</p> + <p>Amhuil, Amhludh; like as.</p> + <p>Am bidheantas; customarily, habitually.</p> + <p>Am feabhas; convalescent, improving.</p> + <p>An coinnimh a chinn; headlong.</p> + <p>An coinnimh a chùil; backwards.</p> + <p>An deidh, An geall; desirous, enamoured.</p> + <p>An nasgaidh; for nothing, gratis.</p> + <p>An tòir; in pursuit.</p> + <p>Araon; together.</p> + <p>As an aghaidh; <i>out of the face</i>, to the face, outright.</p> + <p>As a chéile; loosened, disjointed.</p> + <p>Car air char; rolling, tumbling over and over.</p> + <p>Cia mar; <i>as how</i>, how.</p> + <p>C' arson; <i>on account of what</i>, why, wherefore.</p> + <p>C' ionnas; <i>what manner</i>, how.</p> + <p>Cha, cho; not.</p> + <p>Comhla<a name="footnotetag80" href="#footnote80"><sup>[80]</sup></a>, mar chomhla, Cuideachd; together, in company.</p> + <p>C'uime, for what, why.</p> + <p>Do dheoin, a dheoin; spontaneously, intentionally.</p> + <p>Dh' aindeoin; against one's will.</p> + <p>Do dhìth, a dhìth; a-wanting.</p> + <p>Do rìreadh; really, actually, indeed.</p> +<!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span> + <p>Fa leth; severally, individually.</p> + <p>Gle; very.</p> + <p>Gu beachd; <i>to observation</i>, evidently, clearly.</p> + <p>Gu buileach; <i>to effect</i>, thoroughly, wholly.</p> + <p>Gu dearbh; <i>to conviction</i>, truly, certainly.</p> + <p>Gu deimhin; <i>to assurance</i>, assuredly, verily.</p> + <p>Gu leir; altogether.</p> + <p>Gu leor; <i>to sufficiency</i>, enough.</p> + <p>Gun amharus; <i>without doubt</i>, doubtless.</p> + <p>Gun chàird; <i>without rest</i>, incessantly, without hesitation.</p> + <p>Leth mar leth; half and half.</p> + <p>Le chéile; <i>with each other</i>, together.</p> + <p>Maraon; <i>as one</i>, together, in concert.</p> + <p>Mar an ceudna; in like manner, likewise.</p> + <p>Mar sin; <i>as that</i>, in that manner.</p> + <p>Mar so; <i>as this</i>, thus.</p> + <p>Mar sud; <i>as yon</i>, in yon manner.</p> + <p>Mu seach; in return, alternately.</p> + <p>Na, Nar; let not,—used optatively, or imperatively.</p> + <p>Nach; that not, who not, not?</p> + <p>Ni; not.</p> + <p>Ni h-eadh<a name="footnotetag81" href="#footnote81"><sup>[81]</sup></a>; it is not so.</p> + <p>Os àird; openly.</p> + <p>Os barr; <i>on top</i>, besides.</p> + <p>Os iosal; secretly, covertly.</p> + <p>Ro; very.</p> + <p>Roimh a cheile; prematurely, too hastily.</p> + <p>Seadh<a href="#footnote81"><sup>[81]</sup></a>; it is so.</p> + <p>Thar a chéile, Troimh a chéile; in disorder, in confusion, stirred about.</p> + <p>Theagamh; perhaps.</p> + <p>Uidh air 'n uidh; <i>stage by stage</i>, gradually.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>{116}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF PREPOSITIONS.</p> + + <p>The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, most of them + monosyllables, employed to mark relation. Relation is also expressed by + combinations of words which often correspond to simple prepositions in + other languages. These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the + prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepositions properly + so called, which are all simple; secondly, improper Prepositions, which, + with one or two exceptions, seem all to be made up of a simple + Preposition and a Noun.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Proper Prepositions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Proper Prepositions." title="Proper Prepositions."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Aig, Ag, <i>at</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fuidh, Fo, <i>under</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Os, <i>above</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Air, <i>on</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gu, Gus, <i>to</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Re, Ri, Ris, <i>to</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ann, <i>in</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gun, <i>without</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Roimh, <i>before</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> As, A, <i>out of</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iar, <i>after</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Tar, Thar, <i>over, <span class="correction" title="Original reads `accross'.">across</span></i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> De, <i>of</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Le, Leis, <i>with, by</i>. </td><td class="slqrsingle"> Tre, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:7ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <i>through</i>. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Do, <i>to</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mar, <i>like to</i>. </td><td class="slqrsingle"> Troimh, </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eadar, <i>between</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mu, <i>about</i>. </td><td class="slqrsingle"> Throimh, </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fa, <i>upon</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> O, Ua, <i>from</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Seach, <i>past, in comparison with</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an eolas, <i>in + knowledge</i>; ann an gliocas, <i>in wisdom</i>. The final <i>n</i> or + <i>nn</i> is changed into <i>m</i> before a labial; as, am measg, + <i>among</i>; ann am meadhon, <i>in midst</i>. Before the Article or the + Relative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an toiseach, <i>in + the beginning</i>, an cor anns am bheil e, <i>the condition in which he + is</i>; and in this situation the letters <i>ann</i> are often dropped, + and the <i>s</i> alone retained, 's an toiseach, <i>in the + beginning</i>.</p> + + <p>De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. The + reasons which have induced me to assign it a place among the prepositions + will be mentioned in treating of the combinations of the Proper + Prepositions with the Personal Pronouns.</p> + + <p>The Preposition <i>do</i>, like the verbal particle, and the + Possessive Pronoun of the same sound, loses the <i>o</i> before a vowel, + and the consonant is aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, <i>to <!-- Page 117 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>{117}</span>Scotland</i>. + It is also preceded sometimes by the vowel <i>a</i> when it follows a + final consonant; as, dol a dh' Eirin, <i>going to Ireland</i>. This + <i>a</i> seems to be nothing else than the vowel of <i>do</i> transposed; + just as the letters of the pronouns mo, do, are in certain situations + transposed, and become am, ad. In this situation, perhaps it would be + advisible to join the <i>a</i>, in writing, to the <i>dh</i> thus, dol + adh Eirin. This would rid us of one superfluous <i>a</i> appearing as a + separate inexplicable word. The same remarks apply to the prep. + <i>de</i>; <i>e.g.</i>, armailt mhòr de dhaoinibh agus <i>a dh'</i> + eachaibh, <i>a great army of men and of horses</i>, lan do [de] reubainn + agus a dh' aingidheachd, <i>full of ravining and wickedness</i>, Luke xi. + 39. Do, as has been already observed, often loses the <i>d</i> + altogether, and is written <i>a</i>; as, dol a Dhuneidin, <i>going to + Edinburgh</i>. When the preposition is thus robbed of its articulation, + and only a feeble obscure vowel sound is left, another corruption very + naturally follows, and this vowel, as well as the consonant, is + discarded, not only in speaking, but even in writing; as, chaidh e + Dhuneidin, <i>he went to Edinburgh</i>; chaidh e thìr eile, <i>he went to + another land</i>; where the nouns appear in their aspirated form, without + any word to govern them.</p> + + <p>Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. That fa signifies + <i>upon</i>, is manifest from such phrases as fa 'n bhord, <i>upon the + board</i>, said of a dead body stretched upon a board; leigeader fa làr, + <i>dropped on the ground</i>, Carswell: fa 'n adhbhar ud, <i>on that + account</i>, equivalent to air an adhbhar ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. + 2, metr. version.</p> + + <p>The reason for admitting iar <i>after</i>, has been already given in + treating of the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. V.</p> + + <p>The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns will be shown in + treating of Syntax. The manner of combining them with the personal + pronouns must be explained in this place, because in that connection they + appear in a form somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper + Preposition is joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating both into + one word, commonly with some change on the Preposition, or on the + Pronoun, or on both.</p> + + <p>The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of + combination, incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns: <!-- Page + 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>{118}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Prepositions incorporated with Personal Pronouns." title="Prepositions incorporated with Personal Pronouns."> +<tr><td align="center"> Prep. </td><td align="center" colspan="4"> Singular. </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> Plural.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1st Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2d Pers.</i> </td><td class="nspac"></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>3d Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1st Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2d Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>3d Pers.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Aig, Ag; </td><td class="spacsingle"> agam, </td><td class="spacsingle"> agad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. aige, <i>at him;</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> againn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> agaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> aca,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at me</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at thee</i>. </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. aice, <i>at her</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at us</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at you</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at them</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Air; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> orm, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> ort, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. air. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> oirnn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> oirbh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> orra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. oirre. uirre. orra. </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Ann; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. ann. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. innte.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> As; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. as. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. aisde.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> De; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhiom, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhiot, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. dheth. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhiu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. dh'i.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Do; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhomh, dhom, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhuit, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. dha. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhuinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhuibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhoibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. dh'i.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eadar; </td><td class="spacsingle"> ... </td><td class="spacsingle"> ... </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> ... </td><td class="spacsingle"> eadarainn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> eadaraibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> eatorra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Fo, Fuidh; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodham, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. fodha. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhpa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. fuidhpe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Gu; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. h-uige. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-uca.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. h-uice.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Le; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leat, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. leis. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. leatha.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Mu; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. uime. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umpa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. uimpe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> O, Ua; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uait, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. uaith. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uapa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. uaipe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Re, Ri; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> rium, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> riut, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. ris. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> ruinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> ribh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> riu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. rithe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Roimh; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romham, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romhad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. roimhe. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romhainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romhaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> rompa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. roimpe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Thar; </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharam, </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharad, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. thairte. </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharuinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharuibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharta.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Troimh; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromham, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromhad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. troimhe. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromhainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromhaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> trompa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. troimpe.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>{120}</span></p> + + <p>In most of these compound terms, the fragments of the Pronouns which + enter into their composition, especially those of the first and second + Persons, are very conspicuous<a name="footnotetag82" + href="#footnote82"><sup>[82]</sup></a>. These fragments take after them + occasionally the emphatic syllables <i>sa</i>, <i>san</i>, <i>ne</i>, in + the same manner as the Personal Pronouns themselves do; as, agamsa <i>at + ME</i>, aigesan <i>at HIM</i>, uainne <i>from US</i>.</p> + + <p>The two prepositions <i>de</i> and <i>do</i> have long been confounded + together, both being written <i>do</i>. It can hardly be supposed that + the composite words dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have been distinguished + from dhomh, dhuit, &c., by orthography, pronunciation, and + signification, if the Prepositions, as well as the Pronouns, which enter + into the composition of these words, had been originally the same. In + dhiom, &c., the initial Consonant is always followed by a small + vowel. In dhomh, &c., with one exception, it is followed by a broad + vowel. Hence it is presumable that the Preposition which is the root of + dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after <i>d</i>, whereas the + root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after <i>d</i>. <i>De</i> is a + preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has many marks of + affinity with the Gaelic), in the same sense which must have belonged to + the root of dhiom, &c., in Gaelic. The preposition in question itself + occurs in Irish, in the name given to a Colony which is supposed to have + settled in Ireland, <span class="scac">A.M.</span> 2540, called Tuath de + Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." tit. x. <i>voc.</i> Tuath; also Miss + Brooke's "Reliques of Irish Poetry," p. 102.) These facts afford more + than a presumption that the true root of the Composite dhiom, &c., is + <i>de</i>, and that it signifies <i>of</i>. It has therefore appeared + proper to separate it from <i>do</i>, and to assign to each its + appropriate meaning<a name="footnotetag83" + href="#footnote83"><sup>[83]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>{121}</span></p> + + <p>Dhiom, dhiot, &c., and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with a + <i>plain d</i> after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c.</p> + + <p>Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular number, + but written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, <i>between me and + thee</i>.</p> + + <p>In combining <i>gu</i> and <i>mu</i> with the pronouns, the letters of + the Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written <i>ug</i>, + <i>um</i>. The former of these was long written with <i>ch</i> prefixed, + thus chugam, &c. The translators of the Scriptures, observing that + <i>ch</i> neither corresponded to the pronunciation, nor made part of the + radical Preposition, exchanged it for <i>th</i>, and wrote thugam. The + <i>th</i>, being no more than a simple aspiration, corresponds indeed to + the common mode of pronouncing the word. Yet it may well be questioned + whether the <i>t</i>, even though aspirated, ought to have a place, if + <i>g</i> be the only radical consonant belonging to the Preposition. The + component parts of the word might be exhibited with less disguise, and + the common pronunciation (whether correct or not), also represented, by + retaining the <i>h</i> alone, and connecting it with the Preposition by a + hyphen, as when written before a Noun, thus h-ugam, h-ugaibh, &c.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4">Improper Prepositions.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Air cheann; <i>at [the] end</i>, against a certain time.</p> + <p>Air feadh, Air fad; throughout, during.</p> + <p>Air muin; <i>on the back</i>, mounted on.</p> + <p>Air sgàth; for the sake, on pretence.</p> + <p>Air son; on account.</p> + <p>Air tòir; in pursuit.</p> + <p>Air beulaobh; <i>on the fore side</i>, before.</p> + <p>Air culaobh; <i>on the back side</i>, behind.</p> + <p>Am fochair; <i>in presence</i>.</p> + <p>Am measg; <i>in the mixture</i>, amidst, among.</p> +<!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>{122}</span> + <p>An aghaidh; <i>in the face</i>, against, in opposition.</p> + <p>An ceann; <i>in the end</i>, at the expiration.</p> + <p>An comhail, An coinnimh; <i>in meeting</i>, to meet.</p> + <p>An cois, A chois; <i>at the foot</i>, near to, hard by.</p> + <p>An dàil; <i>in the rencounter</i>, to meet.</p> + <p>An diaigh, An deigh, An deaghaidh, An déis; probably for an deireadh; in the end, after.</p> + <p>An eiric; in return, in requital.</p> + <p>Am fianuis, An lathair; in presence.</p> + <p>An lorg; <i>in the track</i>, in consequence.</p> + <p>As eugais, As easbhuidh; <i>in want</i>, without.</p> + <p>As leth; in behalf, for the sake.</p> + <p>A los; in order to, with the intention of.</p> + <p>Car; during.</p> + <p>Do bhrigh, a bhrigh; <i>by virtue</i>, because.</p> + <p>Do chòir, a chòir; <i>to the presence</i>, near, implying motion.</p> + <p>Do chum, a chum<a name="footnotetag84" href="#footnote84"><sup>[84]</sup></a>; to, towards, in order to.</p> + <p>Do dhìth, a dhìth, Dh' easbhuidh; for want.</p> + <p>Dh' fhios; <i>to the knowledge</i>, to.</p> + <p>Dh' ionnsuidh; <i>to the approach</i>, or <i>onset</i>, toward.</p> + <p>Do réir, a réir; according to.</p> + <p>Do thaobh, a thaobh; <i>on the side</i>, with respect, concerning.</p> + <p>Fa chùis; by reason, because.</p> + <p>Fa chomhair; opposite.</p> + <p>Mu choinnimh; opposite, over against.</p> + <p>Mu thimchoill, timchioll; <i>by the circuit</i>, around.</p> + <p>O bharr, bharr; <i>from the top</i>, off.</p> + <p>Os ceann; <i>on the top</i>, above, atop.</p> +<!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>{123}</span> + <p>Ré; <i>duration</i>, during.</p> + <p>Taréis; <i>after</i><a name="footnotetag85" href="#footnote85"><sup>[85]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>Trid; through, by means.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper + Prepositions are compounded; and comprehend, as one of their component + parts, a Noun, which is preceded by a simple or Proper Preposition; like + the English, <i>on account, with respect</i>, &c. The words ceann, + aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, &c., are known to be real Nouns, because + they are employed in that capacity in other connections, as well as in + the phrases here enumerated. The case is not so clear with regard to son, + cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in the above phrases; but it is + probable that these are nouns likewise, and that, when combined with + simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases of precisely the same + structure with the rest of the foregoing list<a name="footnotetag86" + href="#footnote86"><sup>[86]</sup></a>. Comhair is probably comh-aire + <i>mutual attention</i>. Dàil and còir, in the sense of proximity, are + found in their compounds comh-dhail and fochair [fa chòir.] Tòir, in like + manner, in its derivative tòireachd, <i>the act of pursuing</i>. Dh' + fhios, <i>to the knowledge</i>, must have been originally applied to + persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs: beir mo shoiridh le + dùrachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., <i>bear my good wishes with + cordiality to the knowledge of the maid</i>, &c., i.e., <i>present my + affectionate regards</i>, &c. This appropriate meaning and use of the + phrase came by degrees to be overlooked; and it was employed, + promiscuously with do chum and dh' ionnsuidh, to signify <i>unto</i> in a + more general sense. If this analysis of the expression be just, then + ghios<a name="footnotetag87" href="#footnote87"><sup>[87]</sup></a> must + be deemed only a different, and a corrupt manner of writing dh' + fhios.</p> + + <p>In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost <!-- Page + 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>{124}</span>always + been written cionn. Yet in all other situations, the same noun is + uniformly written ceann. Whence has arisen this diversity in the + orthography of a simple monosyllable? And is it maintained upon just + grounds? It must have proceeded either from a persuasion that there are + two distinct nouns signifying <i>top</i>, one of which is to be written + ceann, and the other cionn<a name="footnotetag88" + href="#footnote88"><sup>[88]</sup></a>; or from an opinion that, granting + the two words to be the same individual noun, yet it is proper to + distinguish its meaning when used in the capacity of a preposition, from + its meaning in other situations, by spelling it in different ways. I know + of no good argument in support of the former of these two opinions; nor + has it probably been ever maintained. The latter opinion, which seems to + be the real one, is founded on a principle subversive of the analogy and + stability of written language, namely, that the various significations of + the same word are to be distinguished in writing, by changing its + letters, the constituent elements of the word. The variation in question, + instead of serving to point out the meaning of a word or phrase in one + place, from its known meaning in another connection, tends directly to + disguise it; and to mislead the reader into a belief that the words, + which are thus presented to him under different forms, are themselves + radically and essentially different. If the same word has been employed + to denote several things somewhat different from each other, that does by + no means appear a sufficient reason why the writers of the language + should make as many words of one<a name="footnotetag89" + href="#footnote89"><sup>[89]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>{125}</span></p> + + <p>The use of the <i>proper Prepositions</i> has been already shown in + the composition of adverbial phrases, and of the <i>improper + Prepositions</i>. The following examples show the further use of them in + connection with Nouns and Verbs, and in some idiomatic expressions which + do not always admit of being literally rendered in English.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Ag, aig.</p> + + <p><i>At</i>: aig an dorus, <i>at the door</i>; aig an tigh, <i>at the + house, at home</i>.</p> + + <p><i>By reason of</i>: aig ro mheud aighir 's a shòlais, <i>by reason of + his great joy and satisfaction</i>, Smith's <i>Seann dàna</i>, p. 9; ag + meud a mhiann <i>through intense desire</i>, Psal. lxxxiv. 2, metr. + vers.; ag lionmhoireachd, Psal. xl. 5.</p> + + <p>Signifying possession: tha tuill aig na sionnaich, <i>the foxes have + holes</i>; bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, <i>a certain man had two + sons</i>; cha n'eil fhios agam, <i>I have not the knowledge of it, I do + not know it</i>.</p> + + <p>Chaidh agam air, <i>I have prevailed over him</i>, Psal. xiii. 4, + metr. vers.</p> + + <p>Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs: ag imeachd, <i>a-walking, + walking</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Air.</p> + + <p>On, upon: air an làr, <i>on the ground</i>; air an là sin, <i>on that + day</i>; air an adhbhar sin, <i>on that account, for that reason</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>{126}</span></p> + + <p>Denoting claim of debt: ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, <i>pay me what + thou owest me</i>, Matt. xviii. 28; cia meud ata aig mo thighearn ortsa? + <i>how much owest thou unto my lord?</i> Luke xvi. 57.<a + name="footnotetag90" href="#footnote90"><sup>[90]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Denoting an oath: air m' fhocal, <i>upon my word</i>; air làimh d' + athar 's do sheanathar, <i>by the hand of your father and + grandfather</i>.</p> + + <p>Tha eagal, mulad, sgìos, ocras, &c., air, <i>he is afraid, sad, + fatigued, hungry</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Thig mo bheul air do cheartas, is air do chliù, <i>my mouth shall + speak of thy justice and thy praise</i>, Psal. xxxv. 28. metr.; thig mo + bheul air gliocas, <i>my mouth shall speak of wisdom</i>, Psal. xlix. 3, + metr. v.; sin cùis air am bheil mi nis a' teachd, <i>that is the matter + of which I am now to treat</i>.</p> + + <p>Tog ort, <i>rouse thyself, bestir thyself</i>, Psal lxxiv. 22, metr. + v.</p> + + <p>Chaidh agam air, <i>I prevailed over him</i>, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; + 'S ann ormsa chaidh, <i>it was I that was worsted</i>.</p> + + <p>Thug e am monadh air, <i>he betook himself to the mountain</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In respect of</i>: cha 'n fhaca mi an samhuil air olcas, <i>I never + saw their like for badness</i>, Gen. xli. 19; air a lughad, <i>however + small it be</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Joined with, accompanied by</i>: mòran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, + <i>much iron with little edge</i>, M<sup>c</sup>Intyre's Songs. Oidhche + bha mi 'n a theach, air mhòran bìdh 's air bheagan eudaich, <i>I was a + night in his house, with plenty of <!-- Page 127 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span>food, but scanty + clothing</i>; air leth laimh, <i>having but one hand</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting measure or dimension: dà throidh air àirde, <i>two feet in + height</i>.</p> + + <p>Olc air mhath leat e, <i>whether you take it well or ill</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Ann, ann an, anns.</p> + + <p><i>In.:</i> Anns an tigh, <i>in the house</i>; anns an oidhche, <i>in + the night</i>; ann an dòchas, <i>in hope</i>; anns a' bharail sin, <i>of + that opinion</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting existence: ta abhainn ann, <i>there is a river</i>, Psal. + xlvi. 4, metr.; nach bithinn ann ni 's mò, <i>that I should not be any + more</i>; b' fhearr a bhi marbh na ann, <i>it were better to be dead than + to be alive</i>; ciod a th' ann? <i>what is it?</i> is mise th' ann, + <i>it is I</i>; mar gu b' ann, <i>as it were</i>; tha e 'n a dhuine + ionraic, <i>he is a just man</i>; tha i 'n a bantraich, <i>she is a + widow</i><a name="footnotetag91" + href="#footnote91"><sup>[91]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>Marking emphasis: is ann air eigin a thàr e as, <i>it was with + difficulty he got off</i>; an àite seasamh is ann a theich iad, + <i>instead of standing (keeping their ground) they fled</i>; nach + freagair thu? fhreagair mi ann, <i>will you not answer? I have + answered</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">As.