diff options
Diffstat (limited to '28600-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/28600-h.htm | 9939 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image10.jpg | bin | 0 -> 66370 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image107.jpg | bin | 0 -> 84843 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image111a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 112333 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image118.jpg | bin | 0 -> 62385 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image12.jpg | bin | 0 -> 71907 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image123.jpg | bin | 0 -> 78615 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image129a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 131883 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image133.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43274 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image138.jpg | bin | 0 -> 59848 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image144.jpg | bin | 0 -> 81332 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image147.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43664 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image151a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 92959 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image155.jpg | bin | 0 -> 65687 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image160.jpg | bin | 0 -> 57865 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image163.jpg | bin | 0 -> 81612 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image168.jpg | bin | 0 -> 106656 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image170.jpg | bin | 0 -> 83770 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image177a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 95648 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image182.jpg | bin | 0 -> 112719 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image198.jpg | bin | 0 -> 90006 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image1a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 65514 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image20.jpg | bin | 0 -> 83131 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image211a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 89734 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image214.jpg | bin | 0 -> 81870 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image227.jpg | bin | 0 -> 70499 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image231a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 92413 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image241.jpg | bin | 0 -> 73934 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image245.jpg | bin | 0 -> 55556 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image257a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 146322 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image266.jpg | bin | 0 -> 109981 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image273.jpg | bin | 0 -> 61738 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image282.jpg | bin | 0 -> 54317 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image287a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 258922 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image292.jpg | bin | 0 -> 188232 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image299.jpg | bin | 0 -> 63566 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image29a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 119519 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image303.jpg | bin | 0 -> 84941 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image307a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 268807 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image312.jpg | bin | 0 -> 109970 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image322.jpg | bin | 0 -> 85921 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image327.jpg | bin | 0 -> 91381 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image333a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 122751 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image34.jpg | bin | 0 -> 84083 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image340.jpg | bin | 0 -> 111800 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image353.jpg | bin | 0 -> 104790 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image356.jpg | bin | 0 -> 105454 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image362.jpg | bin | 0 -> 70765 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image42.jpg | bin | 0 -> 65170 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image50.jpg | bin | 0 -> 84689 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image55.jpg | bin | 0 -> 61856 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image59a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 107666 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image62.jpg | bin | 0 -> 94751 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image66.jpg | bin | 0 -> 83236 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image68.jpg | bin | 0 -> 77377 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image77.jpg | bin | 0 -> 62934 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image83a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 117682 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image85.jpg | bin | 0 -> 78743 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 28600-h/images/image98.jpg | bin | 0 -> 99055 bytes |
59 files changed, 9939 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/28600-h/28600-h.htm b/28600-h/28600-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3990fc --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/28600-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9939 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 2, by Francis Marion Crawford. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .tocnum {position: absolute; top: auto; right: 15%;} + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i7 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 2, by Francis Marion Crawford + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 2 + Studies from the Chronicles of Rome + +Author: Francis Marion Crawford + +Release Date: April 25, 2009 [EBook #28600] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS, VOL. 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image1a.jpg" width="650" height="397" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h1>AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS</h1> + +<h2>STUDIES</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE</h3> + +<h2>CHRONICLES OF ROME</h2> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD</h2> + +<h4>IN TWO VOLUMES</h4> + +<h4>VOL. II</h4> + +<p class="center"> +London<br /> +MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">New York: The Macmillan Company</span><br /> +1899<br /> +<br /> +<i>All rights reserved</i><br /> +<br /> +Copyright, 1898,<br /> +By The Macmillan Company.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Set up and electrotyped October, 1898. Reprinted November,<br /> +December, 1898; January, 1899.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Norwood Press</i><br /> +<i>J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith</i><br /> +<i>Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</i><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> + +<p> +VOLUME II<br /> +<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region VII Regola</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region VIII Sant' Eustachio</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region IX Pigna</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region X Campitelli</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region XI Sant' Angelo</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region XII Ripa</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region XIII Trastevere</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Region XIV Borgo</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Leo the Thirteenth</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vatican</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Saint Peter's</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_289'>289</a></span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h2>LIST OF PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES</h2> + + +<p>VOLUME II</p> + +<p> +Saint Peter's <span class="tocnum"><i><a href="#front">Frontispiece</a></i></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="tocnum">FACING PAGE</span><br /> +Palazzo Farnese <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></span><br /> +The Pantheon <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br /> +The Capitol <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br /> +General View of the Roman Forum <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br /> +Theatre of Marcellus <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br /> +Porta San Sebastiano <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></span><br /> +The Roman Forum, looking west <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br /> +The Palatine <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br /> +Castle of Sant' Angelo <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></span><br /> +Pope Leo the Thirteenth <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></span><br /> +Raphael's "Transfiguration" <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></span><br /> +Michelangelo's "Last Judgment" <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br /> +Panorama of Rome, from the Orti Farnesiani <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_298'>298</a></span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT</h2> + + +<h3>VOLUME II</h3> + +<p> +<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br /> +Region VII Regola, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br /> +Portico of Octavia <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></span><br /> +San Giorgio in Velabro <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br /> +Region VIII Sant' Eustachio, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></span><br /> +Site of Excavations on the Palatine <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></span><br /> +Church of Sant' Eustachio <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br /> +Region IX Pigna, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></span><br /> +Interior of the Pantheon <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br /> +The Ripetta <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br /> +Piazza Minerva <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br /> +Region X Campitelli, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></span><br /> +Church of Aracœli <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></span><br /> +Arch of Septimius Severus <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br /> +Column of Phocas <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br /> +Region XI Sant' Angelo, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></span><br /> +Piazza Montanara and the Theatre of Marcellus <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br /> +Site of the Ancient Ghetto <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></span><br /> +Region XII Ripa, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /> +Church of Saint Nereus and Saint Achilleus <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br /> +The Ripa Grande and Site of the Sublician Bridge <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></span><br /> +Region XIII Trastevere, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br /> +Ponte Garibaldi <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span><br /> +Palazzo Mattei <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>House built for Raphael by Bramante, now torn down <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></span><br /> +Monastery of Sant' Onofrio <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></span><br /> +Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br /> +Interior of Santa Maria degli Angeli <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br /> +Palazzo dei Conservatori <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br /> +Region XIV Borgo, Device of <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></span><br /> +Hospital of Santo Spirito <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_214'>214</a></span><br /> +The Papal Crest <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></span><br /> +Library of the Vatican <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_235'>235</a></span><br /> +Fountain of Acqua Felice <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></span><br /> +Vatican from the Piazza of St. Peter's <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br /> +Loggie of Raphael in the Vatican <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_259'>259</a></span><br /> +Biga in the Vatican Museum <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></span><br /> +Belvedere Court of the Vatican <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_272'>272</a></span><br /> +Sixtine Chapel <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_279'>279</a></span><br /> +Saint Peter's <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_289'>289</a></span><br /> +Mamertine Prison <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_294'>294</a></span><br /> +Interior of St. Peter's <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_305'>305</a></span><br /> +Pietà of Michelangelo <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_318'>318</a></span><br /> +Tomb of Clement the Thirteenth <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_321'>321</a></span><br /> +Ave atque Vale. Vignette <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_327'>327</a></span><br /> +</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2>Ave Roma Immortalis</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image10.jpg" width="450" height="247" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>REGION VII REGOLA</h2> + + +<p>'Arenula'—'fine sand'—'Renula,' 'Regola'—such is the derivation of +the name of the Seventh Region, which was bounded on one side by the +sandy bank of the Tiber from Ponte Sisto to the island of Saint +Bartholomew, and which Gibbon designates as a 'quarter of the city +inhabited only by mechanics and Jews.' The mechanics were chiefly +tanners, who have always been unquiet and revolutionary folk, but at +least one exception to the general statement must be made, since it was +here that the Cenci had built themselves a fortified palace on the +foundations of a part of the Theatre of Balbus, between the greater +Theatre of Marcellus, then held by the Savelli, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> the often mentioned +Theatre of Pompey. There Francesco Cenci dwelt, there the childhood of +Beatrice was passed, and there she lived for many months after the +murder of her father, before the accusation was first brought against +her. It is a gloomy place now, with its low black archway, its mouldy +walls, its half rotten windows, and its ghostly court of balconies; one +might guess that a dead man's curse hangs over it, without knowing how +Francesco died. And he, who cursed his sons and his daughters and +laughed for joy when two of them were murdered, rebuilt the little +church just opposite, as a burial-place for himself and them; but +neither he nor they were laid there. The palace used to face the Ghetto, +but that is gone, swept away to the very last stone by the municipality +in a fine hygienic frenzy, though, in truth, neither plague nor cholera +had ever taken hold there in the pestilences of old days, when the +Christian city was choked with the dead it could not bury. There is a +great open space there now, where thousands of Jews once lived huddled +together, crowding and running over each other like ants in an anthill, +in a state that would have killed any other people, persecuted +occasionally, but on the whole, fairly well treated; indispensable then +as now to the spendthrift Christian; confined within their own quarter, +as formerly in many other cities, by gates closed at dusk and opened at +sunrise, altogether a busy, filthy, believing, untiring folk that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +laughed at the short descent and high pretensions of a Roman baron, but +cringed and crawled aside as the great robber strode by in steel. And +close by the Ghetto, in all that remains of the vast Portico of Octavia, +is the little Church of Sant' Angelo in Pescheria where the Jews were +once compelled to hear Christian sermons on Saturdays.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image12.jpg" width="450" height="278" alt="PORTICO OF OCTAVIA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PORTICO OF OCTAVIA<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>Close by that church Rienzi was born, and it is for ever associated with +his memory. His name calls up a story often told, yet never clear, of a +man who seemed to possess several distinct and contradictory +personalities, all strong but by no means all noble, which by a freak of +fate were united in one man under one name, to make him by turns a hero, +a fool, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> Christian knight, a drunken despot and a philosophic Pagan. +The Buddhist monks of the far East believe today that a man's individual +self is often beset, possessed and dominated by all kinds of fragmentary +personalities that altogether hide his real nature, which may in reality +be better or worse than they are. The Eastern belief may serve at least +as an illustration to explain the sort of mixed character with which +Rienzi came into the world, by which he imposed upon it for a certain +length of time, and which has always taken such strong hold upon the +imagination of poets, and writers of fiction, and historians.</p> + +<p>Rienzi, as we call him, was in reality named 'Nicholas Gabrini, the son +of Lawrence'; and 'Lawrence,' being in Italian abbreviated to 'Rienzo' +and preceded by the possessive particle 'of,' formed the patronymic by +which the man is best known in our language. Lawrence Gabrini kept a +wine-shop somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Cenci palace; he seems +to have belonged to Anagni, he was therefore by birth a retainer of the +Colonna, and his wife was a washer-woman. Between them, moreover, they +made a business of selling water from the Tiber, through the city, at a +time when there were no aqueducts. Nicholas Rienzi's mother was +handsome, and from her he inherited the beauty of form and feature for +which he was famous in his youth. His gifts of mind were many, varied +and full of that exuberant vitality which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> noble lineage rarely +transmits; if he was a man of genius, his genius belonged to that order +which is never far removed from madness and always akin to folly. The +greatest of his talents was his eloquence, the least of his qualities +was judgment, and while he possessed the courage to face danger +unflinchingly, and the means of persuading vast multitudes to follow him +in the realization of an exalted dream, he had neither the wit to trace +a cause to its consequence, nor the common sense to rest when he had +done enough. He had no mental perspective, nor sense of proportion, and +in the words of Madame de Staël he 'mistook memories for hopes.'</p> + +<p>He was born in the year 1313, in the turbulent year that followed the +coronation of Henry the Seventh of Luxemburg; and when his vanity had +come upon him like a blight, he insulted the memory of his beautiful +mother by claiming to be the Emperor's son. In his childhood he was sent +to Anagni. There it must be supposed that he acquired his knowledge of +Latin from a country priest, and there he lived that early life of +solitude and retirement which, with ardent natures, is generally the +preparation for an outburst of activity that is to dazzle, or delight, +or terrify the world. Thence he came back, a stripling of twenty years, +dazed with dreaming and surfeited with classic lore, to begin the +struggle for existence in his native Rome as an obscure notary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> + +<p>It seems impossible to convey an adequate idea of the confusion and +lawlessness of those times, and it is hard to understand how any city +could exist at all in such absence of all authority and government. The +powers were nominally the Pope and the Emperor, but the Pope had obeyed +the commands of Philip the Fair and had retired to Avignon, and no +Emperor could even approach Rome without an army at his back and the +alliance of the Ghibelline Colonna to uphold him if he succeeded in +entering the city. The maintenance of order and the execution of such +laws as existed, were confided to a mis-called Senator and a so-called +Prefect. The Senatorship was the property of the Barons, and when Rienzi +was born the Orsini and Colonna had just agreed to hold it jointly to +the exclusion of every one else. The prefecture was hereditary in the +ancient house of Di Vico, from whose office the Via de' Prefetti in the +Region of Campo Marzo is named to this day; the head of the house was at +first required to swear allegiance to the Pope, to the Emperor, and to +the Roman People, and as the three were almost perpetually at swords +drawn with one another, the oath was a perjury when it was not a farce. +The Prefects' principal duty appears to have been the administration of +the Patrimony of Saint Peter, in which they exercised an almost +unlimited power after Innocent the Third had formally dispensed them +from allegiance to the Emperor, and the long line of petty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> tyrants did +not come to an end until Pope Eugenius the Fourth beheaded the last of +the race for his misdeeds in the fifteenth century; after him the office +was seized upon by the Barons and finally drifted into the hands of the +Barberini, a mere sinecure bringing rich endowments to its fortunate +possessor.</p> + +<p>In Rienzi's time there were practically three castes in Rome,—priests, +nobles, and beggars,—for there was nothing which in any degree +corresponded to a citizen class; such business as there was consisted +chiefly in usury, and was altogether in the hands of the Jews. Rome was +the lonely and ruined capital of a pestilential desert, and its +population was composed of marauders in various degrees.</p> + +<p>The priests preyed upon the Church, the nobles upon the Church and upon +each other, the beggars picked the pockets of both, and such men as were +bodily fit for the work of killing were enlisted as retainers in the +service of the Barons, whose steady revenues from their lands, whose +strong fortresses within the city, and whose possession of the coat and +mail armour which was then so enormously valuable, made them masters of +all men except one another. They themselves sold the produce of their +estates and the few articles of consumption which reached Rome from +abroad, in shops adjoining their palaces; they owned the land upon which +the corn and wine and oil were grown; they owned the peasants who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +ploughed and sowed and reaped and gathered; and they preserved the +privilege of disposing of their own wares as they saw fit. They feared +nothing but an ambush of their enemies, or the solemn excommunication of +the Pope, who cared little enough for their doings. The cardinals and +prelates who lived in the city were chiefly of the Barons' own order and +under their immediate protection. The Barons possessed everything and +ruled everything for their own profit; they defended their privileges +with their lives, and they avenged the slightest infringement on their +powers by the merciless shedding of blood. They were ignorant, but they +were keen; they were brave, but they were faithless; they were +passionate, licentious and unimaginably cruel.</p> + +<p>Such was the city, and such the government, to which Rienzi returned at +the age of twenty, to follow the profession of a notary, probably under +the protection of the Colonna. That the business afforded occupation to +many is proved by the vast number of notarial deeds of that time still +extant; but it is also sufficiently clear that Rienzi spent much of his +time in dreaming, if not in idleness, and much in the study of the +ancient monuments and inscriptions upon which no one had bestowed a +glance for generations. It was during that period of early manhood that +he acquired the learning and collected the materials which earned him +the title, 'Father of Archæology.' He seems to have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> about thirty +years old when he first began to speak in public places, to such +audience as he could gather, expanding with ready though untried +eloquence the soaring thoughts bred in years of solitary study.</p> + +<p>Clement the Sixth, a Frenchman, was elected Pope at Avignon, a man who, +according to the chronicler, contrasted favourably by his wisdom, +breadth of view, and liberality, with a weak and vacillating +predecessor. Seeing that they had to do with a man at last, the Romans +sent an embassy to him to urge his return to Rome. The hope had long +been at the root of Rienzi's life, and he must have already attained to +a considerable reputation of learning and eloquence, since he was chosen +to be one of the ambassadors. Petrarch conceived the highest opinion of +him at their first meeting, and never withdrew his friendship from him +to the end; the great poet joined his prayers with those of the Roman +envoys, and supported Rienzi's eloquence with his own genius in a Latin +poem. But nothing could avail to move the Pope. Avignon was the Capua of +the Pontificate,—a vast papal palace was in course of construction, and +the cardinals had already begun to erect sumptuous dwellings for +themselves. The Pope listened, smiled, and promised everything except +return; the unsuccessful embassy was left without means of subsistence; +and Rienzi, disappointed in soul, ill in body, and almost starving, was +forced to seek the refuge of a hospital, whither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> he retired in the +single garment which remained unsold from his ambassadorial outfit. But +he did not languish long in this miserable condition, for the Pope heard +of his misfortunes, remembered his eloquence, and sent him back to Rome, +invested with the office of Apostolic Notary, and endowed with a salary +of five golden florins daily, a stipend which at that time amounted +almost to wealth. The office was an important one, but Rienzi exercised +it by deputy, continued his studies, propagated his doctrines, and by +quick degrees acquired unbounded influence with the people. His hatred +of the Barons was as profound as his love of his native city was noble; +and if the unavenged murder of a brother, and the unanswered buffet of a +Colonna rankled in his heart, and stimulated his patriotism with the +sting of personal wrong, neither the one nor the other were the prime +causes of his actions. The evils of the city were enormous, his courage +was heroic, and after profound reflection he resolved upon the step +which determined his tragic career.</p> + +<p>To the door of the Church of Saint George in Velabro he affixed a +proclamation, or a prophecy, which set forth that Rome should soon be +restored to the 'Good Estate'; he collected a hundred of his friends in +a meeting by night, on the Aventine, to decide upon a course of action, +and he summoned all citizens to appear before the church of Sant' Angelo +in Pescheria, towards evening, peacefully and without arms, to provide<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +for the restoration of that 'Good Estate' which he himself had +announced.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image20.jpg" width="450" height="274" alt="SAN GIORGIO IN VELABRO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SAN GIORGIO IN VELABRO</span> +</div> + +<p>That night was the turning-point in Rienzi's life, and he made it a +Vigil of Arms and Prayer. In the mysterious nature of the destined man, +the pure spirit of the Christian knight suddenly stood forth in +domination of his soul, and he consecrated himself to the liberation of +his country by the solemn office of the Holy Ghost. All night he kneeled +in the little church, in full armour, with bare head, before the altar. +The people came and went, and others came after them and saw him +kneeling there, while one priest succeeded another in celebrating the +Thirty Masses of the Holy Spirit from midnight to early morning. The sun +was high when the champion of freedom came<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> forth, bareheaded still, to +face the clear light of day. Around him marched the chosen hundred; at +his right hand went the Pope's vicar; and before him three great +standards displayed allegories of liberty, justice, and peace.</p> + +<p>A vast concourse of people followed him, for the news had spread from +mouth to mouth, and there were few in Rome who had not heard his voice +and longed for the 'Good Estate' which he so well described. The nobles +heard of the assembly with indifference, for they were well used to +disturbances of every kind and dreaded no unarmed rabble. Colonna and +Orsini, joint senators, had quarrelled, and the Capitol was vacant; +thither Rienzi went, and thence from a balcony he spoke to the people of +freedom, of peace, of prosperity. The eloquence that had moved Clement +and delighted Petrarch stirred ten thousand Roman hearts at once; a +dissatisfied Roman count read in clear tones the laws Rienzi proposed to +establish, and the appearance of a bishop and a nobleman by the +plebeian's side gave the people hope and encouragement. The laws were +simple and direct, and there was to be but one interpretation of them, +while all public revenues were to be applied to public ends. Each Region +of the city was to furnish a contingent of men-at-arms, and if any man +were killed in the service of his country, Rome was to provide for his +wife and children. The fortresses, the bridges, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> gates, were to pass +from the custody of the Barons to that of the Roman people, and the +Barons themselves were to retire forthwith from the city. So the Romans +made Rienzi Dictator.</p> + +<p>The nobles refused to believe in a change which meant ruin to +themselves. Old Stephen Colonna laughed and said he would throw the +madman from the window as soon as he should be at leisure. It was near +noon when he spoke; the sun was barely setting when he rode for his life +towards Palestrina. The great bell of the Capitol called the people to +arms, the liberator was already the despot, and the Barons were already +exiles. Rienzi assumed the title of Tribune with the authority of +Dictator, and with ten thousand swords at his back exacted a humiliating +oath of allegiance from the representatives of the great houses. Upon +the Body and Blood of Christ they swore to the 'Good Estate,' they bound +themselves to yield up their fortresses within the city, to harbour +neither outlaws nor malefactors in their mountain castles, and to serve +the Republic loyally in arms whenever they should be called upon to do +so. The oath was taken by all, the power that could enforce it was +visible to all men's eyes, and Rienzi was supreme.</p> + +<p>Had he been the philosopher that he had once persuaded himself he was; +had he been the pure-hearted Christian Knight of the Holy Spirit he had +believed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> himself when he knelt through the long Office in the little +church; had he been the simple Roman Tribune of the People that he +proclaimed himself, when he had seized the dictatorship, history might +have followed a different course, and the virtues he imposed upon Rome +might have borne fruit throughout all Italy. But with Rienzi, each new +phase was the possession of a new spirit of good or evil, and with each +successive change, only the man's great eloquence remained. While he was +a hero, he was a hero indeed; while he was a philosopher, his thoughts +were lofty and wise; so long as he was a knight, his life was pure and +blameless. But the vanity which inspired him, not to follow an ideal, +but to represent that ideal outwardly, and which inflamed him with a +great actor's self-persuading fire, required, like all vanity, the +perpetual stimulus of applause and admiration. He could have leapt into +the gulf with Curtius before the eyes of ten thousand grateful citizens; +but he could not have gone back with Cincinnatus to the plough, a +simple, true-hearted man. The display of justice followed the assumption +of power, it is true; but when justice was established, the unquiet +spirit was assailed by the thirst for a new emotion which no boasting +proclamation could satisfy, and no adulation could quench. The changes +he wrought in a few weeks were marvellous, and the spirit in which they +were made was worthy of a great reformer; Italy saw and admired, +received his ambassadors and entertained them with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> respect, read his +eloquent letters and answered them with approbation; and Rienzi's court +was the tribunal to which the King of Hungary appealed the cause of a +murdered brother. Yet his vanity demanded more. It was not long before +he assumed the dress, the habits, and the behaviour of a sovereign and +appeared in public with the emblems of empire. He felt that he was no +longer in spirit the Knight of the Holy Ghost, and he required for +self-persuasion the conference of the outward honours of knighthood. He +purified himself according to the rites of chivalry in the font of the +Lateran Baptistry, consecrated by the tradition of Constantine's +miraculous recovery from leprosy, he watched his arms throughout the +dark hours, and received the order from the sword of an honourable +nobleman. The days of the philosopher, the hero, and the liberator were +over, and the reign of the public fool was inaugurated by the most +extravagant boasts, and celebrated by a feast of boundless luxury and +abundance, to which the citizens of Rome were bidden with their wives +and daughters. Still unsatisfied, he demanded and obtained the ceremony +of a solemn coronation, and seven crowns were placed successively upon +his head as emblems of the seven spiritual gifts. Before him stood the +great Barons in attitudes of humility and dejection; for a moment the +great actor had forgotten himself in the excitement of his part, and +Rienzi again enjoyed the emotion of undisputed sovereignty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> + +<p>But Colonna, Orsini and Savelli were not men to submit tamely in fact, +though the presence of an overwhelming power had forced them to outward +submission, and in his calmer moments the extravagant tribune was +haunted by the dream of vengeance. A ruffian asserted under torture that +the nobles were already conspiring against their victor, and Rienzi +enticed three of the Colonna and five of the Orsini to the Capitol, +where he had taken up his abode. He seized them, held them prisoners all +night, and led them out in the morning to be the principal actors in a +farce which he dared not turn to tragedy. Condemned to death, their sins +confessed, they heard the tolling of the great bell, and stood +bareheaded before the executioner. The scene was prepared with the art +of a consummate playwright, and the spectators were delighted by a +speech of rare eloquence and amazed by the sudden exhibition of a +clemency that was born of fear. Magnanimously pardoning those whom he +dared not destroy, Rienzi received a new oath of allegiance from his +captives and dismissed them to their homes.