</p> + + <p><i>Out of:</i> as an dúthaich, <i>out of the country</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting extinction: tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, <i>the + light, or the fire, is gone out</i>.</p> + + <p>As an alt, <i>out of joint</i>; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as + an uilinn, &c., <i>dislocated in the shoulder, hip, + elbow-joint</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>{128}</span></p> + + <p>Chaidh e as, <i>he escaped</i>.</p> + + <p>Cuir as da, <i>destroy him</i>, or <i>it</i>.</p> + + <p>Chaidh as da, <i>he is perished, undone</i>.</p> + + <p>Thug e na buinn as, <i>he scampered off</i>.</p> + + <p>Dubh as, <i>blot out</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">De.</p> + + <p><i>Of:</i> Armailt mhòr de dhaoinibh agus a dh' eachaibh, <i>a great + army of men and horses</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Off:</i> Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, <i>the branches were + lopped off</i>; thug iad an ceann deth, <i>they beheaded him</i>.</p> + + <p>Dh' aon rùn, <i>with one consent, with one purpose</i>; dh' aon + bharail, <i>with one mind, judgment</i>.</p> + + <p>A là agus a dh' oidhche, <i>i.e.</i>, de là agus de oidhche, <i>by day + and by night</i>. Lat. <i>de nocte</i>, Hor.</p> + + <p>Saidhbhreas mór d'a mheud, <i>riches however great</i>. Psal. cxix. + 14, metr.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Do.</p> + + <p><i>To:</i> Tabhair dhomh, <i>give to me, give me</i>; thug sinn a bos + mìn do Dhearg, <i>we gave her soft hand to Dargo</i>.</p> + + <p>Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, <i>that befell him suddenly</i>. Mar + sin duinne gu latha, <i>so it fared with us till day, so we passed the + night</i>; ma 's olc dhomh, cha n-fhearr dhoibh, <i>if it goes ill with + me, they fare no better</i>.</p> + + <p>Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, <i>one day as I travelled the hills</i>; + latha dhuinn air machair Alba, <i>one day when we were in the lowlands of + Scotland; on Scotia's plains</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Eadar.</p> + + <p><i>Between:</i> eadar an dorus agus an ursainn, <i>between the door + and the post</i>.</p> + + <p>Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, <i>a quarrel arose betwixt + me and my neighbour</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span></p> + + <p>Eadar mhòr agus bheag, <i>both great and small</i>, Psal. xlix. 2, + metr.; Rev. xix. 5, eadar bhochd agus nochd, <i>both the poor and the + naked</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Fa.</p> + + <p><i>Upon:</i> Fa 'n bhòrd, <i>upon the board</i>; leigeadar fa làr, + <i>was dropped on the ground, omitted, neglected</i>. Carswel. Fa 'n + adhbhar ud, <i>on that account</i>; creud fa 'n abradh iad? <i>wherefore + should they say?</i></p> + + <p>Fa sheachd, <i>seven times</i>, Psal. vii. 6, metr.; fa cheud, <i>a + hundred times</i>, Psal. lxii. 9, metr.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Fuidh, fo.</p> + + <p><i>Under:</i> Fuidh 'n bhòrd, <i>under the board</i>; fuidh bhlàth + <i>in blossom</i>; tha an t-arbhar fo dhéis, <i>the corn is in the + ear</i>; fuidh smuairean, <i>under concern</i>; fo ghruaim, + <i>gloomy</i>; fo mhi-ghean, <i>in bad humour</i>; fuidh mhi-chliu, + <i>under bad report</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting intention or purpose: air bhi fuidhe, <i>it being his + purpose</i>, Acts xx. 7; tha tighinn fodham, <i>it is my intention or + inclination</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Gu, Gus.</p> + + <p><i>To:</i> O thigh gu tigh, <i>from house to house</i>; gu crìch mo + shaoghail fein, <i>to the end of my life</i>; gus an crion gu luaithre a' + chlach, <i>until the stone shall crumble to dust</i>. Sm. Seann dàna.</p> + + <p>A' bhliadhna gus an àm so, <i>this time twelvemonth, a year ago</i>; a + sheachduin gus an dé, <i>yesterday se'ennight</i>.</p> + + <p>Mile gu leth, <i>a mile and a half</i>; bliadhna gu leth, <i>a year + and a half</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Gun.</p> + + <p><i>Without:</i> Gun amharus, <i>without doubt</i>; gun bhrogan, + <i>without shoes</i>; gun fhios, <i>without knowledge, unwittingly</i>; + gun fhios nach faic thu e, <i>in case you may see him</i>, <!-- Page 130 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span><i>if perhaps + you may see him</i>; gun fhios am faic thu e, <i>if perhaps you may not + see him</i>. Gun chomas aig air, <i>without his being able to prevent it, + or avoid it</i>; <i>involuntarily</i>. Gniomh gun chomain, <i>an + unmerited, or unprovoked deed</i>. Dh' àithn e dha gun sin a dheanamh, + <i>he ordered him not to do that</i>. Fhuair iad rabhadh gun iad a + philltinn, <i>they were warned not to return</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Iar.</p> + + <p><i>After</i>: Iar sin, <i>after that</i>; iar leughadh an t-Soisgeil, + <i>after the reading of the Gospel</i>; iar tuiteam sios da aig a + chosaibh, <i>having fallen down at his feet</i>; bha mi iar mo mhealladh, + <i>I was received</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Le, leis.</p> + + <p><i>With</i>: Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mhòir, <i>I went with the + multitude</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting the instrument: mharbh e Eoin leis a' chlaidheamh, <i>he + killed John with the sword</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting the agent: thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an torc, <i>the boar was + measured by Diarmid</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting possession: is le Donull an leabhar, <i>the book is + Donald's</i>; cha leis e, <i>it is not his</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting opinion or feeling: is fada leam an là gu h-oidhche, <i>I + think the day long, or tedious, till night come</i>; is cruaidh leam do + chor, <i>I think your case a hard one</i>; is dòcha leam, <i>I think it + probable</i>; is doilich leam, <i>I am sorry</i>; is aithreach leis, + <i>he repents</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Along</i>: leis an t-sruth <i>along the stream</i>; leis an + leathad, <i>down the declivity</i>.</p> + + <p>Leig leam, <i>let me alone</i>; leig leis, <i>let him alone</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Mu.</p> + + <p><i>About</i>: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, <i>winding about his head</i>; + labhair e mu Iudas, <i>he spoke about Judas</i>; nuair smachduichear + duine leat mu 'lochd, <i>when thou <!-- Page 131 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>{131}</span>correctest a man for + his sin</i>, Psal. xxxix. 11, metr.; sud am fàth mu'n goir a' chorr, + <i>that is the reason of the heron's cry</i>. Seann dàna. Sud fàth mu 'n + guidheann ort na naoimh, <i>for this reason will the saints make + supplication to Thee</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">O.</p> + + <p><i>From</i>: O bhaile gu baile, <i>from town to town</i>; o mhadainn + gu feasgar, <i>from morning to evening</i>; o 'n là thainig mi dhachaidh, + <i>from the day that I came home</i>; o 'n là, is often abridged into la; + as, la thainig mi dhachaidh, <i>since I came home</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Since</i>, <i>because</i>: thugamaid uil' oirnn a' bhanais, o + fhuair sinn cuireadh dhol ann, <i>let us all to the wedding, since we + have been bidden to it</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted by <i>aig</i>: na + tha uainn 's a b' fheairrd sinn againn, <i>what we want and should be the + better for having</i>.</p> + + <p>Implying desire: ciod tha uait? <i>what would you have?</i> Tha + claidheamh uam, <i>I want a sword</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Os.</p> + + <p><i>Above</i>: Mar togam os m' uil' aoibhneas àrd cathair Ierusaleim, + <i>if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy</i>, Psal. cxxxvii. 6, + metr.; os mo cheann, <i>above me</i>, <i>over me</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Ri, ris.</p> + + <p><i>To</i>: cosmhuil ri mac righ, <i>like to the son of a king</i>; + chuir iad teine ris an tigh, <i>they set fire to the house</i>.</p> + + <p>Maille ri, <i>together with</i>.</p> + + <p>Laimh ris a' bhalla, <i>nigh to the wall</i>.</p> + + <p>Ri là gaoithe, <i>on a day of wind</i>; ri fad mo ré 's mo là, + <i>during all the days of my life</i>; ri lìnn Righ Uilliam, <i>in the + reign of King William</i>.</p> + + <p>Na bi rium, <i>don't molest me</i>.</p> + + <p>Feuch ris, <i>try it</i>.</p> + + <p>Cuir ris, <i>ply your work</i>, <i>exert yourself</i>; cuirear na <!-- + Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span>nithe + so ribh, <i>these things shall be added unto you</i>, Matt. vi. 33. Tha + an Spiorad ag cur ruinn na saorsa, <i>the Spirit applieth to us the + redemption</i>, Assemb. Sh. Catech.</p> + + <p><i>Exposed</i>: tha an craicionn ris, <i>the skin is exposed, or + bare</i>; leig ris, <i>expose or make manifest</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Roimh.</p> + + <p><i>Before</i>: roimh 'n charbad, <i>before the chariot</i>; roimh 'n + chamhair, <i>before the dawn</i>; roimh na h-uile nithibh, <i>before, in + preference to, all things</i>; chuir mi romham, <i>I set before me, + purposed, intended</i>.</p> + + <p>Imich romhad, <i>go forward</i>; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, <i>he went his + way</i>, <i>he went off</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Seach.</p> + + <p><i>Past</i>: chaidh e seach an dorus, <i>he passed by the + door</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In comparison with</i>: is trom a' chlach seach a' chlòineag, + <i>the stone is heavy compared with the down</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Tar, thar.</p> + + <p><i>Over</i>, <i>across</i>: chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, + <i>he went over the river, over the mountain</i>; tha sin thar m' eolas, + thar mo bheachd, &c., <i>that is beyond my knowledge, beyond my + comprehension</i>, &c.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Tre, troimh, throimh.</p> + + <p><i>Through</i>: tre uisge is tre theine, <i>through water and through + fire</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Inseparable Prepositions.</span></p> + + <p>The following initial syllables, used only in composition, are + prefixed to nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter their + signification:— <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>{133}</span></p> + + <p>An<a name="footnotetag92" href="#footnote92"><sup>[92]</sup></a>, Di, + Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Neo:—Privative syllables signifying + <i>not</i>, or serving to change the signification of the words to which + they are prefixed into its contrary; as, socair <i>ease</i>, anshocair + <i>distress</i>, <i>uneasiness</i>; ciontach <i>guilty</i>, dichiontach + <i>innocent</i>; treabh <i>to cultivate</i>, dithreabh <i>an uncultivated + place</i>, <i>a desert</i>; dionach <i>tight</i>, <i>close</i>, aodionach + <i>leaky</i>; còir <i>justice</i>, eucoir <i>injustice</i>; slàn + <i>whole</i>, <i>in health</i>, easlan <i>sick</i>; caraid <i>a + friend</i>, eascaraid <i>an enemy</i>; buidheachas <i>gratitude</i>, + mibhuidheachas <i>ingratitude</i>; claon <i>awry</i>, neochlaon + <i>unbiassed</i>, <i>impartial</i>; duine <i>a man</i>, neodhuine <i>a + worthless unnatural creature</i>.</p> + + <p>An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or faulty excess; + as, tighearnas <i>dominion</i>, aintighearnas <i>tyranny</i>; tromaich + <i>to make heavy</i>, antromaich <i>to make very heavy</i>, <i>to + aggravate</i>; teas <i>heat</i>, ainteas <i>excessive heat</i>; miann + <i>desire</i>, ainmhiann <i>inordinate desire</i>, <i>lust</i>.</p> + + <p>Ais, ath, <i>again</i>, <i>back</i>; as, eirigh <i>rising</i>, + aiseirigh <i>resurrection</i>; beachd <i>view</i>, ath-bheachd + <i>retrospect</i>; fàs <i>growth</i>, ath-fhàs <i>after-growth</i>.</p> + + <p>Bith, <i>continually</i>; as, bithdheanamh <i>doing continually</i>, + <i>busy</i>; am bithdheantas <i>incessantly</i>.</p> + + <p>Co, com, comh, con, <i>together</i>, <i>equally</i>, <i>mutually</i>; + as, gleacadh <i>fighting</i>, co-ghleacadh <i>fighting together</i>; lion + <i>to fill</i>, colion <i>to fulfil</i>, <i>accomplish</i>; ith <i>to + eat</i>, comith <i>eating together</i>; radh <i>saying</i>, comhradh + <i>conversation, speech</i>; trom <i>weight</i>, cothrom <i>equal + weight</i>, <i>equity</i>; aois <i>age</i>, comhaois <i>a + contemporary</i>.</p> + + <p>Im, <i>about</i>, <i>round</i>, <i>entire</i>; as, làn <i>full</i>, + iomlan <i>quite complete</i>; gaoth <i>wind</i>, iomghaoth <i>a + whirlwind</i>; slainte <i>health</i>, iom-shlainte <i>perfect + health</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span></p> + + <p>In, or ion, <i>worthy</i>: as, ion-mholta <i>worthy to be praised</i>: + ion-roghnuidh <i>worthy to be chosen</i>, Psal. xxv. 12, metr. vers.</p> + + <p>So, <i>easily</i>, <i>gently</i>: as, faicsin <i>seeing</i>, + so-fhaicsin <i>easily seen</i>; sion <i>weather</i>, soinion [so-shion] + <i>calm weather</i>; sgeul <i>a tale</i>, soisgeul <i>a good tale</i>, + <i>gospel</i>.</p> + + <p>Do, <i>with difficulty</i>, <i>evil</i>; as, tuigsin + <i>understanding</i>, do-thuigsin <i>difficult to be understood</i>; + doinion <i>stormy weather</i>; beart <i>deed, exploit</i>. do-bheart + <i>evil deed</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF CONJUNCTIONS.</p> + + <p>Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not only those + single Particles which are usually denominated Conjunctions; but also the + most common phrases which are used as Conjunctions to connect either + words or sentences.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ach; but.</p> + <p>Agus, is; and.</p> + <p>A chionn gu; because that.</p> + <p>A chum as gu; in order that.</p> + <p>A chum as nach; that not.</p> + <p>Air chor as gu; so that.</p> + <p>Air eagal gu, D' eagal gu; <i>for fear that</i>, lest.</p> + <p>Air son gu, Du bhrigh gu; by reason that</p> + <p>Bheil fhios, 'l <span class="correction" title="Original reads `fhois'.">fhios</span>? <i>is there knowledge?</i> is it known? an expression of curiosity, or desire to know.</p> + <p>Co; as.</p> + <p>Ged, giodh; although<a name="footnotetag93" href="#footnote93"><sup>[93]</sup></a>.</p> +<!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span> + <p>Ged tha, ge ta; <i>though it be</i>, notwithstanding.</p> + <p>Gidheadh; yet, nevertheless.</p> + <p>Gu, gur; that.</p> + <p>Gun fhios; <i>without knowledge</i>, it being uncertain whether or not, in case not.</p> + <p>Ionnas gu; insomuch that, so that.</p> +<!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span> + <p>Ma; if.</p> + <p>Mar; as, like as.</p> + <p>Mar sud agus; so also.</p> + <p>Ma seadh, Ma ta; <i>if so</i>, <i>if it be so</i>, <i>then</i>.</p> + <p>Mur; if not.</p> + <p>Mur bhiodh gu; were it not that.</p> + <p>Mus an, mu 'n; before that, lest.</p> + <p>Na; than.</p> + <p>Nach; that not.</p> + <p>Na'n, na'm; if.</p> + <p>No; or.</p> + <p>O; since, because.</p> + <p>Oir; for.</p> + <p>Os barr; moreover.</p> + <p>Sol, suil; before that.</p> + <p>Tuille eile; further.</p> + <p>Uime sin; therefore.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF INTERJECTIONS.</p> + + <p>The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various emotions + or sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most part provincial, + and arbitrary. Only one or two single vocables, and a few phrases, + require to be noticed under this division.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Och! Ochan! alas!</p> + <p>Ochan nan och! <i>alas</i> and <i>well-a-day!</i></p> + <p>Fire faire! what a pother!</p> + <p>Mo thruaighe! <i>my misery!</i> Mo chreachadh! <i>my despoiling!</i> woe's me!</p> + <p>Mo nàire! <i>my shame</i>, for shame! fy!</p> + <p>H-ugad, <i>at you</i>, take care of yourself, <i>gardez-vous</i>.</p> + <p>Feuch! behold! lo!</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span></p> + +<h3>PART III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF SYNTAX.</p> + + <p>Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in a + sentence; and teaches the proper method of expressing their connection by + the <i>Collection</i> and the <i>Form</i> of the words. Gaelic Syntax may + be conveniently enough explained under the common divisions of Concord + and Government.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF CONCORD.</p> + + <p>Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the Article with + its Noun;—of an Adjective with its Noun;—of a Pronoun with + its Antecedent;—of a Verb with its Nominative;—and of one + Noun with another.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section I.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of the Article with a Noun.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Collocation.</i></p> + + <p>The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to it, unless + when an Adjective intervenes.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Form.</i></p> + + <p>The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and Case. Final + <i>n</i> is changed into <i>m</i> before a plain Labial; as, am baile + <i>the town</i>, am fear <i>the man</i>. It is usually cut off before an + aspirated Palatal, or Labial, excepting <i>fh</i>; as, a' chaora <i>the + sheep</i>, a' mhuc <i>the sow</i>, a' choin <i>of the dog</i>. In the + Dat. Sing. initial <i>a</i> is cut off after a Preposition ending in a + Vowel; as, do 'n chloich <i>to the stone</i><a name="footnotetag94" + href="#footnote94"><sup>[94]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>{138}</span></p> + + <p>A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers some changes + in Initial Form:—1. With regard to Nouns beginning with a + Consonant, the <i>aspirated</i> form is assumed by a mas. Noun in the + gen. and dat. singular; by a fem. noun in the nom. and dat. singular. If + the Noun begins with <i>s</i> followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead + of having the <i>s</i> aspirated, <i>t</i> is inserted between the + Article and the Noun, in the foresaid cases; and the <i>s</i> becomes + entirely quiescent<a name="footnotetag95" + href="#footnote95"><sup>[95]</sup></a>. 2. With regard to Nouns beginning + with a Vowel, <i>t</i> or <i>h</i> is inserted between the Article and + the Noun in certain Cases, viz. <i>t</i> in the Nom. sing. of mas. Nouns, + <i>h</i> in the gen. sing. of fem. Nouns, and <i>h</i> in the nom. and + dat. plur. of Nouns of either gender. Throughout the other sing. and + plur. Cases, all Nouns retain their Primary form.</p> + + <p>The following examples show all the varieties that take place in + declining a Noun with the Article.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Nouns beginning with a Labial or a Palatal.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declensions of nouns with article." title="Declensions of nouns with article."> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Bard, mas. <i>a Poet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> am Bard,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Baird,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> a' Bhaird,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nam Bard,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> a', 'n Bhard<a name="footnotetag96" href="#footnote96"><sup>[96]</sup></a>.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Bardaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Cluas, fem. <i>an Ear</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> a' Chluas,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Cluasan,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Cluaise,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Cluas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> a', 'n Chluais.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Cluasaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> +<!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>{139}</span> +<i>Nouns beginning with f.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Fleasgach, m. <i>a Bachelor.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> am Fleasgach,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Fleasgaich,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an Fhleasgaich,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nam Fleasgach,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Fhleasgach.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Fleasgaich.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Fòid, f. a <i>Turf.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Fhòid,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Foidean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Fòide,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nam Fòid,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Fhòid.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Foidibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Nouns beginning with a Lingual.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Dorus, m. <i>a Door.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Dorus,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Dorsan,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an Doruis,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Dorsa,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Dorus,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Dorsaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Teasach, f. <i>a Fever.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Teasach,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Teasaichean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Teasaich,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Teasach,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Teasaich.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Teasaichibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Nouns beginning with s.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Sloc, mas. <i>a Pit.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Sloc,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Sluic,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an t-Sluic,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Sloc,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n t-Sloc.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Slocaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> +<!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>{140}</span> +Sùil, fem. <i>an Eye.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an t-Sùil,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Suilean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Sùla</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Sùl,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n t-Sùil.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Suilibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Nouns beginning with a Vowel.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Iasg, m. <i>a Fish.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an t-Iasg,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Iasga,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an Eisg,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Iasg,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Iasg.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Iasgaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Adharc, f. <i>a Horn.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Adharc,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Adhaircean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na h-Adhairc,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Adharc,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Adhairc.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Adhaircibh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by the Article, + follows the same rules with the initial Form of Nouns.</p> + + <p>Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to ascertain + individual objects, it is used in Gaelic—</p> + + <p>1. Before a Noun followed by the Pronouns <i>so</i>, <i>sin</i>, or + <i>ud</i>; as, am fear so, <i>this man</i>; an tigh ud, <i>yon + house</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Before a Noun preceded by the Verb <i>is</i> and an Adjective; as, + is maith an sealgair e, <i>he is a good huntsman</i>; bu luath an + coisiche e, <i>he was a swift footman</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Before some names of countries; as, righ na Spainne, <i>the king of + Spain</i>; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, <i>he went to France</i>; but righ + Bhreatain, <i>the king of Britain</i>; chaidh e dh' Eirin, <i>he went to + Ireland</i>, without the Article. <!-- Page 141 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section II.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of an Adjective with a Noun.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Collocation.</i></p> + + <p>When an Adjective and the Noun which it qualifies are in the same + clause or member of a sentence, the Adjective is usually placed after its + Noun; as, ceann liath, <i>a hoary head</i>; duine ro ghlic, <i>a very + wise man</i>. If they be in different clauses, or if the one be in the + subject, and the other in the predicate of a proposition, this rule does + not apply; as, is glic an duine sin, <i>that is a wise man</i>; cha + truagh leam do chor, <i>I do not think your case unfortunate</i>.</p> + + <p>1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which add, iomadh + <i>many</i>, gach <i>every</i>, are placed before their Nouns; as, tri + lathan, <i>three days</i>; an treas latha, <i>the third day</i>; iomadh + duine, <i>many a man</i>; gach eun g' a nead, <i>every bird to its + nest</i>.—Except such instances as the following : Righ Tearlach a + h-Aon, <i>King Charles the First</i>; Righ Seumas a Cuig, <i>King James + the Fifth</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed before + their nouns; as, mo lamh, <i>my hand</i>. The interrogatives co, cia, + &c., are placed before their nouns, with the article intervening; as, + cia am fear? <i>which man?</i></p> + + <p>3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed before their + Nouns; as, deadh dhuine, <i>a good man</i>; droch ghniomh, <i>a bad + action</i>; seann sluagh, <i>old people</i>. Such Adjectives, placed + before their Nouns, often combine with them, so as to represent one + complex idea, rather than two distinct ones; and the adjective and noun, + in that situation, may rather be considered as one complex term, than as + two distinct words, and written accordingly; as, oigfhear, <i>a young + man</i>; ogbhean, <i>a young woman</i>; garbhchriochan, <i>rude + regions</i><a name="footnotetag97" + href="#footnote97"><sup>[97]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>{142}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Form.</i></p> + + <p>Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, yet its Form + is not always determined by the Noun whose signification it modifies. The + Form of the Adjective depends on its Noun, when it immediately follows + the Noun, or only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, + gle, &c., and when both the Noun and the Adjective are in the + Subject, or both in the Predicate, or in the same clause or member of a + sentence. In all other situations, the form of the Adjective does in no + respect depend on the Noun; or, in other words, the Adjective does not + agree with the Noun<a name="footnotetag98" + href="#footnote98"><sup>[98]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be attentively + considered:—Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, <i>I dislike the cold + wind</i>; is beag orm fuaim na gaoithe fuaire, <i>I dislike the sound of + the cold wind</i>; is beag orm seasamh anns a' ghaoith fhuair, <i>I + dislike standing in the cold wind</i>. In these examples, the Adjective + and the Noun are both in the same clause or member of a sentence, and + therefore they must agree together. In the following examples the + Adjective and the Noun do not necessarily agree together:—Is fuar + a' ghaoth á tuath, <i>cold is the wind from the north</i>; is tric leis + a' ghaoith á tuath bhi fuar, <i>it is usual for the wind from the north + to be cold</i>. In these examples, the Noun is in the Subject, and the + Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>{143}</span></p> + + <p>The grammatical distinction observable in the following examples is + agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety:—Rinn mis an + scian gheur, <i>I made the sharp knife</i>: here the Adjective agrees + with the Noun, for it modifies the Noun, distinguishing that knife from + others. Rinn mis an scian geur, <i>I made the knife sharp</i>: here the + Adjective does not agree with the Noun, for it modifies not the Noun but + the Verb. It does not characterize the <i>object</i> on which the + operation is performed, hut it combines with the Verb in specifying the + <i>nature of the operation</i> performed. The expression is equivalent to + gheuraich mi an scian, <i>I sharpened the knife</i>. So also, mhothaich + mi a' ghaoth fhuar, <i>I felt the cold wind</i>; but mhothaich mi a' + ghaoth fuar, <i>I felt the wind cold</i>. In the former of these examples + the Adjective modifies the Noun, and agrees with it; in the latter it + does not agree with the Noun, for its use is to modify the Verb, or to + specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, dh' fhàg iad an + obair criochnaichte, <i>they left the work finished</i>; fhuaradh an òigh + sìnte, marbh, <i>the maid was found stretched out dead</i>. And so in + other similar instances.