</p> + +<p>The humiliation rankled. Laying aside their hereditary feud, Colonna and +Orsini made a desperate effort to regain their power. By a +misunderstanding they were defeated, and the third part of their force, +entering the city without the rest, was overwhelmed and massacred, and +six of the Colonna were slain. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> low-born Rienzi refused burial for +their bodies, knighted his son on the spot where they had fallen, and +washed his hands in water that was mingled with their blood. It was his +last triumph and his basest.</p> + +<p>His power was already declining, and though the people had assembled in +arms to beat off their former masters, they had lost faith in a leader +who had turned out a madman, a knave, and a drunkard. They refused to +pay the taxes he would have laid upon them, and resisted the measures he +proposed. Clement the Sixth, who had approved his wisdom, punished his +folly, and the so-called tribune was deposed, condemned for heresy, and +excommunicated. A Neapolitan soldier of fortune, an adventurer and a +criminal, took possession of Rome with only one hundred and fifty men, +in the name of the Pope, without striking a blow, and the people would +not raise a hand to help their late idol as he was led away weeping to +the Castle of Sant' Angelo, while the nobles looked on in scornful +silence. Rienzi was allowed to depart in peace after a short captivity +and became a wanderer and an outcast in Europe.</p> + +<p>In many disguises he went from place to place, and did not fear to +return to Rome in the travesty of a pilgrim. The story of his adventures +would fill many pages, but Rome is not concerned with them. In vain he +appealed to adventurers, to enthusiasts, and to fanatics to help in +regaining what he had lost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> None would listen to him, no man would draw +the sword. He came to Prague at last, obtained an audience of the +Emperor Charles the Fourth, appealed to the whole court, with +impassioned eloquence, and declared himself to be Rienzi. The attempt +cost him his freedom, for the prudent emperor forthwith sent him a +captive to the Pope at Avignon, where he was at first loaded with chains +and thrown into prison. But Clement hesitated to bring him to trial, his +friend Petrarch spoke earnestly in his favour, and he was ultimately +relegated to an easy confinement, during which he once more gave himself +up to the study of his favourite classics in peaceful resignation.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in Rome his enactments had been abolished with sweeping +indifference to their character and importance, and the old misrule was +reëstablished in its pristine barbarity. The feud between Orsini and +Colonna broke out again in the absence of a common danger. The plague +appeared in Europe and decimated a city already distracted by internal +discord. Rome was again a wilderness of injustice, as the chronicle +says; every one doing what seemed good in his own eyes, the Papal and +the public revenues devoured by marauders, the streets full of thieves, +and the country infested by outlaws. Clement died, and Innocent the +Sixth, another Frenchman, was elected in his stead, 'a personage of +great science, zeal, and justice,' who set about to reform abuses as +well as he could, but who saw that he could not hope to return to Rome +without long and careful preparation. He selected as his agent in the +attempt to regain possession of the States of the Church the Cardinal +Albornoz, a Spaniard of courage and experience.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image29a.jpg" width="650" height="428" alt="PALAZZO FARNESE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PALAZZO FARNESE</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile Rienzi enjoyed greater freedom, and assumed the character of +an inspired poet; than which none commanded greater respect and +influence in the early years of the Renascence. That he ever produced +any verses of merit there is not the slightest evidence to prove, but +his undoubted learning and the friendship of Petrarch helped him to +sustain the character. He never lacked talent to act any part which his +vanity suggested as a means of flattering his insatiable soul. He put on +the humility of a penitent and the simplicity of a true scholar; he +spoke quietly and wisely of Italy's future and he obtained the +confidence of the new Pope.</p> + +<p>It was in this way that by an almost incredible turn of fortune, the +outcast and all but condemned heretic was once more chosen as a means of +restoring order in Rome, and accompanied Cardinal Albornoz on his +mission to Italy. Had he been a changed man as he pretended to be, he +might have succeeded, for few understood the character of the Romans +better, and there was no name in the country of which the memories +appealed so profoundly to the hearts of the people.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> + +<p>The catalogue of his deeds during the second period of power is long and +confused, but the history of his fall is short and tragic. Not without a +keen appreciation of the difference between his former position as the +freely chosen champion of the people, and his present mission as a +reformer supported by pontifical authority, he requested the Legate to +invest him with the dignity of a senator, and the Cardinal readily +assented to what was an assertion of the temporal power. Then Albornoz +left him to himself. He entered Rome in triumph, and his eloquence did +not desert him. But he was no longer the young and inspired knight, +self-convinced and convincing, who had issued from the little church +long ago. In person he was bloated with drink and repulsive to all who +saw him; and the vanity which had so often been the temporary basis of +his changing character had grown monstrous under the long repression of +circumstances. With the first moment of success it broke out and +dictated his actions, his assumed humility was forgotten in an instant, +as well as the well-worded counsels of wisdom by which he had won the +Pope's confidence; and he plunged into a civil war with the still +powerful Colonna. One act of folly succeeded another; he had neither +money nor credit, and the stern Albornoz, seeing the direction he was +taking, refused to send him assistance. In his extremity he attempted to +raise funds for his soldiers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> and money for his own unbounded luxury by +imposing taxes which the people could not bear. The result was certain +and fatal. The Romans rose against him in a body, and an infuriated +rabble besieged him at the Capitol.</p> + +<p>It has been said that the vainest men make the best soldiers. Rienzi was +brave for a moment at the last. Seeing himself surrounded, and deserted +by his servants, he went out upon a balcony and faced the mob alone, +bearing in his hand the great standard of the Republic, and for the last +time he attempted to avert with words the tempest which his deeds had +called forth. But his hour had come, and as he stood there alone he was +stoned and shot at, and an arrow pierced his hand. Broken in nerve by +long intemperance and fanatic excitement, he burst into tears and fled, +refusing the hero's death in which he might still have saved his name +from scorn. He attempted to escape from the other side of the Capitol +towards the Forum, and in the disguise of a street porter he had +descended through a window and had almost escaped notice while the +multitude was breaking down the doors of the main entrance. Then he was +seen and taken, and they brought him in his filthy dress to the great +platform of the Capitol, not knowing what they should do with him and +almost frightened to find their tyrant in their power.</p> + +<p>They thronged round him, looked at him, spoke to him, but he answered +nothing; for his hour was come,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> the star of his nativity was in the +house of death. In that respite, had he been a man, courage might have +awed them, eloquence might have touched them, and he might yet have +dreamed of power. But he was utterly speechless, utterly broken, utterly +afraid. A whole hour passed, and no hand was lifted against him; yet he +spoke not. Then one man, tired of his pale and bloated face, silently +struck a knife into his heart, and as he fell dead, the rabble rushed +upon him and stabbed him to pieces, and a long yell of murderous rage +told all Rome that Rienzi was dead.</p> + +<p>They left his body to the dogs and went away to their homes, for it was +evening, and they were spent with madness. Then the Jews came, who hated +him also; and they dragged the miserable corpse through the streets; and +made a bonfire of thistles in a remote place and burned it; and what was +left of the bones and ashes they threw into the Tiber. So perished +Rienzi, a being who was not a man, but a strangely responsive +instrument, upon which virtue, heroism, courage, cowardice, faith, +falsehood and knavery played the grandest harmonies and the wildest +discords in mad succession, till humanity was weary of listening, and +silenced the harsh music forever. However we may think of him, he was +great for a moment, yet however great we may think him, he was little in +all but his first dream. Let him have some honour for that, and much +merciful oblivion for the rest.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image34.jpg" width="450" height="360" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>REGION VIII SANT' EUSTACHIO</h2> + + +<p>The Eighth region is almost symmetrical in shape, extending nearly north +and south with a tolerably even breadth from the haunted palace of the +Santacroce, where the marble statue of the dead Cardinal comes down from +its pedestal to pace the shadowy halls all night, to Santa Maria in +Campo Marzo, and cutting off, as it were, the three Regions so long held +by the Orsini from the rest of the city. Taking Rome as a whole, it was +a very central quarter until the development of the newly inhabited +portions. It was here, near the churches of Saint Eustace and Saint +Ives,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> that the English who came to Rome for business established +themselves, like other foreigners, in a distinct colony during the +Renascence. Upon the chapel of Saint Ives, unconsecrated now and turned +into a lecture room of the University, a strange spiral tower shows the +talents of Borromini, Bernini's rival, at their lowest ebb. So far as +one can judge, the architect intended to represent realistically the +arduous path of learning; but whatever he meant, the result is as bad a +piece of Barocco as is to be found in Rome.</p> + +<p>As for the Church of Saint Eustace, it commemorates a vision which +tradition attributes alike to Saint Julian the Hospitaller, to Saint +Felix, and to Saint Hubert. The genius of Flaubert, who was certainly +one of the greatest prose writers of this century, has told the story of +the first of these in very beautiful language, and the legend of Saint +Hubert is familiar to every one. Saint Eustace is perhaps less known, +for he was a Roman saint of early days, a soldier and a lover of the +chase, as many Romans were. We do not commonly associate with them the +idea of boar hunting or deer stalking, but they were enthusiastic +sportsmen. Virgil's short and brilliant description of Æneas shooting +the seven stags on the Carthaginian shore is the work of a man who had +seen what he described, and Pliny's letters are full of allusions to +hunting. Saint Eustace was a contemporary of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> latter, and perhaps +outlived him, for he is said to have been martyred under Hadrian, when a +long career of arms had raised him to the rank of a general. It is an +often-told story—how he was stalking the deer in the Ciminian forest +one day, alone and on foot, when a royal stag, milk-white and without +blemish, crashed through the meeting boughs before him; how he followed +the glorious creature fast and far, and shot and missed and shot again, +and how at last the stag sprang up a steep and jutting rock and faced +him, and he saw Christ's cross between the branching antlers, and upon +the Cross the Crucified, and heard a still far voice that bade him be +Christian and suffer and be saved; and so, alone in the greenwood, he +knelt down and bowed himself to the world's Redeemer, and rose up again, +and the vision had departed. And having converted his wife and his two +sons, they suffered together with him; for they were thrust into the +great brazen bull by the Colosseum, and it was made red hot, and they +perished, praising God. But their ashes lie under the high altar in the +church to this day.</p> + +<p>The small square of Saint Eustace is not far from Piazza Navona, +communicating with it by gloomy little streets, and on the great night +of the Befana, the fair spreads through the narrow ways and overflows +with more booths, more toys, more screaming whistles, into the space +between the University and the church.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> And here at the southeast corner +used to stand the famous Falcone, the ancient eating-house which to the +last kept up the Roman traditions, and where in old days, many a famous +artist and man of letters supped on dishes now as extinct as the dodo. +The house has been torn down to make way for a modern building. Famous +it was for wild boar, in the winter, dressed with sweet sauce and pine +nuts, and for baked porcupine and strange messes of tomatoes and cheese, +and famous, too, for its good old wines in the days when wine was not +mixed with chemicals and sold as 'Chianti,' though grown about Olevano, +Paliano and Segni. It was a strange place, occupying the whole of two +houses which must have been built in the sixteenth century, after the +sack of Rome. It was full of small rooms of unexpected shapes, +scrupulously neat and clean, with little white and red curtains, tiled +floors, and rush bottomed chairs, and the regular guests had their own +places, corners in which they had made themselves comfortable for life, +as it were, and were to be found without fail at dinner and at supper +time. It was one of those genial bits of old Rome which survived till a +few years ago, and was more deeply regretted than many better things +when it disappeared.</p> + +<p>Behind the Church of Saint Eustace runs a narrow street straight up from +the Square of the Pantheon to the Via della Dogana Vecchia. It used to +be chiefly occupied at the lower end by poulterers' shops, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> towards +its upper extremity—for the land rises a little—it has always had a +peculiarly dismal and gloomy look. It bears a name about which are +associated some of the darkest deeds in Rome's darkest age; it is called +the Via de' Crescenzi, the street and the abode of that great and evil +house which filled the end of the tenth century with its bloody deeds.</p> + +<p>There is no more unfathomable mystery in the history of mediæval Rome +than the origin and power of Theodora, whose name first appears in the +year 914, as Lady Senatress and absolute mistress of the city. The +chronicler Luitprand, who is almost the only authority for this period, +heaps abuse upon Theodora and her eldest daughter, hints that they were +of low origin, and brands them with a disgrace more foul than their +crimes. No one can read their history and believe that they were +anything but patrician women, of execrable character but of high +descent. From Theodora, in little more than a hundred years, descended +five Popes and a line of sovereign Counts, ending in Peter, the first +ancestor of the Colonna who took the name; and, from her also, by the +marriage of her second daughter, called Theodora like herself, the +Crescenzi traced their descent. Yet no historian can say who that first +Theodora was, nor whence she came, nor how she rose to power, nor can +any one name the father of her children. Her terrible eldest child, +Marozia, married three sovereigns, the Lord of Tusculum,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> the Lord of +Tuscany, and at last Hugh, King of Burgundy, and left a history that is +an evil dream of terror and bloodshed. But the story of those fearful +women belongs to their stronghold, the great castle of Sant' Angelo. To +the Region of Saint Eustace belongs the history of Crescenzio, consul, +tribune and despot of Rome. In the street that bears the name of his +family, the huge walls of Severus Alexander's bath afforded the +materials for a fortress, and there Crescenzio dwelt when his kinswoman +Marozia held Hadrian's tomb, and after she was dead. Those were the +times when the Emperors defended the Popes against the Roman people. Not +many years had passed since Otto the First had done justice upon Peter +the Prefect, far away at the Lateran palace; Otto the Second reigned in +his stead, and Benedict the Sixth was Pope. The race of Theodora hated +the domination of the Emperor, and despised a youthful sovereign whom +they had never seen. They dreamed of restoring Rome to the Eastern +Empire, and of renewing the ancient office of Exarch for themselves. +Benedict stood in their way and was doomed. They chose their antipope, a +Roman Cardinal, one Boniface, a man with neither scruple nor conscience, +and set him up in the Pontificate; and, when they had done that, +Crescenzio seized Benedict and dragged him through the low black +entrance of Sant' Angelo, and presently strangled him in his dungeon. +But neither did Boniface please those who had made him Pope; and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +within the month, lest he should die like him he had supplanted, he +stealthily escaped from Rome to the sea, and it is recorded that he +stole and carried away the sacred vessels and treasures of the Vatican, +and took them to Constantinople.</p> + +<p>So Crescenzio first appears in the wild and confused history of that +century of dread, when men looked forward with certainty and horror to +the ending of the world in the year one thousand. And during a dozen +years after Benedict was murdered, the cauldron of faction boiled and +seethed in Rome. Then, in the year 987, when Hugh Capet took France for +himself and for his descendants through eight centuries, and when John +the Fifteenth was Pope in Rome, 'a new tyrant arose in the city which +had hitherto been trampled down and held under by the violence of the +race of Alberic,'—that is, the race of Theodora,—'and that tyrant was +Crescentius.' And Crescenzio was the kinsman of Alberic's children.</p> + +<p>The second Otto was dead, and Otto the Third was a mere boy, when +Crescenzio, fortified in Sant' Angelo, suddenly declared himself Consul, +seized all power, and drove the Pope from Rome. This time he had no +antipope; he would have no Pope at all, and there was no Emperor either, +since the young Otto had not yet been crowned. So Crescenzio reigned +alone for awhile, with what he called a Senate at his back,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> and the +terror of his name to awe the Roman people. But Pope John was wiser than +the unfortunate Benedict, and a better man than Boniface, the antipope +and thief; and having escaped to the north, he won the graces of +Crescenzio's distant kinsman by marriage and hereditary foe, Duke Hugh +of Tuscany, grandson of Hugh of Burgundy the usurper; and from that +strong situation he proceeded to offer the boy Otto inducements for +coming to be crowned in Rome.</p> + +<p>He wisely judged from what he had seen during his lifetime that the most +effectual means of opposing the boundless license of the Roman +patricians was to make an Emperor, even of a child, and he knew that the +name of Otto the Great was not forgotten, and that the terrible +execution of Peter the Prefect was remembered with a lively dread. +Crescenzio was not ready to oppose the force of the Empire; he was +surrounded by jealous factions at home, which any sudden revolution +might turn against himself, he weighed his strength against the danger +and he resolved to yield. The 'Senate,' which consisted of patricians as +greedy as himself, but less daring or less strong, had altogether +recovered the temporal power in Rome, and Crescenzio easily persuaded +them that it would be both futile and dangerous to quarrel with the +Emperor about spiritual matters. The 'Consul' and the 'Senate'—which +meant a tyrant and his courtiers—accordingly requested the Pope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> to +return in peace and exercise his episcopal functions in the Holy See. +Pope John must have been as bold as he was wise, for he did not +hesitate, but came back at once. He reaped the fruit of his wisdom and +his courage. Crescenzio and the nobles met him with reverence and +implored his forgiveness for their ill-considered deeds; the Pope +granted them a free pardon, wisely abstaining from any assertion of +temporal power, and sometimes apparently submitting with patience to the +Consul's tyranny. For it is recorded that some years later, when the +Bishops of France sent certain ambassadors to the Pope, they were not +received, but were treated with indignity, kept waiting outside the +palace three days, and finally sent home without audience or answer +because they had omitted to bribe Crescenzio.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image42.jpg" width="450" height="326" alt="SITE OF EXCAVATIONS ON THE PALATINE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SITE OF EXCAVATIONS ON THE PALATINE</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + +<p>If Pope John had persuaded Otto to be crowned at once, such things might +not have taken place. It was many years before the young Emperor came to +Rome at last, and he had not reached the city when he was met by the +news that Pope John was dead. He lost no time, designated his private +chaplain, the son of the Duke of Franconia, 'a young man of letters, but +somewhat fiery on account of his youth,' to be Pope, and sent him +forward to Rome at once with a train of bishops, to be installed in the +Holy See. In so youthful a sovereign, such action lacked neither energy +nor wisdom. The young Pontiff assumed the name of Gregory the Fifth, +espoused the cause of the poor citizens against the tyranny of the +nobles, crowned his late master Emperor, and forthwith made a determined +effort to crush Crescenzio and regain the temporal power.</p> + +<p>But he had met his match at the outset. The blood of Theodora was not +easily put down. The Consul laughed to scorn the pretensions of the +young Pope; the nobles were in arms, the city was his, and in the second +year of his Pontificate, Gregory the Fifth was driven ignominiously from +the gates in a state of absolute destitution. He was the third Pope whom +Crescenzio had driven out. Gregory made his way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> to Pavia, summoned a +council of Bishops, and launched the Major Excommunication at his +adversary. But the Consul, secure in Sant' Angelo, laughed again, more +grimly, and did as he pleased.</p> + +<p>At this time Basil and Constantine, joint Emperors in Constantinople, +sent ambassadors to Rome to Otto the Third, and with them came a certain +John, a Calabrian of Greek race, a man of pliant conscience, tortuous +mind, and extraordinary astuteness, at that time Archbishop of Piacenza, +and formerly employed by Otto upon a mission to Constantinople. +Crescenzio, as though to show that his enmity was altogether against the +Pope, and not in the least against the Emperor, received these envoys +with great honour, and during their stay persuaded them to enter into a +scheme which had suddenly presented itself to his ambitious +intelligence. The old dream of restoring Rome to the Eastern Empire was +revived, the conspirators resolved to bring it to realization, and John +of Calabria was a convenient tool for their hands. He was to be Pope; +Crescenzio was to be despot, under the nominal protection and +sovereignty of the Greek Emperors, and the ambassadors were to conclude +the treaty with the latter. Otto was on the German frontier waging war +against the Slavs, and Gregory was definitely exiled from Rome. Nothing +stood in the way of the plot, and it was forthwith put into execution. +Certain ambassadors of Otto's were passing through Rome on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> their return +from the East and on their way to the Emperor's presence; they were +promptly seized and thrown into prison, in order to interrupt +communication between the two Empires. John of Calabria was consecrated +Pope, or rather antipope, Crescenzio took possession of all power, and +certain legates of Pope Gregory having ventured to enter Rome were at +once imprisoned with the Emperor's ambassadors. It was a daring stroke, +and if it had succeeded, the history of Europe would have been different +from that time forward. Crescenzio was bold, unscrupulous, pertinacious +and keen. He had the Roman nobles at his back and he controlled such +scanty revenues as could still be collected. He had violently expelled +three Popes, he had created two antipopes, and his name was terror in +the ears of the Church. Yet it would have taken more than all that to +overset the Catholic Church at a time when the world was ripe for the +first crusade; and though the Empire had fallen low since the days of +Charles the Great, it was fast climbing again to the supremacy of power +in which it culminated under Barbarossa and whence it fell with +Frederick the Second. A handful of high-born murderers and marauders +might work havoc in Rome for a time, but they could neither destroy that +deep-rooted belief nor check the growth of that imperial law by which +Europe emerged from the confusion of the dark age—to lose both law and +belief again amid the intellectual excitements of the Renascence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<p>Otto the Third was young, brave and determined, and before the treaty +with the Eastern Emperors was concluded, he was well informed of the +outrageous deeds of the Roman patricians. No sooner had he brought the +war on the Saxon frontier to a successful conclusion than he descended +again into Italy 'to purge the Roman bilge,' in the chronicler's strong +words. On his way, he found time to visit Venice secretly, with only six +companions, and we are told how the Doge entertained him in private as +Emperor, with sumptuous suppers, and allowed him to wander about Venice +all day as a simple unknown traveller, with his companions, 'visiting +the churches and the other rare things of the City,' whereby it is clear +that in the year 998, when Rome was a half-deserted, half-ruined city, +ruled by a handful of brigands living in the tomb of the Cæsars, Venice, +under the good Doge Orseolo the Second, was already one of the beautiful +cities of the world, as well as mistress of the Adriatic, of all +Dalmatia, and of many lovely islands.</p> + +<p>Otto took with him Pope Gregory, and with a very splendid army of +Germans and Italians marched down to Rome. Neither Crescenzio nor his +followers had believed that the young Emperor was in earnest; but when +it was clear that he meant to do justice, Antipope John was afraid, and +fled secretly by night, in disguise. Crescenzio, of sterner stuff, +heaped up a vast provision of food in Sant' Angelo, and resolved to +abide a siege.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> The stronghold was impregnable, so far as any one could +know, for it had never been stormed in war or riot, and on its +possession had depended the long impunity of Theodora's race. The +Emperor might lay siege to it, encamp before it, and hem it in for +months; in the end he must be called away by the more urgent wars of the +Empire in the north, and Crescenzio, secure in his stronghold, would +hold the power still. But when the Roman people knew that Otto was at +hand and that the antipope had fled, their courage rose against the +nobles, and they went out after John, and scoured the country till they +caught him in his disguise, for his face was known to many. Because the +Emperor was known to be kind of heart, and because it was remembered +also that this John of Calabria, who went by many names, had by strange +chance baptized both Otto and Pope Gregory, the Duke of Franconia's son, +therefore the Romans feared lest justice should be too gentle; and +having got the antipope into their hands, they dealt with him savagely, +put out his eyes, cut out his tongue and sliced off his nose, and drove +him to prison through the city, seated face backwards on an ass. And +when the Emperor and the Pope came, they left him in his dungeon.</p> + +<p>Now at Gaeta there lived a very holy man, who was Saint Nilus, and who +afterwards founded the monastery of Grottaferrata, where there are +beautiful wall paintings to this day. He was a Greek, like John of +Calabria,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> and though he detested the antipope he had pity on the man +and felt compassion for his countryman. So he journeyed to Rome and came +before Otto and Gregory, who received him with perfect devotion, as a +saint, and he asked of them that they should give him the wretched John, +'who,' he said, 'held both of you in his arms at the Font of Baptism,' +though he was grievously fallen since that day by his great hypocrisy. +Then the Emperor was filled with pity, and answered that the saint might +have the antipope alive, if he himself would then remain in Rome and +direct the monastery of Saint Anastasia of the Greeks. The holy man was +willing to sacrifice his life of solitary meditation for the sake of his +wretched countryman, and he would have obtained the fulfilment of his +request from Otto; but Pope Gregory remembered how he himself had been +driven out penniless and scantily clothed, to make way for John of +Calabria, and his heart was hardened, and he would not let the prisoner +go. Wherefore Saint Nilus foretold that because neither the Pope nor the +Emperor would have mercy, the wrath of God should overtake them both. +And indeed they were both cut off in the flower of their youth—Gregory +within one year, and Otto not long afterwards.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile they sent Nilus away and laid siege to the Castle of Sant' +Angelo, where Crescenzio and his men had shut themselves up with a good +store of food and arms. No one had ever taken that fortress,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> nor did +any one believe that it could be stormed. But Pope and Emperor were +young and brave and angry, and they had a great army, and the people of +Rome were with them, every man. They used such engines as they +had,—catapults, and battering-rams, and ladders; and yet Crescenzio +laughed, for the stone walls were harder than the stone missiles, and +higher than the tallest ladders, and so thick that fire could not heat +them from without, nor battering-ram loosen a single block in a single +course; and many assaults were repelled, and many a brave soldier fell +writhing and broken into the deep ditch with his ladder upon him.</p> + +<p>When the time of fate was fulfilled, the end came on a fair April +morning; one ladder held its place till desperate armed hands had +reached the rampart, and swift feet had sprung upon the edge, and one +brave arm beat back the twenty that were there to defend; and then there +were two, and three, and ten, and a score, and a hundred, and the great +castle was taken at last. Nor do we know surely that it was ever taken +again by force, even long afterwards in the days of artillery. But +Crescenzio's hour had come, and the Emperor took him and the twelve +chief nobles who were with him, and cut off their heads, one by one, in +quick justice and without torture, and the heads were set up on spikes, +and the headless bodies were hung out from the high crenellations of the +ramparts. Thus ended Crescenzio, but not his house, nor the line of +Theodora, nor died he unavenged.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image50.jpg" width="450" height="284" alt="CHURCH OF SANT' EUSTACHIO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SANT' EUSTACHIO<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>It is said and believed that Pope Gregory perished by the hands of the +Crescenzi, who lived in the little street behind the Church of Saint +Eustace. As for Otto, he came to a worse end, though he was of a pious +house, and laboured for the peace of his soul against the temptations of +this evil world. For he was young, and the wife of Crescenzio was +wonderfully fair, and her name was Stefania. She came weeping before him +and mourning her lord, and was beautiful in her grief, and knew it, as +many women do. And the young Emperor saw her, and pitied her, and loved +her, and took her to his heart in sin, and though he repented daily, he +daily fell again, while the woman offered up her body and her soul to be +revenged for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> fierce man she had loved. So it came to pass, at last, +that she found her opportunity against him, and poured poison into his +cup, and kissed him, and gave it to him with a very loving word. And he +drank it and died, and the prophecy of the holy man, Nilus, was +fulfilled upon him.</p> + +<p>The story is told in many ways, but that is the main truth of it, +according to Muratori, whom Gibbon calls his guide and master in the +history of Italy, but whom he did not follow altogether in his brief +sketch of Crescenzio's life and death, and their consequences. The +Crescenzi lived on, in power and great state. They buried the terrible +tribune in Santa Sabina, on the Aventine, where his epitaph may be read +today, but whither he did not retire in life, as some guide-books say, +to end his days in prayer and meditation. And for some reason, perhaps +because they no longer held the great Castle, they seem to have left the +Region of Saint Eustace; for Nicholas, the tribune's son, built the +small palace by the Tiber, over against the Temple of Hercules, though +it has often been called the house of Rienzi, whose name was also +Nicholas, which caused the confusion. And later they built themselves +other fortresses, but the end of their history is not known.