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>1. When an Adjective and Noun are so situated and related, that an + agreement takes place between them, then the Adjective agrees with its + noun in Gender, Number, and Case. A Noun preceded by the Numeral da + <i>two</i>, though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of Part + II. Chap I.] takes an Adjective in the Plural; as, da iasg bheaga, <i>two + small fishes</i>, John, vi. 9. The Initial Form of the Adjective depends + partly on the Gender of the Noun, partly on its Termination, and partly + on its being preceded by the Article.</p> + + <p>The following examples of an Adjective declined along with its Noun, + exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as well as in the Termination + of the Adjective:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>{144}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declensions of nouns with adjectives." title="Declensions of nouns with adjectives."> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <span class="scac">MONOSYLLABLES.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Fear mòr, mas. <i>a Great Man</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Fear mòr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fir mhòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Fir mhòir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fheara mòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Fear mòr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fearaibh mòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Fhir mhòir. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fheara mòra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Am Fear mòr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Fir mhòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> An Fhir mhòir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nam Fear mòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> An Fhear mhòr. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Fearaibh mòra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Slat gheal, fem. <i>a white rod</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Slat gheal, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slatan geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Slaite gile, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Shlatan geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Slait ghil, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slataibh geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Shlat gheal. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Shlata geala.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> An t-Slat gheal, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Slatan geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Na Slaite gile, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nan Slata geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> An t-Slait ghil. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Slataibh geala.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <span class="scac">POLYSYLLABLES.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Oglach dileas, m. <i>a Faithful Servant</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Oglach dileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglaich dhileas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Oglaich dhilis, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglach dileas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Oglach dileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglachaibh dileas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Oglaich dhilis. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglacha dileas.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> +<!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>{145}</span> +<i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> An t-Oglach dileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na h-Oglaich dhileas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> An Oglaich dhilis, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nan Oglach dileas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> An Oglach dhileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na h-Oglachaibh dileas.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Clarsach fhonnmhor, f. <i>a Tuneful Harp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Clarsach fhonnmhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Clarsaichean fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Clarsaich fonnmhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chlarsach fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Clarsaichibh fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Chlarsach fhonnmhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chlarsaiche fonnmhor.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> A' Chlarsach fhonnmhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Clarsaichean fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Na Clarsaich fonnmhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nan Clarsach fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> A', 'n Chlarsaich <span class="correction" title="Original reads `fhonnoir'.">fhonnmhoir</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Clarsaichibh fonnmhor.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by a Noun + terminating in a Lingual, retains its primary Form in all the Singular + cases; for the sake, it would seem, of preserving the agreeable sound + arising from the coalescence of the two Linguals; as, nighean donn <i>a + brown maid</i>, instead of nighean dhonn; a' choin duibh <i>of the black + dog</i>, instead of a' choin dhuibh; air a' chois deis <i>on his right + foot</i>, instead of air a chois dheis.</p> + + <p>II. A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspirated Form; as, + ard bheann <i>a high hill</i>, cruaidh dheuchainn <i>a hard + trial</i>.</p> + + <p>1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form; as, tri meoir + <i>three fingers</i>; to which add iomadh <i>many</i>, gach <i>every</i>; + as, iomadh fear <i>many a man</i>; gach craobh <i>every + tree</i>.—Except aon <i>one</i>, da <i>two</i>; ceud <i>first</i>; + as, aon fhear <i>one man</i>, da chraoibh <i>two trees</i>.</p> + + <p>2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive Pronouns, a + <i>her</i>, ar <i>our</i>, bhur <i>your</i>, an <i>their</i>, is in the + primary <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page146"></a>{146}</span>Form; as, a mathair <i>her mother</i>, ar + brathair <i>our brother</i>. When the Possessive Pronoun a <i>her</i>, + precedes a Noun or an Adjective beginning with a vowel, <i>h</i> is + inserted between them; as, a h-athair, <i>her father</i>, a h-aon mhac + <i>her only son</i>. The Possessive Pronouns ar <i>our</i>, bhur + <i>your</i>, usually take <i>n</i> between them and the following Noun or + Adjective beginning with a vowel; as, ar n-athair <i>our father</i>, bhur + n-aran <i>your bread</i>. Perhaps a distinction ought to <span + class="correction" title="Omitted in original.">be</span> made, by + inserting <i>n</i> only after ar, and not after bhur<a + name="footnotetag99" href="#footnote99"><sup>[99]</sup></a>. This would + serve often to distinguish the one word from the other in speaking, where + they are ready to be confounded by bhur being pronounced ur.</p> + + <p>3. A Noun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an Adjective ending in + <i>n</i>, is in the primary Form; as, aon duine <i>one man</i>, seann + sluagh <i>old people</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section III.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent.</span></p> + + <p>The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the <i>Number</i> of their + Antecedents, <i>i.e.</i> of the Nouns which they represent. Those of the + 3d Pers. Sing. follow also the Gender of their antecedent; as, sheas + a'bhean aig <i>a</i> chosaibh, agus thoisich <i>i air am</i> fliuchadh + leis <i>a</i> deuraibh, agus thiormaich <i>i iad</i> le gruaig <i>a</i> + cinn, <i>the woman stood at his feet, and she began to wet them with her + tears, and she wiped them with the hair of her head</i>, Luke vii. 38. + They follow, however, not the Gender of the Antecedent, but the sex of + the creature signified by the Antecedent, in those words in which Sex and + Gender disagree, as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an ceudn' do sholair nead + dh'i fein <i>the swallow too hath provided a nest for herself</i>, Psal. + lxxxiv. 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe <i>a swallow</i>, is a mas. Noun, as appears + by the mas. Article: but as it is the dam that is spoken of, the + reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. gender. Ta gliocas + air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn <i>Wisdom <!-- Page 147 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>{147}</span>is justified by her + children</i>, Matt. xi. 19. Gliocas is a mas. noun; but as Wisdom is here + personified as a female, the regimen of the Possessive Pronoun is adapted + to that idea<a name="footnotetag100" + href="#footnote100"><sup>[100]</sup></a>. See also Prov. ix. 1-3. In this + sentence Och nach b' i mhaduinn e, Deut. xxviii. 67, the former pronoun + <i>i</i> is correctly put in the fem. gender, as referring to the fem. + noun <i>maduinn</i>; while the latter pron. <i>e</i> is put in the mas. + gend. because referring to no expressed antecedent.</p> + + <p>If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, the Pronoun + is of the 3d Pers. Sing. masculine; as, dh' ith na bà caola suas na bà + reamhra, agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra <i>e</i>, <i>the lean cattle ate + up the fat cattle, and could not be known by them</i>.</p> + + <p>If the Antecedent be a collective Noun, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. + Plur. as, thoir àithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m bris <i>iad</i> + asteach <i>charge the people lest they break in</i>, Exod. xix. 21.</p> + + <p>An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks a question + without the intervention of the Substantive verb; as, co mise? <i>who + [am] I?</i> co iad na daoine sin? <i>who [are] those men?</i> cia i a' + cheud àithne? <i>which [is] the first commandment?</i> In interrogations + of this form, the noun is sometimes preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and + sometimes not; as, co e am fear? <i>who [is] the man?</i> co am fear? + <i>what man?</i> Co am fear? is evidently an incomplete sentence, like + <i>what man?</i> in English. The ellipsis may be supplied thus; co e am + fear a ta thu ciallachadh? <i>who is the man whom you mean?</i> This + example may be abridged into another common interrogation, in which the + Interrogative is immediately followed by the Relative; as, co a ta thu + ciallachadh? <i>who [is he] whom you mean?</i> ciod a ta thu faicinn? + <i>what [is it] that you see?</i></p> + + <p>In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun and a Noun, + as, co e am fear sin? if the Noun be restricted in <!-- Page 148 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page148"></a>{148}</span>its signification by + some other words connected with it, such as the Article, an Adjective, + another Noun in the Genitive, or a relative clause, then the Pronoun + usually follows the Gender of the Noun, or the Sex of the object + signified by the Noun, if the Gender does not correspond to it; as, co + <i>e</i> am fear a theid a suas? <i>who is the man that shall ascend?</i> + co <i>i</i> am boirionnach sin? <i>who is that woman?</i> cia <i>i</i> a' + cheud àithne? <i>which is the first commandment?</i> If the Noun be not + <i>so restricted</i>, the Pronoun is of the masculine gender; as, ciod e + uchdmhacachd? <i>what is adoption?</i> ciod e urnuigh? <i>what is + prayer?</i><a name="footnotetag101" + href="#footnote101"><sup>[101]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>{149}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section</span> IV.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of a Verb with its Nominative.</span></p> + + <p>As the Verb has no variation of <i>form</i> corresponding to the + Person or Number of its Nominative, the connection between a Verb and its + Nominative can be marked only by its <i>collocation</i>. Little variety + therefore is allowed in this respect. The Nominative, whether Noun or + Pronoun, is ordinarily placed after the Verb; as, ta mi <i>I am</i>, + rugadh duine-cloinne <i>a man-child is born</i><a name="footnotetag102" + href="#footnote102"><sup>[102]</sup></a>. The Article or an Adjective, is + frequently <!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page150"></a>{150}</span>placed between the Verb and its + Nominative; as, thainig an uair, <i>the hour is come</i>; aithrisear + iomadh droch sgeul, <i>many an evil tale will be told</i>. Sometimes, but + more rarely, circumstances are expressed beween the Verb and its + Nominative; as, rugadh dhuinne, an diugh, ann am baile Dhaibhi, an + Slanuighear, <i>there is born to us, this day, in David's town, the + Saviour</i>.</p> + + <p>The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can never, even in + poetry, be placed between the Verb and its Nominative, without altering + the sense. Hence the arrangement in the following passages is + incorrect:—Ghabh domblas agus fiongeur iad, <i>they took gall and + vinegar</i>. "Buch. Gael. Poems," Edin. 1767. p. 14. The collocation + should have been ghabh iad domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-cé, + <i>the world heard it</i>, id. p. 15, ought to have been, do chual an + cruinne-cé e. So also, do ghabh truaighe, Iosa dhoibh, <i>Jesus took pity + <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page151"></a>{151}</span>on them</i>. Matt. xx. 34, Irish vers. It + ought to have been, do ghabh Iosa truaighe, &c.<a + name="footnotetag103" href="#footnote103"><sup>[103]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The Relatives a <i>who</i>, nach <i>who not</i>, are always put before + the verb; as, am fear a thuit, <i>the man who fell</i>; am fear nach dean + beud, <i>the man who will not commit a fault</i>.</p> + + <p>In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the + Nominative is sometimes placed before the Verb; as doimhneachd na + talmhain ta 'n a laimh, <i>in his hand is the depth of the earth</i>. + Psal. xcv. 4.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Oigh cha tig le clàr 'n an comhdhail,</p> + <p><i>No virgin with harp will come to meet them.</i></p> + <p class="i4">Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas,</p> + <p>Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my + remembrance the form of my love.</i> Id. p. 30.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>An la sin cha tigh gu bràth,</p> + <p>A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my + love to the North.</i> Fingal II. 192.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamh;</p> + <p>Mo lann do neach beo cha gheill.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall + yield.</i> Fing. II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain + discourse or unimpassioned narrative.</p> + + <p>In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the + place of the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the + Verb. In all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is + commonly expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical + structure, the Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am + fear nach <!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page152"></a>{152}</span>gabh 'nuair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair + 's aill, <i>the man who will not take when [he] can get, will not get + when [he] wishes</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit?</p> + <p><i>Garno, why stoodst? Gaul, why didst fall?</i></p> + <p class="i4">Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in + which case the Preposition <i>do</i> is either expressed or understood + before the Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n + an comhnuidh ann sith! <i>behold how great a good it is, that brethren + dwell in peace!</i> Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, + a 's feumaile dhuibhse, <i>my abiding in the flesh is more needful for + you</i>, Phil. i. 24, Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail Dé, + agus a fhrithealadh do bhordaibh, <i>it is not meet that we should leave + the word of God, and serve tables</i>, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition + <i>do</i>, being softened as usual into <i>a</i>, readily disappears + after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a rìs a lathàir maille ribh, <i>by my + being again present with you</i>, Phil. i. 26<a name="footnotetag104" + href="#footnote104"><sup>[104]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section V.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of one Noun with Another.</span></p> + + <p>When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the + same object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it + should naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on + that relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting + the same object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in + Case. This accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a + variety of form gives room for the application of the same rule, it has + been followed in some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, + <i>Duncan the son of <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page153"></a>{153}</span>Colin the son of Donald</i>; where the + words Chailain and mhic denoting the same person, and being alike related + to the preceding Noun mac are on that account both in the same Case. It + must be acknowledged, however, that this rule, obvious and natural as it + is, has not been uniformly observed by the speakers of Gaelic. For + example; instead of mac Ioseiph an t-saoir, <i>the son of Joseph the + carpenter</i>, many would more readily say, mac Ioseiph an saor; instead + of thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, <i>he fell by the hand + of Oscar the bold hero</i>, it would rather be said, thuit e le laimh + Oscair an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of expression + may perhaps be defended on the ground of its being elliptical; and the + ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac Ioseiph [is e sin] an saor; laimh + Oscair [neach is e] an laoch cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in + favour of the rule in question, that the observance of it serves to mark + the relation of the Nouns to each other, which would otherwise remain, in + many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the foregoing examples, if we + should reject the rule, and write mac Ioseiph an saor; it would be + impossible to know, from the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son + were the carpenter.</p> + + <p>The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the + reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the + example of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic + itself in some phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the + leading Noun was in the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' + Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; + do thaobh Bheniamin am brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar + chloiche, eadhon chlar a' cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to + have been disregarded when the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 + Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts xiii. 33. <!-- Page 154 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>{154}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF GOVERNMENT.</p> + + <p>Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of + Adjectives, of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section I.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Nouns.</span></p> + + <p>One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always + placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, <i>the head of a + house or family</i>; solus na gréine, <i>light of the sun</i>; bainne + ghabhar <i>milk of goats</i>.</p> + + <p>The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part + II. Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; + as, ag cur sìl, <i>sowing seed</i>; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, <i>to + see the people</i>; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, <i>after reading the + gospel</i><a name="footnotetag105" + href="#footnote105"><sup>[105]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the + Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has + been set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic.</p> + + <p>1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the + Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the + Genitive case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the + Gaelic Scriptures:—Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, + bhriathran, <i>the voice of the words of the people</i>, Deut. v. 28; do + mheas craobhan a' gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, <i>of the fruit of the + trees of the garden</i>, <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page155"></a>{155}</span>Gen. iii. 2; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, + for thighean, <i>devouring widows' houses</i>, Matt. xxiii. 14; ag + nochdadh obair an lagha, for oibre, <i>showing the work of the law</i>, + Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhneachadh gun sgur obair bhur creidimh, agus saothair + bhur graidh, for oibre, saoithreach, <i>remembering without ceasing your + work of faith, and labour of love</i>, 1 Thess. i. 3; trid fuil is fearta + Chriost, <i>through the blood and merits of Christ</i>, Gael. Paraph. + 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. 13; ag àiteach sliabh + Shioin, for sleibh, <i>inhabiting the hill of Zion</i>, Psal. ix. 11. + metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, according to the usage + of the language, but changed to oibre, in Edit. 1796, to suit the + Grammatical Rule<a name="footnotetag106" + href="#footnote106"><sup>[106]</sup></a>. For the most part, however, the + general rule, even in these circumstances, is followed; as, guth fola do + bhrathar, <i>the voice of thy brother's blood</i>, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn + duthcha cloinne a shluaigh <i>the river of the land of the children of + his people</i>, Numb. xxii. 5; a' nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo + thighearna, <i>to wash the feet of the servants of my lord</i>, 1 Sam. + xxv. 41.</p> + + <p>2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the + rule:—Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. + 20; leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the + rule is observed:—Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. + xii. 1; ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. + 9.</p> + + <p>The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in + that of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation + to a preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, + yet when itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often + retains the form of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, + gnathachadh, briseadh, admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, + gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the following examples, <!-- Page 156 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>{156}</span>these Infinitives, + because they govern a subsequent Noun in the Genitive, are themselves in + the Nominative, though their relation to the preceding word naturally + requires their being put in the Genitive Case. Tha an treas àithne a' + toirmeasg mi-naomhach<i>adh</i> no mi-ghnathach<i>adh</i> ni sam bith, + &c., <i>the third commandment forbids the profaning or the abusing of + any thing</i>, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, Answer to Q. 55. Ged + fheud luchdbris<i>eadh</i> na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. Q. 56., + <i>though the transgressors of this commandment may escape</i>, &c. + Cuis crath<i>adh</i> cinn is cas<i>adh</i> béil, Psal. xxii. 7, as it is + in the older edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh leugh<i>adh</i> an + lagha, <i>after the reading of the Law</i>, Acts. xiii. 15; luchd + cum<i>adh</i> uilc, Rom. i. 30<a name="footnotetag107" + href="#footnote107"><sup>[107]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded <!-- Page 157 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"></a>{157}</span>by a + Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited state as if it + governed a Noun in the Genitive Case; as, a chum am marbh<i>a</i>dh 's na + beanntaibh, <i>to kill them in the mountains</i>, Exod. xxxii., not + marbh<i>ai</i>dh, which is the Case regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g + iarraidh do mharbh<i>a</i>dh? John vii. 20, not do mharbh<i>ai</i>dh. + Thug iad leo e chum a cheus<i>adh</i>. Matt. xxvii. 31. Chum an + cruinneach<i>adh</i> gu cath. Rev. xx. 8<a name="footnotetag108" + href="#footnote108"><sup>[108]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar + situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited + by a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the + construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when + itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is + invariably put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a + Possess. Pronoun.</p> + + <p>When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never + joined to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac + an righ, <i>the son of the king</i>, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' + bhaile, <i>the south side of the town</i>, not an taobh deas a' bhaile<a + name="footnotetag109" href="#footnote109"><sup>[109]</sup></a>. For the + most part, the Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is + joined to the former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, <i>the head of the + family</i>; an ceann iuil, <i>the pilot</i>; but in such instances the + two Nouns figure as one complex term, like <i>paterfamilias</i>, rather + than as two terms. The following examples, in which the Article is joined + to both Nouns, seem to be totally repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: + cuimhneachadh <i>nan</i> cùig aran <i>nan</i> cùig mìle, Matt. xvi. 9; + <i>nan</i> seachd aran <i>nan</i> ceithir mìle, Matt. xvi. 10<a + name="footnotetag110" href="#footnote110"><sup>[110]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page158"></a>{158}</span></p> + + <p>A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like + manner, the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhròige, + <i>the latchet of his shoe</i>, not am barr-iall a bhròige; obair bhur + lamh, <i>the work of your hands</i>, not an obair bhur lamh.</p> + + <p>The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the + Aspirated Form.</p> + + <p>Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, + bràthair Dhonuill, <i>Donald's brother</i>; uaigh Choluim, <i>Columba's + grave</i>. Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann + Donuill, <i>Donald's descendants</i>; beinn Deirg <i>Dargo's + hill</i>.</p> + + <p>When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, + the initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of + an Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. <a + href="#page144">144</a>.</p> + + <p>Thus, d' a ghàradh <i>f</i>iona, g' a ghàradh <i>f</i>iona, without + the Article, Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine <i>m</i>aith; but do 'n + ghàradh <i>fh</i>iona, with the Article <i>v.</i> 4, 7, like do 'n duine + <i>mh</i>aith. So we should say do 'n ard fhear-<i>ch</i>iuil, rather + than do 'n ard fhear-<i>c</i>iuil, as in the title of many of the + Psalms.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Except.</span>—If the latter Noun denote an + individual of a species, that is, if it take the Article <i>a</i> before + it in English, it is put in the <i>primary form</i>, although the former + Noun be feminine; as, sùil caraid, <i>the eye of a friend</i>, not sùil + <i>ch</i>araid, like sùil <i>mh</i>or, duais <i>f</i>àidh, <i>a prophet's + reward</i>, Matt. x. 4, not duais <i>fh</i>àidh, like duais <i>mh</i>òr. + Chum maitheanais <i>p</i>eacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies <i>for the + remission of a sin</i>; rather chum maitheanais <i>ph</i>eacaidh <i>for + the remission of sin</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page159"></a>{159}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section II.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Adjectives.</span></p> + + <p>Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, làn uamhainn <i>full of + dread</i>, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, <i>satisfied with meat</i>.</p> + + <p>The first Comparative takes the Particle na <i>than</i>, before the + following Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, <i>whiter than the + snow</i>, b' fhaide gach mios na bliadhna, <i>each month seemed longer + than a year</i>. Smith's "Ant. Poems," p. 9.</p> + + <p>The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, <i>I am + the better for this</i>; bu mhisd e am buille sin, <i>he was the worse + for that blow</i>; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, <i>the body is not + the heavier for its understanding</i>.</p> + + <p>Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe <i>of</i>; as, + am fear a 's àirde dhe 'n triuir, <i>the man who is tallest of the + three</i>, <i>the tallest man of the three</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section III.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective + Case; as, mharbh iad an righ, <i>they killed the king</i>; na buail mi, + <i>do not strike me</i>. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, + but never between the Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., + Sect. IV.] Sometimes the object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the + Verb; as, mise chuir e rìs ann am àite, agus esan chroch e, <i>me he put + again in my place, and him he hanged</i>, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a + mharcach thilg e 's an fhairge, <i>the horse and his rider hath he cast + into the sea</i>, Exod. xv. 1.</p> + + <p>Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, + iarr air Donull, <i>desire Donald</i>; labhair ri Donull, <i>speak to + Donald</i>; leig le Donull, <i>let Donald alone</i>; beannuich do + Dhonull, <i>salute Donald</i>; fiosraich de Dhonull, <i>enquire of + Donald</i>. <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page160"></a>{160}</span></p> + + <p>Bu <i>was</i>, requires the following initial Consonant to be + aspirated; as, bu mhaith dhuit, <i>it was good for you</i>; bu chruaidh + an gnothuch, <i>it was a hard case</i>; except initial <i>d</i>, and + <i>t</i> which are not aspirated; as, bu dual duit, <i>it was natural for + you</i>; bu trom an eallach, <i>the burden was heavy</i>; bu ghearr a lo, + 's bu dubh a sgeul, <i>short was her course, and sad was her story</i>. + Smith's "Ant. Poems."</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section IV.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Adverbs.</span></p> + + <p>The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary.</p> + + <p>The Adverbs ro, gle, <i>very</i>, are placed before the Adjectives + they modify, and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; + as, ro bheag, <i>very little</i>; gle gheal, <i>very white</i>.</p> + + <p>The Negative cha or cho <i>not</i>, when followed by a word beginning + with a Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; + as, cha mhòr e, <i>it is not great</i>; cha bhuail mi, <i>I will not + strike</i>; cha chuala mi, <i>I did not hear</i>; but an initial Lingual + remains unaspirated; as, cha dean mi, <i>I will not do</i>; cha tog e, + <i>he will not raise</i>; cha soirbhich iad, <i>they will not + prosper</i>. <i>N</i> is inserted between cha and an initial Vowel or an + aspirated <i>f</i>; as, cha n-e, <i>it is not</i>; cha n-éigin, <i>it is + not necessary</i>; cha n-fhaca mi, <i>I saw not</i>.</p> + + <p>The Negative ni requires <i>h</i> before an initial Vowel; as, ni + h-iad, <i>they are not</i>; ni h-eudar, <i>it may not</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section V.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Prepositions.</span></p> + + <p>The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig + mo chois, <i>at my foot</i>; air mo laimh, <i>on my hand</i>. They are + always placed before the word they govern. The following Prepositions + require the Noun governed to be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, + fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in + the Aspirated Form; as, air bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, <i>on the + extremities of the <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page161"></a>{161}</span>wings of the wind</i>, Psal. xviii. 10. + Gun governs either the Nominative or Dative; as, gun chrioch, <i>without + end</i>, Heb. vii. 16; gun chéill, <i>without understanding</i>, Psal. + xxxii. 9; gun chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or gu, when prefixed to a + Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative case; as, mar nighin, + <i>as a daughter</i>, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn mhòir, <i>like a great + river</i>, Psal. cv. 41; gu crìch mo shaoghail fein, <i>to the end of my + life-time</i>, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. But if the Article be joined + to the Noun, it is governed in the Nominative; as, mar a' ghrian, <i>like + the sun</i>, Psal. lxxxix. 36, 37; gus an sruth, <i>to the stream</i>, + Deut. iii. 16; gus a' chrioch, <i>to the end</i>, Heb. iii. 6, 14. Eadar + governs the Nom.; as, eadar a' chraobh agus a' chlach, <i>between the + tree and the stone</i>. Eadar, when signifying <i>between</i>, requires + the Primary Form; as, eadar maighstir agus muinntireach, <i>between a + master and a servant</i>; when it signifies <i>both</i>, it requires the + Aspirated Form; as, eadar shean agus òg, <i>both old and young</i>; eadar + fheara agus mhnai, <i>both men and women</i>, Acts viii. 12.</p> + + <p>The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables + an, am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an + <i>h</i> before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, <i>out of Ireland</i>; + gu h-ealamh, <i>readily</i>; le h-eagal, <i>with fear</i>.</p> + + <p>The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; + as, air feadh na tìre, <i>throughout the land</i>; an aghaidh an + t-sluaigh, <i>against the people</i>; ré na h-ùine, <i>during the + time</i>. It is manifest that this Genitive is governed by the Noun + feadh, aghaidh, ré, &c., which is always included in the Preposition. + See Part II. Chap. VII.</p> + + <p>Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then + they have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, <i>to carry the + table</i>, Exod. xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, <i>swift to shed + blood</i>, Rom. iii. 15. Edit. 1767; an déigh an obair a chriochnachadh, + <i>after finishing the work</i>. <!-- Page 162 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page162"></a>{162}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section</span> VI.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Conjunctions.</span></p> + + <p>The Conjunctions agus <i>and</i>, no <i>or</i>, couple the same Cases + of Nouns; as, air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, <i>through rocks and + woods</i>; ag reubadh nam bruach 's nan crann, <i>tearing the banks and + the trees</i>. When two or more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are + governed in the Dative by a Preposition, it is usual to repeat the + Preposition before each Noun; as, air fad agus air leud, <i>in length and + in breadth</i>; 'n an cridhe, 'n an cainnt, agus 'n am beus, <i>in their + heart, in their speech, and in their behaviour</i>.</p> + + <p>Co <i>as</i>, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial + consonant of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, <i>as good</i>, co + ghrinn, <i>as fine</i>. But sometimes we find co mòr, <i>as great</i>, co + buan, <i>as durable</i>, &c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the + aspirate is transferred from the Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, + <i>as little</i>, for co bheag. In the North Highlands, an adjective + preceded by co is commonly put in the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `Comparitive'.">Comparative</span> form; as, co + miosa, <i>as bad</i>; co treise, <i>as strong</i>.</p> + + <p>The Conjunctions mur <i>if not</i>, gu, gur <i>that</i>, are always + joined to the Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, <i>if I be not</i>; gu robh + e, <i>that he was</i>. <i>M</i> or <i>n</i> is often inserted, + <i>euphoniæ causa</i>, between gu and an initial Consonant; viz., + <i>m</i> before a Labial, <i>n</i> before a Palatal or Lingual; as, gu-m + faca tu, <i>that you saw</i>; gu-n dubhairt iad, <i>that they said</i><a + name="footnotetag111" href="#footnote111"><sup>[111]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The Conjunctions ma <i>if</i>, o, o'n <i>because, since</i>, are + joined to the Pres. and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma + ta e, <i>if he be</i>; o'n tha e, <i>since he is</i>; ma bhuail e, <i>if + he struck</i>; o'n bhuail e, <i>because he struck</i>; ma bhuaileas tu, + <i>if you strike</i>; o bhitheas sinn, <i>since we shall be</i>.</p> + + <p>Na'm, na'n <i>if</i>, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. <!-- + Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page163"></a>{163}</span>The + initial Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after this + Conjunction; as, na'm bithinn, <i>if I were</i>; nan tuiteadh a' chraobh, + <i>if the tree should fall</i>.</p> + + <p>Ged <i>although</i>, is used before the Present and Preterite + Affirmative, the Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, + <i>though he be</i>; ged bha mi, <i>though I was</i>; ge do bhuail thu + mi, <i>though you struck me</i>; ged bhuail thu mi, <i>though you strike + me</i>; ged bheireadh e dhomh, <i>though he should give me</i><a + name="footnotetag112" href="#footnote112"><sup>[112]</sup></a>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page164"></a>{164}</span></p> + +<h3>PART IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF DERIVATION.</p> + + <p>The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words + are Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns + and Adjectives, and a few from Verbs.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">I. <span class="sc">Nouns.</span></p> + + <p>Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties + of their termination.</p> + + <p>1. Abstract Nouns in <i>as</i>, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, + from ceart <i>just</i>, ceartas <i>justice</i>; from diomhan <i>idle, + vain</i>, diomhanas <i>idleness, vanity</i>; from caraid <i>a friend</i>, + cairdeas contracted for caraideas <i>friendship</i>; from namhaid <i>an + enemy</i>, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas <i>enmity</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Abstract Nouns in <i>achd</i>, formed from Adjectives, and + sometimes, though more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh + <i>holy</i>, naomhachd <i>holiness</i>; from domhain <i>deep</i>, + doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd <i>depth</i>; from righ <i>a + king</i>, rioghachd <i>a kingdom</i>; coimhid <i>to keep</i>, + coimheadachd <i>keeping</i>; clachair <i>a mason</i>, clachaireachd + <i>mason-work</i>; gobhain <i>a smith</i>, goibhneachd contracted for + gobhaineachd <i>iron-work</i>, or rather <i>the trade or occupation of a + smith</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding + <i>e</i>; as, from dall gen. doill <i>blind</i>, doille <i>blindness</i>; + from geal gen. gil <i>white</i>, gile <i>whiteness</i>; from leasg gen. + leisg <i>lazy</i>, leisge <i>laziness</i>; tearc gen. teirc <i>rare</i>, + teirce <i>rarity</i>; trom gen. truim <i>heavy</i>, truime + <i>heaviness</i>; truagh gen. truaigh <i>unhappy</i>, truaighe + <i>misery</i>; uasal gen. <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page165"></a>{165}</span>uasail <i>noble</i>, uasaile contr. uaisle + or by metath. uailse <i>nobility</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Abstract Nouns in <i>ad</i>, formed from the Comparative of + Adjectives, and used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead + <i>whiteness</i>, boidhchead <i>beauty</i>, doimhnead <i>depth</i>, + lughad <i>smallness</i>, tainead <i>thinness</i>; these are construed + with the Prepositions <i>de</i>, <i>air</i>; as, cha n-fhaca mi a samhuil + air bhoidhchead, <i>I have not seen her match for beauty</i>; air a + lughad or d' a lughad, <i>however small it be</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Nouns in <i>air</i> or <i>oir</i>, <i>ach</i>, <i>iche</i>, + derived, most of them, from nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, + pìobair <i>a player on the pipe</i>, from pìob <i>a pipe</i>; clàrsair + <i>a player on the harp</i>, from clàrsach <i>a harp</i>; cealgair or + cealgoir <i>a deceiver</i>, from cealg <i>deceit</i>; sealgair or + sealgoir <i>a huntsman</i>, from sealg <i>hunting</i>; marcach <i>a + rider</i>, from marc <i>a horse</i>; athach <i>a man of terror, a + gigantic figure</i>, from atha <i>fear</i>; oibriche <i>a workman</i>, + from obair <i>work</i>; sgeulaiche <i>a reciter of tales</i>, from sgeul + <i>a tale</i>; ceannaiche <i>a merchant</i>, from ceannaich <i>to + buy</i><a name="footnotetag113" + href="#footnote113"><sup>[113]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>6. Diminutives in <i>an</i>, and in <i>ag</i> or <i>og</i>, formed + from Nouns or Adjectives; as, lochan <i>a small lake</i>, from loch <i>a + lake</i>; from braid <i>theft</i>, bradag <i>a thievish girl</i>; from + ciar <i>dark-coloured</i>, ciarag <i>a little dark-coloured creature</i>. + These Diminutives are often formed from the Genitive of their Primitives; + as, from feur gen. feoir <i>grass</i>, feoirnean <i>a pile of grass</i>; + moll gen. muill <i>chaff</i>, muillean <i>a particle of chaff</i>; folt + gen. fuilt <i>hair</i>, fuiltean <i>a single hair</i>; clag gen. cluig + <i>a bell</i>, cluigean <i>a little bell</i>; gual gen. guail + <i>coal</i>, guailnean <i>a cinder</i>; smùr gen. smùir <i>dust</i>, + smùirnean <i>a particle of dust, a mote</i>; clòimh <i>plumage</i>, + clòimhneag <i>a small feather, a flake of snow</i>.</p> + + <p>Some Nouns are formed in <i>an</i>, which are not Diminutives; as, + from lùb <i>to bend</i>, lùban <i>a bow</i>; from buail <i>to beat, + thresh</i>, <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166"></a>{166}</span>buailtean <i>a beater</i>, or + <i>thresher</i>, applied to that part of the flail which threshes out the + grain.</p> + + <p>7. Collective Nouns in <i>ridh</i> or <i>ri</i>, derived from Nouns or + Adjectives; as, from òg <i>young</i>, òigridh <i>youth</i>, in the + collective sense of the word; from mac <i>a son</i>, macruidh <i>sons, + young men</i>, Psal. cxlviii. 12;<a name="footnotetag114" + href="#footnote114"><sup>[114]</sup></a> from laoch <i>a hero</i>, + laochruidh <i>a band of heroes</i>, Psal. xxix. 1. Macfarlan's Paraph. + vi. 15, from ceol <i>music</i>, ceolraidh <i>the muses</i>. A. + Macdonald's Songs, p. 7, from cos the <i>foot</i>, coisridh <i>infantry, + a party on foot</i>. M<sup>c</sup>Intyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, + from gas <i>a lad</i>, gasradh <i>a band of domestic attendants</i>. + O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, eachruith <i>cavalry</i>, Fingal. + IV. 299, Carthon, 59.—This termination is probably the Noun ruith + <i>a troop</i>. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.<a name="footnotetag115" + href="#footnote115"><sup>[115]</sup></a></p> + + <p>8. Nouns in <i>ach</i>, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, + thus; from Donull <i>Donald</i>, is formed Donullach <i>a man of the name + of Macdonald</i>; from Griogar <i>Gregor</i>, Griogarach <i>a + Macgregor</i>; so Leodach <i>a Macleod</i>, Granntach <i>a Grant</i>, + &c., from Albainn <i>Scotland</i>, Albannach <i>a Scotsman</i>; from + Eirin <i>Ireland</i>, Eirineach <i>an Irishman</i>. These Nouns form + their Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So + the following <i>Gentile</i> Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, + are regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich + <i>Parthians</i>, Medich <i>Medes</i>, Elamuich <i>Elamites</i>, Acts ii. + 9. Macedonaich <i>Macedonians</i>, 2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, + 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.<a name="footnotetag116" + href="#footnote116"><sup>[116]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page167"></a>{167}</span></p> + + <p>9. Collective Nouns in <i>ach</i>; as, duille <i>a leaf</i>, duilleach + <i>foliage</i>; giuthas <i>fir</i>, giuthasach <i>a fir wood</i>; iughar + <i>yew</i>, iugharach <i>a yew copse</i>; fiadh <i>a deer</i>, fiadhach + <i>deer, a herd of deer</i>; crion <i>diminutive, shrunk</i>, crionach + <i>decayed wood</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II. <span class="sc">Adjectives.</span></p> + + <p>1. Adjectives in <i>ach</i>, formed generally from Nouns; as, from + fìrinn <i>truth</i>, fìrinneach <i>true, faithful</i>; from sunnt + <i>glee</i>, sunntach <i>cheerful</i>; cràdh <i>pain</i>, cràiteach + <i>painful</i>; togradh <i>desire</i>, togarrach <i>willing, + desirous</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Adjectives in <i>mhor</i> or <i>or</i>, derived from Nouns; as, + from àdh <i>felicity</i>, adhmhor <i>happy, blessed</i>; from feoil + <i>flesh</i>, feolmhor <i>carnal</i>; from neart <i>strength</i>, + neartmhor <i>strong</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Adjectives in <i>ail</i> derived from Nouns; as, from fear + <i>man</i>, fearail <i>manful</i>; from caraid <i>a friend</i>, cairdail + contr. for caraidail <i>friendly</i>; from namhaid <i>an enemy</i>, + naimhdail contr. for namhaidail <i>hostile</i>; from sùrd + <i>alertness</i>, surdail <i>alert</i><a name="footnotetag117" + href="#footnote117"><sup>[117]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>4. A few Adjectives in <i>ta</i> or <i>da</i>, derived from Nouns; as, + Gaelta <i>belonging to the Gael</i>; Eireanda <i>Irish</i>; Romhanta + <i>Roman</i>; <i>Kirk.</i> fìreanta <i>righteous</i>, Matt. xxiii. + 35.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III. <span class="sc">Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>Verbs in <i>ich</i>, for the most part Transitive, and implying + causation, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal <!-- Page 168 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"></a>{168}</span><i>white</i>, + gealaich <i>to whiten</i>; naomh <i>holy</i>, naomhaich <i>to + sanctify</i>; cruinn <i>round</i>, cruinnich <i>to gather together</i>; + lamh <i>the hand</i>, laimhsich <i>to handle</i>; cuimhne <i>memory</i>, + cuimhnich <i>to remember</i>. A few are Intransitive; as, from crith + <i>tremor</i>, criothnuich <i>to tremble</i>; fann <i>feeble</i>, + fannuich <i>to faint</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF COMPOSITION.</p> + + <p>All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive + of the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of + these component parts, the former may be conveniently named the + Prepositive, the latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, + though rarely, that the Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which + must itself be decompounded in order to find out the Root.</p> + + <p>In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term + denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or + circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is + modified. Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by + prefixing to them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition.</p> + + <p>In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that + when the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From + this Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with <i>s</i> + followed by a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning + with a Lingual when the Prepositive term ends in <i>n</i>; 3. A few other + instances in which there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants + thus brought into apposition, which would be violated if either of them + were aspirated.</p> + + <p>These observations will be found exemplified in the following + Compounds:— <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page169"></a>{169}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">I. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with a Noun prefixed.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Nouns Compounded with a Noun.</i></p> + + <p>Beart <i>dress, equipage</i>, ceann <i>head</i>—ceann-bheart + <i>head-dress, armour for the head</i>.</p> + + <p>Fàinn <i>a ring</i>, cluas <i>the ear</i>—cluas-fhainn <i>an + ear-ring</i>.</p> + + <p>Galar <i>a distemper</i>, crith <i>shaking</i>—crith-ghalar + <i>distemper attended with shaking, the palsy</i>.</p> + + <p>Oglach <i>a servant</i>, bean (in composition, ban) <i>a + woman</i>—banoglach <i>a female servant</i>.</p> + + <p>Fàidh <i>a prophet</i>, ban-fhaidh <i>a prophetess</i>.</p> + + <p>Tighearn <i>a lord</i>, baintighearn <i>a lady</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Adjectives Compounded with a Noun.</i></p> + + <p>Geal <i>white</i>, bian the <i>skin</i>—biangheal + <i>white-skinned</i>.</p> + + <p>Lom <i>bare</i>, cas the <i>foot</i>—caslom <i>bare-foot</i>; + ceann the <i>head</i>—ceannlom <i>bare-headed</i>.</p> + + <p>Biorach <i>pointed, sharp</i>, cluas the + <i>ear</i>—cluasbhiorach <i>having pointed ears</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Verbs Compounded with a Noun.</i></p> + + <p>Luaisg <i>to rock</i> or <i>toss</i>, tonn <i>a + wave</i>—tonn-luaisg <i>to toss on the waves</i>.</p> + + <p>Sleamhnuich <i>to slide</i>, cùl the <i>back</i>—cùl-sleamhnuich + <i>to back-slide</i>.</p> + + <p>Folaich <i>to hide</i>, feall <i>deceit</i>—feall-fholaich <i>to + lie in wait</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with an Adjective Prefixed.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Nouns Compounded with an Adjective.</i></p> + + <p>Uisge <i>water</i>, fior <i>true, genuine</i>—fioruisge + <i>spring-water</i>.</p> + + <p>Airgiod <i>silver</i>, beo <i>alive</i>—beo-airgiod + <i>quick-silver</i>.</p> + + <p>Sgolt <i>a crack</i>, crion <i>shrunk, decayed</i>—crionsgolt + <i>a fissure in wood caused by drought or decay</i>.</p> + + <p>Criochan <i>bounds, regions</i>, garbh + <i>rough</i>—garbhchriochan <i>rude mountainous regions</i>. <!-- + Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"></a>{170}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective.</i></p> + + <p>Donn <i>brown</i>, dubh <i>black</i>—dubh-dhonn + <i>dark-brown</i>.</p> + + <p>Gorm <i>blue</i>, dubh <i>black</i>—dubh-ghorm + <i>dark-blue</i>.</p> + + <p>Briathrach (not in use) from briathar <i>a word</i>, deas + <i>ready</i>—deas-bhriathrach <i>of ready speech, eloquent</i>.</p> + + <p>Seallach (not in use) from sealladh <i>sight</i>, geur + <i>sharp</i>—geur-sheallach <i>sharp-sighted</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Verbs Compounded with an Adjective.</i></p> + + <p>Ruith <i>to run</i>, dian <i>keen, eager</i>—dian-ruith <i>to + run eagerly</i>.</p> + + <p>Lean <i>to follow</i>, geur <i>sharp, severe</i>—geur-lean <i>to + persecute</i>.</p> + + <p>Buail <i>to strike</i>, trom <i>heavy</i>—trom-buail <i>to smite + sore, discomfit</i>.</p> + + <p>Ceangail <i>to bind</i>, dlùth <i>closer</i>—dlùth-cheangail + <i>to bind fast</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with a Verb prefixed.</span></p> + + <p>Art <i>a stone</i>, tarruing <i>to draw</i>—tarruing-art + <i>load-stone</i>.</p> + + <p>Sùil <i>the eye</i>, meall <i>to beguile</i>—meall-shuil <i>a + leering eye</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">IV. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with a Preposition.</span></p> + + <p>Radh <i>a saying</i>, roimh <i>before</i>—roimh-radh <i>preface, + prologue</i>.</p> + + <p>Solus <i>light</i>, eadar <i>between</i>—eadar-sholus + <i>twilight</i>.</p> + + <p>Mìnich <i>to explain</i>, eadar-mhìnich <i>to interpret</i>.</p> + + <p>Gearr <i>to cut</i>, timchioll <i>about</i>—timchioll-ghearr + <i>circumcise</i>.</p> + + <p>Lot <i>to wound</i>, troimh <i>through</i>—troimh-lot <i>to + stab, pierce through</i>.</p> + + <p>Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are + already given in Part II. Chap. VII.</p> + + <p>Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their + simple state. Thus crith-ghalar <i>palsy</i>, is masculine, because the + principal Noun, Galar <i>distemper</i>, is masculine, although the + accessary Noun crith, by which galar is qualified, be feminine. So + cìs-mhaor is masculine though cìs be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; + cìs-mheasadh ought also to be masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns + compounded with <!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page171"></a>{171}</span>Bean <i>woman</i>, which are all feminine, + though the simple principal Noun be masculine, because the compound word + denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach <i>a servant</i>, + masculine, but banoglach <i>a maid-servant</i>, feminine, caraid <i>a + friend</i>, masculine, bancharaid <i>a female friend</i>, feminine.</p> + + <p>Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were + uncompounded.</p> + + <p>In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated + by a hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be + regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in + apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by + the analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different + syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark + of separation<a name="footnotetag118" + href="#footnote118"><sup>[118]</sup></a>. Thus so-aomaidh, <i>easily + induced</i>, <i>propense</i>; so-iomchair, <i>easily carried</i>; + do-innsidh, <i>difficult to be told</i>; and not soamaidh, doinnsidh, + &c., without the hyphen.</p> + + <p>It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic + Polysyllables are accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing + compound words, the accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms + appear to be completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other + hand, the accent is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, + but on the first syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to + retain their respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, + and instead of being incorporated into one word, to be rather + collaterally connected. A rule may then be derived from the pronunciation + for the use of the hyphen in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the + hyphen between the component parts, when the Prepositive term is not + accented. Thus it is proposed to write aineolach <i>ignorant</i>, + antromaich <i>to exaggerate</i>, comhradh <i>conversation</i>, dobheart + <i>a bad action</i>, <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page172"></a>{172}</span>soisgeul <i>Gospel</i>, banoglach <i>a + maidservant</i>, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach + <i>unacquainted</i>, ban-fhiosaiche <i>a female fortune-teller</i>, + co-fhreagarach <i>corresponding</i>, so-fhaicsin <i>easily seen</i>, + &c., with a hyphen<a name="footnotetag119" + href="#footnote119"><sup>[119]</sup></a>. By this rule, a correspondence + is maintained, not only between the writing and the pronunciation, but + likewise between the written language and the ideas expressed by it. A + complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the mind, is thus + denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of parts more + loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component parts + are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the + Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, + viz., to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided + word, or member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only + in the case already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as + beo-airgiod <i>quicksilver</i>.</p> + + <p>Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective + preceding a Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected + with it by a hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the + Noun to the Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; + as, garbhchriochan <i>highlands</i>; but if the accent be not so + transferred, the Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate + words; as, seann duine <i>an old man</i>, deagh chomhairle <i>good + advice</i>, droch sgeul <i>a bad tale</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies + the meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical + relation of the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use + to be considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in + this case are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a + Compound of a looser structure than those which have been considered. + Such are ceann-cinnidh, <i>the head of a tribe or <!-- Page 173 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page173"></a>{173}</span>clan</i>; ceann-tighe, + <i>the head of a family</i>; ceann-feadhna, <i>the leader of an army</i>; + fear-turnis, <i>a traveller</i>; luchd-faire, <i>watchmen</i>; + iobairt-pheacaidh, <i>a sin-offering</i>; urlar-bualaidh, <i>a + threshing-floor</i>; fear-bainse, <i>a bridegroom</i>; crith-thalmhain, + <i>an earth-quake</i>; crios-guailne, <i>a shoulder-belt</i>, &c. In + writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never + written in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes + to be a question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing + another in the Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered + as a compound term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, + or whether they are to be written separately, without any such mark of + composition. An observation that was made in treating of the Government + of Nouns may help us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case + in question. It was remarked that when one Noun governed another in the + Genitive, the Article was never joined to both; that for the most part, + it was joined to the Noun governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, + that in the latter case, the two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound + term, denoting one complex idea. If this last remark hold true, it may be + laid down as a rule that in every instance of a Noun governing another in + the Genitive, where the Article is or may be prefixed to the <i>governing + Noun</i>, there the two Nouns ought to be connected by a hyphen in + writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without impropriety, an + ceann-feadhna, <i>the commander</i>; an luchd-coimhid, <i>the + keepers</i>; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and + written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the + language to say, am mullach craige, <i>the top of a rock</i>; an + t-uachdar talmhain, <i>the surface of the ground</i>. Accordingly it + would be improper to write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and + similar examples.