</p> + +<p>In the troubles which succeeded the death of Crescentius, a curious +point arises in the chronicle, with regard to the titles of the bishops +depending from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> Holy See. It is certainly not generally known that, +as late as the tenth century, the bishops of the great cities called +themselves Popes—the 'Pope of Milan,' the 'Pope of Naples,' and the +like—and that Gregory the Seventh, the famous Hildebrand, was the first +to decree that the title should be confined to the Roman Pontiffs, with +that of 'Servus Servorum Dei'—'servant of the servants of God.' And +indeed, in those changing times such a confusion of titles must have +caused trouble, as it did when Gregory the Fifth, driven out by +Crescentius, and taking refuge in Pavia, found himself, the Pope of +Rome, confronted with Arnulf, the 'Pope' of Milan, and complained of his +position to the council he had summoned.</p> + +<p>The making and unmaking of Popes, and the election of successors to +those that died, brings up memories of what Rome was during the vacancy +of the See, and of the general delight at the death of any reigning +Pontiff, good or bad. A certain monk is reported to have answered Paul +the Third, that the finest festival in Rome took place while one Pope +lay dead and another was being elected. During that period, not always +brief, law and order were suspended. According to the testimony of +Dionigi Atanagi, quoted by Baracconi, the first thing that happened was +that the prisons were broken open and all condemned persons set free, +while all men in authority hid themselves in their homes, and the +officers of justice fled in terror from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> dangerous humour of the +people. For every man who could lay hands on a weapon seized it, and +carried it about with him. It was the time for settling private quarrels +of long standing, in short and decisive fights, without fear of +disturbance or interference from the frightened Bargello and the +terrorized watchmen of the city. And as soon as the accumulated private +spite of years had spent itself in a certain amount of free fighting, +the city became perfectly safe again, and gave itself up to laying +wagers on the election of the next Pope. The betting was high, and there +were regular bookmakers, especially in all the Regions from Saint +Eustace to the Ponte Sant' Angelo, where the banks had established +themselves under the protection of the Pope and the Guelph Orsini, and +where the most reliable and latest news was sure to be obtained fresh +from the Vatican. Instead of the Piazza di Spagna and the Villa Medici, +the narrow streets and gloomy squares of Ponte, Parione and Sant' +Eustachio became the gathering-place of society, high, low and +indiscriminate; and far from exhibiting the slightest signs of mourning +for its late ruler, the city gave itself up to a sort of Carnival +season, all the more delightful, because it was necessarily unexpected.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the poor people had the delight of speculating upon the wealth +of the cardinal who might be elected; for, as soon as the choice of the +Conclave was announced, and the cry, 'A pope, a pope!' rang<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> through the +streets, it was the time-honoured privilege of the rabble to sack and +plunder the late residence of the chosen cardinal, till, literally, +nothing was left but the bare walls and floors. This was so much a +matter of course, that the election of a poor Pope was a source of the +bitterest disappointment to the people, and was one of their principal +causes of discontent when Sixtus the Fifth was raised to the +Pontificate, it having been given out as certain, but a few hours +earlier, that the rich Farnese was to be the fortunate man.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image55.jpg" width="450" height="242" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>REGION IX PIGNA</h2> + + +<p>There used to be a tradition, wholly unfounded, but deeply rooted in the +Roman mind, to the effect that the great bronze pine-cone, eleven feet +high, which stands in one of the courts of the Vatican, giving it the +name 'Garden of the Pine-cone,' was originally a sort of stopper which +closed the round aperture in the roof of the Pantheon. The Pantheon +stands at one corner of the Region of Pigna, and a connection between +the Region, the Pantheon and the Pine-cone seems vaguely possible, +though altogether unsatisfactory. The truth about the Pine-cone is +perfectly well known; it was part of a fountain in Agrippa's artificial +lake in the Campus Martius, of which Pigna was a part, and it was set up +in the cloistered garden of Saint Peter's by Pope Symmachus about +fourteen hundred years ago. The lake may have been near the Pantheon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> + +<p>No one, so far as I am aware,—not even the excellent Baracconi,—offers +any explanation of the name and device of the Ninth Region. +Topographically it is nearly a square, of which the angles are the +Pantheon, the corner of Via di Caravita and the Corso, the Palazzo di +Venezia, and the corner of the new Via Arenula and Via Florida. Besides +the Pantheon it contains some of the most notable buildings erected +since the Renascence. Here are the palaces of the Doria, of the Altieri, +and the 'Palace of Venice' built by Paul the Second, that Venetian +Barbo, whose name may have nicknamed the racing horses of the Carnival. +Here were the strongholds of the two great rival orders, the Dominicans +and the Jesuits, the former in the Piazza della Minerva, the latter in +the Piazza del Gesù, and in the Collegio Romano; and here at the present +day, in the buildings of the old rivals, significantly connected by an +arched passage, are collected the greatest libraries of the city. That +of the Dominicans, wisely left in their care, has been opened to the +public; the other, called after Victor Emmanuel, is a vast collection of +books gathered together by plundering the monastic institutions of Italy +at the time of the disestablishment. The booty—for it was nothing +else—was brought in carts, mostly in a state of the utmost confusion, +and the books and manuscripts were roughly stacked in vacant rooms on +the ground floor of the Collegio Romano, in charge of a porter. Not +until a poor scholar, having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> bought himself two ounces of butter in the +Piazza Navona, found the greasy stuff wrapped in an autograph letter of +Christopher Columbus, did it dawn upon the authorities that the porter +was deliberately selling priceless books and manuscripts as waste paper, +by the hundredweight, to provide himself with the means of getting +drunk. That was about the year 1880. The scandal was enormous, a strict +inquiry was made, justice was done as far as possible, and an official +account of the affair was published in a 'Green Book'; but the amount of +the loss was unknown, it may have been incalculable, and it was +undeniably great.</p> + +<p>The names visibly recorded in the Region have vast suggestions in +them,—Ignatius Loyola, the Dominicans, Venice, Doria, Agrippa, and the +buildings themselves, which are the record, will last for ages; the +opposition of Jesuit and Inquisitor, under one name or another, and of +both by the people, will live as long as humanity itself.</p> + +<p>The crisis in the history of the Inquisition in Rome followed closely +upon the first institution of the Tribunal, and seventeen years after +Paul the Fourth had created the Court, by a Papal Bull of July +twenty-first, 1542, the people burned the Palace of the Inquisition and +threatened to destroy the Dominicans and their monastery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image59a.jpg" width="650" height="416" alt="THE PANTHEON" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE PANTHEON</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> + +<p>So far as it is possible to judge the character of the famous Carafa +Pope, he was ardent under a melancholic exterior, rigid but ambitious, +utterly blind to everything except the matter he had in hand, proud to +folly, and severe to cruelty. A chronicler says of him, that his head +'might be compared to the Vesuvius of his native city, since he was +ardent in all his actions, wrathful, hard and inflexible, undoubtedly +moved by an incredible zeal for religion, but a zeal often lacking in +prudence, and breaking out in eruptions of excessive severity.' On the +other hand, his lack of perception was such that he remained in complete +ignorance of the outrageous deeds done in his name by his two nephews, +the one a cardinal, the other a layman, and it was not until the last +year of his life that their doings came to his knowledge.</p> + +<p>This was the man to whom Queen Elizabeth sent an embassy, in the hope of +obtaining the Papal sanction for her succession to the throne. Henry the +Second of France had openly espoused the cause of Mary Queen of Scots, +whom Philip the Second of Spain was also inclined to support, after the +failure of his attempt to obtain the hand of Elizabeth for the Duke of +Savoy. With France and Spain against her, the Queen appealed to Rome, +and to Paul the Fourth. In the eyes of Catholics her mother had never +been the lawful wife of Henry the Eighth, and she herself was +illegitimate. If the Pope would overlook this unfortunate fact and +confirm her crown in the eyes of Catholic Europe, she would make an act +of obedience by her ambassador. She had been brought up as a Catholic, +she had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> crowned by a Roman Catholic bishop, and on first ascending +the throne she had shown herself favourable to the Catholic party; the +request and proposition were reasonable, if nothing more. Muratori +points out that if a more prudent, discreet and gentle Pope had reigned +at that time, and if he had received Elizabeth's offer kindly, according +to the dictates of religion, which he should have considered to the +exclusion of everything else, and without entering into other people's +quarrels, nor into the question of his own earthly rights, England might +have remained a Catholic country. Paul the Fourth's answer, instead, was +short, cold and senseless. 'England,' he said, 'is under the feudal +dominion of the Roman Church. Elizabeth is born out of wedlock; there +are other legitimate heirs, and she should never have assumed the crown +without the consent of the Apostolic See.' This is the generally +accepted account of what took place, as given by Muratori and other +historians. Lingard, however, whose authority is undeniable, argues +against the truth of the story on the ground that the English Ambassador +in Rome at the time of Queen Mary's death never had an audience of the +Pope. It seems probable, nevertheless, that Elizabeth actually appealed +to the Holy See, though secretly and with the intention of concealing +the step in case of failure.</p> + +<p>A child might have foreseen the consequences of the Pope's political +folly. Elizabeth saw her extreme danger,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> turned her back upon Rome +forever, and threw herself into the arms of the Protestant party as her +only chance of safety. At the same time heresy assumed alarming +proportions throughout Europe, and the Pope called upon the Inquisition +to put it down in Rome. Measures of grim severity were employed, and the +Roman people, overburdened with the taxes laid upon them by the Pope's +nephews, were exasperated beyond endurance by the religious zeal of the +Dominicans, in whose hands the inquisitorial power was placed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image62.jpg" width="450" height="310" alt="INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON" title="" /> +<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON</span> +</div> + +<p>Nor were they appeased by the fall of the two Carafa, which was +ultimately brought about by the ambassador of Tuscany. The Pope enquired +of him one day why<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> he so rarely asked an audience, and he frankly +replied that the Carafa would not admit him to the Pope's presence +unless he would previously give a full account of his intentions, and +reveal all the secrets of the Grand Duke's policy. Then some one wrote +out an account of the Carafa's misdeeds and laid it in the Pope's own +Breviary. The result was sudden and violent, like most of Paul's +decisions and actions. He called a Consistory of cardinals, made open +apology for his nephews' doings, deprived them publicly of all their +offices and honours, and exiled them, in opposite directions and with +their families, beyond the confines of the Papal States.</p> + +<p>But the people were not satisfied; they accused the Pope of treating his +nephews as scapegoats for his own sins, and the immediate repeal of many +taxes was no compensation for the terrors of the Inquisition. There were +spies everywhere. No one was safe from secret accusers. The decisions of +the tribunal were slow, mysterious and deadly. The Romans became the +victims of a secret reign of terror such as the less brave Neapolitans +had more bravely fought against and had actually destroyed a dozen years +earlier, when Paul the Fourth, then only a cardinal, had persuaded their +Viceroy to try his favourite method of reducing heresy. Yet such was the +fear of the Dominicans and of the Pope himself that no one dared to +raise his voice against the 'monks of the Minerva.'</p> + +<p>The general dissatisfaction was fomented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> nobles, and principally +by the Colonna, who had been at open war with the Pope during his whole +reign. Moreover, the severities of his government had produced between +Colonna and Orsini one of those occasional alliances for their common +safety, which vary their history without adorning it. The Pope seized +the Colonna estates and conferred them upon his nephews, but was in turn +often repulsed as the fighting ebbed and flowed during the four years of +his Pontificate, for the Colonna as usual had powerful allies in the +Emperor and in his kingdom of Naples. Changeable as the Roman people +always were, they had more often espoused the cause of Colonna than that +of the Pope and Orsini. Paul the Fourth fell ill in the summer, when the +heat makes a southern rabble dangerous, and the certain news of his +approaching end was a message of near deliverance. He lingered and died +hard, though he was eighty-four years old and afflicted with dropsy. But +the exasperated Romans were impatient for the end, and the nobles were +willing to take vengeance upon their oppressor before he breathed his +last. As the news that the Pope was dying ran through the city, the +spell of terror was broken, secret murmuring turned to open complaint, +complaint to clamour, clamour to riot. A vast and angry multitude +gathered together in the streets and open places, and hour by hour, as +the eager hope for news of death was ever disappointed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> and the hard +old man lived on, the great concourse gathered strength within itself, +seething, waiting, listening for the solemn tolling of the great bell in +the Capitol to tell them that Paul the Fourth had passed away. Still it +came not. And in the streets and everywhere there were retainers and +men-at-arms of the great houses, ready of tongue and hand, but friendly +with the people, listening to tales of suffering and telling of their +lords' angry temper against the dying Pope. A word here, a word there, +like sparks amid sun-dried stubble, till the hot stuff was touched with +fire and all broke out in flame.</p> + +<p>Then words were no longer exchanged between man and man, but a great cry +of rage went up from all the throng, and the people began to move, some +knowing what they meant to do and some not knowing, nor caring, but +moving with the rest, faster and faster, till many were trampled down in +the press, and they came to the prisons, to Corte Savella and Tor di +Nona, and even to Sant' Angelo, and as they battered at the great doors +from without, the prisoners shouted for freedom from within, and their +gaolers began to loose their chains, fearing for their own lives, and +drew back the bolts to let the stream of riot in. So on that day four +hundred condemned men were taken out and let loose, before the Pope was +dead.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image66.jpg" width="450" height="275" alt="THE RIPETTA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE RIPETTA<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>Yet the people had not enough, and they surged and roared in the +streets, quivering with rage not yet half spent. And again words ran +along, as fire through dry grass, and suddenly all men thought of the +Inquisition, down by the Tiber at the Ripetta. Thought was motion, +motion was action, action was to set men free and burn the hated prison +to the ground. The prisoners of the Holy Roman Office were seventy-two, +and many had lain there long unheard, for the trial of unbelief was +cumbrous in argument and slow of issue, and though the Pope could +believe no one innocent who was in prison, and though he was violent in +his judgments, the saintly Ghislieri was wise and cautious, and would +condemn no man hastily to please his master. When he in turn was Pope, +the people loved him, though at first they feared him for Pope Paul's +sake.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<p>When they had burned the Inquisition on that day and set free the +accused persons, and it was not yet night, they turned back from the +Tiber, still unsatisfied, for they had shed little blood, or none at +all, perhaps, and the people of Rome always thirsted for that when their +anger was hot. Through the winding streets they went, dividing where the +ways were narrow and meeting again where there was room, always towards +Pigna, and the Minerva, and the dwelling of the learned black and white +robed fathers into whose hands the Inquisition had been given and from +whose monastery the good Ghislieri had been chosen to be cardinal. For +the rabble knew no difference of thought or act between him and the +dying Pope. They bore torches and weapons, and beams for battering down +the doors, and they reached the place, a raging horde of madmen.</p> + +<p>Suddenly before them there were five men on horseback, who were just and +did not fear them. These men were Marcantonio Colonna and his kinsman +Giuliano Cesarini, and a Salviati, and a Torres and Gianbattista +Bernardi, who had all suffered much at the hands of the Pope and had +come swiftly to Rome when they heard that he was near death. And at the +sight of those calm knights, sitting there on their horses without +armour and with sheathed swords, the people drew back a moment, while +Colonna spoke. Presently, as he went on, they grew silent and +understood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> his words. And when they had understood, they saw that he +was right and their anger was quieted, and they went away to their +homes, satisfied with having set free those who had been long in prison. +So the great monastery was saved from fire and the monks from death. But +the Pope was not yet dead, and while he lived the people were restless +and angry by day and night, and ready for new deeds of violence; but +Marcantonio Colonna rode through the city continually, entreating them +to wait patiently for the end, and because he also had suffered much at +Paul's hands, they listened to him and did nothing more.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image68.jpg" width="450" height="346" alt="PIAZZA MINERVA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PIAZZA MINERVA</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> + +<p>The rest is a history which all men know: how the next Pope was just, +and put the Carafa to their trial for many deeds of bloodshed; how the +judgment was long delayed that it might be without flaw; how it took +eight hours at last to read the judges' summing up; and how Cardinal +Carafa was strangled by night in Sant' Angelo, while at the same hour +his brother and the two who had murdered his wife were beheaded in Tor +di Nona, just opposite the Castle, across the Tiber—a grim tragedy, but +the tragedy of justice.</p> + +<p>Southward a few steps from the Church of the Minerva is the little +Piazza della Pigna, with a street of the same name leading out of it. +And at the corner of the place is a small church, dedicated to 'Saint +John of the Pine-cone,' that is, of the Region. Within lies one of the +noble Porcari in a curious tomb, and their stronghold was close by, +perhaps built in one block with the church itself.</p> + +<p>The name Porcari calls up another tale of devotion, of betrayal, and of +death, with the last struggle for a Roman Republic at the end of the +Middle Age. It was a hopeless attempt, made by a brave man of simple and +true heart, a man better and nobler than Rienzi in every way, but who +judged the times ill and gave his soul and body for the dream of a +liberty which already existed in another shape, but which for its name's +sake he would not acknowledge. Stephen Porcari failed where Rienzi +partially succeeded, because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> the people were not with him; they were no +longer oppressed, and they desired no liberator; they had freedom in +fact and they cared nothing for the name of liberty; they had a ruler +with whom they were well pleased, and they did not long for one of whom +they knew nothing. But Stephen, brave, pure and devoted, was a man of +dreams, and he died for them, as many others have died for the name of +Rome and the phantom of an impossible Republic; for Rome has many times +been fatal to those who loved her best.</p> + +<p>In the year 1447 Pope Eugenius the Fourth died, after a long and just +reign, disturbed far more by matters spiritual than by any worldly +troubles. And then, says the chronicler, a meeting of the Romans was +called at Aracœli, to determine what should be asked of the Conclave +that was to elect a new Pope. And there, with many other citizens, +Stephen Porcari spoke to the Council, saying some things useful to the +Republic; and he declared that Rome should govern itself and pay a +feudal tribute to the Pope, as many others of the Papal States did. And +the Archbishop of Benevento forbade that he should say more; but the +Council and the citizens wished him to go on; and there was disorder, +and the meeting broke up, the Archbishop being gravely displeased, and +the people afraid to support Stephen against him, because the King of +Spain was at Tivoli, very near Rome.</p> + +<p>Then the Cardinals elected Pope Nicholas the Fifth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> a good man and a +great builder, and of gentle and merciful temper, and there was much +feasting and rejoicing in Rome. But Stephen Porcari pondered the +inspired verses of Petrarch and the strange history of Rienzi, and +waited for an opportunity to rouse the people, while his brother, or his +kinsman, was the Senator of Rome, appointed by the Pope. At last, after +a long time, when there was racing, with games in the Piazza Navona, +certain youths having fallen to quarrelling, and Stephen being there, +and a great concourse of people, he tried by eloquent words to stir the +quarrel to a riot, and a rebellion against the Pope. The people cared +nothing for Petrarch's verses nor Rienzi's memory, and Nicholas was kind +to them, so that Stephen Porcari failed again, and his failure was high +treason, for which he would have lost his head in any other state of +Europe. Yet the Pope was merciful, and when the case had been tried, the +rebel was sent to Bologna, to live there in peace, provided that he +should present himself daily before the Cardinal Legate of the City. But +still he dreamed, and would have made action of dreams, and he planned a +terrible conspiracy, and escaped from Bologna, and came back to Rome +secretly.</p> + +<p>His plan was this. On the feast of the Epiphany he and his kinsmen and +retainers would seize upon the Pope and the Cardinals as prisoners, when +they were on their way to High Mass at Saint Peter's, and then by +threatening to murder them the conspirators would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> force the keepers of +Sant'Angelo to give up the Castle, which meant the power to hold Rome in +subjection. Once there, they would call upon the people to acclaim the +return of the ancient Republic, the Pope should be set free to fulfil +the offices of religion, while deprived of all temporal power, and the +vision of freedom would become a glorious reality.</p> + +<p>But Rome was not with Porcari, and he paid the terrible price of +unpopular fanaticism and useless conspiracy. He was betrayed by the +folly of his nephew, who, with a few followers, killed the Pope's +equerry in a street brawl, and then, perhaps to save himself, fired the +train too soon. Stephen shut the great gates of his house and defended +himself as well as he could against the men-at-arms who were sent to +take him. The doors were closed, says the chronicler, and within there +were many armed men, and they fought at the gate, while those in the +upper story threw the tables from the windows upon the heads of the +besiegers. Seeing that they were lost, Stephen's men went out by the +postern behind the house, and his nephew, Battista Sciarra, with four +companions, fought his way through, only one of them being taken, +because the points of his hose were cut through, so that the hose +slipped down and he could not move freely. Those who had not cut their +way out were taken within by the governor's men, and Stephen was dragged +with ignominy from a chest in which he had taken refuge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> + +<p>The trial was short and sure, for even the Pope's patience was +exhausted. Three days later, Stephen Infessura, the chronicler, saw the +body of Stephen Porcari hanging by the neck from the crenellations of +the tower that used to stand on the right-hand side of Sant' Angelo, as +you go towards the Castle from the bridge; and it was dressed in a black +doublet and black hose—the body of that 'honourable man who loved the +right and the liberty of Rome, who, because he looked upon his +banishment as without good cause, meant to give his life, and gave his +body, to free his country from slavery.'</p> + +<p>Infessura was a retainer of the Colonna and no friend of any Pope's, of +course; yet he does not call the execution of Porcari an act of +injustice. He speaks, rather, with a sort of gentle pity of the man who +gave so much so freely, and paid bodily death and shame for his belief +in a lofty vision. Rienzi dreamed as high, rose far higher, and fell to +the depths of his miserable end by his vanity and his weaknesses. +Stephen Porcari accomplished nothing in his life, nor by his death; had +he succeeded, no one can tell how his nature might have changed; but in +failure he left after him the clean memory of an honest purpose, which +was perhaps mistaken, but was honourable, patriotic and unselfish.</p> + +<p>It is strange, unless it be an accident, that the great opponents, the +Dominicans and the Jesuits, should have established themselves on +opposite sides of the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> street, and it is characteristic that the +latter should have occupied more land and built more showy buildings +than the former, extending their possessions in more than one direction +and in a tentative way, while the rigid Dominicans remained rooted to +the spot they had chosen, throughout many centuries. Both are gone, in +an official and literal sense. The Dominican Monastery is filled with +public offices, and though the magnificent library is still kept in +order by Dominican friars, it is theirs no longer, but confiscated to +the State, and connected with the Victor Emmanuel Library, in what was +the Jesuit Roman College, by a bridge that crosses the street of Saint +Ignatius. And the Jesuit College, on its side, is the property of the +State and a public school; the Jesuits' library is taken from them +altogether, and their dwelling is occupied by other public offices. But +the vitality which had survived ages was not to be destroyed by such a +trifle as confiscation. Officially both are gone; in actual fact both +are more alive than ever. When the Jesuits were finally expelled from +their College, they merely moved to the other side of the Dominican +Monastery, across the Via del Seminario, and established themselves in +the Borromeo palace, still within sight of their rivals' walls, and they +called their college the Gregorian University. The Dominicans, driven +from the ancient stronghold at last, after occupying it exactly five +hundred years, have taken refuge in other parts of Rome under the +security of title-deeds held by foreigners, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> consequently beyond the +reach of Italian confiscation. Yet still, in fact, the two great orders +face each other.</p> + +<p>It was the prayer of Ignatius Loyola that his order should be +persecuted, and his desire has been most literally fulfilled, for the +Jesuits have suffered almost uninterrupted persecution, not at the hands +of Protestants only, but of the Roman Catholic Church itself in +successive ages. Popes have condemned them, and Papal edicts have +expelled their order from Rome; Catholic countries, with Catholic Spain +at their head, have driven them out and hunted them down with a +determination hardly equalled, and certainly not surpassed at any time, +by Protestant Prussia or Puritan England. Non-Catholics are very apt to +associate Catholics and Jesuits in their disapproval, dislike, or +hatred, as the case may be; but neither Englishman nor German could +speak of the order of Ignatius more bitterly than many a most devout +Catholic.</p> + +<p>To give an idea of the feeling which has always been common in Rome +against the Jesuits, it is enough to quote the often told popular legend +about the windy Piazza del Gesù, where their principal church stands, +adjoining what was once their convent, or monastery, as people say +nowadays, though Doctor Johnson admits no distinction between the words, +and Dryden called a nunnery by the latter name. The story is this. One +day the Devil and the Wind were walking together in the streets of Rome, +conversing pleasantly according to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> their habit. When they came to the +Piazza del Gesù, the Devil stopped. 'I have an errand in there,' he +said, pointing to the Jesuits' house. 'Would you kindly wait for me a +moment?' 'Certainly,' answered the Wind. The Devil went in, but never +came out again, and the Wind is waiting for him still.</p> + +<p>When one considers what the Jesuits have done for mankind, as educators, +missionaries and civilizers, it seems amazing that they should be so +judged by the Romans themselves. Their devotion to the cause of +Christianity against paganism has led many of them to martyrdom in past +centuries, and may again so long as Asia and Africa are non-Christian. +Their marvellous insight into the nature and requirements of education +in the highest sense has earned them the gratitude of thousands of +living laymen. They have taught all over the world. Their courage, their +tenacity, their wonderful organization, deserve the admiration of +mankind. Neither their faults nor their mistakes seem adequate to +explain the deadly hatred which they have so often roused against +themselves among Christians of all denominations. All organized bodies +make mistakes, all have faults; few indeed can boast of such a catalogue +of truly good deeds as the followers of Saint Ignatius; yet none have +been so despised, so hated, so persecuted, not only by men who might be +suspected of partisan prejudice, but by the wise, the just and the +good.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image77.jpg" width="450" height="240" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>REGION X CAMPITELLI</h2> + + +<p>Rome tends to diminutives in names as in facts. The first emperor was +Augustus, the last was Augustulus; with the Popes, the Roman Senate +dwindled to a mere office, held by one man, and respected by none; the +ascent to the Capitol, the path of triumphs that marked the subjugation +of the world, became in the twelfth century 'Fabatosta,' or 'Roast Beans +Lane'; and, in the vulgar tongue, 'Capitolium' was vulgarized to +'Campitelli,' and the word gave a name to a Region of the city. Within +that Region are included the Capitol, the Forum, the Colosseum and the +Palatine, with the palaces of the Cæsars. It takes in, roughly, the land +covered by the earliest city; and, throughout the greater part of Roman +history, it was the centre of political and military life. It merited +something better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> than a diminutive for a name; yet, in the latest +revolution of things, it has fared better, and has been more respected, +than many other quarters, and still the memories of great times and +deeds cling to the stones that are left.</p> + +<p>In the dark ages, when a ferocious faith had destroyed the remnants of +Latin learning and culture, together with the last rites of the old +religion, the people invented legend as a substitute for the folklore of +all the little gods condemned by the Church; so that the fairy tale is +in all Europe the link between Christianity and paganism, and to the +weakness of vanquished Rome her departed empire seemed only explicable +as the result of magic. The Capitol, in the imagination of such tales, +became a tower of wizards. High above all, a golden sphere reflected the +sun's rays far out across the distant sea by day, and at night a huge +lamp took its place as a beacon for the sailors of the Mediterranean, +even to Spain and Africa. In the tower, too, was preserved the mystic +mirror of the world, which instantly reflected all that passed in the +empire, even to its furthest limits. Below the towers, also, and +surmounting the golden palace, there were as many statues as Rome had +provinces, and each statue wore a bell at its neck, that rang of itself +in warning whenever there was trouble in the part of the world to which +it belonged, while the figure itself turned on its base to look in the +direction of the danger. Such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> tales Irving tells of the Alhambra, not +more wonderful than those believed of Rome, and far less numerous.