</p> + + <p>The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without + the hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the + following:—Ainm dùthcha, <i>the name of a country</i>, as Scotland, + Argyle, &c.; ainm-dùthcha, <i>a country name</i>, or <!-- Page 174 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page174"></a>{174}</span><i>patronymic</i>, as Scotsman, + Highlander, &c.; clann Donuill, <i>Donald's children</i>; + clann-Donuill, <i>the Macdonalds</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the + structure of the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, + construction, and collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with + regard to Etymology. Much has been attempted, and something has been + done, toward analysing single vocables, particularly names of places. But + this analysis seems to have been too often made rather in a way of random + conjecture than by a judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and + Composition. The passion for analysing has even induced some to assert + that all true Gaelic Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all + Polysyllables are either derived or compounded, and therefore that there + is room to search for their etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too + far. It appears a fruitless and rather chimerical attempt to propose a + system of directions by which all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved + into component parts, and traced to a root of one syllable. All I have + thought it necessary to do is to methodize and exemplify those general + principals of Etymology which are obvious and unquestioned, and which + regulate the composition and derivation of those classes of words whereof + the analysis may be traced with some probability of success.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page175"></a>{175}</span></p> + +<h3>EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment</i>, by +<span class="sc">D. Smith</span>, M.D.</p> + + <p>Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an dàil gach + tuiteamais a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's nòs do 'n droch + shaighdear a bhi gearan 's a' talach air gach làimh; beadaidh ri lìnn + socair, is diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am + cruachais, agus dìblidh ri h-uchd feuma.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <p>The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any + service that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier + to be complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, + and peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and + feeble in encountering exigency.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Analysis.</i></p> + + <p><i>Theid.</i> 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb + <i>Rach</i>, go.</p> + + <p><i>An.</i> Nom. sing. of the Article <i>an</i>, the.</p> + + <p><i>Deadh.</i> An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its + Noun.</p> + + <p><i>Shaighdear.</i> Nom. sing. of the mas. noun <i>saighdear</i>, a + soldier, in the aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. + <i>deadh</i>. Gram. p. <a href="#page145">145</a>. <!-- Page 176 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>{176}</span></p> + + <p><i>Gu.</i> A proper Preposition, to, for.</p> + + <p><span class="correction" title="Original reads `Aobhachh'." + ><i>Aobhach.</i></span> An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, + having an <i>h</i> before it, because preceded by the Prep. <i>gu</i>. + Gram. p. <a href="#page161">161</a>. <i>Gu h-aobhach</i>, joyfully, + cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Suilbhear.</i> An Adject. cheerful. <i>Gu</i> is to be supplied + from the former phrase; <i>gu suilbhear</i>, cheerfully, an adverbial + phrase.</p> + + <p><i>An dàil.</i> An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to + encounter; made up of the proper Prep. <i>ann</i>, in, and the Noun + <i>dàil</i>, meeting. Gram. p. <a href="#page121">121</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Gach.</i> An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every.</p> + + <p><i>Tuiteamais.</i> Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun <i>tuiteamas</i>, an + occurrence, accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. + <i>an dàil</i> (Gram. p. <a href="#page161">161</a>), derived from the + Verb <i>tuit</i>. Infinitive <i>tuiteam</i>, to fall, befal.</p> + + <p><i>A.</i> Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which.</p> + + <p><i>Thig.</i> Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb <i>thig</i>, come.</p> + + <p><i>'N.</i> Contracted for <i>ann</i>, a proper Prep., in.</p> + + <p><i>A.</i> Possessive Pronoun, his.</p> + + <p><i>Chrannchur.</i> Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. + <i>ann</i>; in the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. <i>a</i>, + 'his'—compounded of <i>crann</i>, a lot, and <i>cur</i>, casting, + the Infinitive of the Verb <i>cuir</i>, to put, cast.</p> + + <p><i>Ach.</i> Conjunction, but. Hebr. <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="AD" ><bdo dir="rtl">אד</bdo></span>.</p> + + <p><i>'S.</i> for <i>is</i>, Pres. Indic. of the Verb <i>is</i>, I am. + <i>'S e a 's</i> it is [that] which is.</p> + + <p><i>Nòs.</i> Noun mas., custom, habit.</p> + + <p><i>Do.</i> Prep. to.</p> + + <p><i>An.</i> the article, the.</p> + + <p><i>Droch.</i> indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its + Noun.</p> + + <p><i>Shaighdear.</i> mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the + Prep. <i>do</i>; in the aspir. form after the Adject. <i>droch</i>. <!-- + Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page177"></a>{177}</span></p> + + <p><i>A bhi.</i> for <i>do bhi</i> or <i>do bhith</i>, Infinit. of the + irregular Verb <i>bi</i>, to be.</p> + + <p><i>Gearan.</i> Infin. of the obsolete Verb <i>gearain</i>, to + complain, <i>ag</i> being understood; <i>ag gearan</i> equivalent to a + present Participle, complaining. Gram. p. <a href="#page86">86</a>.</p> + + <p><i>'S.</i> for <i>agus</i>, conjunction, and.</p> + + <p><i>A' talach.</i> for <i>ag talach</i>, complaining, repining; Infin. + of the obsolete Verb <i>talaich</i>, to complain of a thing or + person.</p> + + <p><i>Air.</i> Prep. on.</p> + + <p><i>Gach.</i> Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every.</p> + + <p><i>Làimh.</i> dat. sing. of the fem. Noun <i>làmh</i>, a hand; + governed in the Dat. by the Prep. <i>air</i>, on. <i>Air gach làimh</i>, + on every hand.</p> + + <p><i>Beadaidh.</i> Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, + petulant.</p> + + <p><i>Ri.</i> Prep. to, at.</p> + + <p><i>Lìnn.</i> Noun fem. an age, period, season. <i>Ri lìnn</i>, during + the time of any event, or currency of any period; <i>ri lìnn + Fhearghuis</i>, in the time, or reign of Fergus; <i>gu faigheamaid sìth + r' ar lìnn</i>, that we may have peace in our time.</p> + + <p><i>Socair.</i> Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by + the Noun <i>lìnn</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Is.</i> for <i>agus</i>, Conjunct. and.</p> + + <p><i>Diombach</i>, or <i>diùmach</i>. Adject. displeased, indignant; + derived from the Noun <i>diom</i> or <i>diùm</i>, indignation.</p> + + <p><i>Ann.</i> Prep. governing the Dat. in.</p> + + <p><i>Eiric.</i> Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the + Dat. by the Prep. <i>ann</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Caoimhneis.</i> Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun <i>caoimhneas</i>, + kindness; governed in the Gen. by the noun <i>eiric</i>, derived from the + Adject. <i>caomh</i>, gentle, kind.</p> + + <p><i>Lag-chridheach.</i> Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the + Adject. <i>lag</i>, weak, and <i>cridhe</i>, the heart.</p> + + <p><i>Ri.</i> Prep. to, at. <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page178"></a>{178}</span></p> + + <p><i>Am.</i> Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. + <i>ri</i>, and preceded by <i>h</i>. Gram. p. <a + href="#page161">161</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Cruachais.</i> Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun <i>cruachas</i>, + hardship, strait; governed in the Gen. by the noun <i>am</i>; compounded + of the Adject. <i>cruaidh</i>, hard, and <i>càs</i>, danger, + extremity.</p> + + <p><i>Agus.</i> Conjunct., and.</p> + + <p><i>Dìblidh.</i> Adject., feeble, silly.</p> + + <p><i>Uchd.</i> Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a + steep; in the Dat. case, preceded by <i>h</i>, after the Prep. <i>ri</i>: + <i>ri h-uchd</i>, in ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing.</p> + + <p><i>Feuma.</i> Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. <i>feum</i>, necessity, + exigency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun <i>uchd</i>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend.</i></p> + + <p>Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a + threun fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's + an àm sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a + ionnsuidh, ghabh iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach + allt agas caol choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear + a thachair 'n an còir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic + bùth taobh sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn + a b' aluinne snuadh a dh' fhàilteachadh an turuis le sìth. Thug i biadh + dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe ri òl; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thlà. Bhuail + gaol o a sùil an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o + thìr nan crann, far an lionor sonn—mac righ Lochlainn mise—m' + ainm Garbh na'm b' aill leat—esan Dual, o thìr nam beann, a + thuinich ann Albainn o thuath—a ghabhail cairdeis gun sgàth agus + aoidheachd o 'n àrd righ Fionn, sud fàth ar turuis a Chiabh na + maise—ciod am bealach am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi + dhuinn mar iùl, is gabh duais." "Duais <!-- Page 179 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page179"></a>{179}</span>cha do ghabh mi riamh, + ars an nighean bu bhlàithe sùil 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud + àbhaist Theadhaich nam beann éilde, 'g am bu lionor dàimheach 'n a + thalla, 'g am bu tric tathaich o thuath—ni mise dhuibh iùl." Gu + gleann-sìth tharladh na fir; gleann an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann + nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair + orra buaghar bho, is rinn dhoibh iùl; thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan + creag, air fir agus air mnaibh, air fàs shliabh agus charn, air neart + feachd, air rian nan arm, air miann sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam + Fiann.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <p>Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave + warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his + summer residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view + of every valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked + information of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the + glen of cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a + rivulet. They entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose + and kindly bade them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. + In mild speech she inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the + rough Garva, and he told whence they were. "We are come from the land of + Pines, where many a hero dwells—the son of Lochlin's king am + I—my name is Garva, be pleased to know—my comrade is Dual, + from the land of hills, his residence is in the north of Albion. To + accept the hospitality and confidential friendship of the mighty prince + Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady fair<a + name="footnotetag120" href="#footnote120"><sup>[120]</sup></a>; say, by + what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to the mansion of + Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never took," said + the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the manner of + [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; <!-- Page 180 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page180"></a>{180}</span>many were the guests in + his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,—I will be your + guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of + deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in + time of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their + course. He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; + concerning its inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and + mount; the military force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite + pursuits of the people; and the pedigree of the Fingalians.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Extract from Bishop</i> <span class="sc">Carsuel's</span> <i>Gaelic translation of the<br /> +Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed<br /> +Church of Scotland</i>; Printed in the year 1567.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">(<i><span class="correction" title="In fact, the passage which follows appears to correspond to the English below it, concerning the Poems of Ossian.">From the Epistle Dedicatory.</span></i>)</p> + + <p>Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh + orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan + ar gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcló riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & + adteangtha féin agcló ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & + ata uireasbhuidh is mó ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla + naomhtha do bheith agcló gaoidheilge againd, marta sè agcló laidne agas + bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas fós gan seanchus + arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agcló againd riamh, acht ge + tá cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha + aleabhruibh lámh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas + asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag + fechain an neithe buailtear sa chló araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios + gach én ni dhá mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas + andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh + agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab mó is mian leo agas + gurab mó ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha + bregacha <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page181"></a>{181}</span>saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh + dédhanond agas ar mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac + cumhaill gona fhianaibh agas ar mhóran eile nach airbhim agas nach + indisim andso do chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond + luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhféin, ina briathra + disle Dé agas slighthe foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, + agas do chumhdach.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>English Translation.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">[<i>From the</i> <span class="sc">Report</span> <i>of the Committee of the</i><br /> +<span class="sc">Highland Society</span> <i>of</i> <span class="sc">Scotland</span>, <i>appointed to inquire into the<br /> +nature and authenticity of the Poems of</i> <span class="sc">Ossian</span>.]</p> + + <p>But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and + Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic + language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race + of men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still + greater than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible + printed in Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in + every other language; and also that we have never yet had any account + printed of the antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for + though we have some accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, + contained in manuscripts, and in the genealogies of bards and + historiographers, yet there is great labour in writing them over with the + hand, whereas the work which is printed, be it ever so great, is speedily + finished. And great is the blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance + and evil design of such as teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic + language, that, with the view of obtaining for themselves the vain + rewards of this world, they are more desirous, and more accustomed, to + compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly histories, concerning the <i>Tuath + de dannan</i>, and concerning warriors and champions, and <i>Fingal</i> + the son of <i>Cumhal</i>, with his heroes, and concerning many others + which <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page182"></a>{182}</span>I will not at present enumerate or + mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and + maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth<a + name="footnotetag121" href="#footnote121"><sup>[121]</sup></a>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms<br /> +in Gaelic</i>, by Mr <span class="sc">Robert Kirk</span>, Minister of the Gospel<br /> +at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684.</p> + + <p>Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas lán + dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta + do chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh + iocshlainteamhail, amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na + liaghais ar uile anshocair na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach beó + chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & + duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata + Daibhidh do ghná mar fhear don chuideachd bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu + ceolmhar ma nard-Rí.... Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum + ughdairidh an uile cháil, ar sheannós, phriomh chreideamh & + eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & cló-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula + iuil & soluis dhamh, brídh na nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a + Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na + ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse a + sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar bheiginmhe + & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a + Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183"></a>{183}</span>bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a nunn + & a nall go sbailpe breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, + deagh-fhreumhaighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar + fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call + & masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu dán,</p> + <p class="i2">Le Dán glan diagha duisg iad thall;</p> + <p>Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn,</p> + <p class="i2">Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <p>The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with + sacred melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of + Eden, replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with + medicinal plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains + a remedy for all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living + creature it contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings + the praise of the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the + company who are thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about + the Almighty King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors + of every kind, who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive + religion, and the history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: + but the star and light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms + themselves. Now, then, my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries + guide the inferior bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work + candidly, without regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the + workman. I beseech you, men of high and of low degree alike, that you be + not, like weak silly creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but + with firm, resolute, well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, + and Temperance, as these Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in + complying with what is right, loss and disgrace in declining to what is + wrong. <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page184"></a>{184}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Little Volume, move boldly on;</p> + <p>In pure godly strains awaken yonder people;</p> + <p>Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians,</p> + <p>The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers<a name="footnotetag122" href="#footnote122"><sup>[122]</sup></a>.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead">PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h2>Notes</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="footnote1" href="#footnotetag1">[1]</a> Analysis of the + Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote2" href="#footnotetag2">[2]</a> A few examples of + what I conceived to be deviations from grammatical propriety are given + from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the translation of the + Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the exceptionable passages in + those Books have been changed in the second edition from what they were + as they came out of the hands of the original translator. The criticism + on those passages is, however, allowed to remain in this edition of the + Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic Prophets is still in the + hands of many, and because it often happens that "we can best teach what + is right by showing what is wrong."—<i>Lowth.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote3" href="#footnotetag3">[3]</a> It will immediately + occur to any grammarian that there is a slight difference between this + and the common division into <i>mutes</i> and <i>liquids</i>, by the + letter <i>m</i> being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. + This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement; as the + <i>accidents</i> of the letter <i>m</i> are, in Gaelic, the same with + those of the mute, not of the liquid consonants. For a like reason, + <i>s</i> is included in the class of liquids.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote4" href="#footnotetag4">[4]</a> Writers, who have + touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, following the Irish grammarians, + have divided the consonants further into <i>mutable</i> and + <i>immutable</i>. The former name has been given to consonants which, in + writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter <i>h</i>; and + the latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been + combined with <i>h</i>. But, in fact, both classes of consonants are + alike <i>mutable</i> in their pronunciation; and their <i>mutation</i> + ought to have been marked in the orthography, though it has not. This + defect in Gaelic orthography has been often observed and regretted, + though it has never been corrected. Rather than continue a distinction + which has no foundation in the structure of the language, I venture to + discard the division of <i>mutable</i> and <i>immutable</i> consonants, + as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote5" href="#footnotetag5">[5]</a> In explaining the + sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the very correct and acute + remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic version of the New + Testament, 1767.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote6" href="#footnotetag6">[6]</a> If it be thought that + this renders the language too monotonous, it may be observed, on the + other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and obscurities in rapid + speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of polysyllables. + Declaimers, of either sex, have often found their advantage in this + circumstance.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote7" href="#footnotetag7">[7]</a> That is the second + sound assigned to <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote8" href="#footnotetag8">[8]</a> The plural of la or + latha <i>a day</i>, is sometimes written laeth; but it is doubtful how + far this is a proper mode of writing it.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote9" href="#footnotetag9">[9]</a> The effect of the + vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining consonants will be + explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote10" href="#footnotetag10">[10]</a> This propensity is + seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic words, which have an + evident affinity to words in other languages, where the same consonants + are not so aspirated. The following list will sufficiently illustrate and + confirm the truth of this remark:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Aspiration." title="Aspiration."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <i>Greek.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Latin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Gælic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="Diabolos" class="grk">Διαβολος</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dia<i>b</i>olus </td><td class="spacsingle"> Diabhol.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scri<i>b</i>o* </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scriobh, <i>write</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fe<i>b</i>ris* </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fiabhrus, <i>a fever</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ba<i>c</i>ulum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bacholl, <i>a staff</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="Deka" class="grk">Δεκα</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> De<i>c</i>em </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deich, <i>ten</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lori<i>c</i>a </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lùireach, <i>a coat of mail</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cleri<i>c</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cleireach, <i>a clerk</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mo<i>d</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Modh, <i>manner</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gla<i>d</i>ius </td><td class="spacsingle"> Claidheamh, <i>a sword</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Kardia" class="grk">Καρδια</span><br/> + <span title="Kradia" class="grk">Κραδια</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cor<i>d</i>-is </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cridhe, <i>the heart</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Me<i>d</i>ium </td><td class="spacsingle"> Meadhon, <i>middle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lau<i>d</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Luadh, <i>mention</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Le<i>g</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leugh, <i>read</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gre<i>g</i>-is </td><td class="spacsingle"> Greigh, <i>a herd</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Re<i>g</i>-is </td><td class="spacsingle"> Righ, <i>a king</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Pla<i>g</i>a </td><td class="spacsingle"> Plaigh, <i>a plague</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sa<i>g</i>itta </td><td class="spacsingle"> Saighead, <i>an arrow</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma<i>g</i>ister </td><td class="spacsingle"> Maighistir, <i>master</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ima<i>g</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iomhaigh, <i>an image</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Pri<i>m</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Priomh, <i>chief</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Re<i>m</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ràmh, <i>an oar</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Si<i>m</i>ilis </td><td class="spacsingle"> Samhuil, <i>like</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hu<i>m</i>ilis </td><td class="spacsingle"> Umhal, <i>humble</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ca<i>p</i>ra </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gabhar, <i>a goat</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="Mêtêr" class="grk">Μητηρ</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma<i>t</i>er </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mathair, <i>mother</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ro<i>t</i>a </td><td class="spacsingle"> Roth, Rath, <i>a wheel</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mu<i>t</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mùth, <i>change</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced + without aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue; for we are + told that in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the + consonants are for the most part written without any mark of aspiration. + See "Lhuyd's Archæol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1.