</p> + +<p>There were stories of hidden treasure, too, without end. For, in those +days of plundering, men laid their hands on what they saw, and hid what +they took as best they might; and later, when the men of the Middle Age +and of the Renascence believed that Rome had been destroyed by the +Goths, they told strange stories of Gothmen who appeared suddenly in +disguise from the north, bringing with them ancient parchments in which +were preserved sure instructions for unearthing the gold hastily hidden +by their ancestors, because there had been too much of it to carry away. +Even in our own time such things have been done. In the latter days of +the reign of Pius the Ninth, some one discovered an old book or +manuscript, wherein it was pointed out that a vast treasure lay buried +on the northward side of the Colosseum within a few feet of the walls, +and it was told that if any man would dig there he should find, as he +dug deeper, certain signs, fragments of statues, and hewn tablets, and a +spring of water. So the Pope gave his permission, and the work began. +Every one who lived in Rome thirty years ago can remember it, and the +excited curiosity of the whole city while the digging went on. And, +strange to say, though the earth had evidently not been disturbed for +centuries, each object was found in succession, exactly as described, to +a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> depth; but not the treasure, though the well was sunk down to +the primeval soil. It was all filled in again, and the mystery has never +been solved. Yet the mere fact that everything was found except the +gold, lends some possibility to the other stories of hidden wealth, told +and repeated from generation to generation.</p> + +<p>The legend of the Capitol is too vast, too varied, too full of +tremendous contrasts to be briefly told or carelessly sketched. +Archæologists have reconstructed it on paper, scholars have written out +its history, poets have said great things of it; yet if one goes up the +steps today and stands by the bronze statue in the middle of the square, +seeing nothing but a paved space enclosed on three sides by palaces of +the late Renascence, it is utterly impossible to call up the past. +Perhaps no point of ancient Rome seems less Roman and less individual +than that spot where Rienzi stood, silent and terrified, for a whole +hour before the old stone lion, waiting for the curious, pitiless rabble +to kill him. The big buildings shut out history, hide the Forum, the +Gemonian steps, and the Tarpeian rock, and in the very inmost centre of +the old city's heart they surround a man with the artificialities of an +uninteresting architecture. For though Michelangelo planned the +reconstruction he did not live to see his designs carried out, and they +fell into the hands of little men who tried to improve upon what they +could not understand, and ruined it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> + +<p>The truth is that half a dozen capitols have been built on the hill, +destroyed, forgotten, and replaced, each one in turn, during successive +ages. It is said that certain Indian jugglers allow themselves to be +buried alive in a state of trance, and are taken from the tomb after +many months not dead; and it is said that the body, before it is brought +to life again, is quite cold, as though the man were dead, excepting +that there is a very little warmth just where the back of the skull +joins the neck. Yet there is enough left to reanimate the whole being in +a little time, so that life goes on as before. So in Rome's darkest and +most dead days, the Capitol has always held within it a spark of +vitality, ready to break out with little warning and violent effect.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image83a.jpg" width="650" height="462" alt="THE CAPITOL" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CAPITOL</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> + +<p>For the Capitol, not yet the Capitol, but already the sacred fortress of +Rome, was made strong in the days of Romulus, and it was in his time, +when he and his men had carried off the Sabine girls and were at war +with their fathers and brothers, that Tarpeia came down the narrow path, +her earthen jar balanced on her graceful head, to fetch spring water for +a household sacrifice. Her father kept the castle. She came down, a +straight brown girl with eager eyes and red lips, clad in the grey +woollen tunic that left her strong round arms bare to the shoulder. +Often she had seen the golden bracelets which the Sabine men wore on +their left wrists, and some of them had a jewel or two set in the gold; +but the Roman men wore none, and the Roman women had none to wear, and +Tarpeia's eyes were eager. Because she came to get water for holy things +she was safe, and she went down to the spring, and there was Tatius, of +the Sabines, drinking. When he saw how her eyes were gold-struck by his +bracelet, he asked her if she should like to wear it, and the blood came +to her brown face, as she looked back quickly to the castle where her +father was. 'If you Sabines will give me what you wear on your left +arms,' she said—for she did not know the name of gold—'you shall have +the fortress tonight, for I will open the gate for you.' The Sabine +looked at her, and then he smiled quickly, and promised for himself and +all his companions. So that night they went up stealthily, for there was +no moon, and the gate was open, and Tarpeia was standing there. Tatius +could see her greedy eyes in the starlight; but instead of his bracelet, +he took his shield from his left arm and struck her down with it for a +betrayer, and all the Sabine men threw their shields upon her as they +passed. So she died, but her name remains to the rock, to this day.</p> + +<p>It was long before the temple planned by the first Tarquin was solemnly +dedicated by the first consuls of the Republic, and the earthen image of +Jupiter, splendidly dressed and painted red, was set up between Juno and +Minerva. Many hundred years later, in the terrible times of Marius and +Sylla, the ancient sanctuary took fire and was burned, and Sylla rebuilt +it. That temple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> was destroyed also, and another, built by Vespasian, +was burned too, and from the last building Genseric stole the gilt +bronze tiles in the year 455, when Christianity was the fact and Jupiter +the myth, one and twenty years before the final end of Rome's empire; +and the last of what remained was perhaps burned by Robert Guiscard +after serving as a fortress for the enemies of Gregory the Seventh.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image85.jpg" width="450" height="333" alt="CHURCH OF ARACŒLI" title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF ARACŒLI</span> +</div> + +<p>But we know, at last, that the fortress of the old city stood where the +Church of Aracœli stands, and that the temple was on the other side, +over against the Palatine, and standing back a little from the Tarpeian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +rock, so that the open square of today is just between the places of the +two. And when one goes up the steps on the right, behind the right-hand +building, one comes to a quiet lane, where German students of archæology +live in a little colony by themselves and have their Institute at the +end of it, and a hospital of their own; and there, in a wall, is a small +green door leading into a quiet garden, with a pretty view. Along the +outer edge runs a low stone wall, and there are seats where one may rest +and dream under the trees, a place where one might fancy lovers meeting +in the moonlight, or old men sunning themselves of an autumn afternoon, +or children playing among the flowers on a spring morning.</p> + +<p>But it is a place of fear and dread, ever since Tarpeia died there for +her betrayal, and one may dream other dreams there than those of peace +and love. The vision of a pale, strong man rises at the edge, bound and +helpless, lifted from the ground by savage hands and hurled from the +brink to the death below,—Manlius, who saved the Capitol and loved the +people, and was murdered by the nobles,—and many others after him, just +and unjust, whirled through the clear air to violent destruction for +their bad or their good deeds, as justice or injustice chanced to be in +the ascendant of the hour. And then, in the Middle Age, the +sweet-scented garden was the place of terrible executions, and the +gallows stood there permanently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> for many years, and men were hanged and +drawn and quartered there, week by week, month by month, all the year +round, the chief magistrate of Rome looking on from the window of the +Senator's palace, as a duty; till one of them sickened at the sight of +blood, and ordained that justice should be done at the Bridge of Sant' +Angelo, and at Tor di Nona, and in the castle itself, and the summit of +the fatal rock was left to the birds, the wild flowers, and the merciful +purity of nature. And that happened four hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>Until our own time there were prisons deep down in the old Roman vaults. +At first, as in old days, the place of confinement was in the Mamertine +prison, on the southeastern slope, beneath which was the hideous +Tullianum, deepest and darkest of all, whence no captive ever came out +alive to the upper air again. In the Middle Age, the prison was below +the vaults of the Roman Tabularium on the side of the Forum, but it is +said that the windows looked inward upon a deep court of the Senator's +palace. As civilization advanced, it was transferred a story higher, to +a more healthy region of the building, but the Capitoline prison was not +finally given up till the reign of Pius the Ninth, at which time it had +become a place of confinement for debtors only.</p> + +<p>Institutions and parties in Rome have always had a tendency to cling to +places more than in other cities. It is thus that during so many +centuries the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> Lateran was the headquarters of the Popes, the Capitol +the rallying-place of the ever-smouldering republicanism of the people, +and the Castle of Sant' Angelo the seat of actual military power as +contrasted with spiritual dominion and popular aspiration. So far as the +latter is concerned its vitality is often forgotten and its vigour +underestimated.</p> + +<p>One must consider the enormous odds against which the spirit of popular +emancipation had to struggle in order to appreciate the strength it +developed. A book has been written called 'The One Hundred and Sixty-one +rebellions of papal subjects between 896 and 1859'—a title which gives +an average of about sixteen to a century; and though the furious +partiality of the writer calls them all rebellions against the popes, +whereas a very large proportion were revolts against the nobles, and +Rienzi's attempt was to bring the Pope back to Rome, yet there can be no +question as to the vitality which could produce even half of such a +result; and it may be remembered that in almost every rising of the +Roman people the rabble first made a rush for the Capitol, and, if +successful, seized other points afterwards. In the darkest ages the +words 'Senate' and 'Republic' were never quite forgotten and were never +dissociated from the sacred place. The names of four leaders, Arnold of +Brescia, Stefaneschi, Rienzi and Porcari, recall the four greatest +efforts of the Middle Age; the first partially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> succeeded and left its +mark, the second was fruitless because permanent success was then +impossible against such odds, the third miscarried because Rienzi was a +madman and Cardinal Albornoz a man of genius, and the fourth, because +the people were contented and wanted no revolution at all. The first +three of those men seized the Capitol at once, the fourth intended to do +so. It was always the immediate object of every revolt, and the power to +ring the great Patarina, the ancient bell stolen by the Romans from +Viterbo, had for centuries a directing influence in Roman brawls. Its +solemn knell announced the death of a Pope, or tolled the last hour of +condemned criminals, and men crossed themselves as it echoed through the +streets; but at the tremendous sound of its alarm, rung backward till +the tower rocked, the Romans ran to arms, the captains of the Regions +buckled on their breastplates and displayed their banners, and the +people flocked together to do deeds of sudden violence and shortlived +fury. In a few hours Stefaneschi of Trastevere swept the nobles from the +city; between noon and night Rienzi was master of Rome, and it was from +the Capitol that the fierce edicts of both threatened destruction to the +unready barons. They fled to their mountain dens like wolves at sunrise, +but the night was never slow to descend upon liberty's short day, and +with the next dawn the ruined towers began to rise again; the people +looked with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> dazed indifference upon the fall of their leader, and +presently they were again slaves, as they had been—Arnold was hanged +and burned, Stefaneschi languished in a dungeon, Rienzi wandered over +Europe a homeless exile, the straight, stiff corpse of brave Stephen +Porcari hung, clad in black, from the battlement of Sant' Angelo. It was +always the same story. The Barons were the Sabines, the Latins and the +Æquians of Mediæval Rome; but there was neither a Romulus nor a +Cincinnatus to lead the Roman people against steel-clad masters trained +to fighting from boyhood, bold by inheritance, and sure of a power which +they took every day by violence and held year after year by force.</p> + +<p>In imagination one would willingly sweep away the three stiff buildings +on the Capitol, the bronze Emperor and his horse, the marble Castor and +Pollux, the proper arcades, the architectural staircase, and the even +pavement, and see the place as it used to be five hundred years ago. It +was wild then. Out of broken and rocky ground rose the ancient Church of +Aracœli, the Church of the Altar of Heaven, built upon that altar +which the Sibyl of Tivoli bade Augustus raise to the Firstborn of God. +To the right a rude fortress, grounded in the great ruins of Rome's +Archive House, flanked by rough towers, approached only by that old +triumphal way, where old women slowly roasted beans in iron +chafing-dishes over little fires that were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> sheltered from the north +wind by the vast wall. Before the fortress a few steps led to the main +door, and over that was a great window and a balcony with a rusty iron +balustrade—the one upon which Rienzi came out at the last, with the +standard in his hand. The castle itself not high, but strong, brown and +battered. Beyond it, the gallows, and the place of death. Below it, a +desolation of tumbling rock and ruin, where wild flowers struggled for a +holding in spring, and the sharp cactus sent out ever-green points +between the stones. Far down, a confusion of low, brown houses, with +many dark towers standing straight up from them like charred trees above +underbrush in a fire-blasted forest. Beyond all, the still loneliness of +far mountains. That was the scene, and those were the surroundings, in +which the Roman people reinstituted a Roman Senate, after a lapse of +nearly six hundred years, in consequence of the agitation begun and long +continued by Arnold of Brescia.</p> + +<p>Muratori, in his annals, begins his short account of the year 1141 by +saying that the history of Italy during that period is almost entirely +hidden in darkness, because there are neither writers nor chroniclers of +the time, and he goes on to say that no one knows why the town of Tivoli +had so long rebelled against the Popes. The fact remains, astonishing +and ridiculous,—in the middle of the twelfth century imperial Rome was +at war with suburban Tivoli, and Tivoli was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> stronger; for when the +Romans persuaded Pope Innocent the Second to lay siege to the town, the +inhabitants sallied out furiously, cut their assailants to pieces, +seized all their arms and provisions, and drove the survivors to +ignominious flight. Hence the implacable hatred between Tivoli and Rome; +and Tivoli became an element in the struggles that followed.</p> + +<p>Now for many years, Rome had been in the hands of a family of converted +Jews, known as the Pierleoni, from Pietro Leone, first spoken of in the +chronicles as an iniquitous usurer of enormous wealth. They became +prefects of Rome; they took possession of Sant' Angelo and were the +tyrants of the city, and finally they became the Pope's great enemies, +the allies of Roger of Apulia, and makers of antipopes, of whom the +first was either Pietro's son or his grandson. They had on their side +possession, wealth, the support of a race which never looks upon +apostasy from its creed as final, the alliance of King Roger and of Duke +Roger, his son, and the countenance, if not the friendship, of Arnold of +Brescia, the excommunicated monk of northern Italy, and the pupil of the +romantic Abelard. And the Pierleoni had against them the Popes, the +great Frangipani family with most of the nobles, and Saint Bernard of +Clairvaux, who has been called the Bismarck of the Church. Arnold of +Brescia was no ordinary fanatic. He was as brave as Stefaneschi, as +pure-hearted as Stephen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> Porcari, as daring and eloquent as Rienzi in +his best days. The violent deeds of his followers have been imputed to +him, and brought him to his end; but it was his great adversary, Saint +Bernard, who expressed a regretful wish 'that his teachings might have +been as irreproachable as his life.' The doctrine for which he died at +last was political, rather than spiritual, human rather than +theological. In all but his monk's habit he was a layman in his later +years, as he had been when he first wandered to France and sat at the +feet of the gentle Abelard; but few Churchmen of that day were as +spotless in their private lives.</p> + +<p>He was an agitator, a would-be reformer, a revolutionary; and the times +craved change. The trumpet call of the first Crusade had roused the +peoples of Europe, and the distracted forces of the western world had +been momentarily concentrated in a general and migratory movement of +religious conquest; forty years later the fortunes of the Latins in the +East were already waning, and Saint Bernard was meditating the inspiring +words that sent four hundred thousand warriors to the rescue of the Holy +Places. What Bernard was about to attempt for Palestine, Arnold dreamed +of accomplishing for Rome. In his eyes she was holy, too, her ruins were +the sepulchre of a divine freedom, worthy to be redeemed from tyranny +even at the price of blood, and he would have called from the tomb the +spirit of murdered liberty to save and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> illuminate mankind. Where +Bernard was a Christian, Arnold was a Roman in soul; where Bernard was +an inspired monk, Arnold was in heart a Christian, of that first +Apostolic republic which had all things in common.</p> + +<p>At such a time such a man could do much. Rome was in the utmost +distress. At the election of Innocent the Second, the Jewish Pierleoni +had set up one of themselves as antipope, and Innocent had been obliged +to escape in spite of the protection of the still powerful Frangipani, +leaving the Israelitish antipope to rule Rome, in spite of the Emperor, +and in alliance with King Roger for nine years, until his death, when it +required Saint Bernard's own presence and all the strength of his fiery +words to dissuade the Romans from accepting another spiritual and +temporal ruler imposed upon them by the masterful Pierleoni. So Innocent +returned at last, a good man, much tried by misfortune, but neither wise +nor a leader of men. At that time the soldiers of Rome were beaten in +open battle by the people of Tivoli, a humiliation which it was not easy +to forget. And it is more than probable that the Pierleoni looked on at +the Pope's failure in scornful inaction from their stronghold of Sant' +Angelo, which they had only nominally surrendered to Innocent's +authority.</p> + +<p>From a distance, Arnold of Brescia sadly contemplated Rome's disgrace +and the evil state of the Roman people. The yet unwritten words of Saint +Bernard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> were already more than true. They are worth repeating here, in +Gibbon's strong translation, for they perfect the picture of the times.</p> + +<p>'Who,' asks Bernard, 'is ignorant of the vanity and arrogance of the +Romans? a nation nursed in sedition, untractable, and scorning to obey, +unless they are too feeble to resist. When they promise to serve, they +aspire to reign; if they swear allegiance, they watch the opportunity of +revolt; yet they vent their discontent in loud clamours, if your doors, +or your counsels, are shut against them. Dexterous in mischief, they +have never learnt the science of doing good. Odious to earth and heaven, +impious to God, seditious among themselves, jealous of their neighbours, +inhuman to strangers, they love no one, by no one are they beloved; and +while they wish to inspire fear, they live in base and continual +apprehension. They will not submit; they know not how to govern; +faithless to their superiors, intolerable to their equals, ungrateful to +their benefactors, and alike impudent in their demands and their +refusals. Lofty in promise, poor in execution: adulation and calumny, +perfidy and treason, are the familiar arts of their policy.'</p> + +<p>Fearless and in earnest, Arnold came to Rome, and began to preach a +great change, a great reform, a great revival, and many heard him and +followed him; and it was not in the Pope's power to silence him, nor +bring him to any trial. The Pierleoni would support any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> sedition +against Innocent; the Roman people were weary of masters, they listened +with delight to Arnold's fierce condemnation of all temporal power, that +of the Pope and that of the Emperor alike, and the old words, Republic, +Senate, Consul, had not lost their life in the slumber of five hundred +years. The Capitol was there, for a Senate house, and there were men in +Rome to be citizens and Senators. Revolution was stirring, and Innocent +had recourse to the only weapon left him in his weakness. Arnold was +preaching as a Christian and a Catholic. The Pope excommunicated him in +a general Council. In the days of the Crusades the Major Interdiction +was not an empty form of words; to applaud a revolutionary was one +thing, to attend the sermons of a man condemned to hell was a graver +matter; Arnold's disciples deserted him, his friends no longer dared to +protect him under the penalty of eternal damnation, and he went out from +Rome a fugitive and an outcast.</p> + +<p>Wandering from Italy to France, from France to Germany, and at last to +Switzerland, he preached his doctrines without fear, though he had upon +him the mark of Cain; but if the temporal sovereignty against which he +spoke could not directly harm him, the spiritual power pursued him +hither and thither, like a sword of flame. A weaker man would have +renounced his beliefs, or would have disappeared in a distant obscurity; +but Arnold was not made to yield. Goaded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> by persecution, divinely +confident of right, he faced danger and death and came back to Rome.</p> + +<p>He arrived at a moment when the people were at once elated by the +submission of Tivoli, and exasperated against Innocent because he +refused to raze that city to the ground. The Pierleoni were ever ready +to encourage rebellion. The Romans, at the words Liberty and Republic, +rose in a body, rushed to the Capitol, proclaimed the Commonwealth, and +forthwith elected a Senate which assumed absolute sovereignty of the +city, and renewed the war with Tivoli. The institution then refounded +was not wholly abolished until, under the Italian kings, a +representative government took its place.</p> + +<p>The success and long supremacy of Arnold's teaching have been unfairly +called his 'reign'; yet he neither caused himself to be elected a +Senator, nor at any time, so far as we can learn, occupied any office +whatsoever; neither did he profit in fortune by the changes he had +wrought, and to the last he wore the garb of poverty and led the simple +life which had extorted the reluctant admiration of his noblest +adversary. But he could not impose upon others the virtues he practised +himself, nor was it in his power to direct the force his teachings had +called into life. For the time being the Popes were powerless against +the new order. Innocent is said to have died of grief and humiliation, +almost before the revolution was complete. His successor, Celestin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> the +Second, reigned but five months and a half, busy in a quarrel with King +Roger, and still the new Senate ruled the city.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image98.jpg" width="450" height="347" alt="ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS</span> +</div> + +<p>But saving that it endured, it left no mark of good in Rome; the nobles +saw that a new weapon was placed in their hands, they easily elected +themselves to office, and the people, deluded by the name of a Republic, +had exchanged the sovereignty of the Pope, or the allegiance of the +Emperor, for the far more ruthless tyranny of the barons. The Jewish +Pierleoni were rich and powerful still, but since Rome was strong enough +to resist the Vatican, the Pontificate was no longer a prize worth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +seizing, and they took instead, by bribery or force, the Consulship or +the Presidency of the Senate. Jordan, the brother of the antipope +Anacletus, obtained the office, and the violent death of the next Pope, +Lucius the Second, was one of the first events of his domination.</p> + +<p>Lucius refused to bear any longer the humiliation to which his +predecessors had tamely submitted. Himself in arms, and accompanied by +such followers as he could collect, the Pope made a desperate attempt to +dislodge the Senate and their guards from the Capitol, and at the head +of the storming party he endeavoured to ascend the old road, known then +as Fabatosta. But the Pierleoni and their men were well prepared for the +assault, and made a desperate and successful resistance. The Pope fell +at the head of his soldiers, struck by a stone on the temple, mortally +wounded, but not dead. In hasty retreat, the dying man was borne by his +routed soldiers to the monastery of Saint Gregory on the Cœlian, +under the safe protection of the trusty Frangipani, who held the +Palatine, the Circus Maximus, and the Colosseum. Of all the many Popes +who died untimely deaths he was the only one, I believe, who fell in +battle. And he got his deathblow on the slope of that same Capitol where +Gracchus and Manlius had died before him, each in good cause.</p> + +<p>It has been wrongly said that he had all the nobles with him, and that +the revolution was of the people alone, aided by the Pierleoni. This is +not true. So far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> as can be known, the Frangipani were his only faithful +friends, but it is possible that the Count of Tusculum, seventh in +descent from Theodora, and nephew of the first Colonna, at that time +holding a part of the Aventine, may have also been the Pope's ally. Be +that as it may, the force that Lucius led was very small, and the +garrison of the Capitol was overwhelmingly strong.</p> + +<p>Some say also that Arnold of Brescia was not actually in Rome at that +time, that the first revolution was the result of his unforgotten +teachings, bearing fruit in the hearts of the nobles and the people, and +that he did not come to the city till Pope Lucius was dead. However that +may be, from that time forward, till the coming of Barbarossa, Arnold +was the idol of the Romans, and their vanity and arrogance knew no +bounds. Pope Eugenius the Third was enthroned in the Lateran under the +protection of the Frangipani, but within the week he was forced to +escape by night to the mountains. The Pierleoni held Sant' Angelo; the +people seized and fortified the Vatican, deprived the Pope's Prefect of +his office, and forced the few nobles who resisted them to swear +allegiance to Jordan Pierleone, making him in fact dictator, and in name +their 'Patrician.' The Pope retorted by excommunicating him, and allying +himself with Tivoli, but was forced to a compromise whereby he +acknowledged the Senate and the supremacy of the Roman people, who, +already tired of their dictator, agreed to restore the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> Prefect to +office, and to express some sort of obedience, more spiritual than +temporal, to the Pope's authority. But Arnold was still supreme, and +after a short stay in the city Eugenius was again a fugitive.</p> + +<p>It was then that he passed into France, when Lewis the Seventh was ready +armed to lead the Second Crusade to the Holy Land; and through that +stirring time Rome is dark and sullen, dwelling aloof from Church and +Empire in the new-found illusion of an unreal and impossible greatness. +Seven hundred years later an Italian patriot exclaimed, 'We have an +Italy, but we have no Italians.' And so Arnold of Brescia must many +times have longed for Romans to people a free Rome. He had made a +republic, but he could not make free men; he had called up a vision, but +he could not give it reality; like Rienzi and the rest, he had 'mistaken +memories for hopes,' and he was fore-destined to pay for his belief in +his country's life with the sacrifice of his own. He had dreamed of a +liberty serene and high, but he had produced only a dismal confusion: in +place of peace he had brought senseless strife; instead of a wise and +simple consul, he had given the Romans the keen and rapacious son of a +Jewish usurer for a dictator; where he had hoped to destroy the temporal +power of Pope and Emperor, he had driven the greatest forces of his age, +and two of the greatest men, to an alliance against him.</p> + +<p>So he perished. Eugenius died in Tivoli, Anastasius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> reigned a few +months, and sturdy Nicholas Breakspeare was Adrian the Fourth. Conrad +the Emperor also died, poisoned by the physicians King Roger sent him +from famous Salerno, and Frederick Barbarossa of Hohenstauffen, his +nephew, reigned in his stead. Adrian and Frederick quarrelled at their +first meeting in the sight of all their followers in the field, for the +young Emperor would not hold the Englishman's stirrup on the first day. +On the second he yielded, and Pope and Emperor together were invincible. +Then the Roman Senate and people sent out ambassadors, who spoke hugely +boasting words to the red-haired soldier, and would have set conditions +on his crowning, so that he laughed aloud at them; and he and Adrian +went into the Leonine city, but not into Rome itself, and the Englishman +crowned the German. Yet the Romans would fight, and in the heat of the +summer noon they crossed the bridge and killed such straggling guards as +they could find; then the Germans turned and mowed them down, and killed +a thousand of the best, while the Pierleoni, as often before, looked on +in sullen neutrality from Sant' Angelo, waiting to take the side of the +winner. Then the Emperor and the Pope departed together, leaving Rome to +its factions and its parties.</p> + +<p>Suddenly Arnold of Brescia is with them, a prisoner, but how taken no +man can surely tell. And with them also, by Soracte, far out in the +northern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> Campagna, is Di Vico, the Prefect, to judge the leader of the +people. The Pope and the Emperor may have looked on, while Di Vico +judged the heretic and the rebel; but they did not themselves judge him. +The Prefect, Lord of Viterbo, had been long at war with the new-formed +Senate and the city, and owed Arnold bitter hatred and grudge.</p> + +<p>The end was short. Arnold told them all boldly that his teaching was +just, and that he would die for it. He knelt down, lifted up his hands +to heaven, and commended his soul to God. Then they hanged him, and when +he was dead they burnt his body and scattered the ashes in the river, +lest any relics of him should be taken to Rome to work new miracles of +revolution. No one knows just where he died, but only that it was most +surely far out in the Campagna, in the hot summer days, in the year +1155, and not within the city, as has been so often asserted.</p> + +<p>He was a martyr—whether in a good cause or a foolish one, let those +judge who call themselves wise; there was no taint of selfishness in +him, no thought of ambition for his own name, and there was no spot upon +his life in an age of which the evils cannot be written down, and are +better not guessed. He died for something in which he believed enough to +die for it, and belief cannot be truer to itself than that. So far as +the Church of today may speak, all Churchmen know that his heresies of +faith, if they were real, were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> neither great nor vital, and that he was +put to death, not for them, but because he was become the idol and the +prophet of a rebellious city. His doctrine had spread over Italy, his +words had set the country aflame, his mere existence was a lasting cause +of bloody strife between city and city, princes and people, nobles and +vassals. The times were not ripe, and in the inevitable course of fate +it was foreordained that he must perish, condemned by Popes and +Emperors, Kings and Princes; but of all whole-souled reformers, of all +patriot leaders, of all preachers of liberty, past and living, it is not +too much to say that Arnold of Brescia was the truest, the bravest and +the simplest.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>To them all, the Capitol has been the central object of dreams, and upon +its walls the story of their failure has often been told in grotesque +figures of themselves. When Rienzi was first driven out, his effigy was +painted, hanged by the heels upon one of the towers, and many another +'enemy of the state' was pictured there—Giuliano Cesarini, for one, and +the great Sforza, himself, with a scornful and insulting epigraph; as +Andrea del Castagno, justly surnamed the 'Assassin,' painted upon the +walls of the Signoria in Florence the likeness of all those who had +joined in the great conspiracy of the Pazzi, hung up by the feet, as may +be seen to this day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> + +<p>It has ever been a place of glory, a place of death and a place of +shame, but since the great modern changes it is meant to be only the +seat of honour, and upon the slope of the Capitol the Italians, in the +first flush of victorious unity, have begun to raise a great monument to +their greatest idol, King Victor Emmanuel. If it is not the best work of +art of the sort in existence it will probably enjoy the distinction of +being the largest, and it is by no means the worst, for the central +statue of the 'Honest King' has been modelled with marvellous skill and +strength by Chiaradia, whose name is worthy to be remembered; yet the +vastness of the architectural theatre provided for its display betrays +again the giantism of the Latin race, and when in a future century the +broad flood of patriotism shall have subsided within the straight river +bed of sober history, men will wonder why Victor Emmanuel, honest and +brave though he was, received the greater share of praise, and Cavour +and Garibaldi the less, seeing that he got Italy by following the advice +of the one, if not by obeying his dictation, and by accepting the +kingdom which the other had destined for a republic, but was forced to +yield to the monarchy by the superior genius of the statesman.</p> + +<p>That day is not far distant. After a period of great and disastrous +activity, the sleepy indifference of 1830 is again settling upon Rome, +the race for imaginary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> wealth is over, time is a drug in the market, +money is scarce, dwellings are plentiful, the streets are quiet by day +and night, and only those who still have something to lose or who +cherish very modest hopes of gain, still take an interest in financial +affairs. One may dream again, as one dreamed thirty years ago, when all +the clocks were set once a fortnight to follow the sun.</p> + +<p>Rome is restoring to Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's. They are much +bigger and finer things than the symmetrical, stuccoed cubes which have +lately been piled up everywhere in heaven-offending masses, and one is +glad to come back to them after the nightmare that has lasted twenty +years. Moreover, one is surprised to find how little permanent effect +has been produced by the squandering of countless millions during the +building mania, beyond a cruel destruction of trees, and a few +modifications of natural local accidents. To do the moderns justice, +they have done no one act of vandalism as bad as fifty, at least, +committed by the barons of the Middle Age and the Popes of the +Renascence, though they have shown much worse taste in such new things +as they have set up in place of the old.</p> + +<p>The charm of Rome has never lain in its architecture, nor in the beauty +of its streets, though the loveliness of its old-fashioned gardens +contributed much which is now in great part lost. Nor can it be said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +that the enthralling magic of the city we used to know lay especially in +its historical association, since Rome has been loved to folly by +half-educated girls, by flippant women of the world and by ignorant +idlers without number, as well as by most men of genius who have ever +spent much time there.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 258px;"> +<img src="images/image107.jpg" width="258" height="500" alt="COLUMN OF PHOCAS, LOOKING ALONG THE FORUM" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COLUMN OF PHOCAS, LOOKING ALONG THE FORUM</span> +</div> + +<p>In the Middle Age one man might know all that was to be known. Dante +did; so did Lionardo da Vinci. But times have changed since a mediæval +scholar wrote a book 'Concerning all things and certain others also.' We +cannot all be archæologists. Perhaps when we go and stand in the Forum +we have a few general ideas about the relative position of the old +buildings; we know the Portico of the Twelve Gods in Council, the Temple +of Concord, the Basilica Julia, the Court of Vesta, the Temple of Castor +and Pollux; we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> have a more vague notion of the Senate Hall; the hideous +arch of Septimius Severus stares us in the face; so does the lovely +column of evil Phocas, the monster of the east, the red-handed +centurion-usurper who murdered an Emperor and his five sons to reach the +throne. And perhaps we have been told where the Rostra stood, and the +Rostra Julia, and that the queer fragment of masonry by the arch is +supposed to be the 'Umbilicus,' the centre of the Roman world. There is +no excuse for not knowing these things any more than there is any very +strong reason for knowing them, unless one be a student. There is a plan +of the Forum in every guide book, with a description that changes with +each new edition.</p> + +<p>And yet, without much definite knowledge,—with 'little Latin and less +Greek,' perhaps,—many men and women, forgetting for one moment the +guide book in their hands, have leaned upon a block of marble with +half-closed, musing eyes, and breath drawn so slow that it is almost +quite held in day-dream wonder, and they have seen a vision rise of past +things and beings, even in the broad afternoon sunshine, out of stones +that remember Cæsar's footsteps, and from walls that have echoed +Antony's speech. There they troop up the Sacred Way, the shock-headed, +wool-draped, beak-nosed Romans; there they stand together in groups at +the corner of Saturn's temple; there the half-naked plebeian children +clamber upon the pedestals of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> columns to see the sights, and double +the men's deep tones with a treble of childish chatter; there the noble +boy with his bordered toga, his keen young face, and longing backward +look, is hurried home out of the throng by the tall household slave, who +carries his school tablets and is answerable with his skin for the boy's +safety. The Consul Major goes by, twelve lictors marching in single file +before him—black-browed, square-jawed, relentless men, with their rods +and axes. Then two closed litters are carried past by big, black, oily +fellows, beside whom walk freedmen and Greek slaves, and three or four +curled and scented parasites, the shadows of the great men. Under their +very feet the little street boys play their games of pitching at tiny +pyramids of dried lupins, unless they have filberts, and lupins are +almost as good; and as the dandified hanger-on of Mæcenas, straining his +ear for the sound of his patron's voice from within the litter, +heedlessly crushes the little yellow beans under his sandal, the +particular small boy whose stake is smashed clenches his fist, and with +flashing eyes curses the dandy's dead to the fourth generation of +ascendants, and he and his companions turn and scatter like mice as one +of the biggest slaves threateningly raises his hand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image111a.jpg" width="650" height="395" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF THE FORUM" title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF THE FORUM</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + +<p>Absurd details rise in the dream. An old crone is selling roasted +chestnuts in the shadow of the temple of Castor and Pollux; a tipsy +soldier is reeling to his quarters with his helmet stuck on wrong side +foremost; a knot of Hebrew money-changers, with long curls and high +caps, are talking eagerly in their own language, clutching the little +bags they hide in the sleeves of their yellow Eastern gowns—the men who +mourned for Cæsar and for Augustus, whose descendants were to burn +Rienzi's body among the thistles by Augustus's tomb, whose offspring +were to breed the Pierleoni; a bright-eyed, skinny woman of the people +boxes her daughter's ears for having smiled at one of the rich men's +parasites, and the girl, already crying, still looks after the +fashionable good-for-nothing, under her mother's upraised arm.</p> + +<p>All about stretches the vast humming city of low-built houses covering +the short steep hills and filling all the hollow between. Northeastward +lies the seething Suburra; the yellow river runs beyond the Velabrum and +the cattle market to the west; southward rise the enchanted palaces of +Cæsar; due east is the Esquiline of evil fame, redeemed and made lovely +with trees and fountains by Mæcenas, but haunted even today, say modern +Romans, by the spectres of murderers and thieves who there died bloody +deaths of quivering torture. All around, as the sun sinks and the cool +shadows quench the hot light on the white pavements, the ever-increasing +crowds of men—always more men than women—move inward, half +unconsciously, out of inborn instinct, to the Forum, the centre of the +Empire, the middle of the world, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> boiling-point of the whole earth's +riches and strength and life.</p> + +<p>Then as the traveller muses out his short space of rest, the vision +grows confused, and Rome's huge ghosts go stalking, galloping, clanging, +raving through the surging dream-throng,—Cæsar, Brutus, Pompey, +Catiline, Cicero, Caligula, Vitellius, Hadrian,—and close upon them +Gauls and Goths and Huns, and all barbarians, till the dream is a medley +of school-learned names, that have suddenly taken shadows of great faces +out of Rome's shadow storehouse, and gorgeous arms and streaming +draperies, and all at once the sight-seer shivers as the sun goes down, +and passes his hand over his eyes, and shakes himself, and goes away +rather hastily, lest he should fall sick of a fever and himself be +gathered to the ghosts he has seen.</p> + +<p>It matters very little whether the day-dream much resembles the reality +of ages long ago, whether boys played with lupins or with hazel-nuts +then, or old women roasted chestnuts in the streets, or whether such +unloving spirits should be supposed to visit one man in one vision. The +traveller has had an impression which has not been far removed from +emotion, and his day has not been lost, if it be true that emotion is +the soul's only measure of time. There, if anywhere, lies Rome's secret. +The place, the people, the air, the crystal brightness of winter, the +passion-stirring scirocco of autumn, the loveliness of the long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> spring, +the deep, still heat of summer, the city, the humanity, the memories of +both, are all distillers of emotion in one way or another.</p> + +<p>Above all, the night is beautiful in Rome, when the moon is high and all +is quiet. Go down past the silver Forum to the Colosseum and see what it +is then, and perhaps you will know what it was in the old days. Such +white stillness as this fell then also, by night, on all the broad space +around the amphitheatre of all amphitheatres, the wonder of the world, +the chief monument of Titus, when his hand had left of Jerusalem not one +stone upon another. The same moonbeams fell slanting across the same +huge walls, and whitened the sand of the same broad arena when the great +awning was drawn back at night to air the place of so much death. In the +shadow, the steps are still those up which Dion the Senator went to see +mad Commodus play the gladiator and the public fool. On one of those +lower seats he sat, the grave historian, chewing laurel leaves to steady +his lips and keep down his laughter, lest a smile should cost his head; +and he showed the other Senators that it was a good thing for their +safety, and there they sat, in their rows, throughout the long +afternoon, solemnly chewing laurel leaves for their lives, while the +strong madman raved on the sand below, and slew, and bathed himself in +the blood of man and beast. There is a touch of frightful humour in the +tale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> + +<p>And one stands there alone in the stillness and remembers how, on that +same night, when all was over, when the corpses had been dragged away, +it may have been almost as it is now. Only, perhaps, far off among the +arches and on the tiers of seats, there might be still a tiny light +moving here and there; the keepers of that terrible place would go their +rounds with their little earthen lamps; they would search everywhere in +the spectators' places for small things that might have been lost in the +press—a shoulder-buckle of gold or silver or bronze, an armlet, a +woman's earring, a purse, perhaps, with something in it. And the fitful +night-breeze blew now and then and made them shade their lights with +their dark hands. By the 'door of the dead' a torch was burning down in +its socket, its glare falling upon a heap of armour, mostly somewhat +battered, and all of it blood-stained; a score of black-browed smiths +were picking it over and distributing it in heaps, according to its +condition. Now and then, from the deep vaults below the arena, came the +distant sound of a clanging gate or of some piece of huge stage +machinery falling into its place, and a muffled calling of men. One of +the keepers, with his light, was singing softly some ancient minor +strain as he searched the tiers. That would be all, and presently even +that would cease.</p> + +<p>One thinks of such things naturally enough; and then the dream runs +backward, against the sun, as dreams will, and the moon rays weave a +vision of dim<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> day. Straightway tier upon tier, eighty thousand faces +rise, up to the last high rank beneath the awning's shade. High in the +front, under the silken canopy sits the Emperor of the world, +sodden-faced, ghastly, swine-eyed, robed in purple; all alone, save for +his dwarf, bull-nosed, slit-mouthed, hunch-backed, sly. Next, on the +lowest bench, the Vestals, old and young, the elder looking on with hard +faces and dry eyes, the youngest with wide and startled looks, and +parted lips, and quick-drawn breath that sobs and is caught at sight of +each deadly stab and gash of broadsword and trident, and hands that +twitch and clutch each other as a man's foot slips in a pool of blood, +and the heavy harness clashes in the red, wet sand. Then grey-haired +senators; then curled and perfumed knights of Rome; and then the people, +countless, vast, frenzied, blood-thirsty, stretching out a hundred +thousand hands with thumbs reversed, commanding death to the +fallen—full eighty thousand throats of men and women roaring, yelling, +shrieking over each ended life. A theatre indeed, a stage indeed, a play +wherein every scene of every act ends in sudden death.</p> + +<p>And then the wildest, deadliest howl of all on that day; a handful of +men and women in white, and one girl in the midst of them; the clang of +an iron gate thrown suddenly open; a rushing and leaping of great, lithe +bodies of beasts, yellow and black and striped, the sand flying in +clouds behind them; a worrying and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> crushing of flesh and bone, as of +huge cats worrying little white mice; sharp cries, then blood, then +silence, then a great laughter, and the sodden face of mankind's drunken +master grows almost human for a moment with a very slow smile. The wild +beasts are driven out with brands and red-hot irons, step by step, +dragging backward nameless mangled things in their jaws, and the +bull-nosed dwarf offers the Emperor a cup of rare red wine. It drips +from his mouth while he drinks, as the blood from the tiger's fangs.</p> + +<p>"What were they?" he asks.</p> + +<p>"Christians," explains the dwarf.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image118.jpg" width="450" height="231" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>REGION XI SANT' ANGELO</h2> + + +<p>The Region of Sant' Angelo, as has been already said, takes its name +from the small church famous in Rienzi's story. It encloses all of what +was once the Ghetto, and includes the often-mentioned Theatre of +Marcellus, now the palace of the Orsini, but successively a fortress of +the Pierleoni, appropriately situated close to the Jews' quarter, and +the home of the Savelli. The history of the Region is the history of the +Jews in Rome, from Augustus to the destruction of their dwelling-place, +about 1890. In other words, the Hebrew colony actually lived during +nineteen hundred years at that point of the Tiber, first on one side of +the river, and afterwards on the other.</p> + +<p>It is said that the first Jews were brought to Rome by Pompey, as +prisoners of war, and soon afterwards set free, possibly on their paying +a ransom accumulated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> by half starving themselves, and selling the +greater part of their allowance of corn during a long period. Seventeen +years later, they were a power in Rome; they had lent Julius Cæsar +enormous sums, which he repaid with exorbitant interest, and after his +death they mourned him, and kept his funeral pyre burning seven days and +nights in the Forum. A few years after that time, Augustus established +them on the opposite side of the Tiber, over against the bridge of +Cestius and the island. Under Tiberius their numbers had increased to +fifty thousand; they had synagogues in Rome, Genoa and Naples, and it is +noticeable that their places of worship were always built upon the shore +of the sea, or the bank of a river, whence their religious services came +to be termed 'orationes littorales'—which one might roughly translate +as 'alongshore prayers.'</p> + +<p>They were alternately despised, hated, feared and flattered. Tacitus +calls them a race of men hated by the gods, yet their kings, Herod and +Agrippa—one asks how the latter came by an ancient Roman name—were +treated with honour and esteem. The latter was in fact brought up with +Drusus, the son of the Emperor Tiberius, his son was on terms of the +greatest intimacy with Claudius, and his daughter or grand-daughter +Berenice was long and truly loved by Titus, who would have made her +Empress had it been possible, to the great scandal of the Emperor's many +detractors, as Suetonius has told. Sabina Poppæa, Nero's lowly and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> evil +second wife, loved madly one Aliturius, a Jewish comic actor and a +favourite of Nero; and when the younger Agrippa induced Nero to imprison +Saint Peter and Saint Paul, and Josephus came to Pozzuoli, having +suffered shipwreck like the latter, this same Josephus, the historian of +the Jews, got the actor's friendship and by his means moved Poppæa, and +through her, Nero, to a first liberation of those whom he describes as +'certain priests of my acquaintance, very excellent persons, whom on a +small and trifling charge Felix the procurator of Judæa had put in irons +and sent to Rome to plead their cause before Cæsar.' It should not be +forgotten that Josephus was himself a pupil of Banus, who, though not a +Christian, is believed to have been a follower of John the Baptist. And +here Saint John Chrysostom, writing about the year 400, takes up the +story and tells how Saint Paul attempted to convert Poppæa and to +persuade her to leave Nero, since she had two other husbands living; and +how Nero turned upon him and accused him of many sins, and imprisoned +him, and when he saw that even in prison the Apostle still worked upon +Poppæa's conscience, he at last condemned him to die. Other historians +have said that Poppæa turned Jewess for the sake of her Jewish actor, +and desired to be buried by the Jewish rite when she was dying of the +savage kick that killed her and her child—the only act of violence Nero +seems to have ever regretted. However that may be, it is sure that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> she +loved the comedian, and that for a time he had unbounded influence in +Rome. And so great did their power grow that Claudius Rutilius, a Roman +magistrate and poet, a contemporary of Chrysostom, and not a Christian, +expressed the wish that Judæa might never have been conquered by Pompey +and subdued again by Titus, 'since the contagion of the cancer, cut out, +spreads wider, and the conquered nation grinds its conquerors.'</p> + +<p>And so, with varying fortune, they survived the empire which they had +seen founded, and the changes of a thousand years, they themselves +inwardly unchanged and unchanging, while following many arts and many +trades besides money-lending, and they outlived persecution and did not +decay in prosperity. In their seven Roman synagogues they set up models +of the temple Titus had destroyed, and of the seven-branched candlestick +and of the holy vessels of Jerusalem which were preserved in the temple +of Peace as trophies of the Jews' subjection; they made candlesticks and +vessels of like shape for their synagogues, nursing their hatred, +praying for deliverance, and because those sacred things were kept in +Rome, it became a holy city for them, and they throve; and by and by +they oppressed their victors. Then came Domitian the Jew-hater, and +turned them out of their houses and laid heavy taxes upon them, and +forced them for a time to live in the caves and wild places and +catacombs of the Aventine, and they became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> dealers in spells +and amulets and love philtres, which they sold dear to the +ever-superstitious Romans, and Juvenal wrote scornful satires on them. +Presently they returned, under Trajan, to their old dwellings by the +Tiber. Thence they crept along the Cestian bridge to the island, and +from the island by the Fabrician bridge to the other shore, growing rich +again by degrees, and crowding their little houses upon the glorious +portico of Octavia, where Vespasian and Titus had met the Senate at dawn +on the day when they triumphed over the Jews and the fall of Jerusalem, +and the very place of the Jews' greatest humiliation became their +stronghold for ages.</p> + +<p>Then all at once, in the twelfth century, they are the masters. The +Pierleoni hold Sant' Angelo, and close to their old quarters fortify the +Theatre of Marcellus, and a Pierleone is antipope in name, but a real +and ruling Pope in political fact, while Innocent the Second wanders +helplessly from town to town, and later, while Lewis the Seventh of +France leads the Second Crusade to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre, the +'Vicar of Christ' is an outcast before the race of those by whom Christ +was crucified. That was the highest point of the Jews' greatness in +Rome.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image123.jpg" width="450" height="278" alt="PIAZZA MONTANARA AND THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PIAZZA MONTANARA AND THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>But it is noticeable that while the Hebrew race possesses in the very +highest degree the financial energy to handle and accumulate money, and +the tenacity to keep it for a long time, it has never shown that sort of +strength which can hold land or political power in adverse +circumstances. In the twelfth century the Pierleoni were the masters of +Rome; in the thirteenth, they had disappeared from history, though they +still held the Theatre of Marcellus; in the fourteenth they seem to have +perished altogether and are never heard of again. And it should not be +argued that this was due to any overwhelming persecution and destruction +of the Jews, since the Pierleoni's first step was an outward, if not a +sincere, conversion to Christianity. In strong contrast with these facts +stands the history of the Colonna. The researches of the learned Coppi +make it almost certain that the Colonna descend from Theodora, the +Senatress of Rome, who flourished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> in the year 914; Pietro della Colonna +held Palestrina, and is known to have imprisoned there, 'in an empty +cistern,' the governor of Campagna, in the year 1100; like the Orsini, +the Colonna boast that during more than five hundred years no treaty was +drawn up with the princes of Europe in which their two families were not +specifically designated; and at the time of the present writing, in the +last days of the nineteenth century, Colonna is still not only one of +the greatest names in Europe, but the family is numerous and +flourishing, unscathed by the terrible financial disasters which began +to ruin Italy in 1888, not notably wealthy, but still in possession of +its ancestral palace in Rome, and of immense tracts of land in the +hills, in the Campagna, and in the south of Italy—actively engaged, +moreover, in the representative government of Italy, strong, solid and +full of life, as though but lately risen to eminence from a sturdy +country stock—and all this after a career that has certainly lasted +eight hundred years, and very probably nearer a thousand. Nor can any +one pretend that it owes much to the power or protection of any +sovereign, since the Colonna have been in almost constant opposition to +the Popes in history, have been exiled and driven from Italy more than +once, and have again and again suffered confiscation of all they +possessed in the world. There have certainly not been in the same time +so many confiscations proclaimed against the Jews.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<p>The question presents itself: why has a prolific race which, as a whole, +has survived the fall of kingdoms and empires without end, with singular +integrity of original faith and most extraordinary tenacity of tradition +and custom, together with the most unbounded ambition and very superior +mental gifts, never produced a single family of powerful men able to +maintain their position more than a century or two, when the nations of +Europe have produced at least half a dozen that have lasted a thousand +years? If there be any answer to such a question, it is that the pursuit +and care of money have a tendency to destroy the balance and produce +degeneration by over-stimulating the mind in one direction, and that not +a noble one, at the expense of the other talents; whereas the struggle +for political power sharpens most of the faculties, and the acquisition +and preservation of landed property during many generations bring men +necessarily into a closer contact with nature, and therefore induce a +healthier life, tending to increase the vitality of a race rather than +to diminish it. Whether this be true or not, it is safe to say that no +great family has ever maintained its power long by the possession of +money, without great lands; and by 'long' we understand at least three +hundred years.</p> + +<p>With regard to the Jews in Rome it is a singular fact that they have +generally been better treated by the religious than by the civil +authorities. They were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> required to do homage to the latter every year +in the Capitol, and on this occasion the Senator of Rome placed his foot +upon the heads of the prostrate delegates, by way of accentuating their +humiliation and disgrace, but the service they were required to do on +the accession of a new Pope was of a different and less degrading +nature. The Israelite School awaited the Pope's passage, on his return +from taking possession of the Lateran, standing up in a richly hung +temporary balcony, before which he passed on his way. They then +presented him with a copy of the Pentateuch, which he blessed on the +spot, and took away with him. That was all, and it amounted to a +sanction, or permission, accorded to the Jewish religion.</p> + +<p>As for the sumptuary laws, the first one was decreed in 1215, after the +fall of the Pierleoni, and it imposed upon all Jews, and other heretics +whomsoever, the wearing of a large circle of yellow cloth sewn upon the +breast. In the following century, according to Baracconi, this mark was +abolished by the statutes of the city and the Jews were made to wear a +scarlet mantle in public; but all licensed Jewish physicians, being +regarded as public benefactors, were exempted from the rule. For the +profession of medicine is one which the Hebrews have always followed +with deserved success, and it frequently happened in Rome that the +Pope's private physician, who lived in the Vatican and was a personage +of confidence and importance, was a professed Israelite from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> the +Ghetto, who worshipped in the synagogue on Saturdays and looked with +contempt and disgust upon his pontifical patient as an eater of unclean +food. There was undoubtedly a law compelling a certain number of the +Jews to hear sermons once a week, first in the Trinità dei Pellegrini, +and afterwards in the Church of Sant' Angelo in the Fishmarket, and it +was from time to time rigorously enforced; it was renewed in the present +century under Leo the Twelfth, and only finally abolished, together with +all other oppressive measures, by Pius the Ninth at the beginning of his +reign. But when one considers the frightful persecution suffered by the +race in Spain, it must be conceded that they were relatively well +treated in Rome by the Popes. Their bitterest enemies and oppressors +were the lower classes of the people, who were always ready to attack +and rifle the Ghetto on the slightest pretext, and against whose +outrageous deeds the Jews had no redress.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image129a.jpg" width="650" height="381" alt="THEATRE OF MARCELLUS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THEATRE OF MARCELLUS</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was their treatment by the people, rather than the matter itself, +which made the carnival races, in which they were forced to run after a +hearty meal, together with a great number of Christians, an intolerable +tyranny; and when Clement the Ninth exempted them from it, he did not +abolish the races of Christian boys and old men. The people detested the +Jews, hooted them, hissed them, and maltreated them with and without +provocation. Moses Mendelssohn, the father of the composer, wrote to a +friend from Berlin late in the eighteenth century, complaining bitterly +that in that self-styled city of toleration, the cry of 'Jew' was raised +against him when he ventured into the streets with his little children +by daylight, and that the boys threw stones at them, as they passed, so +that he only went out late in the evening. Things were no better in Rome +under Paul the Fourth, but they were distinctly better in Rome than in +Berlin at the time of Mendelssohn's writing.</p> + +<p>Paul the Fourth, the Carafa Pope, and the friend of the Inquisition, +confined the Jews to the Ghetto. There can be no doubt but that the act +was intended as a measure of severity against heretics, and as such Pius +the Ninth considered it indefensible and abolished it. In actual fact it +must have been of enormous advantage to the Jews, who were thus provided +with a stronghold against the persecutions and robberies of the rabble. +The little quarter was enclosed by strong walls with gates, and if the +Jews were required to be within them at night, on pain of a fine, they +and their property were at least in safety. This fact has never been +noticed, and accounts for the serenity with which they bore their +nightly imprisonment for three centuries. Once within the walls of the +Ghetto they were alone, and could go about the little streets in perfect +security; they were free from the contamination as well as safe from the +depredations of Christians, and within their own precincts they were not +forced to wear the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> hated orange-coloured cap or net which Paul the +Fourth imposed upon the Jewish men and women. To a great extent, too, +such isolation was already in the traditions of the race. A hundred +years earlier Venice had created its Ghetto; so had Prague, and other +European cities were not long in following. Morally speaking their +confinement may have been a humiliation; in sober fact it was an immense +advantage; moreover, a special law of 'emphyteusis' made the leases of +their homes inalienable, so long as they paid rent, and forbade the +raising of the rent under any circumstances, while leaving the tenant +absolute freedom to alter and improve his house as he would, together +with the right to sublet it, or to sell the lease itself to any other +Hebrew; and these leases became very valuable. Furthermore, though under +the jurisdiction of criminal courts, the Jews had their own police in +the Ghetto, whom they chose among themselves half yearly.</p> + +<p>It has been stated by at least one writer that the church and square of +Santa Maria del Pianto—Our Lady of Tears—bears witness to the grief of +the people when they were first forced into the Ghetto in the year 1556. +But this is an error. The church received the name from a tragedy and a +miracle which are said to have taken place before it ten years earlier. +It was formerly called San Salvatore in Cacaberis, the Church of the +'Saviour in the district of the kettle-makers.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> An image of the Blessed +Virgin stood over the door of a house close by; a frightful murder was +done in broad day, and at the sight tears streamed from the statue's +eyes; the image was taken into the church, which was soon afterwards +dedicated to 'Our Lady of Tears,' and the name remained forever to +commemorate the miraculous event.</p> + +<p>Besides mobbing the Jews in the streets and plundering them when they +could, the Roman populace invented means of insulting them which must +have been especially galling. They ridiculed them in the popular +open-air theatres, and made blasphemous jests upon their most sacred +things in Carnival. It is not improbable that 'Punch and Judy' may have +had their origin in something of this sort, and 'Judy' certainly +suggests 'Giudea,' a Jewess. What the Roman rabble had done against +Christians in heathen days, the Christian rabble did against the Jews in +the Middle Age and the Renascence. They were robbed, ridiculed, +outraged, and sometimes killed; after the fall of the Pierleoni, they +appear to have had no civil rights worth mentioning; they were taxed +more heavily than the Christian citizens, in proportion as they were +believed to be more wealthy, and were less able to resent the +tax-gatherer; their daughters were stolen away for their beauty, less +consenting than Jessica, and with more violence, and the Merchant of +Venice is not a mere fiction of the master playwright. All these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> things +were done to them and more, yet they stayed in Rome, and multiplied, and +grew rich, being then, as when Tacitus wrote of them, 'scrupulously +faithful and ever actively charitable to each other, and filled with +invincible hatred against all other men.'</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image133.jpg" width="450" height="297" alt="SITE OF THE ANCIENT GHETTO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SITE OF THE ANCIENT GHETTO</span> +</div> + +<p>The old Roman Ghetto has been often described, but no description can +give any true impression of it; the place where it stood is a vast open +lot, waiting for new buildings which will perhaps never rise, and the +memory of it is relegated to the many fast-fading pictures of old Rome. +Persius tells how, on Herod's birthday, the Jews adorned their doors +with bunches of violets and set out rows of little smoky lamps upon the +greasy window-sills, and feasted on the tails of tunny fish—the meanest +part—pickled, and eaten off rough red earthen-ware plates with draughts +of poor white wine. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> picture was a true one ten years ago, for the +manners of the Ghetto had not changed in that absolute isolation. The +name itself, 'Ghetto,' is generally derived from a Hebrew root meaning +'cut off'—and cut off the Jews' quarter was, by walls, by religion, by +tradition, by mutual hatred between Hebrews and other men. It has been +compared to a beehive, to an anthill, to an old house-beam riddled and +traversed in all directions by miniature labyrinths of worm-holes, +crossing, intercommunicating, turning to right and left, upwards and +downwards, but hardly ever coming out to the surface. It has been +described by almost every writer who ever put words together about Rome, +but no words, no similes, no comparisons, can make those see it who were +never there. In a low-lying space enclosed within a circuit of five +hundred yards, and little, if at all, larger than the Palazzo Doria, +between four and five thousand human beings were permanently crowded +together in dwellings centuries old, built upon ancient drains and +vaults that were constantly exposed to the inundations of the river and +always reeking with its undried slime; a little, pale-faced, +crooked-legged, eager-eyed people, grubbing and grovelling in masses of +foul rags for some tiny scrap richer than the rest and worthy to be sold +apart; a people whose many women, haggard, low-speaking, dishevelled, +toiled half doubled together upon the darning and piecing and smoothing +of old clothes, whose many little children huddled themselves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> into +corners, to teach one another to count; a people of sellers who sold +nothing that was not old or damaged, and who had nothing that they would +not sell; a people clothed in rags, living among rags, thriving on rags; +a people strangely proof against pestilence, gathering rags from the +city to their dens, when the cholera was raging outside the Ghetto's +gates, and rags were cheap, yet never sickening of the plague +themselves; a people never idle, sleeping little, eating sparingly, +labouring for small gain amid dirt and stench and dampness, till Friday +night came at last, and the old crier's melancholy voice ran through the +darkening alleys—'The Sabbath has begun.'</p> + +<p>And all at once the rags were gone, the ghostly old clothes that swung +like hanged men, by the neck, in the doorways of the cavernous shops, +flitted away into the utter darkness within; the old bits of iron and +brass went rattling out of sight, like spectres' chains; the hook-nosed +antiquary drew in his cracked old show-case; the greasy frier of fish +and artichokes extinguished his little charcoal fire of coals; the +slipshod darning-women, half-blind with six days' work, folded the +half-patched coats and trousers, and took their rickety old +rush-bottomed chairs indoors with them.</p> + +<p>Then, on the morrow, in the rich synagogue with its tapestries, its +gold, and its gilding, the thin, dark men were together in their hats +and long coats, and the sealed books of Moses were borne before their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +eyes and held up to the North and South and East and West, and all the +men together lifted up their arms and cried aloud to the God of their +fathers. But when the Sabbath was over, they went back to their rags and +their patched clothes and to their old iron and their junk and their +antiquities, and toiled on patiently again, looking for the coming of +the Messiah.</p> + +<p>And there were astrologers and diviners and magicians and witches and +crystal-gazers among them to whom great ladies came on foot, thickly +veiled, and walking delicately amidst the rags, and men, too, who were +more ashamed of themselves, and slunk in at nightfall to ask the Jews +concerning the future—even in our time as in Juvenal's, and in +Juvenal's day as in Saul's of old. Nor did the papal laws against +witchcraft have force against Jews, since the object of the laws was to +save Christian souls from the hell which no Jew could escape save by +conversion. And the diviners and seers and astrologers of the Ghetto +were long in high esteem, and sometimes earned fortunes when they hit +the truth, and when the truth was pleasant in the realization.</p> + +<p>They are gone now, with the Ghetto and all that belonged to it. The Jews +who lived there are either becoming absorbed in the population of Rome, +or have transferred themselves and their rags to other places, where +lodgings are cheap, but where they no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> longer enjoy the privilege of +irrevocable leases at rents fixed for all time. A part of them are +living between Santa Maria Maggiore and the Lateran, a part in +Trastevere, and they exercise their ancient industries in their new +homes, and have new synagogues instead of the old ones. But one can no +longer see them all together in one place. Little by little, too, the +old prejudices against them are disappearing, even among the poorer +Romans, whose hatred was most tenacious, and by and by, at no very +distant date, the Jews in Rome will cease to be an isolated and peculiar +people. Then, when they live as other men, amongst other folks, as in +many cities of the world, they will get the power in Rome, as they have +begun to get it already, and as they have it already in more than one +great capital. But a change has come over the Jewish race within the +last fifty years, greater than any that has affected their destinies +since Titus destroyed the Temple and brought thousands of them, in the +train of Pompey's thousands, to build the Colosseum; and the wisest +among them, if they be faithful and believing Jews, as many are, ask +themselves whether this great change, which looks so like improvement, +is really for good, or whether it is the beginning of the end of the +oldest nation of us all.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image138.jpg" width="450" height="237" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>REGION XII RIPA</h2> + + +<p>In Italian, as in Latin, Ripa means the bank of a river, and the Twelfth +Region took its name from being bounded by the river bank, from just +below the island all the way to the Aurelian walls, which continue the +boundary of the triangle on the south of Saint Sebastian's gate; the +third side runs at first irregularly from the theatre of Marcellus to +the foot of the Palatine, skirts the hill to the gas works at the north +corner of the Circus Maximus, takes in the latter, and thence runs +straight to the gate before mentioned. The Region includes the Aventine, +Monte Testaccio, and the baths of Caracalla. The origin of the device, +like that of several others, seems to be lost.</p> + +<p>The Aventine, ever since the auguries of Remus, has been especially the +refuge of opposition, and more especially,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> perhaps, of religious +opposition. In very early times it was especially the hill of the +plebeians, who frequently retired to its heights in their difficulties +with the patricians, as they had once withdrawn to the more distant Mons +Sacer in the Campagna. The temple of Ceres stood in the immediate +neighbourhood of the Circus, on the line of approach to the Aventine, +and contained the archives of the plebeian Ædiles. In the times of the +Decemvirs, much of the land on the hill was distributed among the +people, who probably lived within the city, but went out daily to +cultivate their little farms, just as the inhabitants of the hill +villages do today.</p> + +<p>If this were not the case, it would be hard to explain how the Aventine +could have been a solitude at night, as it was in the time of the +Bacchic orgies, of which the discovery convulsed the republic, and ended +in a religious persecution. That was when Scipio of Asia had been +accused and not acquitted of having taken a bribe of six thousand pounds +of gold and four hundred and eighty pounds of silver to favour +Antiochus. It was in the first days of Rome's corruption, when the +brilliant army of Asia first brought the love of foreign luxury to Rome; +when the soldiers, enriched with booty, began to have brass bedsteads, +rich coverlets and curtains, and other things of woven stuff in their +magnificent furniture, and little Oriental tables with one foot, and +decorated sideboards; when people first had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> singing-girls, and +lute-players, and players on the sharp-strung 'triangle,' and actors, to +amuse them at their feasts; when the feasts themselves began to be +extravagant, and the office of a cook, once mean and despised, rose to +be one of high estimation and rich emolument, so that what had been a +slave's work came to be regarded as an art. It was no wonder that such +changes came about in Rome, when every triumph brought hundreds and +thousands of pounds of gold and silver to the city, when Marcus Fulvius +brought back hundreds of crowns of gold, and two hundred and eighty-five +bronze statues, and two hundred and thirty statues of marble, with other +vast spoils, and when Cnæus Manlius brought home wealth in bullion and +in coin, which even in these days, when the value of money is far less, +would be worth any nation's having.</p> + +<p>And with it all came Greek corruption, Greek worship, Greek vice. For +years the mysteries of Dionysus and the orgies of the Mænads were +celebrated on the slopes of the Aventine and in those deep caves that +riddle its sides, less than a mile from the Forum, from the Capitol, +from the house of the rigid Cato, who found fault with Scipio of Africa +for shaving every day and liking Greek verses. The evil had first come +to Rome from Etruria, and had then turned Greek, as it were, in the days +of the Asian triumphs; and first it was an orgy of drunken women only, +as in most ancient times, but soon men were admitted, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> presently a +rule was made that no one should be initiated who was over twenty years +of age, and that those who refused to submit to the horrid rites after +being received should perish in the deepest cave of the hill, while the +noise of drums and clashing cymbals and of shouting drowned their +screams. And many boys and girls were thus done to death; and the +conspiracy of the orgies was widespread in Rome, yet the secret was well +kept.</p> + +<p>Now there was a certain youth at that time, whose father had died, and +whose mother was one of the Mænads and had married a man as bad as +herself. He and she were guardians of her son's fortune, and they had +squandered it, and knew that when he came of age they should not be able +to give an account of their guardianship. They therefore determined to +initiate him at the Bacchic orgy, for he was of a brave temper, and they +knew that he would not submit to the rites, and so would be torn to +pieces by the Mænads, and they might escape the law in their fraud. His +mother called him, and told him that once, when he had been ill, she had +promised the gods that she would initiate him in the Bacchanalia if he +recovered, and that it was now time to perform her vow. And doubtless +she delighted his ignorance with an account of a beautiful and solemn +ceremony.</p> + +<p>But this youth was dearly loved by a woman whose faith to him covered +many sins. She had been a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> slave when a girl, and with her mistress had +been initiated, and knew what the rites were, and how evil and terrible; +and since she had been freed she had never gone to them. So when her +lover told her he was to go, thinking it good news, she was terrified, +and told him that it were better that both he and she should die that +night, than that he should be so contaminated. When he knew the truth, +he went home and told his mother and his stepfather boldly that he would +not go; and they, being beside themselves with anger and disappointment, +called four slaves and threw him out into the street. For which deed +they died. For the young man went to his father's sister, and told all; +and she sent him to the Consul to tell his story, who called the woman +that loved him, and promised her protection, so that at last she told +the truth, and he brought the matter before the Senate. Then there was +great horror at what was told, and the people who had been initiated +fled in haste by thousands, and the city was in a turmoil, while the +Senate made new and terrible laws against the rites. Many persons were +put to death, and a few were taken and imprisoned on suspicion, and +many, being guilty, killed themselves. For it was found that more than +seven thousand men and women had conspired in the orgies, and the +contamination had spread throughout Italy.</p> + +<p>As for the youth, and the woman who had saved the State out of love for +him, the Senate and the people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> made a noble and generous decree. For +him, he received a sum of money from the public treasury in place of the +fortune his mother had stolen from him, and he was exempted from +military service, unless he chose to be a soldier, and from ever +furnishing a horse to the State. But for the woman, whose life had been +evil, it was publicly decreed that her sins should be blotted out, that +she should have all rights of holding, transferring and selling +property, of marrying into another gens and of choosing a guardian, as +if she had received all from a husband by will; that she should be at +liberty to marry a man of free descent, and that he who should marry her +was to incur no degradation, and that all consuls and prætors in the +future should watch over her and see that no harm came to her, as long +as she lived. Her people made her an honourable Roman matron, and +perhaps the stern old senators thus rewarded her in order that the man +she had saved might marry her without shame. But whether he did or not, +no one knows.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image144.jpg" width="450" height="273" alt="CHURCH OF SAINT NEREUS AND SAINT ACHILLÆUS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SAINT NEREUS AND SAINT ACHILLÆUS<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>This is the first instance in which a religion, and the orgies were so +called by the Romans, was practised upon the Aventine in opposition to +that of the State. It was not the last. Under Domitian, Juvenal found a +host of Jews established there, on the eastern slope and about the +fountain of Egeria, and thirty years before him Saint Paul lived on the +Aventine in the Jewish house of Aquila and Priscilla where Santa Prisca +stands today. It is worth noting that Aquila, an eagle, the German +Adler, was already then a Jewish name. Little by little, however, the +Jews went back to the Tiber, and the Aventine became the stronghold of +the Christians; there they built many of their oldest churches, and +thence they carried out their dead to the near catacombs of Saint +Petronilla, the church better known as that of Saint Nereus and Saint +Achillæus. And there are many other ancient churches on the hill, and on +the road that leads to Saint Sebastian's gate, and beyond the walls, on +the Appian Way as far as Saint Callixtus; lonely, peaceful shrines, +beautiful with the sculptures and pavements and mosaics of the Cosmas +family who lived and worked between six and seven hundred years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> ago. On +the other side of the hill, near the Circus, Saint Augustine taught +rhetoric for a living, though he knew no Greek and was perhaps no great +Latin scholar either—still an unbeliever then, an astrologer and a +follower after strange doctrines, one whom no man could have taken for a +future bishop and Father of the Church, who was to be author of two +hundred and thirty-two theological treatises, as well as of an +exposition of the Psalms and the Gospels. Here Saint Gregory the Great, +once Prefect of Rome, preached and prayed, and here the fierce +Hildebrand lived when he was young, and called himself Gregory when he +was Pope, perhaps, because he had so often meditated here upon the life +and acts of the wise Saint, in the places hallowed by his footsteps.</p> + +<p>Later, the Aventine was held by the Savelli, who dwelt in castles long +since destroyed, even to the foundations, by the fury of their enemies; +and there the two Popes of the house, Honorius the Third—a famous +chronicler in his day—and Honorius the Fourth, found refuge when the +restless Romans 'annoyed them,' as Muratori mildly puts it. They were +brave men in their day, mostly Guelphs, and faithful friends of the +Colonna, and it is told how one of them died in a great fight between +Colonna and Orsini.</p> + +<p>It was in that same struggle which culminated in the execution of +Lorenzo Colonna, the Protonotary, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> Pope Sixtus the Fourth destroyed +the last remains of the Sublician Bridge, at the foot of the Aventine. +So, at least, tradition says. From that bridge the Roman pontiffs had +taken their title, 'Pontifex,' a bridge-maker, because it was one of +their chief duties to keep it in repair, when it was the only means of +crossing the Tiber, and the safety of the city might depend upon it at +any time; and for many centuries the bridge was built of oak, and +without nails or bolts of iron, in memory of the first bridge which +Horatius had kept. Now those who love to ponder on coincidences may see +one in this, that the last remnant of the once oaken bridge, kept whole +by the heathen Pontifex, was destroyed by the Christian Pontifex, whose +name was 'of the oak'—for so 'della Rovere' may be translated if one +please.</p> + +<p>Years ago, one might still distinctly see in the Tiber the remains of +piers, when the water was low, at the foot of the Aventine, a little +above the Ripa Grande; and those who saw them looked on the very last +vestige of the Sublician Bridge, that is to say, of the stone structure +which in later times took the place of the wooden one; and that last +trace has been destroyed to deepen the little harbour. In older days +there were strange superstitions and ceremonies connected with the +bridge that had meant so much to Rome. Strangest of all was the +procession on the Ides of May,—the fifteenth of that month,—when the +Pontiffs and the Vestals came to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> bridge in solemn state, with men +who bore thirty effigies made of bulrushes in likeness to men's bodies, +and threw them into the river, one after the other, with prayers and +hymns; but what the images meant no man knows. Most generally it was +believed in Rome that they took the place of human beings, once +sacrificed to the river in the spring. Ovid protests against the mere +thought, but the industrious Baracconi quotes Sextus Pompeius Festus to +prove that in very early times human victims were thrown into the Tiber +for one reason or another, and that human beings were otherwise +sacrificed until the year of the city 657, when, Cnæus Cornelius +Lentulus and Publius Licinius Crassus being consuls, the Senate made a +law that no man should be sacrificed thereafter. The question is one for +scholars; but considering the savage temper of the Romans, their dark +superstitions, the abundance of victims always at hand, and the +frequency of human sacrifices among nations only one degree more +barbarous, there is no reason for considering the story very improbable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image147.jpg" width="450" height="262" alt="THE RIPA GRANDE AND SITE OF THE SUBLICIAN BRIDGE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE RIPA GRANDE AND SITE OF THE SUBLICIAN BRIDGE</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> + +<p>Within the limits of this region the ancient Brotherhood of Saint John +Beheaded have had their church and place of meeting for centuries. It +was their chief function to help and comfort condemned criminals from +the midnight preceding their death until the end. To this confraternity +belonged Michelangelo, among other famous men whose names stand on the +rolls to this day; and doubtless the great master, hooded in black and +unrecognizable among the rest, and chanting the penitential psalms in +the voice that could speak so sharply, must have spent dark hours in +gloomy prisons, from midnight to dawn, beside pale-faced men who were +not to see the sun go down again; and in the morning, he must have stood +upon the very scaffold with the others, and seen the bright axe smite +out the poor life. But neither he nor any others of the brethren spoke +of these things except among themselves, and they alone knew who had +been of the band, when they bore the dead man to his rest at last, by +their little church, when they laid Beatrice Cenci before the altar in +Saint Peter's on the Janiculum, and Lucrezia in the quiet church of +Saint Gregory by the Aventine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> They wrote down in their journal the +day, the hour, the name, the death; no more than that. And they went +back to their daily life in silence.</p> + +<p>But for their good deeds they obtained the right of saving one man from +death each year, conceded them by Paul the Third, the Farnese Pope, +while Michelangelo was painting the Last Judgment—a right perhaps asked +for by him, as one of the brothers, and granted for his sake. Baracconi +has discovered an account of the ceremony. At the first meeting in +August, the governor of the confraternity appointed three brethren to +visit all the prisons of Rome and note the names of the prisoners +condemned to death, drawing up a precise account of each case, but +ascertaining especially which ones had obtained the forgiveness of those +whom they had injured. At the second meeting in August, the reports were +read, and the brethren chose the fortunate man by ballot.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image151a.jpg" width="650" height="393" alt="PORTO SAN SEBASTIANO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PORTO SAN SEBASTIANO</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then the whole dark company went in procession to the prison. The beadle +of the order marched first, bearing his black wand in one hand, and in +the other a robe of scarlet silk and a torch for the pardoned man; two +brothers followed with staves, others with lanterns, more with lighted +torches, and after them was borne the crucifix, the sacred figure's arms +hanging down, perhaps supposed to be in the act of receiving the +pardoned man, and a crown of silvered olive hung at its feet—then more +brothers, and last of all the Governor and the chaplain. The prison +doors were draped with tapestries, box and myrtle strewed the ground, +and the Governor received the condemned person and signed a receipt for +his body. The happy man prostrated himself before the crucifix, was +crowned with the olive garland, the Te Deum was intoned, and he was led +away to the brotherhood's church, where he heard high mass in sight of +all the people. Last, and not least, if he was a pauper, the brethren +provided him with a little money and obtained him some occupation; if a +stranger, they paid his journey home.</p> + +<p>But the Roman rabble, says the writer, far preferred an execution to a +pardon, and would follow a condemned man to the scaffold in thousands. +If he was to be hanged, the person who touched the halter was the most +fortunate, and much money was often paid for bits of the rope; and at +night, when the wretched corpse was carried away to the church by the +brethren, the crowd followed in long procession, mumbling prayers, to +kneel on the church steps at last and implore the dead man's liberated +spirit to suggest to them, by some accident, numbers to be played at the +lottery—custom which recalls the incantations of the witches by the +crosses of executed slaves on the Esquiline.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image155.jpg" width="450" height="233" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>REGION XIII TRASTEVERE</h2> + + +<p>All that part of Rome which lies on the right bank of the Tiber is +divided into two Regions; namely, Trastevere and Borgo. The first of +these is included between the river and the walls of Urban the Eighth +from Porta Portese and the new bridge opposite the Aventine to the +bastions and the gate of San Spirito; and Trastevere was the last of the +thirteen Regions until the end of the sixteenth century, when the +so-called Leonine City was made the fourteenth and granted a captain and +a standard of its own.</p> + +<p>The men of Trastevere boast that they are of better blood than the other +Romans, and they may be right. In many parts of Italy just such small +ancient tribes have kept alive, never intermarrying with their +neighbours nor losing their original speech. There are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> villages in the +south where Greek is spoken, and others where Albanian is the language. +There is one in Calabria where the people speak nothing but Piedmontese, +which is as different from the Southern dialects as German is from +French. Italy has always been a land of individualities rather than of +amalgamations, and a country of great men, rather than a great country.</p> + +<p>It is true that the Trasteverines have preserved their individuality, +cut off as they have been by the river from the modernizing influences +which spread like a fever through the length and breadth of Rome. Their +quarter is full of crooked little streets and irregularly shaped open +places, the houses are not high, the windows are small and old +fashioned, and the entrances dark and low. There are but few palaces and +not many public buildings. Yet Trastevere is not a dirty quarter; on the +contrary, to eyes that understand Italians, there is a certain dignity +in its poverty, which used to be in strong contrast with the slipshod +publicity of household dirt in the inhabited parts of Monti. The +contrast is, in a way, even more vivid now, for Monti, the first Region, +has suffered most in the great crisis, and Trastevere least of all. Rome +is one of the poorest cities in the civilized world, and when she was +trying to seem rich, the element of sham was enormous in everything. In +the architecture of the so-called new quarters the very gifts of the +Italians turned against them; for they are born engineers and +mathematicians, and by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> really marvellous refinement of calculation +they have worked miracles in the construction of big buildings out of +altogether insufficient material, while the Italian workman's +traditional skill in modelling stucco has covered vast surfaces of +unsafe masonry with elaborately tasteless ornamentation. One result of +all this has been a series of catastrophes of which a detailed account +would appal grave men in other countries; another consequence is the +existence of a quantity of grotesquely bad street decoration, much of +which is already beginning to crumble under the action of the weather. +It is sadder still, in many parts of Monti to see the modern ruins of +houses which were not even finished when the crash put an end to the +building mania, roofless, windowless, plasterless, falling to pieces and +never to be inhabited—landmarks of bankruptcy, whole streets of +dwellings built to lodge an imaginary population, and which will have +fallen to dust long before they are ever needed, stuccoed palaces meant +to be the homes of a rich middle class, and given over at derisory rents +to be the refuge of the very poor. In the Monti, ruin stares one in the +face, and poverty has battened upon ruin, as flies upon garbage.</p> + +<p>But Trastevere escaped, being despised by the builders on account of its +distance from the chief centres. It has even preserved something of the +ancient city in its looks and habits. Then, as now, the wine shops and +cook shops opened directly upon the street, because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> they were, as they +still often are, mere single, vaulted chambers, having no communication +with the inner house by door or stairway. The little inner court, where +the well is, may have been wider in those days, but it must always have +been a cool, secluded place, where the women could wrangle and tear one +another's hair in decent privacy. In the days when everything went to +the gutter, it was a wise precaution to have as few windows as possible +looking outward. In old Rome, as in Trastevere, there must have been an +air of mystery about all dwelling-houses, as there is everywhere in the +East. In those days, far more than now, the head of the house was lord +and despot within his own walls; but something of that power remains by +tradition of right at the present time, and the patriarchal system is +not yet wholly dead. The business of the man was to work and fight for +his wife and children, just as to fight and hunt for his family were the +occupations of the American Indian. In return, he received absolute +obedience and abject acknowledgment of his superiority. The +government-fed Indian and the Roman father of today do very little +fighting, working, or hunting, but in their several ways they still +claim much of the same slavish obedience as in old times. One is +inclined to wonder whether nowadays the independence of women is not due +to the fall in value of men, since it is no longer necessary to pursue +wild beasts for food, since fighting is reduced to a science, taught in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +three months, and seldom needed for a long time, and since work has +become so largely the monopoly of the nimble typewriter. Women ask +themselves and others, with at least a show of justice, since man's +occupation is to sit still and think, whether they might not, with a +little practice, sit quite as still as he and think to as good a +purpose. In America, for instance, it was one thing to fell big trees, +build log huts, dam rivers, plough stony ground, kill bears, and fight +Indians; it is altogether another to sit in a comfortable chair before a +plate-glass window, and dictate notes to a dumb and skilful +stenographer.</p> + +<p>But with the development of women's independence, the air of privacy, +not to say of mystery, disappears from the modern dwelling. In +Trastevere things have not gone as far as that. One cannot tread the +narrow streets without wondering a little about the lives of the grave, +black-haired, harsh-voiced people who go in and out by the dark +entrances, and stand together in groups in Piazza Romana, or close to +Ponte Sisto, early in the morning, and just before midday, and again in +the cool of the evening.</p> + +<p>It seems to be a part of the real simplicity of the Italian Latin to put +on a perfectly useless look of mystery on all occasions, and to assume +the air of a conspirator when buying a cabbage; and more than one gifted +writer has fallen into the error of believing the Italian character to +be profoundly complicated. One is too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> apt to forget that it needs much +deeper duplicity to maintain an appearance of frankness under trying +circumstances than to make a mystery of one's marketing and a profound +secret of one's cookery. There are few things which the poor Italian +more dislikes than to be watched when he is buying and preparing his +food, though he will ask any one to share it with him when it is ready; +but he is almost as prone to hide everything else that goes on inside +his house, unless he has fair warning of a visit, and full time to make +preparation for a guest. In the feeling there is great decency and +self-respect, as well as a wish to show respect to others.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image160.jpg" width="450" height="242" alt="PONTE GARIBALDI" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PONTE GARIBALDI</span> +</div> + +<p>To Romans, Trastevere suggests great names—Stefaneschi, Anguillara, +Mattei, Raphael, Tasso. The story of the first has been told already. +Straight from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> the end of the new bridge that bears the name of +Garibaldi, stands the ancient tower of the great Guelph house of +Anguillara that fought the Orsini long and fiercely, and went down at +last before them, when it turned against the Pope. And when he was dead +the Orsini bought the lands and strongholds he had given to his +so-called nephew, and set the eel of Anguillara in their own escutcheon, +in memory of a struggle that had lasted more than a hundred years. The +Anguillara were seldom heard of after that; nor does anything remain of +them today but the melancholy ruins of an ancient fortress on the lake +of Bracciano, not far from the magnificent castle, and the single tower +that bears their name in Rome.</p> + +<p>But Baracconi has discovered a story or a legend about one of them who +lived a hundred years later, and who somehow was by that time lord of +Cære, or Ceri, again, as some of his ancestors had been. It was when +Charles the Fifth came to Rome, and there were great doings; for it was +then that the old houses that filled the lower Forum were torn down in a +few days to make him a triumphal street, and many other things were +done. Then the Emperor gave a public audience in Rome, and out of +curiosity the young Titta dell' Anguillara went in to see the imperial +show. There he saw that a few of the nobles wore their caps, and he, +thinking himself as good as they, put on his own. The Grand Chamberlain +asked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> him why he was covered. 'Because I have a cold,' he answered, and +laughed. He was told that only Grandees of Spain might wear their caps +in the Emperor's presence. 'Tell the Emperor,' said the boy, 'that I, +too, am a Grandee in my house, and that if he would take my cap from my +head, he must do it with his sword,' and he laid his hand to the hilt of +his own. And when the Emperor heard the story, he smiled and let him +alone.</p> + +<p>Many years ago, before the change of government, the Trasteverine +family, into whose possession the ancient tower had come, used to set +out at Christmas-tide a little show of lay figures representing the +Nativity and the Adoration of the Kings, in the highest story of the +strange old place, and almost in the open air. It was a pretty and a +peaceful sight. The small figures of the Holy Family, of the Kings, of +the shepherds and their flocks, were modelled and coloured with +wonderful skill, and in the high, bright air, with the little landscape +as cleverly made up as the figures, it all stood out clearly and +strangely lifelike. There were many of these Presepi, as they were +called, in Rome at that season, but none so pretty as that in the gloomy +old tower, of which every step had been washed with blood.