</p> + + <p>The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a + progressive state, in a few vocables which are pronounced with an + aspiration in some districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or + deathach <i>smoke</i>, cuntart or cunthart <i>danger</i>, ta or tha + <i>am</i>, <i>art</i>, tu or thu <i>thou</i>, troimh or throimh + <i>through</i>, tar or thar <i>over</i>, am beil or am bheil <i>is + there?</i> dom or domh <i>to me</i>, &c. Has not this remission or + suppression of the articulations the effect of enfeebling the speech, by + mollifying its bones and relaxing its nerves? Ought not therefore the + progress of this corruption to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated + articulations in those instances where universal practice has not + entirely superseded them, and even by restoring them in some instances, + where the loss of them has been attended with manifest inconvenience? It + is shameful to see how many monosyllables, once distinguished by their + articulations, have in process of time, by dropping these articulations, + come to be represented by the solitary vowel <i>a</i>, to the no small + confusion of the language and embarrassment of the reader. The place of + the absent consonant is often supplied, indeed, in writing, by an + apostrophe. This, however, is at best but an imperfect and precarious + expedient.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>* So in French, from Aprilis, <i>Avrilis</i>; habere, <i>avoir</i>; + Febris, Fièvre: <span title="episkopos" class="grk" + >επισκοπος</span>, + <i>evéque</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="footnote11" href="#footnotetag11">[11]</a> Ph is found in no + Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few words transplanted from + the Greek or the Hebrew, in which <i>ph</i> represents the Greek <span + class="grk">φ</span>, or the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>. It might perhaps be + more proper to represent <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo + dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span> by <i>p</i> rather than <i>ph</i>; and to + represent <span class="grk">φ</span> by <i>f</i>, as the Italians + have done in <i>filosofia</i>, <i>filologia</i>, &c., by which some + ambiguities and anomalies in declension would be avoided.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote12" href="#footnotetag12">[12]</a> The affinity + between the sounds of <i>v</i> and <i>u</i> is observable in many + languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote13" href="#footnotetag13">[13]</a> Agreeably to the + like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word <i>marw</i>, the Manks + <i>marroo</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote14" href="#footnotetag14">[14]</a> It is still + pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so written in + Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18, 19; John ii. 14, viii. 62, 53.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote15" href="#footnotetag15">[15]</a> So fathast + <i>yet</i>, fein <i>self</i>, are in some places pronounced as if they + began with an <i>h</i> instead of an <i>f</i>. The latter word is, by the + Manks, written hene.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote16" href="#footnotetag16">[16]</a> Over a + considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to aspiration, which + has been already remarked, has affixed to <i>c</i>, in the end of a word, + or of an accented syllable, the sound of <i>chc</i>; as, mac <i>a + son</i>, torc <i>a boar</i>, acain <i>moaning</i>; pronounced often + machc, torchc, achcain.</p> + + <p>There is reason to believe that this compound sound of <i>chc</i> was + not known of old, but is a modern corruption.</p> + + <p>This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts + the <i>c</i> retains its proper sound in all situations.</p> + + <p>If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, + it is highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by + a combination of letters, such as <i>chc</i>; especially as we find that + the same sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, + but by a combination, as in the case of <i>chd</i>. Why should it be + thought that boc <i>a buck</i>, and bochd <i>poor</i>, were originally + pronounced alike, when they are distinguished both in writing and + signification?</p> + + <p>The word <span lang="he" class="heb" title="SHQ" ><bdo + dir="rtl">שק</bdo></span> <i>a sack</i>, has been + transplanted from the Hebrew into many languages, among the rest the + Gaelic, where it has been always written sac, although now pronounced + sachc. In none of the other languages in which the word is used (except + the Welsh alone), has the final palatal been aspirated. It would appear + therefore that the sound sachc is a departure from the original Gaelic + pronunciation. The same change may have happened in the pronunciation of + other words, in which the plain <i>c</i> is now aspirated, though it may + not have been so originally.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote17" href="#footnotetag17">[17]</a> Though <i>th</i> + be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the North and Central + Highlands, yet it is, with more propriety, pronounced, in the West + Highlands, as an aspiration; as, athair <i>father</i>, mathanas + <i>pardon</i>, pronounced a-hair, mahanas.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote18" href="#footnotetag18">[18]</a> I am informed that + this pronunciation of <i>chd</i> is not universal; but that in some + districts, particularly the East Highlands, the <i>d</i> has here, as in + other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the + instances in which <i>chd</i> occurs, the ancient Irish wrote <i>ct</i>. + This spelling corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a + manifest affinity to Gaelic words of the same signification; which, it is + therefore presumable, were all originally pronounced, as they were + written, without an aspiration, such as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Relations of words in -chd." title="Relations of words in -chd."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Latin.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old French.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Gaelic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Noct-u Noct-is, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nuict </td><td class="spacsingle"> an nochd, <i>to night</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Oct-o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Huict </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ochd, <i>eight</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Benedict-um </td><td class="spacsingle"> Benoict </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beannachd, <i>blessing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Maledict-um </td><td class="spacsingle"> Maudict </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mallachd, <i>cursing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Ruct-us </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bruchd, <i>evomition</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Intellect-us </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Intleachd, <i>contrivance</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Lact-is, -i, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lachd, <i>milk</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Dict-o, -are, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deachd, <i>to dictate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rego<br /> +Rect-um </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Reachd, <i>a law, institution</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original <i>c</i> + was converted into <i>ch</i>, and the words were written with <i>cht</i>, + as in the Irish acht <i>but</i>, &c., or with the slight change of + <i>t</i> into <i>d</i>, as in ochd, &c. This is the opinion of + O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic root of the Latin + <i>lectio</i>—the aspirate <i>h</i> is but a late + invention.—<i>O'Br. Ir. Dict. voc. lecht.</i> In process of time + the true sound of <i>cht</i> or <i>chd</i> was confounded with the + kindred sound of <i>chc</i>, which was commonly, though corruptly, given + to final <i>c</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote19" href="#footnotetag19">[19]</a> It is certain that + the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the Saxon ð] or <i>th</i> in + <i>thou</i>; as the natural sound of <i>t</i> aspirated is that of + <i>th</i> in <i>think</i>. This articulation, from whatever cause, has + not been admitted into the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it + is used in the kindred dialects of Cornwall and Wales.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote20" href="#footnotetag20">[20]</a> In sean + <i>old</i>, the <i>n</i> has its <i>plain</i> sound when the following + word begins with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that + situation seann; as, seann duine <i>an old man</i>, an t-seann tiomnaidh + <i>of the old Testament</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote21" href="#footnotetag21">[21]</a> So in Latin, + <i>canmen</i> from <i>cano</i> was pronounced, and then written + <i>carmen</i>; <i>genmen</i> from the obsolete <span title="genô" class="grk" + >γενω</span> passed into <i>germen</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote22" href="#footnotetag22">[22]</a> Another mode, + proposed by a learned correspondent, of marking the distinction in the + sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter double, thus ll, + nn, rr, when its sound is the same with that which is represented by + those double letters in the end of a syllable; and when the sound is + otherwise, to write the letter single; as, llamh <i>hand</i>, llion + <i>fill</i>, mo lamh <i>my hand</i>, lion mi <i>I filled</i>.</p> + + <p>It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an + alteration as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather + to be held as fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy + diffusion of the Gaelic Scriptures over the Highlands.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote23" href="#footnotetag23">[23]</a> <i>Leathan re + Leathan, is Caol re Caol.</i></p> + + <p>Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I + have found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into + the Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels + ought to be observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. + Indeed, none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a + broad and of a small vowel on the sound of an adjacent consonant. From + this circumstance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason + for the rule in question, the only probable one that has yet occurred to + me.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote24" href="#footnotetag24">[24]</a> As deanuibh or + deanaibh <i>do ye</i>, beannuich or beannaich <i>bless</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote25" href="#footnotetag25">[25]</a> It is worthy of + remark that in such words as caird-eil <i>friendly</i>, slaint-eil + <i>salutary</i>, the substitution of <i>e</i> in place of <i>a</i> in the + termination, both misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation + of the syllable. The sound of this termination as in fear-ail + <i>manly</i>, ban-ail <i>womanly</i>, is properly represented by + <i>ail</i>. This syllable is an abbreviation of amhuil <i>like</i>, which + is commonly written in its full form by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, + &c. It corresponds exactly to the English termination <i>like</i>, in + <i>soldier-like</i>, <i>officer-like</i>, which is abridged to <i>ly</i>, + as <i>manly</i>, <i>friendly</i>. By writing <i>eil</i> instead of + <i>ail</i>, we almost lose sight of amhuil altogether.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote26" href="#footnotetag26">[26]</a> From the extracts + of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, Vallancey, and others, it + appears that the rule concerning the correspondence of vowels in + contiguous syllables, was by no means so generally observed once as it is + now. It was gradually extended by the more modern Irish writers, from + whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously adopted by the Scottish + writers in its present and unwarrantable latitude. The rule we have been + considering has been reprobated in strong terms by some of the most + judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author of an Irish + Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an Irish + Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish + antiquities, from whom I quote the following passages: "This Rule [of + dividing one syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated + consonant] together with that of substituting small or broad vowels in + the latter syllables, to correspond with the vowel immediately following + the consonant in the preceding syllable, has been very destructive to the + original and radical purity of the Irish language." <i>Vallancey's Ir. + Gram. Chap. III. letter A.</i> "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by + our bards and rhymers, I mean that which is called <i>Caol le caol, agus + Leathan le leathan</i>, has been woefully destructive to the original and + radical purity of the Irish language. This latter (much of a more modern + invention than the former, for our old manuscripts show no regard to it) + imports and prescribes that two vowels, thus forming, or contributing to + form, two different syllables, should both be of the same denomination or + class of either broad or small vowels, and this without any regard to the + primitive elementary structure of the word." <i>O'Brien's Ir. Dict. + Remarks on A.</i> "The words <i>biran</i> and <i>biranach</i> changed + sometimes into <i>bioran</i> and <i>bioranach</i> by the abusive rule of + <i>Leathan le leathan</i>." <i>Id. in voc.</i> Fear. The opinion of Lhuyd + on this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be subjoined to + those of Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to show that + this judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. "As + for passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, I + chose rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason + that old men who formerly wrote arget <i>silver</i>, instead of airgiod + as we now write it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of + words, &c. And I do not know that it was ever done in any other + language, unless by some particular persons who, through mistake or + ignorance, were guilty of it." <i>Archæol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Dict. + translated in Bp. Nicolson's Irish Historical Library.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote27" href="#footnotetag27">[27]</a> Pinkerton's + Inquiry into the History of Scotland.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote28" href="#footnotetag28">[28]</a> <i>E.g.</i>, + troidh <i>a foot</i>, has been written troidh or troigh, either of which + corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. In + Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and + the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to + determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. + For a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write tràidh + <i>shore</i>, rather than tràigh, the common way of spelling the word, + for we find the Irish formerly wrote tràidh, and the Welsh traeth. + Claidheamh <i>a sword</i>, since the final articulation was wholly + dropped, has been sometimes written claidhe. The mode of writing it still + with a final labial, though quiescent, will probably be thought the more + proper of the two, when it is considered that claidheamh is the cognate, + or rather the same word with the Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and + the French glaive.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote29" href="#footnotetag29">[29]</a> I flatter myself + that all my readers, who are acquainted with any of the ancient or the + modern languages which have a distinction of gender in their + attributives, will readily perceive that the import of the term Gender, + in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated above. + The same term has been introduced into the grammar of the English Tongue, + rather improperly, because in an acceptation different from what it bears + in the grammar of all other languages. In English there is no distinction + of gender competent to Articles, Adjectives, or Participles. When a noun + is said to be of the masculine gender, the meaning can only be that the + object denoted by it is of the male sex. Thus in the English grammars, + gender signifies a quality of the <i>object</i> named, while in other + grammars it signifies a quality of the <i>name</i> given to the object. + The varieties of <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, + <i>it</i>, refer not to what is properly called the <i>gender</i> of the + antecedent <i>noun</i>, but to the <i>Sex</i> real or attributed, or the + <i>absence of Sex</i>, of the <i>object</i> signified by the antecedent. + This is in effect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, who affirm that in + English the pronouns <i>who</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, imply an express + personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the + objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more + strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as + <i>prince</i>, <i>princess</i>; <i>lion</i>, <i>lioness</i>, which are + all discriminative of Sex. It seems therefore to be a mis-stated + compliment which is usually paid to the English, when it is said that + "this is the only language which has adapted the gender of its nouns to + the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that it has adapted the + <i>Form</i> of some of the most common names of living creatures, and of + a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of <i>male</i>, and + <i>female</i>, and <i>inanimate</i>, while it has left its nouns without + any mark characteristic of <i>gender</i>. The same thing must necessarily + happen to any language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and + feminine in its attributives. If all languages had been constructed on + this plan, it may confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term + <i>gender</i> would never have come into use. The compliment intended, + and due to the English, might have been more correctly expressed, by + saying that "it is the only language that has rejected the + unphilosophical distinction of gender, by making its attributives, in + this respect, all indeclinable."</p> + + <p><a name="footnote30" href="#footnotetag30">[30]</a> Uan beag bainionn, + 2 Sam. xii. 3. Numb. vi. 14. So leomhann boirionn, Ezek. xix. 1.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote31" href="#footnotetag31">[31]</a> It must appear + singularly strange that any nouns which signify females exclusively + should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainionnach, is derived from + the adjective bainionn, <i>female</i>, which is formed from bean, the + appropriate term for a <i>woman</i>. Yet this noun bainionnach, or + boirionnach, <i>a female</i>, is masculine, to all grammatical intents + and purposes. We say boirionnach còir, <i>a civil woman</i>, am + boirionnach maiseach, <i>the handsome woman</i>.</p> + + <p>The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its + signification, but by its determination, for most Derivatives in + <i>ach</i> are masculines; as, oganach <i>a young man</i>, marcach <i>a + horseman</i>, Albanach <i>a Scotsman</i>, &c. So in Latin, mancipium, + scortum, though applied to persons, follow the gender of their + termination.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote32" href="#footnotetag32">[32]</a> It was necessary + to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the beginning and those on + the termination as unconnected independent <i>accidents</i>, which ought + to be viewed separately; because many who have happened to turn their + thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun have got a habit of + conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute their united aid + toward the forming the <i>cases</i> of nouns. This is blending together + things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It has + therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two + <i>accidents</i> of nouns, and to limit the term <i>case</i> to those + changes which are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which + take place at the beginning.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote33" href="#footnotetag33">[33]</a> It is to be + observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely because they + are already familiar, not because they all denominate correctly the + relations expressed by the cases to which they are respectively applied. + There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gaelic different from the + Nominative; neither is there any Ablative different from the Dative. For + this reason, it is not only unnecessary, but erroneous, to reckon up six + Cases in Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, but by the + Prepositions prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the common and + proper use of the term <i>Case</i>. And if the new use of that term is to + be adopted, then the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to + have as many Cases as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, + besides a Dative do Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an + Impositive Case air Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am + Bard, a Precursive roimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very + correctly reckoned only five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in + French [See <i>Moore</i>, <i>Murray</i>, <i>Buffier</i>, &c.] because + the variations in the form of the Noun extend no further. Surely nothing + but an early and inveterate prepossession in favour of the arrangements + of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested the idea of Six Cases in + Gaelic or in English.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote34" href="#footnotetag34">[34]</a> It is not + improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few irregular + ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as <i>e</i> or <i>a</i>, in + forming the genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed + the genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from + sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy of + inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an + <i>e</i> in the genitive.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote35" href="#footnotetag35">[35]</a> It is probable + that this noun should rather be written àdh. See M<sup>c</sup>Farlane's + Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, <i>in loco</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote36" href="#footnotetag36">[36]</a> Derivatives in + <i>an</i>, and <i>ag</i> should form their genitive according to the + general Rule, <i>ain</i>, <i>aig</i>; and in pronunciation they do so. + When the syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the + Rule of 'Caol re caol' has introduced an <i>e</i> into the final + syllable, which is then written <i>ean</i>, <i>eag</i>. In this case + writers have been puzzled how to form the genitive. The terminations + <i>eain</i>, <i>eaig</i>, would evidently contain too many vowels for a + short syllable. To reduce this awkward number of vowels they have + commonly thrown out the <i>a</i>, the only letter which properly + expressed the vocal sound of the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a + <i>mote</i>, they formed the gen. sing. caimein; from cuilean m. a + <i>whelp</i>, g. s. cuilein; from duileag f. a <i>leaf</i>, g. s. + duileig; from caileag f. a <i>girl</i>, g. s. caileig. Had they not + yielded too far to the encroachments of the Rule of 'Caol re caol' they + would have written both the nom. and the gen. of these and similar nouns + more simply and more justly, thus: caiman, g. s. caimain; cuilan, g. s. + cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig; cailag, g. s. cailaig.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote37" href="#footnotetag37">[37]</a> In many instances, + the Plural termination <i>a</i> is oftener written with this final + <i>n</i> than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination is + small, the termination <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> is very needlessly written + <i>e</i> or <i>ean</i>, to preserve the correspondence of vowels.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote38" href="#footnotetag38">[38]</a> We are informed by + E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in the Irish Dialect, and it + appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, air son mo dhà shùl, <i>for + my two eyes</i>.—Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott. versions.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote39" href="#footnotetag39">[39]</a> So in Hebrew, we + find a noun in the singular number joined with <i>twenty</i>, + <i>thirty</i>, <i>a hundred</i>, <i>a thousand</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote40" href="#footnotetag40">[40]</a> The Pronouns tu + <i>thou</i>, se <i>he</i>, si <i>she</i>, siad <i>they</i>, are not + employed, like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive + verb. Hence the incorrectness of the following expression in most + editions of the Gaelic Psalms: Se chrùnas <i>tu</i> le coron graidh, + Psal. ciii. 4., which translated literally signifies, <i>it is he whom + thou wilt crown</i>, &c. To express the true sense, viz., <i>it is he + who will crown thee</i>, it ought to have been, se chrùnas <i>thu</i> le + coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a slanuicheas <i>thu</i>, <i>I am + the Lord that healeth thee</i>, Exod. xv. 26; Ma ta e ann a fhreagaireas + <i>thu</i>, <i>If there be any that will answer thee</i>, Job v. 1; Co e + a bhrathas thu? <i>Who is he that will betray thee?</i> John xxi. 20., + Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 29.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote41" href="#footnotetag41">[41]</a> This use of the + Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a modern innovation, for + there is nothing like it found in the more ancient Gaelic compositions, + nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. As this idiom seems, + however, to be employed in conversation with increasing frequency, it + will probably lose by degrees its present import, and will come to be + used as the common mode of addressing any individual; in the same manner + as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and other European + languages.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote42" href="#footnotetag42">[42]</a> There seems hardly + a sufficient reason for changing the <i>d</i> in this situation into + <i>t</i>, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach <i>thy + servant</i>, &c. The <i>d</i> corresponds sufficiently to the + pronunciation, and being the constituent consonant of the pronoun, it + ought not to be changed for another.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote43" href="#footnotetag43">[43]</a> The Irish are not + so much at a loss to avoid a <i>hiatus</i>, as they often use na for a + <i>his</i>; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes + judiciously adopted; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>An talamh tioram le na laimh</p> + <p class="i2">Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="footnote44" href="#footnotetag44">[44]</a> In the North + Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote45" href="#footnotetag45">[45]</a> This Pronoun + occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu <i>after what you + have heard</i>; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, <i>bring what + you have</i>. It seems to be contracted for an ni a <i>the thing + which</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote46" href="#footnotetag46">[46]</a> There is reason to + think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b' e. Of the former I find no + satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is literally <i>which it + be</i>, or <i>which it were</i>; which is just the French <i>qui que ce + soit</i>, <i>qui que ce fût</i> expressed in English by one word + <i>whosoever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>. We find cia used in this sense and + connection, Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 1753. Gach uile rioghachd mar an + ceadn' <i>cia</i> h-iomdha bhi siad ann, <i>All</i> <i>kingdoms likewise, + however numerous they be</i>. See also Gen. xliv. 9, Rom. ii. 1.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote47" href="#footnotetag47">[47]</a> This pronoun is + found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's "Archæol. Brit." Tit. I. page + 20. col. 2. ceach; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine, cecha bliadna <i>each + year</i>. So also O'Brien, cach <i>all</i>, <i>every</i>, like the French + <i>chaque</i>. "Irish Dict." voc. cach.