</p> + +<p>Of all tales of household feud and vengeance and murder that can be +found in old Rome, one of the most terrible is told of the Mattei, whose +great palace used to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> stand almost opposite the bridge of Saint +Bartholomew, leading to the island, and not more than two hundred yards +from the Anguillara tower. It happened in the year 1555, about the time +when Paul the Fourth, of inquisitorial memory, was elected Pope, thirty +years before the sons of the Massimo murdered their father's unworthy +wife, and Orsini married Victoria Accoramboni; and the deeds were done +within the walls of the old house of which a fragment still remains in +the Lungaretta, with a door surmounted by the chequered shield of the +Mattei.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image163.jpg" width="450" height="281" alt="PALAZZO MATTEI" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PALAZZO MATTEI<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>At that time there were four brothers of the name, Marcantonio, Piero, +Alessandro, and Curzio; and the first two quarrelled mortally, wherefore +Piero caused<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> Marcantonio to be murdered by hired assassins. Of these +men, Alessandro, who dearly loved both his murdered brother and his +younger brother Curzio, slew one with his own hand, but the rest +escaped, and he swore a blood feud against Piero. Yet, little by little, +his anger subsided, and there was a sort of armed peace between the two.</p> + +<p>Then it happened that Piero, who was rich, fell in love with his own +niece, the beautiful Olimpia, the dowerless daughter of his other +brother Curzio; and Curzio, tempted by the hope of wealth, consented to +the match, and the dispensation of the Church was obtained for the +marriage. It is not rare, even nowadays, for a man to marry his niece in +Europe, whether they be Catholics or Protestants, but the Italians are +opposed to such marriages; and Alessandro Mattei, pitying the lovely +girl, whose life was to be sold for money, and bitterly hating the +murderer bridegroom, swore that the thing should not be. Yet he could +not prevent the wedding, for Piero was rich and powerful, and of a +determined character. So Piero was married, and after the wedding, in +the evening, he gave a great feast in his house, and invited to it all +the kinsmen of the family, with their wives.</p> + +<p>And Alessandro Mattei came also, with his son, Girolamo, and bringing +with him two men whom he called his friends, but whom no one knew. These +were hired murderers, but Piero smiled pleasantly and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> made a pretence +of being well satisfied. The company feasted together, and drank old +wine, with songs and rejoicings of all sorts. Then Alessandro rose to go +home, for it was late, and Piero led him to the door of the hall to take +leave of him courteously, so that all the kinsfolk might see that there +was peace, for they were all looking on, some sitting in their places +and some standing up out of respect for the elder men as they went to +the door. Alessandro stood still, exchanging courtesies with his +brother, while his servants brought him his cloak, and the arquebuse he +carried at night for safety; for he had his palace across the Tiber, +where it stands today. Then taking the hand-gun, he spoke no more words, +but shot his brother in the breast, and killed him, and fled, leaving +his son behind, for the young man had wished to stay till the end of the +feast, and the two hired assassins had been brought by his father to +protect him, though he did not know it.</p> + +<p>When they heard the shot, the women knew that there was blood, so they +sprang up and put out the lights in an instant, that the men might not +see to kill one another; therefore Curzio, the bride's father, did not +see that his brother Alessandro had gone out after the killing. He crept +about with a long knife, feeling in the dark for the embroidered doublet +which Alessandro wore, and when he thought that he had found it, he +struck; but it was Girolamo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> who was dressed like his father, and the +two who were to watch him were on each side of him, and one of them +feeling that Curzio was going to strike, and knowing him also by the +touch of what he wore, killed him quietly before his blow went home, and +dragged out Girolamo in haste, for the door was open, and there was some +light in the stairs, whence the servants had fled. But others had sought +Alessandro, and other blows had been dealt in the dark, and the bride +herself was wounded, but not mortally.</p> + +<p>Girolamo and the man who had killed Curzio came to the Bridge of Saint +Bartholomew, where Alessandro was waiting, very anxious for his son; and +when he saw him in the starlight he drew a long breath. But when he knew +what had happened and how the murderer had killed Curzio to save the +boy, Alessandro was suddenly angry, for he had loved Curzio dearly. So +he quickly drew his dagger and stabbed the man in the breast, and threw +his body, yet breathing, over the bridge into the river. But that night +he left Rome secretly and quickly, and he lived out his days an outlaw, +while Girolamo, who was innocent of all, became the head of the Mattei +in Rome.</p> + +<p>It is no wonder that the knife is a tradition in Trastevere. Even now it +is the means of settling difficulties, but less often by treachery than +in the other regions. For when two young men have a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> difference it is +usual for them to go together into some quiet inner court or walled +garden, and there they wind their handkerchiefs round their right wrists +and round the hilt of the knife to get a good hold, and they muffle +their left arms in their jackets for a shield, and face each other till +one is dead. If it be barbarous, it is at least braver than stabbing in +the dark.</p> + +<p>Raphael is remembered in Trastevere for the beautiful little palace of +the Farnesina, which he decorated for the great and generous banker, +Agostino Chigi, and for the Fornarina, whose small house with its Gothic +window stands near the Septimian gate, where the old Aurelian wall +crosses Trastevere and the Lungara to the Tiber. And he has made +Trastevere memorable for the endless types of beauty he found there, +besides the one well-loved woman, and whom he took as models for his +work. He lived at the last, not in the house on the Roman side, which +belonged to him and is still called his, but in another, built by +Bramante, close to the old Accoramboni Palace, in the Piazza Rusticucci, +before Saint Peter's, and that one has long been torn down.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image168.jpg" width="450" height="353" alt="HOUSE BUILT FOR RAPHAEL BY BRAMANTE, NOW TORN DOWN" title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOUSE BUILT FOR RAPHAEL BY BRAMANTE, NOW TORN DOWN</span> +</div> + +<p>We know little enough of that Margaret, called the Fornarina from her +father's profession; but we know that Raphael loved her blindly, +passionately, beyond all other thoughts; as Agostino Chigi loved the +magnificent Imperia for whom the Farnesina was built and made beautiful. +And there was a time when the great painter was almost idle, out of love +for the girl, and went about languidly with pale face and shadowed eyes, +and scarcely cared to paint or draw. He was at work in the Vatican then, +or should have been, and in the Farnesina, too; but each day, when he +went out, his feet led him away from the Pope's palace and across the +square, by the Gate of the Holy Spirit and down the endless straight +Lungara towards the banker's palace; but when he reached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> it he went on +to the Fornarina's house, and she was at the window waiting for him. For +her sake he refused to marry the great Cardinal Bibbiena's well-dowered +niece, Maria, and the world has not ceased to believe that for too much +love of the Fornarina he died. But before that, as Fabio Chigi tells, +Pope Leo the Tenth, being distressed by the painter's love sickness, +asked Agostino Chigi if there were not some way to bring him back to +work. And the great banker, as anxious for his Farnesina as the Pope was +for his Vatican, spirited away the lovely girl for a time, she +consenting for her lover's sake. And Chigi then pretended to search for +her, and comforted Raphael with news of her and promises of her return, +so that after being half mad with anxiety he grew calmer, and worked for +a time at his painting. But soon he languished, and the cure was worse +than the evil; so that one day Chigi brought the girl back to him +unawares and went away, leaving them together.</p> + +<p>Of the end we know nothing, nor whether Margaret was with him when he +died; we know nothing, save that she outlived him, and died in her turn, +and lies in a grave which no one can find. But when all Rome was in +sorrow for the dead man, when he had been borne through the streets to +his grave, with his great unfinished Transfiguration for a funeral +banner, when he had been laid in his tomb in the Pantheon, beside Maria +Bibbiena, who had died, perhaps,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> because he would not love her, then +the pale Margaret must have sat often by the little Gothic window near +the Septimian gate, waiting for what could not come any more. For she +had loved a man beyond compare; and it had been her whole life.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image170.jpg" width="450" height="283" alt="MONASTERY OF SANT' ONOFRIO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MONASTERY OF SANT' ONOFRIO<br /><br /> + +From an old engraving</span> +</div> + +<p>If one comes from the Borgo by the Lungara, and if one turns up the +steep hill to the right, there is the place where Tasso died, +seventy-five years after Raphael was gone. The small monastery of Sant' +Onofrio, where he spent the last short month of his life, used to be a +lonely and beautiful place, and is remembered only for his sake, though +it has treasures of its own—the one fresco painted in Rome by Lionardo +da Vinci, and paintings by Domenichino and Pinturicchio in its portico +and little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> church, as well as memories of Saint Philip Neri, the +Roman-born patron saint of Rome. All these things barely sufficed to +restrain the government from turning it into a barrack for the city +police a few years ago, when the name of one of Italy's greatest poets +should alone have protected it. It was far from the streets and +thoroughfares in older times, and the quiet sadness of its garden called +up the infinite melancholy of the poor poet who drew his last breath of +the fresh open air under the old tree at the corner, and saw Rome the +last time, as he turned and walked painfully back to the little room +where he was to die. It is better to think of it so, when one has seen +it in those days, than to see it as it is now, standing out in vulgar +publicity upon the modern avenue.</p> + +<p>There died the man who had sung, and wandered, and loved; who had been +slighted, and imprisoned for a madman; who had escaped and hidden +himself, and had yet been glorious; who had come to Rome at last to +receive the laureate's crown in the Capitol, as Petrarch had been +crowned before him. His life is a strange history, full of discordant +passages that left little or no mark in his works, so that it is a +wonder how a man so torn and harassed could labour unceasingly for many +years at a work so perfectly harmonious as 'Jerusalem Freed'; and it +seems strange that the hot-headed, changeable southerner should have +stood up as the determined champion of the Epic Unity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> against the +school of Ariosto, the great northern poet, who had believed in +diversity of action as a fundamental principle of the Epic; it is +stranger still and a proof of his power that Tasso should have earned +something like universal glory against the long-standing supremacy of +Ariosto in the same field, in the same half-century, and living at the +same court. Everything in Tasso's life was contradictory, everything in +his works was harmonious. Even after he was dead, the contrasts of glory +and misery followed his bones like fate. He died in the arms of Cardinal +Aldobrandini, the Pope's nephew, almost on the eve of his intended +crowning in the Capitol; he was honoured with a magnificent funeral, and +his body was laid in an obscure corner, enclosed in a poor deal coffin. +It was six years before the monks of Sant' Onofrio dug up the bones and +placed them in a little lead box 'out of pity,' as the inscription on +the metal lid told, and buried them again under a poor slab that bore +his name, and little else; and when a monument was at last made to him +in the nineteenth century, by the subscriptions of literary societies, +it was so poor and unworthy that it had better not have been set up at +all. A curious book might be written upon the vicissitudes of great +men's bones.</p> + +<p>Opposite the Farnesina stands the great Palazzo Corsini, once the +habitation of the Riario family, whose history is a catalogue of +murders, betrayals, and all possible crimes, and whose only redeeming +light in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> long history was that splendid and brave Catherine Sforza, +married to one of their name, who held the fortress of Forlì so bravely +against Cæsar Borgia, who challenged him to single combat, which he +refused out of shame, who was overcome by him at last, and brought +captive to the Vatican in chains of gold, as Aurelian brought Zenobia. +In the days of her power she had lived in the great palace for a time. +It looks modern now; it was once a place of evil fame, and is said to +have been one of the few palaces in Rome which contained one of those +deadly shafts, closed by a balanced trap door that dropped the living +victim who stepped upon it a hundred and odd feet at a fall, out of +hearing and out of sight for ever. From the Riario it was bought at +last, in 1738, by the Corsini, and when they began to repair it, they +found the bones of the nameless dead in heaps far down among the +foundations.</p> + +<p>There also lived Christina, Queen of Sweden, of romantic and execrable +memory, for twenty years; and here she died, the strangest compound of +greatness, heroism, vanity and wickedness that ever was woman to the +destruction of man; ending her terrible life in an absorbing passion for +art and literature which attracted to itself all that was most delicate +and refined at the end of the seventeenth century; dabbling in alchemy, +composing verses forgotten long ago, discoursing upon art with Bernini, +dictating the laws of verse to the poet Guidi, collecting together a +vast library of rare books<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> and a great gallery of great pictures, and +of engravings and medals and beautiful things of every sort—the only +woman, perhaps, who was ever like Lucrezia Borgia, and outdid her in all +ways.</p> + +<p>Long before her time, a Riario, the Cardinal of Saint George, had like +tastes and drew about him the thinkers and the writers of his age, when +the Renascence was at its climax and the Constable of Bourbon had not +yet been shot down at the walls a few hundred yards from the Corsini +palace, bequeathing the plunder of Rome to his Spaniards and Germans. +Here Erasmus spent those hours of delight of which he eloquently wrote +in after years, and here, to this day, in the grand old halls whence the +Riario sent so many victims to their deaths below, a learned and +literary society holds its meetings. Of all palaces in Rome in which she +might have lived, fate chose this one for Queen Christina, as if its +destiny of contrasts past and future could best match her own.</p> + +<p>Much more could be told of Trastevere and much has been told already; +how Beatrice Cenci lies in San Pietro in Montorio, how the lovely +Farnesina, with all its treasures, was bought by force by the Farnese +for ten thousand and five hundred scudi,—two thousand and one hundred +pounds,—how the Region was swept and pillaged again and again by +Emperors and nobles, and people and Popes, without end.</p> + +<p>But he who should wander through the Regions in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> their order, knowing +that the greatest is last, would tire of lingering in the long Lungara +and by the Gate of the Holy Spirit, while on the other side lies the +great Castle of Sant' Angelo, and beyond that the Vatican, and Saint +Peter's church; and for that matter, a great part of what has not been +told here may be found in precise order and ready to hand in all those +modern guide books which are the traveller's first leading-strings as he +learns to walk in Rome.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Yet here, on the threshold of that Region which contains many of the +world's most marvellous treasures of art—at the Gate of the Holy +Spirit, through which Raphael so often passed between love and work—I +shall say a few words about that development in which Italy led the +world, and something of the men who were leaders in the Renascence.</p> + +<p>Art is not dependent on the creations of genius alone. It is also the +result of developing manual skill to the highest degree. Without genius, +works of art might as well be turned out by machinery; without manual +skill, genius could have no means of expression. As a matter of fact, in +our own time, it is the presence of genius, without manual skill, or +foolishly despising it, that has produced a sort of school called the +impressionist.</p> + +<p>To go back to first principles, the word Art, as every child knows, is +taken directly from the Latin ars, artis, which the best Latin +dictionary translates or defines:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> 'The faculty of joining anything +corporeal or spiritual properly or skilfully,' and therefore: 'skill, +dexterity, art, ability,' and then: 'skill or faculty of the mind or +body that shows itself in performing any work, trade, profession, art, +science.' From the meaning of the Latin word we may eliminate what +refers to spiritual things; not because literature, for instance, is not +art, as well as music and the rest, but because we have to do with +painting, sculpture, architecture, metal working, and the like, in which +actual manual skill is a most integral element.</p> + +<p>Now it is always admitted that art grew out of handicraft, when +everything was made by hand, and when the competition between workers +was purely personal, because each man worked for himself and not for a +company in which his individuality was lost. That is nowhere more clear +than in Italy, though the conditions were similar throughout Europe +until the universal introduction of machinery. The transition from +handicraft to art was direct, quick and logical, and at first it +appeared almost simultaneously in all the trades. The Renascence appears +to us as a sort of glorious vision in which all that was beautiful +suddenly sprang into being again, out of all that was rough and chaotic +and barbarous. In real fact the Renascence began among carpenters, and +blacksmiths, and stone masons, and weavers, when they began to take +pride in their work, when they began to try and ornament their own +tools,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> when the joiner who knew nothing of the Greeks began to trace a +pattern with a red-hot nail on the clumsy wooden chest, when the smith +dinted out a simple design upon the head of his hammer, when the mason +chipped out a face or a leaf on the corner of the rough stone house, and +when the weaver taught himself to make patterns in the stuff he wove. +The true beginning of the Renascence was the first improvement of +hand-work after an age in which everything people used had been rougher +and worse made than we can possibly imagine. Then one thing suggested +another, and each generation found some new thing to do, till the result +was a great movement and a great age. But there never was, and never +could have been, any art at all without hand-work. Progress makes almost +everything by machinery, and dreams of abolishing hand-work altogether, +and of making Nature's forces do everything, and provide everything for +everybody, so that nobody need work at all, and everybody may have a +like share in what is to cost nobody anything. Then, in the dream, +everybody will be devoted to what we vaguely call intellectual pursuits, +and the human race will be raised to an indefinitely high level. In +reality, if such things were possible, we should turn into oysters, or +into something about as intelligent. It is the experience of all ages +that human beings will not work unless they are obliged to, and +degenerate rapidly in idleness, and there have not been many exceptions +to the rule. Art grew out of hand-work, but it grew in it, too, as a +plant in the soil; when there is no more hand-work, there will be no +more art. The two belong to each other, and neither can do without the +other.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image177a.jpg" width="650" height="427" alt="THE FORUM" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE FORUM<br /><br /> + +Looking West</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<p>Of course, I do not mean to say that there was a succession of +centuries, or even one century, during which no pictures were painted in +Italy, or no sculptures carved. The tradition of the arts survived, like +the tradition of Latin poetry, with the same result, that rude works +were produced in the early churches and convents. But there was no life +in those things; and when, after a long time, after the early Crusades, +Byzantine artists came to Italy, their productions were even worse than +those of the still ignorant Italians, because they were infinitely more +pretentious, with their gildings and conventionalities and +expressionless types, and were not really so near the truth. What I mean +is that the revival of real art came from a new beginning deep down and +out of sight, among humble craftsmen and hard-working artisans, who +found out by degrees that their hands could do more than they had been +taught to do, and that objects of daily use need not be ugly or merely +plain in order to be strong and well made and serviceable. And as this +knowledge grew among them with practice and by experiment, they rose to +the power of using for new purposes of beauty the old methods of +painting and sculpture, which had survived, indeed, but which were of no +value to the old-fashioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> artists who had learned them from generation +to generation, without understanding and without enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>The highest of the crafts in the Middle Age was goldsmithing. When +almost every other artistic taste had disappeared from daily life in +that rough time, the love of personal adornment had survived, and when +painters and sculptors were a small band of men, trained to represent +certain things in certain ways—trained like a church choir, in fact, to +the endless repetition of ancient themes—the goldsmiths had latitude +and freedom to their hearts' desire and so many buyers for their work +that their own numbers were not nearly so limited as those of 'artists' +in the narrow sense. One chief part of their art lay in drawing and +modelling, another in casting metals, another in chiselling, and they +were certainly the draughtsmen of an age in which the art of drawing was +practically lost among painters; and it was because they learned how to +draw that so many of them became great painters when the originality of +two or three men of genius had opened the way.</p> + +<p>One says 'two or three,' vaguely, but the art had grown out of infancy +when they appeared, and there was an enormous distance between Cimabue, +whom people call the father of painting, and the Cosmas family, of whom +the last died about the time that Cimabue was born. But though Cimabue +was a noble,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> the Cosmas family who preceded him were artisans first and +artists afterwards, and men of the people; and Giotto, whom Cimabue +discovered sketching sheep on a piece of slate with a pointed stone, was +a shepherd lad. So was Andrea Mantegna, who dominated Italian art a +hundred and fifty years later—so was David, one of the greatest poets +that ever lived, and so was Sixtus the Fifth, one of the strongest popes +that ever reigned—all shepherds.</p> + +<p>It is rather remarkable that although so many famous painters were +goldsmiths, none of the very greatest were. Among the goldsmiths were +Orcagna, Ghiberti, Ghirlandajo, Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Francia, +Verrocchio, Andrea del Sarto. But Benvenuto Cellini, the greatest of +goldsmiths, was never a painter, and the very greatest painters were +never goldsmiths, for Cimabue, Giotto, Mantegna, Lionardo da Vinci, +Perugino, Raphael, Michelangelo, all began in the profession that made +them the greatest artists of their age. It is very hard to get at an +idea of what men thought about art in those times. Perhaps it would be +near the truth to say that it was looked upon as a universal means of +expression. What strikes one most in the great pictures of that time is +their earnestness, not in the sense of religious faith, but in the +determination to do nothing without a perfectly clear and definite +meaning, which any cultivated person could understand, and at which even +a child<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> might guess. Nothing was done for effect, nothing was done +merely for beauty's sake. It was as if the idea of usefulness, risen +with art from the hand-crafts, underlay the intentions of beauty, or of +devotion, or of history, which produced the picture. In those times, +when the artist put in any accessory he asked himself: 'Does it mean +anything?' whereas most painters of today, in the same case, ask +themselves: 'Will it look well?' The difference between the two points +of view is the difference between jesting and being in earnest—between +an art that compared itself with an ideal future, and the art of today +that measures itself with an ideal past. The great painters of the +Renascence appealed to men and to men's selves, whereas the great +painters of today appeal chiefly to men's eyes and to that much of men +which can be stirred through the eye only.</p> + +<p>It was not that those early artists were religious enthusiasts, moved by +a spiritual faith such as that which inspired Fra Angelico and one or +two others. Few of them were religious men; several of them, like +Perugino, were freethinkers. It was not, I think, because they looked +upon art itself as a very sacred matter, not to be jested with, since +they used their art against their enemies for revenge and ridicule. It +was rather because everyone was in earnest then, and was forced to be by +the nature of the times; whereas people now are only relatively in +earnest, and stake their money<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> only where men once staked their lives. +That was one reason. Another may be that the greatest painters of those +times were practically men of universal genius and were always men of +vast reading and cultivation, the equals and often the superiors of the +learned in all other branches of science, literature and art. They were +not only great painters, but great men and great thinkers, and far above +doing anything solely 'for effect.' Lionardo da Vinci has been called +the greatest man of the fifteenth century—so has Michelangelo—so, +perhaps, has Raphael. They seemed able to do everything, and they have +not been surpassed in what they did as painters, sculptors, architects, +engineers, fortifiers of cities, mathematicians, thinkers. No one +nowadays ever thinks of a painter as being anything but a painter, and +people shrug their shoulders at the idea that an artist can do anything +of the kind called 'serious' in this age.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image182.jpg" width="450" height="454" alt="EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> + +<p>One asks what were the surroundings, the customs, the habits, in which +these men grew to be already great at an age when modern boys are at +college. One asks whether that system of teaching or education, whatever +it may have been, was not much more likely to make great men than ours. +And the answer suggests itself: our teaching is for the many, and the +teaching of that day was for the few.</p> + +<p>Let anyone try and imagine the childhood of Giotto as the account of it +has come down to us through almost all the authorities. He was born in +the year 1276—when Dante was about eleven years old. That was the time +when the wars of Guelphs and Ghibellines were at their height. That was +the year in which Count Ugolino della Gherardesca got back his lordship +over Pisa—where he was to be starved to death with his two sons and two +grandsons some twelve years later. That was the time when four Popes +died in sixteen months—the time when the Sicilian Vespers drove Charles +of Anjou from Sicily for ever—when Guido da Montefeltro was fighting +and betraying and fighting again—the time of Dante's early youth, in +which fell most of those deeds for which he consigned the doers to hell +and their names to immortality.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<p>Imagine, then, what a shepherd's hut must have been in those days, in a +narrow valley of the Tuscan hills—the small cottage built of unhewn +stones picked up on the hillside, fitted together one by one, according +to their irregular shapes, and cemented, if at all, with clay and mud +from the river bed—the roof of untrimmed saplings tied together and +thatched with chestnut boughs, held down by big stones, lest the wind +should blow them away. The whole, dark brown and black with the rich +smoke of brushwood burned in the corner to boil the big black cauldron +of sheep's milk for the making of the rank 'pecorino' cheese. One square +room, lighted from the door only. The floor, the beaten earth. The beds, +rough-hewn boards, lying one above the other, like bunks, on short +strong lengths of sapling stuck into the wall. For mattresses, armfuls +of mountain hay. The people, a man, his wife and two or three children, +dressed winter and summer in heavy brown homespun woollen and +sheepskins. For all furniture, a home-made bench, black with age and +smoke. The food, day in, day out, coarse yellow meal, boiled thick in +water and poured out to cool upon the black bench, divided into portions +then with a thin hide thong, crosswise and lengthwise, for each person a +yellow square, and eaten greedily with unwashed hands that left a little +for the great sheep-dog. The drink, spring water and the whey left from +the cheese curds, drunk out of a small earthen pot, passed from mouth +to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> mouth. A silent bunch of ignorant human beings, full of thought for +the morrow, and of care for the master's sheep that were herded together +in the stone pen all round the hut; fighting the wolves in winter, and +in summer time listening for the sound of war from the valley, when +Guelph and Ghibelline harried all the country, and killed every stray +living thing for food. And among these half-starved wretches was a boy +of twelve or thirteen years, weak-jointed, short-winded, little better +than a cripple and only fit to watch the sheep on summer days when the +wolves were not hungry—a boy destined to be one of the greatest +artists, one of the greatest architects, and one of the most cultivated +men of that or any other age—Giotto.</p> + +<p>The contrast between his childhood and his manhood is so startling that +one cannot realize it. It means that in those days the way from nothing +to much was short and straight for great minds—impossible and +impracticable for small ones. Great intelligences were not dwarfed to +stumps by laborious school work, were not stuffed to a bursting point by +cramming, were not artificially inflamed by the periodical blistering of +examinations; but average intelligences had not the chance which a +teaching planned only for the average gives them now. Talent, in the +shape of Cimabue, found genius, in the form of Giotto, clothed in rags, +sketching sheep with one stone on another; talent took genius and fed it +and showed it the way, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> presently genius overtopped talent by a +mountain's head and shoulders. Cimabue took Giotto from his father, glad +to be rid of the misshapen child that had to be fed and could do nothing +much in return; and from the smoky hut in the little Tuscan valley the +lad was taken straight to the old nobleman painter's house in the most +beautiful city of Italy, was handed over to Brunetto Latini, Dante's +tutor, to be taught book-learning, and was allowed to spend the other +half of his time in the painting room, at the elbow of the greatest +living painter.</p> + +<p>The boy was a sort of apprentice-servant, of course, as all beginners +were in those times. In the big house, he probably had a pallet bed in +one of those upper dormitories where the menservants slept, and he +doubtless fed with them in the lower hall at first. They must have +laughed at his unmannerly ways, and at his surprise over every new +detail of civilized life, but he had a sharp tongue and could hold his +own in a word-fight. There were three tables in a gentleman's house in +the Middle Age,—the master's, which was served in different rooms, +according to the weather and the time of year; secondly, the 'tinello,' +or canteen, as we should call it, for the so-called gentlemen +retainers—among whom, by the bye, ranked the chief butler and the head +groom, besides the chaplain and the doctor; thirdly, the servants' hall, +where all the lower people of the house fed together. Then, as now in +old countries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> the labour of a large household was indefinitely +subdivided, and no servant was expected to do more than one thing, and +every servant had an assistant upon whom he forced all the hard work. A +shepherd lad, brought in from the hills in his sheepskin coat, sheepskin +breeches, and leg swathings of rags and leather, would naturally be the +butt of such an establishment. On the other hand, the shepherd boy was a +genius and had a tongue like a razor, besides being the favourite of the +all-powerful master; and as it was neither lawful nor safe to lay hands +on him, his power of cutting speech made him feared.</p> + +<p>So he learned Latin with the man who had taught Dante,—and Dante was +admitted to be the most learned man of his times,—and he ground the +colours and washed the brushes for Cimabue, and drew under the master's +eye everything that he saw, and became, as the chronicler Villani says +of him, 'the most sovereign master of painting to be found in his time, +and the one who most of all others took all figures and all action from +nature.' And Villani was his contemporary, and knew him when he was +growing old, and recorded his death and his splendid funeral.