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote48" href="#footnotetag48">[48]</a> The pronouns + <i>cach eile</i> and <i>cach a chéile</i> are hardly known in Perthshire. + Instead of the former, they use the single word càch pronounced long, and + declined like a noun of the singular number; and instead of the latter, a + chéile, as in this example, choinnich iad a chéile; thuit cuid, agus + theich càch, <i>they met each other; some fell, and the rest fled</i>. + Here càch may be considered as a simple pronoun; but the first clause, + choinnich iad a cheile, <i>they met his fellow</i>, hardly admits of any + satisfactory analysis. The phrases, in fact, seem to be elliptical, and + to be expressed more fully, according to the practice of other districts, + thus: choinnich iad cach a chiéle; thuit, cuid, agus theich cach eile. + Now, if cach be nothing else than gach <i>every</i>, (a conjecture + supported by the short pronunciation of the <i>a</i>, as well as by the + authorities adduced in the preceding note,) the expressions may be easily + analysed: choinnich iad gach [aon] a cheile; thuit cuid, agus theich gach + [aon] eile; <i>they met every [one] his fellow; some fell, and every + other [one] fled</i>, See 1 Thess. v. 11.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote49" href="#footnotetag49">[49]</a> In the older Irish + MSS. the Particle <i>do</i> appears under a variety of forms. In one MS. + of high antiquity it is often written <i>dno</i>. This seems to be its + oldest form. The two consonants were sometimes separated by a vowel, and + the <i>n</i> being pronounced and then written <i>r</i>, (See Part I. p. + 19.) the word was written doro. (See <i>Astle's Hist. of the Orig. and + Progr. of Writing, page 126, Irish Specimen, No. 6.</i>) The Consonants + were sometimes transposed, suppressing the latter Vowel, and the Particle + became nod (<i>O Brien's Ir. Dict. voc.</i> Sasat, Treas,) and rod + (<i>id. voc.</i> Ascaim, Fial.) Sometimes one of the syllables only was + retained; hence no (<i>O'Br. voc.</i> No,) ro (<i>id. voc.</i> Ro,) and + do in common use. Do likewise suffered a transposition of letters, and + was written sometimes ad. (O'Br. <i>voc.</i> Do.)</p> + + <p><a name="footnote50" href="#footnotetag50">[50]</a> This + correspondence of the Termination with the Root was overlooked in the + older editions of the Gaelic Psalms; as pronnfidh, cuirfar, molfidh, + innsam, guidham, coimhdar, sinnam, gluaisfar, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote51" href="#footnotetag51">[51]</a> The disposition in + the Gaelic to drop articulations has, in this instance, been rather + unfortunate; as the want of the <i>f</i> weakens the sound of the word, + and often occasions a <i>hiatus</i>. There seems a propriety in retaining + the <i>f</i> of the Future, after a Liquid, or an aspirated Mute; as, + cuirfidh, mairfidh, molfidh, geillfidh, pronnfidh, brisfidh, &c., for + these words lose much in sound and emphasis by being changed into + caithidh, mairidh, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote52" href="#footnotetag52">[52]</a> The incorporation + of the Verb with a Personal Pronoun is a manifest improvement, and has + gradually taken place in almost all the polished languages. There is + incomparably more beauty and force in expressing the energy of the Verb, + with its <i>personal</i> relation and concomitant circumstances, in one + word, than by a periphrasis of pronouns and auxiliaries. The latter mode + may have a slight advantage in point of precision, but the former is + greatly superior in elegance and strength. The structure of the Latin and + Greek, compared with that of the English Verb, affords a striking + illustration of this common and obvious remark. Nothing can be worse + managed than the French Verb; which, though it possesses a competent + variety of <i>personal</i> inflections, yet loses all the benefit of them + by the perpetual enfeebling recurrence of the personal Pronouns.</p> + + <p>In comparing the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Gaelic, it may be + inferred that the former, having less of inflection or + <i>incorporation</i>, than the latter, differs less from the parent + tongue, and is an older branch of the Celtic, than its sister dialect. It + were unfair, however, to deny that the Irish have improved the Verb, by + giving a greater variety of inflection to its <i>Numbers</i> and + <i>Persons</i>, as well as by introducing a simple Present Tense. The + authors of our metrical version of the Gaelic Psalms were sensible of the + advantage possessed by the Irish dialect in these respects, and did not + scruple to borrow an idiom which has given grace and dignity to many of + their verses.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote53" href="#footnotetag53">[53]</a> Such at least is + the common practice in writing, in compliance with the common mode of + colloquial pronunciation. It might perhaps be better to retain the full + form of the Preposition, in grave pronunciation, and always in writing. + It is an object worthy of attention to preserve radical articulations, + especially in writing; and particularly to avoid every unnecessary use of + the monosyllable <i>a</i>, which, it must be confessed, recurs in too + many senses.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote54" href="#footnotetag54">[54]</a> The Preposition + iar has here been improperly confounded with air <i>on</i>. I have + ventured to restore it, from the Irish Grammarians. Iar is in common use + in the Irish dialect, signifying <i>after</i>. Thus, iar sin <i>after + that</i>, iar leaghadh an tshoisgeil <i>after reading the Gospel</i>, iar + sleachdadh do niomlan <i>after all have kneeled down</i>, iar seasamh + suas <i>after standing up</i>, &c. See "Irish Book of Common Prayer." + Air, when applied to time, signifies not <i>after</i>, but <i>at</i> or + <i>on</i>, air an am so, air an uair so <i>at this time</i>, air an la + sin <i>on that day</i>. There is therefore sufficient reason to believe + that, in the case in question, iar is the proper word; and that it has + been corruptly supplanted by air.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote55" href="#footnotetag55">[55]</a> The Imperative + seems to have been anciently formed by adding <i>tar</i> to the Root. + This form is still retained in Ireland, and in some parts of Scotland, + chiefly in verbs ending in a Lingual; as, buailtear, deantar. (See the + Lord's Prayer in the older editions of the Gaelic Version of the + Assembly's Catechism; also, the "Irish N. Test." Matt. vi. 10. Luke xi. + 2.) In other verbs, the <i>t</i> seems to have been dropped in + pronunciation. It was, however, retained by the Irish in writing, but + with an aspiration to indicate its being quiescent; thus, togthar, + teilgthear, "Ir. N. T." Matt. xxi. 21, Mark xi. 23, crochthar, Matt. + xxvii. 22. So also the "Gaelic N. T." 1767, deanthar. Matt. vi. 10, Luke + xi. 2. In the later publications the <i>t</i> has been omitted + altogether, with what propriety may be well doubted.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote56" href="#footnotetag56">[56]</a> To preserve a due + correspondence with the pronunciation, the Pass. Part. should always + terminate in <i>te</i>, for in this part of the verb, the <i>t</i> has + always its <i>small</i> sound. Yet in verbs whereof the characteristic + vowel is broad, it is usual to write the termination of the Pass. Part. + <i>ta</i>; as, togta <i>raised</i>, crochta <i>suspended</i>. This is + done in direct opposition to the pronunciation, merely out of regard to + the Irish Rule of <i>Leathan ri leathan</i>, which in this case, as in + many others, has been permitted to mar the genuine orthography.</p> + + <p>When a verb, whose characteristic vowel is broad, terminates in a + Liquid, the final consonant coalesces so closely with the <i>t</i> of the + Pass. Part. that the <i>small</i> sound of the latter necessarily + occasions the like sound in pronouncing the former. Accordingly the small + sound of the Liquid is properly represented in writing, by an <i>i</i> + inserted before it. Thus, òl <i>drink</i>, Pass. Part. òilte; pronn + <i>pound</i>, proinnte; crann <i>bar</i>, crainnte; sparr <i>ram</i>, + spairrte; trus <i>pack</i>, truiste. But when the verb ends in a mute, + whether plain or aspirated, there is no such coalescence between its + final consonant and the adjected <i>t</i> of the Participle. The final + consonant if it be pronounced retains its broad sound. There is no good + reason for maintaining a correspondence of vowels in the Participle, + which ought therefore to be written, as it is pronounced, without regard + to <i>Leathan ri leathan</i>; as, tog <i>raise</i>, Pass. Part. togte; + croch <i>hang</i>, crochte; sàth <i>thrust</i>, sàthte; cnamh + <i>chew</i>, cnamhte.</p> + + <p>The same observations apply, with equal force, to the Pret. Subj. in + which the <i>t</i> of the termination is always pronounced with its + <i>small</i> sound, and should therefore be followed by a small vowel in + writing; as, thogteadh, chrochteadh, not thogtadh, chrochtadh.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote57" href="#footnotetag57">[57]</a> In all + <i>regular</i> verbs, the difference between the Affirmative and the + Negative Moods, though marked but slightly and partially in the Preterite + Tense, (only in the initial form of the 2d Conjugation,) yet is strongly + marked in the Future Tense. The Fut. Aff. terminates in a feeble vocal + sound. In the Fut. Neg. the voice rests on an articulation, or is cut + short by a forcible aspiration. Supposing these Tenses to be used by a + speaker in reply to a command or a request; by their very structure, the + former expresses the softness of compliance; and the latter, the + abruptness of a refusal. If a command or a request be expressed by such + verbs as these, tog sin, gabh sin, ith sin, the compliant answer is + expressed by togaidh, gabhaidh, ithidh; the refusal, by the cha tog, cha + ghabh, cha n-ith. May not this peculiar variety of form in the same + Tense, when denoting affirmation, and when denoting negation, be reckoned + among the characteristic marks of an original language?</p> + + <p><a name="footnote58" href="#footnotetag58">[58]</a> This part of the + verb, being declined and governed like a noun, bears a closer resemblance + to the Latin Gerund than to the Infinitive; and might have been properly + named the Gerund. But as Lhuyd and all the later Irish Grammarians have + already given it the name of Infinitive, I choose to continue the same + appellation rather than change it.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote59" href="#footnotetag59">[59]</a> The Editor of the + Gaelic Psalms printed at Glasgow, 1753, judging, as it would seem, that + cuidich was too bold a licence for cuideachaidh, restored the gen. of the + full form of the Infinitive; but in order to reduce it to two syllables, + so as to suit the verse, he threw out the middle syllable, and wrote + cuid'idh.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote60" href="#footnotetag60">[60]</a> I have met with + persons of superior knowledge of the Gaelic who contended that such + expressions as—ta mi deanamh <i>I am doing</i>, ta e bualadh <i>he + is striking</i> (see page 83), are complete without any Preposition + understood; and that in such situations deanamh, bualadh, are not + infinitives or nouns, but real participles of the Present Tense. With + much deference to such authorities, I shall here give the reasons which + appear to me to support the contrary opinion.</p> + + <p>1. The form of the supposed Participle is invariably the same with + that of the Infinitive.</p> + + <p>2. If the words deanamh, bualadh, in the phrases adduced, were real + Participles, then in all similar instances, it would be not only + unnecessary, but ungrammatical, to introduce the preposition ag at all. + But this is far from being the case. In all verbs beginning with a vowel, + the preposition ag or its unequivocal representative <i>g</i> is + indispensable; as, ta iad ag iarruidh, ta mi 'g iarruidh. Shall we say, + then, that verbs beginning with a consonant have a present participle, + while those that begin with a vowel have none? But even this distinction + falls to the ground, when it is considered that in many phrases which + involve a verb beginning with a consonant, the preposition ag stands + forth to view, and can on no account be suppressed; as, ta iad 'g a + bhualadh <i>they are striking him</i>, ta e 'g ar bualadh <i>he is + striking us</i>. From these particulars it may be inferred that the + preposition ag must always precede the infinitive, in order to complete + the phrase which corresponds to the English or Latin pres. participle; + and that in those cases where the preposition has been dropped, the + omission has been owing to the rapidity or carelessness of colloquial + pronunciation.</p> + + <p>3. A still stronger argument, in support of the same conclusion, may + be derived from the regimen of the phrase in question. The infinitive of + a transitive verb, preceded by any preposition, always governs the noun, + which is the object of the verbal action, in the genitive. This is an + invariable rule of Gaelic Syntax; thus, ta sinn a' dol a dh' iarruidh na + spréidhe, <i>we are going to seek the cattle</i>; ta iad ag iomain na + spréidhe, <i>they are driving the cattle</i>; ta iad iar cuairteachadh na + spréidhe, <i>they have gathered the cattle</i>. This regimen can be + accounted for on no other principle, in Gaelic, than that the governing + word is a noun, as the infinitive is confessed to be. Now, it happens + that the supposed participle has the very same regimen, and governs the + genitive as uniformly as the same word would have done, when the presence + of a preposition demonstrated it to be a noun; so, ta mi bualadh an + doruis, <i>I am knocking the door</i>; ta thu deanamh an uilc, <i>you are + doing mischief</i>. The inference is, that even in these situations, the + words—bualadh, deanamh, though accompanied with no preposition, are + still genuine nouns, and are nothing else than the infinitives of their + respective verbs, with the preposition ag understood before each of + them.</p> + + <p>4. The practice in other dialects of the Celtic, and the authority of + respectable grammarians, affords collateral support to the opinion here + defended. Gen. Vallancey, the most copious writer on Irish grammar, + though he gives the name of participle to a certain part of the Gaelic + verb, because it corresponds, in signification, to a part of the Latin + verb which has obtained that name, yet constantly exhibits this + participle, not as a single word, but a composite expression; made up of + a preposition and that part of the verb which is here called the + infinitive. The phrase is fully and justly exhibited, but it is wrong + named; unless it be allowed to extend the name of Participle to such + phrases as <i>inter ambulandum</i>, <span title="en tôi peripatein" class="grk" + >εν τῳ + περιπατειν</span>.—Lhuyd, + in his Cornish Grammar, informs us, with his usual accuracy, that the + Infinitive Mood, as in the other dialects of the British, sometimes + serves as a Substantive, as in the Latin; and by the help of the + participle <i>a</i> [the Gaelic ag] before it, it supplies the room of + the participle of the present tense, &c. "Archæol. Brit." page 245, + col. 3. This observation is strictly applicable to the Gaelic verb. The + infinitive, with the particle <i>ag</i> before it, <i>supplies the room + of the present Participle</i>. The same judicious writer repeats this + observation in his "Introduction to the Irish or Ancient Scottish + Language": The Participle of the Present Tense is <i>supplied</i> by the + Participle <i>ag</i> before the Infinitive Mood; as, <i>ag radh</i> + saying, <i>ag cainnt</i> talking, <i>ag teagasg</i> teaching, <i>ag + dul</i> going, &c. "Arch. Brit." page 303, col. 2.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote61" href="#footnotetag61">[61]</a> It may appear a + strange defect in the Gaelic, that its Verbs, excepting the substantive + verbs Bi, Is, have no <i>simple</i> Present Tense. Yet this is manifestly + the case in the Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish dialects (see "Arch. Brit." + page 246, col. 1, and page 247, col. 1.); to which may be added the + Manks. Creidim <i>I believe</i>, guidheam <i>I pray</i>, with perhaps one + or two more Present Tenses, now used in Scotland, seem to have been + imported from Ireland, for their paucity evinces that they belong not to + our dialect. The want of the simple Present Tense is a striking point of + resemblance between the Gaelic and the Hebrew verb.</p> + + <p>I am indebted to a learned and ingenious correspondent for the + following important remark; that the want of the simple Present Tense in + all the British dialects of the Celtic, in common with the Hebrew, while + the Irish has assumed that Tense, furnishes a strong presumption that the + Irish is a dialect of later growth; that the British Gaelic is its parent + tongue; and consequently that Britain is the mother country of + Ireland.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote62" href="#footnotetag62">[62]</a> From observing the + same thing happen repeatedly or habitually it is naturally inferred that + it will happen again. When an event is predicted it is supposed that the + speaker, if no other cause of his foreknowledge appears, infers the + future happening of the event from its having already happened in many + instances. Thus the Future Tense, which simply foretells, conveys to the + hearer an intimation that the thing foretold has already taken place + frequently and habitually. In Hebrew, the Future Tense is used with + precisely the same effect. In the law of Jehovah he <i>will</i> meditate; + <i>i.e.</i>, he <i>does</i> meditate habitually. Psal. i, 2. See also + Psal. xlii. 1, Job ix. 11, xxiii. 8, 9, &c., <i>passim</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote63" href="#footnotetag63">[63]</a> Though this be the + precise import of the Compound Tenses of the second order, yet they are + not strictly confined to the point of time stated above; but are often + used to denote past time indefinitely. In this way, they supply the place + of the Compound Tenses of the first order in those verbs which have no + passive participle.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote64" href="#footnotetag64">[64]</a> See Moor. So tha + 'n tigh 'g a thogail, <i>the house is in building</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote65" href="#footnotetag65">[65]</a> Téid the Fut. + Negat. of Rach to <i>go</i>, has been generally written d'théid; from an + opinion, it would seem, that the full form of that Tense is do théid. Yet + as the participle <i>do</i> is never found prefixed to the Future + Negative of any regular verb, it appears more agreeable to the analogy of + conjugation to write this tense in its simplest form téid. See "Gael. New + Test." 1767, and 1796, Mat. xiii. 28. xiv. 15. A different mode of + writing this tense has been adopted in the edition of the "Gael. Bible," + Edin. 1807, where we uniformly find dthéid, dthoir, dthig.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote66" href="#footnotetag66">[66]</a> Throughout the + verb tabhair, the syllables <i>abhair</i> are often contracted into + <i>oir</i>; as, toir, torinnn, &c. Acts xviii. 10. Sometimes written + d'thoir, d'thoirinn; rather improperly. See note 65.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote67" href="#footnotetag67">[67]</a> Tig rather than + d'thig. See note 65.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote68" href="#footnotetag68">[68]</a> A Pres. Aff. of + this Verb, borrowed from the Irish, is often used in the G. SS. Deiream + <i>I say</i>, deir e <i>he saith</i>, deir iad <i>they say</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote69" href="#footnotetag69">[69]</a> Dubhairt, + dubhradh, are contracted for do thubhairt, &c. Abairinn, abaiream, + abairear, are often contracted into abrainn, abram, abrar.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote70" href="#footnotetag70">[70]</a> It may appear an + odd peculiarity in the Gaelic, that in many of the most common phrases, a + proposition or question should thus be expressed without the least trace + of a Verb. It can hardly be said that the Substantive Verb is + <i>understood</i>, for then there would be no impropriety in expressing + it. But the fact is, that it would be completely contrary to the idiom + and usage of the language, to introduce a Substantive Verb in these + phrases. It will diminish our surprise at this peculiarity to observe + that in the ancient languages numerous examples occur of sentences, or + clauses of sentences, in which the Substantive Verb is omitted, without + occasioning any obscurity or ambiguity; and this in Prose as well as in + Verse. Thus in Hebrew; Gen. xlii. 11, 13, 14. We [are] all one man's + sons—we [are] true men—thy servants [are] twelve + brethren—the youngest [is] with his father—ye [are] + spies—&c.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Ouk agathon polukoiraniê." class="grk">Οὐκ ἀγαθον πολυκοιρανιη.</span>—<i>Iliad</i>, B. 204.</p> + <p class="i6"><span title="kaka kerdea is' atêsi." class="grk">κακα κερδεα ἰσ' ἀτησι.</span>—<i>Hes.</i> <span title="E. kai Ê. a" class="grk">Ε. και Η. ά</span>.</p> + <p class="i6"><span title="egô de tisou tachupeithês." class="grk">ἐγω δε τισου ταχυπειθης.</span>—<i>Theoc. Idyl.</i> 7.</p> + <p class="i4">Et mî genus ab Jove summo.—<i>Virg. Æn.</i> VI. 123.</p> + <p class="i4">Varium et mutabile semper Femina.—<i>Æn.</i> IV. 569.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Omnia semper suspecta atque sollicita; nullus locus amicitiæ. <i>Cic. + de Amic.</i> 15.</p> + + <p>&nbsp; mira feritas, foeda paupertas; non arma, non equi, non + penates; victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis + spes, &c.—<i>Tacit. de. mor. Germ. Cap. ult.</i> In these and + the like examples, the Substantive Verb might have been expressed, if + with less elegance, yet without grammatical impropriety. What has been + frequently done in other languages, seems, in Gaelic, to have been + adopted, in certain phrases, as an invariable mode of speech.</p> + + <p>The omission of the Substantive Verb is not unknown in English; + as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"In winter awful thou."—<i>Thomson.</i></p> + <p class="hg3">"A ministering angel thou."—<i>Scott.</i></p> + <p class="hg3">"A cruel sister she."—<i>Mallet.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="footnote71" href="#footnotetag71">[71]</a> The effect of this + Tense in narration seems to be very nearly, if not precisely, the same + with that of the Present of the Infinitive in Latin; as in these + passages:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16hg3">"——misere discedere quaerens,</p> + <p><i>Ire</i> modo ocius; interdum <i>consistere</i>; in aurem</p> + <p><i>Dicere</i> nescio quid puero."—<i>Hor. Sat. 1. 8. v. 9.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"At Danaum proceres, Agamemnoniæque phalanges</p> + <p>Ingenti <i>trepidare</i> metu; pars <i>vertere</i> terga,</p> + <p>Ceu quondam petiêre rates; pars <i>tollere</i> vocem."—<i>Æneid. VI. 492.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4hg3">"——nihil illi <i>tendere</i> contra;</p> + <p>Sed <i>celerare</i> fugam in sylvas, et <i>fidere</i> nocti.'—<i>Æneid. IX. 378.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"Tarquinius <i>fateri</i> amorem, <i>orare</i>, <i>miscere</i> + precibus minas, <i>versare</i> in omnes partes muliebrem + animum."—<i>Liv. I. 58.</i></p> + + <p>"Neque post id locorum Jugurthæ dies aut nox ulla quieta fuere: neque + loco, neque mortali cuiquam, aut tempori satis <i>credere</i>; cives, + hostes, juxta <i>metuere</i>; <i>circumspectare</i> omnia, et omni + strepitu <i>pavescere</i>; alio atque alio loco, saepe contra decus + regium, noctu <i>requiescere</i>; interdum somno excitus, arreptis armis, + tumultum <i>facere</i>; ita formidine quasi vecordia + <i>exagitari</i>."—<i>Sall. Bell. Jugur. 72.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote72" href="#footnotetag72">[72]</a> "An ceannard a + mharbhadh" may be considered as the nominative to the verb chaidh; and so + in similar phrases; much in the same way as we find in Latin, an + Infinitive with an accusative before it, become the nominative to a verb; + as "<i>hominem</i> hominis incommodo suum <i>augere</i> commodum + <i>est</i> contra naturam." <i>Cic. de. Offic.</i> III. 5. "Turpe <i>est + eos</i> qui bene nati sunt turpiter <i>vivere</i>."</p> + + <p><a name="footnote73" href="#footnotetag73">[73]</a> So in Hebrew, the + article prefixed to the nouns <i>day</i>, <i>night</i>, imports the + present day or night. See Exod. xiv. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote74" href="#footnotetag74">[74]</a> Perhaps the proper + Prep. in these phrases is <i>de</i>, not <i>do</i>—see the + Prepositions in the next Chap.—as we find the same Prep. similarly + applied in other languages; de nuit <i>by night</i>, John iii. 2; de + nocte, Hor. Epis. 1. 2, 32; de tertia vigilia, Cæs. B. G.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote75" href="#footnotetag75">[75]</a> These expressions + are affirmed, not without reason, to refer to the supposed destruction of + the world by fire, or by water; events which were considered as + immeasurably remote. (See Smith's "Gal. Antiq." pp. 59. 60). Another + explanation has been given of dilinn, as being compounded of dith, + <i>want, failure</i>, and linn <i>an age</i>; qu. <i>absumptio + sæculi</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote76" href="#footnotetag76">[76]</a> Perhaps am fàn, + from fàn or fànadh <i>a descent</i>. (See Lhuyd's "Arch. Brit." tit. x. + <i>in loco</i>.)</p> + + <p><a name="footnote77" href="#footnotetag77">[77]</a> <i>i.e.</i> anns + an teach, anns an tigh, <i>in the house</i>. So in Hebrew, <span + lang="he" class="heb" title="MBYT" ><bdo + dir="rtl">מבית</bdo></span> <i>within</i>, Gen. + vi. 14.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote78" href="#footnotetag78">[78]</a> Deas, applied to + the hand, signifies the <i>right hand</i>. So in Hebrew, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="YMYN" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ימין</bdo></span> signifies the + <i>right hand</i> and the <i>South</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote79" href="#footnotetag79">[79]</a> Iar, as a + Preposition, signifies <i>after</i> or <i>behind</i>. In like manner in + Hebrew, <span lang="he" class="heb" title="ATR" ><bdo + dir="rtl">אתר</bdo></span> signifies <i>after</i>, or + the <i>West</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote80" href="#footnotetag80">[80]</a> Probably co luath + <i>equally quick, with equal pace</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote81" href="#footnotetag81">[81]</a> The probable + analysis of seadh is, is é, <i>it is</i>, pronounced in one syllable, 's + e. When this syllable was used as a responsive, and not followed by any + other word; the voice, resting on the final sound, formed a faint + articulation. This was represented in writing by the gentle aspirate + <i>dh</i>; and so the word came to be written as we find it. In like + manner ni h-eadh is probably nothing else than a substitute for ni he, + <i>it is not</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote82" href="#footnotetag82">[82]</a> This mode of + incorporating the Prepositions with the personal pronouns will remind the + Orientalist of the Pronominal Affixes, common in Hebrew and other Eastern + languages. The close resemblance between the Gaelic and many of the + Asiatic tongues, in this particular, is of itself an almost conclusive + proof that the Gaelic bears a much closer affinity to the parent stock + than any other living European language.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote83" href="#footnotetag83">[83]</a> "In corroboration + of this (Mr. S.'s) hypothesis, I have frequently met <i>de</i> in old + MSS. I have therefore adopted it in its proper place."—E. O'C.'s + "Grammar of the Irish Gaelic." Dublin, 1808.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote84" href="#footnotetag84">[84]</a> In many places, + this Prep. is pronounced hun.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote85" href="#footnotetag85">[85]</a> Tar éis, on the + track or footstep. See O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." <i>voc.</i> éis.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote86" href="#footnotetag86">[86]</a> On consulting + O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." we find son translated <i>profit, advantage</i>, + cum <i>a fight, combat</i>, réir <i>will, desire</i>. From these + significations the common meaning of air son, do chum, do réir, may + perhaps be derived without much violence.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote87" href="#footnotetag87">[87]</a> See Gaelic Poems + published by Doctor Smith, pp. 8, 9, 178, 291.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote88" href="#footnotetag88">[88]</a> There is in Gaelic + a Noun cion or cionn, signifying <i>cause</i>; which occurs in the + expressions a chionn gu <i>because that</i>, cion-fàth <i>a reason</i> or + <i>ground</i>. But this word is entirely different from ceann <i>end</i> + or <i>top</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote89" href="#footnotetag89">[89]</a> Some confusion has + been introduced into the Grammar of the Latin language, by imposing + different grammatical names on words, according to the connection in + which they stood, while they retained their form and their signification + unchanged; as in calling <i>quod</i> at one time a Relative Pronoun, at + another time a Conjunction; <i>post</i> in one situation a Preposition, + in another, an Adverb. An expedient was thought requisite for + distinguishing, in such instances, the one part of speech from the other. + Accordingly an accent, or some such mark, was, in writing or printing, + placed over <span class="correction" title="Original reads `the the' (on footnote break across two pages)." + >the</span> last vowel of the word, when employed in what was reckoned + its secondary use; while, in its primary use, it was written without any + distinguishing mark. So the conjunction <i>quòd</i> was distinguished + from the relative <i>quod</i>; and the adverb <i>post</i> from the + preposition <i>pòst</i>. The distinction was erroneous; but the expedient + employed to mark it was, at least, harmless. The word was left unaltered + and undisguised; and thus succeeding grammarians had it the more in their + power to prove that the relative <i>quod</i> and the conjunction + <i>quòd</i> are, and have ever been, in reality, one and the same part of + speech. It would have been justly thought a bold and unwarrantable step, + had the older grammarians gone so far as to alter the letters of the + word, in order to mark a distinction of their own creation.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote90" href="#footnotetag90">[90]</a> From this use of + the preposition <i>air</i> arises the <i>equivoque</i> so humorously + turned against Mr James Macpherson by Maccodrum the poet, as related in + the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland on the + authenticity of Osian's Poems, Append. p. 95. Macpherson asked Maccodrum, + "Am bheil dad agad air an Fhéinn?" literally, "Have you anything on the + Fingalians?" intending to inquire whether the latter had any poems in his + possession <i>on</i> the subject of the Fingalian history and exploits. + The expression partakes much more of the English than of the Gaelic + idiom. Indeed, it can hardly be understood in Gaelic, in the sense that + the querist intended. Maccodrum, catching up the expression in its true + Gaelic acceptation, answered, with affected surprise, "Bheil dad agam air + an Fhéinn? Ma bha dad riamh agam orra, is fad o chaill mi na còirichean." + "Have I any claim on the Fingalians? If ever I had, it is long since I + lost my voucher."</p> + + <p><a name="footnote91" href="#footnotetag91">[91]</a> This use of the + preposition <i>ann</i> in conjunction with a possessive Pronoun, is + nearly akin to that of the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="heb" title="l" + ><bdo dir="rtl">ל</bdo></span>, [for] in such expressions as these: + 'He hath made me [for] a father to Pharaoh, and [for] lord of all his + house;' <i>rinn e mi 'n am athair do Pharaoh, agus 'n am thighearn os + ceann a thighe uile</i>, Gen. xlv. 8. 'Thou hast taken the wife of Uriah + to be [for] thy wife;' <i>ghabh thu bean Uriah gu bi 'n a mnaoi dhuit + fein.</i> 2 Sam. xii. 10.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote92" href="#footnotetag92">[92]</a> This syllable + assumes various forms. Before a broad vowel or consonant <i>an</i>, as, + anshocair; before a small vowel or consonant <i>ain</i>, as, aineolach + <i>ignorant</i>, aindeoin <i>unwillingness</i>; before a labial <i>am</i> + or <i>aim</i>, as, aimbeartach <i>poor</i>; sometimes with the <i>m</i> + aspirated, as, aimhleas <i>detriment</i>, <i>ruin</i>, aimh-leathan + <i>narrow</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote93" href="#footnotetag93">[93]</a> The conjunction + ged loses the <i>d</i> when written before an adjective <span + class="correction" title="Original reads `of'.">or</span> a personal + pronoun; as, ge binn do ghuth, <i>though your voice be sweet</i>; ge + h-àrd Jehovah, Psal. cxxxviii. 6.</p> + + <p>The translators of the Scriptures appear to have erred in supposing ge + to be the entire Conjunction, and that <i>d</i> is the verbal particle + do. This has led them to write ge d' or ge do in situations in which do + alters the sense from what was intended, or is totally inadmissible. Ge + do ghluais mi, Deut. xxix. 19, is given as the translation of <i>though I + walk</i>, i.e. <i>though I shall walk</i>, but in reality it signifies + <i>though I did walk</i>, for do ghluais is past tense. It ought to be + ged ghluais mi. So also ge do ghleidh thu mi, Judg. xiii. 16, <i>though + you detain me</i>, ought rather to be ged ghleidh thu mi. Ge do ghlaodhas + iad rium, Jer. xi. 11, <i>though they cry to me</i>, is not agreeable to + the Gaelic idiom. It ought rather to be ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in + Hosea, xi. 7. Ge do dh' fheudainnse muinghin bhi agam, Phil. iii. 4, + <i>though I might have confidence</i>. Here the verbal particle is + doubled unnecessarily, and surely not according to classical precision. + Let it be written ged dh' fheudainnse, and the phrase is correct. Ge do + 's eigin domh am bas fhulang, Mark xiv. 31, <i>though I must suffer + death</i>: ge do tha aireamh chloinn Israel, &c., Rom. ix. 27, + <i>though the number of the children of Israel be</i>, &c. The + present tenses is and tha never take the do before them. Ged is eigin, + ged tha, is liable to no objection. At other times, when the do appeared + indisputably out of place, the <i>d</i> has been dismissed altogether, + contrary to usual mode of pronunciation; as, ge nach eil, Acts xvii. 27, + 2 Cor. xii. 11, where the common pronunciation requires ged nach eil. So, + ge d' nach duin' an t-aodach, &c. ge d' nach biodh ann ach an righ + &c. (M<sup>c</sup>Intosh's "Gael Prov." pp. 35, 36), where the + <i>d</i> is retained even before nach, because such is the constant way + of pronouncing the phrase.</p> + + <p>These faulty expressions which, without intending to derogate from the + high regard due to such respectable authorities, I have thus freely + ventured to point out, seemed to have proceeded from mistaking the + constituent letters of the conjunction in question. It would appear that + <i>d</i> was originally a radical letter of the word; that through time + it came, like many other consonants, to be aspirated; and by degrees + became, in some situations, quiescent. In Irish it is written giodh. This + manner of writing the word is adopted by the translator of Baxter's + "Call." One of its compounds is always written gidheadh. In these, the + <i>d</i> is preserved, though in its aspirated state. In Scotland it is + still pronounced, in most situations, ged, without aspirating the + <i>d</i> at all. These circumstances put together seem to prove the final + <i>d</i> is a radical constituent letter of this Conjunction.</p> + + <p>I have the satisfaction to say that the very accurate Author of the + Gaelic Translation of the Scriptures has, with great candour, + acknowledged the justice of the criticism contained in the foregoing + note. It is judged expedient to retain it in this edition of the Grammar, + lest the authority of that excellent Translation might perpetuate a form + of speech which is confessed to be faulty.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote94" href="#footnotetag94">[94]</a> To avoid, as far + as may be, the too frequent use of <i>a</i> by itself, perhaps it would + be better always to write the article full, an or am; and to apply the + above rules, about the elision of its letters, only to regulate the + pronunciation. Irish books, and our earlier Scottish publications, have + the article written almost always full, in situations where, according to + the latest mode of Orthography, it is mutilated.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote95" href="#footnotetag95">[95]</a> The practice of + suppressing the sound of an initial consonant in certain situations, and + supplying its place by another of a softer sound, is carried to a much + greater extent in the Irish dialect. It is termed <i>eclipsis</i> by the + Irish grammarians, and is an evidence of a nice attention to + <i>euphonia</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote96" href="#footnotetag96">[96]</a> The Dat. case is + always preceded by a Preposition, ris a' bhard, do 'n bhard, aig na + bardaibh; in declining a Noun with the article, any <i>Proper + Preposition</i> may be supplied before the Dative case.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote97" href="#footnotetag97">[97]</a> So in English, + <i>Grandfather</i>, <i>Highlands</i>, <i>sometimes</i>; in Latin, + <i>Respublica</i>, <i>Decemviri</i>; in Italian, <i>Primavera</i>; in + French, <i>Bonheur</i>, <i>Malheur</i>, &c. from being an adjective + and a noun, came to be considered as a single complex term, or a compound + word, and to be written accordingly.</p> + + <p>A close analogy may be traced between the Gaelic and the French in the + collocation of the Adjective. In both languages, the Adjective is + ordinarily placed after its Noun. If it be placed before its Noun, it is + by a kind of poetical inversion; dorchadas tiugh, <i>des tenebres + epaisses</i>; by inversion, tiugh dhorchadas, <i>d' epaisses + tenebres</i>; fear mòr, <i>un homme grand</i>; by inversion, in a + metaphorical sense, mòr fhear, <i>un grand homme</i>. A Numeral + Adjective, in both languages, is placed before its Noun; as also iomadh, + <i>plusieurs</i>; except when joined to a proper name, where the Cardinal + is used for the Ordinal; Seumas a Ceithir, <i>Jaques Quatre</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote98" href="#footnotetag98">[98]</a> The same seems to + be the case in the Cornish Language. See Lhuyd's "Arch. Brit." p. 243, + col. 3.</p> + + <p>When an Adjective precedes its Noun, it undergoes no change of + termination; as, thig an Tighearn a nuas le ard iolaich, <i>the Lord will + descend with a great shout</i>, 1 Thes. iv. 16; mar ghuth mor shluaigh, + <i>as the voice of a great multitude</i>, Rev. xix. 6.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote99" href="#footnotetag99">[99]</a> Thus, bhur inntinn + <i>your mind</i>, Acts xv. 24.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote100" href="#footnotetag100">[100]</a> This, however, + does not happen invariably. Where the <i>Sex</i>, though specified, is + overlooked as of small importance, the Personal or Possessive Pronouns + follow the <i>Gender</i> of the Antecedent. See 2 Sam. xii. 3.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote101" href="#footnotetag101">[101]</a> I am aware of + the singularity of asserting the grammatical propriety of such + expressions as ciod e Uchdmhacachd? ciod e Urnuigh? as, the nouns + uchdmhacachd, urnuigh are known to be of the feminine Gender; and as this + assertion stands opposed to the respectable authority of the Editor of + the Assembly's Catechism in Gaelic, Edin. 1792, where we read, Ciod i + urnuigh? &c. The following defence of it is offered to the attentive + reader.</p> + + <p>In every question the words which convey the interrogation must refer + to some higher genus or species than the words which express the subject + of the query. It is in the choice of the speaker to make that reference + to any genus or species he pleases. If I ask 'Who was Alexander?' the + Interrogative <i>who</i> refers to the species <i>man</i>, of which + <i>Alexander</i>, the subject of the query, is understood to have been an + individual. The question is equivalent to 'What man was Alexander?' If I + ask 'What is Man?' the Interrogative <i>what</i> refers to the genus of + Existence or Being, of which Man is considered as a subordinate genus or + species. The question is the same with 'What Being is Man?' I may also + ask 'What was Alexander?' Here the Interrogative <i>what</i> refers to + some genus or species of which Alexander is conceived to have been an + individual, though the particular genus intended by the querist is left + to be gathered from the tenor of the preceding discourse. It would be + improper, however, to say 'Who is man?' as the Interrogative refers to no + higher genus than that expressed by the word <i>Man</i>. It is the same + as if one should ask 'What man is Man?'</p> + + <p>In the question 'What is Prayer?' the object of the querist is to + learn the meaning of the term <i>Prayer</i>. The Interrogative + <i>what</i> refers to the genus of Existence, as in the question 'What is + Man?' not to the word <i>Prayer</i>, which is the subject of the query. + It is equivalent to 'What is [that thing which is named] Prayer?' In + those languages where a variety of gender is prevalent, this reference of + the Interrogative is more conspicuously marked. A Latin writer would say + '<i>Quid</i> est Oratio*?' A Frenchman, 'Qu' est-ce que la Prière?' These + questions, in a complete form, would run thus; 'Quid est [id quod + dicitur] Oratio?' 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] la Prière?' On the same + principle, and in the same sense, a Gaelic writer must say, 'Ciod e + urnuigh?' the Interrogative Ciod e referring not to urnuigh but to some + higher genus. The expression, when completed, is 'Ciod e [sin de 'n + goirear] urnuigh?'</p> + + <p>Is there then no case in which the Interrogative may follow the gender + of the subject? If the subject of the query be expressed, as it often is, + by <i>a general term, limited in its signification</i> by a noun, + adjective, relative clause, &c; the reference of the Interrogative is + often, though not always not necessarily, made to <i>that term</i> in its + general acceptation, and consequently be 'What is the Lord's Prayer?' + Here the subject of the query is not <i>Prayer</i>, but an individual of + that species, denoted by the term <i>prayer</i> limited in its + signification by another noun. The Interrogative <i>what</i> may refer, + as in the former examples, to the genus of Existence; or it may refer to + the species <i>Prayer</i>, of which the subject of the query is an + individual. That is, I may be understood to ask either 'What is that + <i>thing</i> which is called the Lord's Prayer?' or 'What is that + <i>prayer</i> which is called the Lord's Prayer?' A Latin writer would + say, in the former sense, 'Quid est Oratio Dominica†?' in the + latter sense, 'Quaenam est Oratio Dominica?' The former of these + expressions is resolvable into 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio + Dominica?' the latter into 'Quaenam [oratio] est Oratio Dominica?' The + same diversity of expression would be used in French: 'Qu' est-ce que + l'Oraison Dominicale?' and 'Quelle est l'Oraison Dominicale?' The former + resolvable into 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] l'Oraison Dominicale? the + latter into 'Quelle [oraison] est l'Oraison Dominicale? So also in + Gaelic, 'Ciod e Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod e [sin de'n + goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' or, which will occur oftener, 'Ciod i + Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod i [an urnuigh sin de 'n + goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?'</p> + + <p>* See a short Latin Catechism at the end of Mr Ruddiman's Latin + Rudiments, where many similar expressions occur; as 'Quid est fides? + 'Quid est Lex? Quid est Baptismus? Quid Sacramenta?' &c.</p> + + <p>† So Ruddiman, 'Quid est Sacra Coena?'</p> + + <p><a name="footnote102" href="#footnotetag102">[102]</a> The same + arrangement obtains pretty uniformly in Hebrew, and seems the natural and + ordinary collocation of the Verb and its Noun in that language. When the + Noun in Hebrew is placed before the Verb, it will generally be found that + the Noun does not immediately connect with the Verb as the Nominative to + it, but rather stands in an absolute state; and that it is brought + forward in that state by itself to excite attention, and denotes some + kind of emphasis, or opposition to another Noun. Take the following + examples for illustration: Gen. i. 1, <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `5'.">2</span>. 'In the beginning God created + [<span lang="he" class="heb" title="BR' 'LHYM" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ברא + אלהים</bdo></span> in the natural order] + the Heaven and the Earth.' <span lang="he" class="heb" title="WH'RTS HYTH" + ><bdo dir="rtl">והארץ + היתה</bdo></span>; not and the Earth was, + &c., but 'and with respect to the Earth, it was without form,' + &c. Thus expressed in Gaelic: 'agus an talamh bha e gun dealbh,' + &c. Gen. xviii. 33. 'And the Lord went his way [<span lang="he" + class="heb" title="WYLK YHWH" ><bdo + dir="rtl">וילך + יהוה</bdo></span> in the natural order] as soon + as he had left communing with Abraham;' <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="W'BRHM SHB" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ואברהם + שב</bdo></span>, not simply 'and Abraham returned,' &c., + but 'and Abraham—he too returned to his place.' In Gaelic, 'agus + Abraham, phill esan g' aite fein.' See also Num. xxiv. 25.—Gen. + iii. 12. 'And the man said, the woman whom thou gavest to be with me, + <span lang="he" class="heb" title="HW' NTNH LY" ><bdo + dir="rtl">הוא נתנה + לי</bdo></span> <i>she</i> it was that gave me of the tree, + and I did eat.' Gen. iii. 13. 'And the woman said, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="HNCHSH HSHY'NY" ><bdo + dir="rtl">הנחש + השיאני</bdo></span>, not merely 'the + Serpent beguiled me,' but '<i>the Serpent</i> was the cause; it beguiled + me, and I did eat.' Exod. xiv. 14. '<i>Jehovah</i>—he will fight + for you; but as for <i>you</i>, ye shall hold your peace.' This kind of + emphasis is correctly expressed in the Eng. translation of Psal. lx. 12, + 'for he <i>it is that</i> shall tread down our enemies.' Without + multiplying examples, I shall only observe that it must be difficult for + the English reader to conceive that the Noun denoting the subject of a + proposition, when placed after its Verb, should be in the natural order; + and when placed before its Verb, should be in an inverted order of the + words. To a person well aquainted with the Gaelic, this idiom is + familiar; and therefore it is the easier for him to apprehend the effect + of such an arrangement in any other language. For want of attending to + this peculiarity in the structure of the Hebrew, much of that force and + emphasis, which in other languages would be expressed by various + particles, but in Hebrew depend on the collocation alone, must pass + unobserved and unfelt.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote103" href="#footnotetag103">[103]</a> I am happy to + be put right, in my stricture on the above passage, by E. O'C., author of + a Gaelic Grammar, Dublin, 1808, who informs us that <i>truaighe</i> is + here the Nominative, and <i>Iosa</i> the Accusative case; and that the + meaning is not <i>Jesus took pity on them</i>, but <i>pity seized Jesus + for them</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote104" href="#footnotetag104">[104]</a> This + construction resembles that of the Latin Infinitive preceded by the + Accusative of the Agent.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i6">——Mene desistere victam,</p> + <p>Nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?—I. Ænid 28.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="footnote105" href="#footnotetag105">[105]</a> So in English, + the Infinitive of a Transitive Verb is sometimes used instead of the + Present Participle, and followed by the Preposition <i>of</i>; as, 'the + woman was there gathering of sticks.' 1 Kings xvii. 10.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>———— some sad drops</p> + <p>Wept at completing of the mortal sin.—"Parad. Lost."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>See more examples, Num. xiii, 25, 2 Sam. ii. 21, 2 Chron. xx. 25, + xxxv. 14, Ezek. xxxix. 12.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote106" href="#footnotetag106">[106]</a> On the same + principle it is that in some compound words, composed of two Nouns + whereof the former governs the latter in the Genitive, the former Noun is + seldom itself put in the Genitive case. Thus, ainm bean-na-bainse, <i>the + bride's name</i>; it would sound extremely harsh to say ainm + mna-na-bainse; clach ceann-an-teine, not clach cinn-an-teine, the stone + which supports a hearth fire.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote107" href="#footnotetag107">[107]</a> These examples + suggest, and seem to authorise a special use of this idiom of Gaelic + Syntax, which, if uniformly observed, might contribute much to the + perspicuity and precision of many common expressions. When a compound + term occurs, made up of a Noun and an <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `Infinite'.">Infinitive</span> governed by that + Noun, it often happens that this term itself governs another Noun in the + Genitive. Let the two parts of the compound term be viewed separately. If + it appear that the subsequent Noun is governed by the <i>former</i> part + of the compound word, then the latter part should remain regularly in the + Genitive Case. But if the subsequent Noun be governed by the + <i>latter</i> part of the compound word, then, agreeably to the + construction exemplified in the above passages, that latter part, which + is here supposed to be an Infinitive, should fall back into the + Nominative Case. Thus tigh-coimh<i>i</i>d an Righ, <i>the King's store + house</i>, where the Noun Righ is governed by tigh, the former term of + the compound word; but tigh comh<i>ea</i>d an ionmhais, John viii. 20, + <i>the house for keeping the treasure</i>, where ionmhais is governed by + coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nominative instead of the + Genitive. So luchd-coimh<i>i</i>d, Matt. xxviii. 4, when no other Noun is + governed; but fear-coimh<i>ea</i>d a' phriosuin, Acts, xvi. 27, 36, where + the last Noun is governed in the Genitive by coimh<i>ea</i>d, which is + therefore put in the Nominative. So also fear-coimh<i>i</i>d, Psal. cxxi. + 3, but fear-coimh<i>ea</i>d Israeil, Psal. cxxi. 4. Edin. 1799. + Tigh-bearr<i>ai</i>dh nam buachaillean, <i>the shearing-house belonging + to the shepherds</i>, 2 King, x. 12, but tigh-bearr<i>a</i>dh nan + caorach, <i>the house for shearing the sheep</i>. Luchd-brath<i>ai</i>dh + an Righ <i>the King's spies</i>; but luchd-brath<i>a</i>dh an Righ, + <i>the betrayers of the King</i>. Luchd-mort<i>ai</i>dh Heroid, + <i>assassins employed by Herod</i>; but luchd-mort<i>a</i>dh Eoin, <i>the + murderers of John</i>.</p> + + <p>I am aware that this distinction has been little regarded by the + translators of the Scriptures. It appeared, however, worthy of being + suggested, on account of its evident utility in point of precision, and + because it is supported by the genius and practice of the Gaelic + language.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote108" href="#footnotetag108">[108]</a> For this + reason, there seems to be an impropriety in writing chum a losgaidh, 1 + Cor. xiii. 3, instead of chum a losgadh.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote109" href="#footnotetag109">[109]</a> The same + peculiarity in the use of the Article takes place in Hebrew, and + constitutes a striking point of analogy in the structure of the two + languages. See <i>Buxt. Thes. Gram. Heb. Lib. II. Cap. V.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote110" href="#footnotetag110">[110]</a> This solecism + is found in the Irish as well as in the Scottish Gaelic translation. The + Manks translation has avoided it. In the Irish version and in the + Scottish Gaelic version of 1767, a similar instance occurs in Acts, ii. + 20, <i>an</i> la mor agus oirdheirc sin <i>an</i> Tighearna. In the + Scottish edition of 1796, the requisite correction is made by omitting + the first Article. It is omitted likewise in the Manks N. T. On the other + hand, the Article, which had been rightly left out in the Edition of + 1767, is <span class="correction" title="Original reads `properly'." + >improperly</span> introduced in the Edition of 1796, in 1 Cor. xi. 27, + an cupan so an Tighearna. It is proper to mention that, in the passage + last quoted, the first article <i>an</i> had crept, by mistake, into a + part of the impression 1796, but was corrected in the remaining part.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote111" href="#footnotetag111">[111]</a> The inserted + <i>m</i> or <i>n</i> is generally written with an apostrophe before it, + thus gu'm, gu'n. This would indicate that some vowel is here suppressed + in writing. But if no vowel ever stood in the place of this apostrophe, + which seems to be the fact, the apostrophe itself has been needlessly and + improperly introduced.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote112" href="#footnotetag112">[112]</a> I much doubt + the propriety of joining the Conjunction ged to the Fut. Affirm.; as, ge + do gheibh na h-uile dhaoine oilbheum, <i>though all men shall be + offended</i>, Matt. xxvi. 33. It should rather have been, ged fhaigh na + h-uile dhaoine, &c. The Fut. Subj. seems to be equally improper; as, + ge do ghlaodhas iad rium, <i>though they shall cry to me</i>, Jer. xi. + 21, Edit. 1786. Rather, ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. So + also, ged eirich dragh, 's ged bhagair bàs, <i>though trouble shall + arise, and though death shall threaten</i>. Gael. Paraph. xlvii. 7. Edin. + 1787. See page <a href="#page134">134</a>. Note <a + href="#footnote93">93</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote113" href="#footnotetag113">[113]</a> The + terminations <i>air</i>, <i>oir</i>, seem from their signification as + well as form, to be nothing else than fear <i>man</i>, in its aspirated + form fhear. From these terminations are derived the Latin terminations + <i>or</i>, orator, doctor, &c., <i>arius</i> sicarius, essedarius, + &c.; the French <i>eur</i>, vengeur, createur, &c.; <i>aire</i>, + commissaire, notaire, &c., <i>ter</i>, chevalier, charretier, + &c.; the English <i>er</i>, maker, lover, &c., <i>ary</i>, + prebendary, antiquary, &c., <i>eer</i>, volunteer, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote114" href="#footnotetag114">[114]</a> Timcheal na + macraidhe <i>beside the young men</i>, Lhuyd, O'Brien. voc. timcheal. + This passage proves macraidh to be a singular Noun of the fem. gender, + not, as might be thought, the Plural of mac. So laochruidh, madraidh, + &c., may rather be considered as collective Nouns of the singular + Number than as plurals.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote115" href="#footnotetag115">[115]</a> The same + termination having the same import, is found in the French words + cavalerie, infanterie, and in the English cavalry, infantry, + yeomanry.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote116" href="#footnotetag116">[116]</a> In the Gaelic + N. Test, the <i>Gentile</i> Nouns <span title="Korinthios, Galatai, Ephesioi" class="grk" + >Κορινθιος, + Γαλαται, + Εφεσιοι</span>, are rendered + Corintianaich, Galatianaich, Ephesianaich. Would it not be agreeable to + the analogy of Gaelic derivation to write Corintich, Galataich, Ephesich, + subjoining the Gaelic termination alone to the Primitive, rather than by + introducing the syllable <i>an</i>, to form a Derivative of a mixed and + redundant structure, partly vernacular, partly foreign? The word + Samaritanaich, John iv. 40, is remarkably redundant, having no fewer than + three <i>Gentile</i> Terminations. From <span title="Samareia" class="grk" + >Σαμαρεια</span> is formed, + agreeably to the Greek mode of derivation, <span title="Samareitai" class="grk" + >Σαμαρειται</span>. + To this the Latins added their own termination, and wrote + <i>Samaritani</i>; which the Irish lengthened out still further into + Samaritanaich. The proper Gaelic derivation would be Samaraich, like + Elamaich, Medich, Persich, &c. The Irish Galiléanach is, in the + Scottish Translation 1796, properly changed into Galiléach, Acts v. + 37.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote117" href="#footnotetag117">[117]</a> The termination + <i>ail</i> is a contraction for amhuil <i>like</i>. In Irish this + termination is generally written full, fearamhuil, geanamhuil, &c. + From the Gaelic termination <i>ail</i>, is derived the Latin termination + <i>alis</i>, fatalis, hospitalis, &c., whence the English <i>al</i>, + final, conditional, &c. See page <a href="#page33">33</a>. Note <a + href="#footnote25">25</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote118" href="#footnotetag118">[118]</a> Two or three + exceptions from this rule occur; as the Plurals <i>dée gods</i>, mnai + <i>women</i>, lai <i>days</i>. But these are so irregular in their form + as well as spelling, that they ought rather to be rejected altogether, + and their place supplied by the common Plurals diathan, mnathan, lathan + or lathachan.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote119" href="#footnotetag119">[119]</a> As if we should + write in English impious, impotent, without a hyphen; but im-penitent, + im-probable, with a hyphen.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote120" href="#footnotetag120">[120]</a> O beautiful + ringlet.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote121" href="#footnotetag121">[121]</a> The above is + the passage so often referred to in the controversy concerning the + antiquity of Ossian's Poems. It was natural enough for the zealous Bishop + to speak disparagingly of anything which appeared to him to divert the + minds of the people from those important religious truths to which he + piously wished to direct their most serious attention. But whatever may + be thought of his judgment, his testimony is decisive as to the existence + of traditional histories concerning Fingal and his people; and proves + that the rehearsal of those compositions was a common and favourite + entertainment with the people throughout the Highlands at the time when + he lived.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote122" href="#footnotetag122">[122]</a> <i>i.e.</i>, + the Hebrides.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 28766-h.htm or 28766-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/7/6/28766/ + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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