</p> + +<p>One-half of all permanent success in art must always lie in the +mechanical part of it, in the understanding and use of the tools. They +were primitive in Giotto's day, and even much later, according to our +estimate. Oil painting was not dreamt of, nor anything like a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> lead +pencil for drawing. There was no canvas on which to paint. No one had +thought of making an artist's palette. Not one-tenth of the substances +now used for colours were known then. A modern artist might find himself +in great difficulties if he were called upon to paint a picture with +Cimabue's tools.</p> + +<p>But to Giotto they must have seemed marvellous after his pointed stone +pencil and his bit of untrimmed slate. Everything must have surprised +and delighted him in his first days in Florence—the streets, the +houses, the churches, the people, the dresses he saw; and the boy who +had begun by copying the sheep that were before his eyes on the +hillside, instantly longed to reproduce a thousand things that pleased +him. So, when he was already old enough to understand life and its +beauty, he was suddenly transported to the midst of it, just where it +was most beautiful; and because he instantly saw that his master's art +was unreal and far removed from truth, dead, as it were, and bound hand +and foot in the graveclothes of Byzantine tradition, his first impulse +was to wake the dead in a blaze of life. And this he did.</p> + +<p>And after him, from time to time, when art seemed to be stiffening again +in the clumsy fingers of the little scholars of the great, there came a +true artist, like Giotto, who realized the sort of deathlike trance into +which art had fallen, and roused it suddenly to things undreamed +of—from Giotto to Titian. And each did<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> all that he meant to do. But +afterwards came Tintoretto, who said that he would draw like +Michelangelo and paint like Titian; but he could not, though he made +beautiful things: and he was the first great artist who failed to go +farther than others had gone before him; and because art must either +advance or go backward, and no one could advance any more, it began to +go backward, and the degeneration set in.</p> + +<p>About three hundred years elapsed between Giotto's birth and Titian's +death, during which the world changed from the rough state of the Middle +Age to a very high degree of civilization; and men's eyes grew tired of +what they saw all the time, while many of the strong types which had +made the change faded away. Men grew more alike, dress grew more alike, +thoughts grew more alike. It was the beginning of that overspreading +uniformity which we have in our time, which makes it so very easy for +any one man to be eccentric, but which makes it so very hard for any one +man to be really great. One might say that in those times humanity +flowed in very small channels, which a strong man of genius could thwart +and direct. But humanity now is a stream so broad that it is almost like +an ocean, in which all have similar being, and the big fish come to the +surface, and spout and blow and puff without having any influence at all +on the tide.</p> + +<p>There was hardly any such thing possible as eccentricity in Giotto's +time. When the dress and manners<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> and language of every little town +differed distinctly from those of the nearest village, every man dressed +as he pleased, behaved as he had been taught, and spoke the dialect of +his native place. There was a certain uniformity among the priesthood, +whose long cassock was then the more usual dress of civilians in great +cities in times of peace and who spoke Latin among themselves and wrote +it, though often in a way that would make a scholar's blood run cold. +But there was no uniformity among other classes of men. A fine gentleman +who chose to have his cloth tights of several colours, one leg green and +one blue, or each leg in quarters of four colours, attracted no +attention whatever in the streets; and if one noble affected simple +habits and went about in an old leathern jerkin that was rusty in +patches from the joints of his armour, the next might dress himself in +rich silk and gold embroidery, and wear a sword with a fine enamelled +hilt. No one cared, except for himself, and it must have been hard +indeed to produce much effect by any eccentricity of appearance. But +there was the enormous and constantly changing variety that takes an +artist's eye at every turn,—which might make an artist then of a man +who nowadays would be nothing but a discontented observer with artistic +tastes.</p> + +<p>I do not think that these things have ever been much noticed as factors +in the development of European art. Consider what Florence, for +instance, was to the eye at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> that time. And then consider that, until +that time, art had been absolutely prohibited from painting what it saw, +being altogether a traditional business in which, as Burckhardt says, +the artist had quite lost all freedom of mind, all pleasure and interest +in his work, in which he no longer invented, but had only to reproduce +by mechanical repetition what the Church had discovered for him, in +which the sacred personages he represented had shrivelled to mere +emblems, and the greater part of his attention and pride was directed to +the rich and almost imperishable materials in which alone he was allowed +to work for the honour and glory of the Church.</p> + +<p>In the second Council of Nicea, held in the year 787, the question of +sacred pictures was discussed, and in the acts of the Council the +following statement is found:—</p> + +<p>'It is not the invention of the painter which creates the picture, but +an inviolable law, a tradition of the Church. It is not the painters, +but the holy fathers, who have to invent and dictate. To them manifestly +belongs the composition, to the painter only the execution.'</p> + +<p>It would be hard to find a clearer definition of the artist's place and +work before Giotto.</p> + +<p>Consider all these things, and then think of the sensations of the first +man upon whom it flashed all at once that he might be free and might +paint everything he saw, not as monks dictated to him, but as he saw +it,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> to the best of his strength and talent. He must have felt like a +creature that had been starved, suddenly turned out free to roam through +a world full of the most tempting things and with a capacity to enjoy +them all. He did not realize his freedom completely at first; it was +impossible for him to throw off at once all the traditions in which he +had been brought up and taught; but he realized enough to change the +whole direction of all the art that came after him.</p> + +<p>Two things are remarkable about the early Italian artists. With the +solitary exception of Cimabue—the first of the Renascence—none of them +was born rich, but, on the other hand, a great many of them were not +born poor either. Giotto and Mantegna were shepherd boys, it is true; +but Michelangelo was the son of a small official of ancient family in +the provinces, the mayor of the little city of Chiusi e Caprese; +Lionardo da Vinci's father was a moderately well-to-do land-holder; +Raphael's was a successful painter, and certainly not in want. Secondly, +a very great number of them made what must have been thought good +fortunes in those days, while they were still young men. Some, like +Andrea del Sarto, squandered their money and died in misery; one or two, +like Fra Angelico, refused to receive money themselves for their work +and handed over their earnings to a religious community. None, so far as +I can find out, toiled through half a lifetime with neither recognition +nor pay, as many a great artist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> has done in our times—like the +Frenchman Millet, for instance, whose Angelus fetched such a fabulous +price after his death. The truth is that what we mean by art had just +been discovered, and it met with immediate and universal appreciation, +and the result was a demand for it which even a greater number of +painters could not have oversatisfied. Consequently, there was plenty to +do for every man of genius, and there were people not only willing to +pay great sums for each work, but who disputed with each other for the +possession of good paintings, and quarrelled for what was equivalent to +the possession of great artists.</p> + +<p>Another element in the lives of these men, as in the lives of all who +rose to any eminence in those days, was the great variety that +circumstances introduced into their existence. Change and variety are +favourable to creative genius as they are unfavourable to uncreative +study. The scholar and the historian are best left among their books for +twenty years at a time, to execute the labour of patient thought which +needs perpetual concentration on one subject. If Gibbon had continued to +be an amateur soldier and a man of the world, as he began, he might have +written a history, but it would not have been the most astonishing +history of modern times. In Macaulay's brilliant and often too creative +work, one sees the influence of his changing political career, to the +detriment of sober study. For the more the creative man sees and lives +in his times, the more he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> is impelled to create. In the midst of his +best years of painting, Lionardo da Vinci was called off to build +canals, and Cæsar Borgia kept him busy for two years in planning and +constructing fortifications. Immediately before that time he had +finished his famous Last Supper, in Milan, and immediately afterwards he +painted the Battle of Anghiari—now lost—which was the picture of his +that most strongly impressed the men of his day.</p> + +<p>Similarly, Michelangelo was interrupted in his work when, the Constable +of Bourbon having sacked Rome, the Medici were turned out of Florence, +and the artist was employed by the Republic to fortify and defend the +city. It was betrayed, and he escaped and hid himself—and the next +great thing he did was the Last Judgment, in the Sixtine Chapel. He did +stirring work in wild times, besides painting, and hewing marble, and +building Saint Peter's.</p> + +<p>That brings one back to thinking how much those men knew. Their +universal knowledge seems utterly unattainable to us, with all our +modern machinery of education. Michelangelo grew up in a suburb of +Florence, to which his father moved when he was a child, at a notary's +desk, his father trying to teach him enough law to earn him a +livelihood. Whenever he had a chance, he escaped to draw in a corner, or +to spend forbidden hours in an artist's studio. He was taught Latin and +arithmetic by an old schoolmaster,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> who was probably a priest, and a +friend of his father's. At fourteen he earned money in Ghirlandajo's +studio, which means that he was already an artist. At twenty-five he was +probably the equal of any living man as sculptor, painter, architect, +engineer and mathematician. Very much the same might be said of +Lionardo. One asks in vain how such enormous knowledge was acquired, and +because there is no answer, one falls back upon wild theories about +untaught genius. But whatever may be said of painting and sculpture, +neither architecture nor engineering, and least of all the mathematics +so necessary to both, can be evolved from the inner consciousness.</p> + +<p>Men worked harder then than now, and their teachers and their tools +helped them less, so that they learned more thoroughly what they learned +at all. And there was much less to distract a man then, when he had +discovered his own talent, while there was everything to spur him. +Amusements were few, and mostly the monopoly of rich nobles; but success +was quick and generous, and itself ennobled the men who attained to +it—that is, it instantly made him the companion, and often the friend, +of the most cultivated men and women of the day. Then, as now, success +meant an entrance into 'society' for those whose birth had placed them +outside of it. But 'society' was different then. It consisted chiefly of +men who had fought their own way to power, and had won it by a +superiority both intellectual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> and physical, and of women who often +realized and carried out the unsatisfied intellectual aspirations of +their husbands and fathers. For wherever men have had much to do, and +have done it successfully, what we call culture has been more or less +the property of the women. In those times, the men were mostly occupied +in fighting and plotting, but the beautiful things produced by newly +discovered art appealed to them strongly. Women, on the other hand, had +nothing to do. With the end of the Middle Age, the old-fashioned +occupations of women, such as spinning, weaving and embroidering with +their maids, went out of existence, and the mechanical work was absorbed +and better done by the guilds. Fighting was then a large part of life, +but there was something less of the petty squabbling and killing between +small barons, which kept their women constant prisoners in remote +castles, for the sake of safety; and there was war on a larger scale +between Guelph and Ghibelline, Emperor and Pope, State and State. The +women had more liberty and more time. There were many women students in +the universities, as there are now, in Italy, and almost always have +been, and there were famous women professors, whose lectures were +attended by grown men. No one was surprised at that, and there was no +loud talk about women's rights. Nobody questioned the right of women to +learn as much as they could, where-ever anything was taught. There were +great ladies,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> good and bad, like Vittoria Colonna and Lucrezia Borgia, +who were scholars, and even Greek scholars, and probably equal to any +students of their time. Few ladies of Michelangelo's day did not know +Latin, and all were acquainted with such literature as there was—Dante, +Macchiavelli, Aretino, Ariosto and Petrarch,—for Tasso came later,—the +Tuscan minor poets, as well as the troubadours of Provence—not to +mention the many collections of tales, of which the scenes were destined +to become the subjects of paintings in the later days of the Renascence.</p> + +<p>Modern society is the enemy of individuality, whether in dress, taste or +criticism, and the fear of seeming different from other people is +greater than the desire to rise higher than other people by purely +personal means. In the same way, socialism is the enemy of all personal +distinction, whatever the socialists may say to the contrary, and is +therefore opposed to all artistic development and in favour of all that +is wholesale, machine-made, and labour-saving. And nobody will venture +to say that modern tendencies are not distinctly socialistic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image198.jpg" width="450" height="336" alt="INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI" title="" /> +<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI<br /><br /> + +The Baths of Diocletian remodelled by Michelangelo</span> +</div> + +<p>We are almost at the opposite extreme of existence from the early +Renascence. That was the age of small principalities; ours is the day of +great nations. Anyone who will carefully read the history of the Middle +Age and of the Renascence will come to the inevitable conclusion that +the greatest artists and writers of today are very far from being the +rivals of those who were great then. Shakespeare was almost the +contemporary of Titian; there has been neither a Shakespeare nor a +Titian since, nor any writer nor artist in the most distant manner +approaching them. Yet go backward from them, and you will find Dante, as +great as Shakespeare, and at least three artists, Michelangelo, Lionardo +da Vinci and Raphael, quite as great as Titian. They lived in a society +which was antisocialistic, and they were the growth of a period in which +all the ideas of civilized mankind tended in a direction diametrically +opposed to that taken by our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> modern theories. This is undeniable. The +greatest artists, poets and literary men are developed where all +conditions most develop individuality. The modern state, in which +individuality is crushed by the machinery of education in order that all +men may think alike, favours the growth of science alone; and scientific +men have the least individuality of all men who become great, because +science is not creative like art and literature, nor destructive like +soldiering, but inquisitive, inventive and speculative in the first +place, and secondly, in our age, financial. In old times, when a +discovery was made, men asked, 'What does it mean? To what will it +lead?' Now, the first question is, 'What will it be worth?' That does +not detract from the merit of science, but it shows the general tendency +of men's thoughts. And it explains two things, namely, why there are no +artists like Michelangelo nor literary men like Shakespeare in our +times—and why the majority of such artists and literary men as we have +are what is commonly called reactionaries, men who would prefer to go +back a century or two, and who like to live in out-of-the-way places in +old countries, as Landor lived in Florence, Browning in Venice, +Stevenson in Samoa, Liszt in Rome,—besides a host of painters and +sculptors, who have exiled themselves voluntarily for life in Italy and +France. The whole tendency of the modern world is scientific and +financial, and the world is ruled by financiers and led by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> financial +society which honours neither art nor literature, but looks upon both as +amusements which it can afford to buy, and which it is fashionable to +cultivate, but which must never for a moment be considered as equal in +importance to the pursuit of money for its own sake.</p> + +<p>It was the great scope for individuality, the great prizes to be won by +individuality, the honour paid to individuality, that helped the early +painters to their high success. It was the abundance of material, +hitherto never used in art, the variety of that material, in an age when +variety was the rule and not the exception, it was the richness of that +material, not in quantity and variety only, but in individual quality, +that made early paintings what we see. It was their genuine and true +love of beauty, and of nature and of the eternal relations between +nature and beauty, that made those men great artists. It was the +hampering of individuality, the exhaustion and disappearance of material +and the degeneration of a love of beauty to a love of effect, that put +an end to the great artistic cycle in Italy, and soon afterwards in the +rest of the world, with Rembrandt and Van Dyck, the last of the really +great artists.</p> + +<p>Progress is not civilization, though we generally couple the two words +together, and often confound their values. Progress has to do with what +we call the industrial arts, their development, and the consequent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +increase of wealth and comfort. Civilization means, on the other hand, +among many things, the growth and perfecting of art, in the singular; +the increase of a general appreciation of art; the refinement of manners +which follows upon a widespread improvement of taste; the general +elevation of a people's thoughts above the hard conditions in which a +great people's struggles for existence, preëminence and wealth take +place.</p> + +<p>Progress, in its right acceptation, ought also to mean some sort of +moral progress—such, for instance, as has transformed our own +English-speaking race in a thousand years or more from a stock of very +dangerous pirates to a law-abiding people—if we may fairly say as much +as that of ourselves.</p> + +<p>Civilization has nothing to do with morality. That is rather a shocking +statement, perhaps, but it is a true one. It may be balanced by saying +that civilization has nothing to do with immorality either. The early +Christians were looked upon as very uncivilized people by the Romans of +their time, and the meanest descendants of the Greeks secretly called +the Romans themselves barbarians. In point of civilization and what we +call cultivation, Alcibiades was immeasurably superior to Saint Paul, +Peter the Hermit or Abraham Lincoln, though Alcibiades had no morality +to speak of and not much conscience. Moreover, it is a fact that great +reformers of morals have often been great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> enemies of art and destroyers +of the beautiful. Fra Bartolommeo, who is thought by many to have +equalled Raphael in the latter's early days, became a follower of +Savonarola, burned all his wonderful drawings and studies, and shut +himself up in a monastery to lead a religious life; and though he +yielded after several years to the command of his superiors, and began +painting again, he confined himself altogether to devotional subjects as +long as he lived, and fell far behind Raphael, who was certainly not an +exemplary character, even in those days.</p> + +<p>In Europe, and in the Latin languages, there is a distinction, and a +universally accepted one, between education and instruction. It is +something like that which I am trying to make clear between Civilization +and Progress. An 'instructed man' means a man who has learned much but +who may have no manners at all, may eat with his knife, forget to wash +his hands, wear outlandish clothes, and be ignorant even of the ordinary +forms of politeness. An 'educated person,' on the contrary, may know +very little Latin, and no Greek, and may be shaky in the multiplication +table; but he must have perfect manners to deserve the designation, and +tact, with a thorough knowledge of all those customs and outward forms +which distinguish what calls itself civilized society from the rest of +the world. Anyone can see that such instruction, on the one hand, and +such education, on the other, are derived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> from wholly different +sources, and must lead to wholly different results; and it is as common +nowadays to find men who have the one without the other, as it ever was +in ancient Greece or Rome. I should like to assert that it is more +common, since Progress is so often mistaken for Civilization and tacitly +supposed to be able to do without it, and that Diogenes would not be +such a startling exception now as he was in the days of Alexander the +Great. But no one would dare to say that Progress cannot go on in a high +state of Civilization. All that can be stated with absolute certainty is +that they are independent of each other, since Progress means 'going on' +and therefore 'change'; whereas Civilization may remain at the same high +level for a very long period, without any change at all. Compare our own +country with China, for instance. In the arts—the plural 'arts'—in +applied science, we are centuries ahead of Asia; but our manners are +rough and even brutal compared with the elaborate politeness of the +Chinese, and we should labour in vain to imitate the marvellous +productions of their art. We may prefer our art to that of the far East, +though there are many critics who place the Japanese artists much higher +than our own; but no one can deny the superior skill of the Asiatics in +the making of everything artistic.</p> + +<p>Nor must we undervalue in art the importance of the minor and special +sort of progress which means<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> a real and useful improvement in methods +and materials. That is doubtless a part, a first step, in the general +progress which tends ultimately to the invention of machinery, but +which, in its development, passes through the highest perfection of +manual work.</p> + +<p>The first effect of this sort of progress in art was to give men of +genius new and better tools, and therefore a better means of expression. +In a way, almost every painter of early times was an inventor, and had +to be, because for a long time the methods and tools of painting were +absurdly insufficient. Every man who succeeded had discovered some new +way of grinding and mixing colours, of preparing the surface on which he +worked, of using the brush and the knife, and of fixing the finished +picture by means of varnishes. The question of what painters call the +vehicle for colour was always of immense importance. Long before Giotto +began to work there seem to have been two common ways of painting, +namely, in fresco, with water-colours, and on prepared surfaces by means +of wax mixed with some sort of oil.</p> + +<p>In fresco painting, the mason, or the plasterer, works with the painter. +A surface as large as the artist expects to use during a few hours is +covered with fresh stucco by the mason, and thoroughly smoothed with a +small trowel. Stucco, as used in Italy, is a mixture of slaked lime and +white marble dust, or very fine sand which has been thoroughly sifted. +If stained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> to resemble coloured or veined marbles, and immediately +ironed till it is dry with hot smooth irons, the surface of the mass is +hardened and polished to such a degree that it is almost impossible to +distinguish it from real marble without breaking into it. Waxing gives +it a still higher polish. But if water-colours are used for painting a +picture upon it, and if the colours are laid on while the stucco is +still damp, they unite with the lime, and slowly dry to a surface which +is durable, but neither so hard nor so polished as that produced when +the stucco is ironed. The principal conditions are that the stucco must +be moist, the wall behind it absolutely dry and the colours very thin +and flowing. Should the artist not cover all that has been prepared for +his day's work, the remainder has to be broken out again and laid on +fresh the next day. It is now admitted that the wall-paintings of the +ancients were executed in this way. As it was impossible for the artist +at any time to have the whole surface of the freshly stuccoed wall at +his disposal in order to draw his picture before painting it, he either +drew the design in red upon the rough dry plaster, and then had the +stucco laid over it in bits, or else he made a cartoon drawing of the +work in its full size. The outlines were then generally pricked out with +a stout pin, and the cartoon cut up into pieces of convenient +dimensions, so that the painter could lay them against the fresh stucco +and rub the design through, or pounce it, as we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> should say, with +charcoal dust, like a stencil. He then coloured it as quickly as he +could. If he made a mistake, or was not pleased with the effect, there +was no remedy except the radical one of breaking off the stucco, laying +it on fresh, and beginning over again. It was clearly impossible to +paint over the same surface again and again as can be done in oil +painting.</p> + +<p>No one knows exactly when eggs were first used in fresco painting, nor +does it matter much. Some people used the yolk and the white together, +some only one or the other, but the egg was, and is, always mixed with +water. Some artists now put gum tragacanth into the mixture. It is then +used like water in water-colour work, but is called 'tempera' or +'distemper.' The effect of the egg is to produce an easy flow of the +colour with so little liquid that the paint does not run on the surface, +as it easily does in ordinary water-colours. The effect of the yellow +yolk of the egg upon the tints is insignificant, unless too much be +used. By using egg, one may paint upon ordinary prepared canvas as +easily as with oils, which is impossible with water-colour.</p> + +<p>As for the early paintings upon panels of wood, before oils were used, +they were meant to be portable imitations of fresco. The wood was +accordingly prepared by covering it with a thin coating of fine white +cement, or stucco, which was allowed to dry and become perfectly hard, +because it was of course impossible to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> lay it on fresh every day in +such small quantities. The vehicle used could therefore not be water, +which would have made the colours run. The most common practice of the +Byzantine and Romanesque schools seems to have been to use warm melted +wax in combination with some kind of oil, the mixture being kept ready +at hand over a lighted lamp, or on a pan of burning charcoal. There are +artists in Europe, still, who occasionally use wax in this way, though +generally mixed with alcohol or turpentine, and the result is said to be +very durable. Sir Joshua Reynolds painted many pictures in this way.</p> + +<p>With regard to using oils on a dry surface in wall painting, instead of +fresco, Lionardo da Vinci tried it repeatedly with the result that many +of his wall paintings were completely lost within thirty or forty years +after they had been painted. The greatest of those which have survived +at all, the Last Supper in Milan, has had to be restored so often that +little of the original picture remains untouched.</p> + +<p>The enormous value of linseed oil and nut oil as a vehicle was apparent +as soon as it was discovered in Holland. Its great advantages are that, +unlike water or egg, it will carry a large quantity of colour upon the +canvas at the first stroke, that it dries slowly, so that the same +ground may be worked over without haste while it is still fresh, and +that it has a very small effect in changing the tints of the original +paints used.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> One may see what value was attached to its use from the +fact that those who first brought it to Italy worked in secret. Andrea +Castagno, surnamed the Assassin, learned the method from his best +friend, Domenico Veneziano, and then murdered him while he was singing a +serenade under a lady's window, in order to possess the secret alone. +But it soon became universally known and made a revolution in Italian +painting.</p> + +<p>In the older times, when rare and valuable pigments were used, as well +as large quantities of pure gold, the materials to be employed and their +value were stipulated for in the contract made between the painter and +his employer before the picture was begun, and an artist's remuneration +at that time was much of the nature of a salary, calculated on an +approximate guess at the time he might need for the work. That was, of +course, a survival from the time of the Byzantine artists, to whom gold +and silver and paints were weighed out by the ecclesiastics for whom +they painted, and had to be accounted for in the finished picture. There +is a story told of an artist's apprentice, who made a considerable sum +of money by selling the washings of his master's brushes when the latter +was using a great quantity of ultramarine; and that shows the costliness +of mere paints at that time. As for the more valuable materials, the +great altar picture in Saint Mark's, in Venice, is entirely composed of +plates of pure gold enamelled in different colours, and fastened in a +sort of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> mosaic upon the wood panel as required, the lights and shades +being produced by hatching regular lines through the hard enamel with a +sharp instrument. The whole technical history of painting lies between +that sort of work and the modern painter's studio.</p> + +<p>Before oil painting became general, artists were largely dependent on +commissions in order to do any work except drawing. Fresco needed a +wall, and work done in that manner could not be removed from place to +place. The old-fashioned panel work with its gold background was so +expensive that few artists could afford to paint pictures on the mere +chance of selling them. But the facilities and the economy of pure +tempera work, and work in oils, soon made easel pictures common.</p> + +<p>Between the time of Giotto and that of Mantegna another means of +expression, besides painting, was found for artists, if not by accident, +by the ingenuity of the celebrated goldsmith, Maso Finiguerra, who was +the first man in Italy, and probably the first in the world, to take off +upon paper impressions in ink from an engraved plate.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image211a.jpg" width="650" height="387" alt="THE PALATINE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE PALATINE</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<p>The especial branch of goldsmithing which he practised was what the +Italians still call 'niello' work, or the enamelling of designs upon +precious metals. The method of doing such work is this. Upon the piece +to be enamelled the design is first carefully drawn with a fine point, +precisely as in silver chiselling, and corrected till quite perfect in +all respects. This design is then cut into the metal with very sharp +tools, evenly, but not to a great depth. When completely cut, the +enamelling substance, which is generally sulphate of silver, is placed +upon the design in just sufficient quantities, and the whole piece of +work is then put into a furnace and heated to such a point that the +enamel melts and fills all the cuttings of the design, while the metal +itself remains uninjured. This is an easier matter than might be +supposed, because gold and silver, though soft under the chisel, will +not melt except at a very high temperature. When the enamel has cooled, +the whole surface is rubbed down to a perfect level, and the design +appears with sharp outlines in the polished metal.</p> + +<p>Now anyone who has ever worked with a steel point on bright metal knows +how very hard it is to judge of the correctness of the drawing by merely +looking at it, because the light is reflected in all directions into +one's eyes, not only from untouched parts of the plate, but from the +freshly cut lines. The best way of testing the work is to blacken it +with some kind of colour that is free from acid, such as a mixture of +lampblack and oil, to rub the surface clean so as to leave the ink only +in the engraved lines, and then take an impression of the drawing upon +damp paper. That is practically what Finiguerra did, and in so doing he +discovered the art of engraving. Probably goldsmiths had done the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> same +before him, as they have always done since, but none of them had thought +of drawing upon metal merely for the sake of the impression it would +make, and without any intention of using the metal afterwards. Within +fifty years of Finiguerra's invention very beautiful engravings were +sold all over Italy, and many famous painters engraved their own +works—foremost among these, Mantegna and Botticelli.</p> + +<p>Early Italian art rose thus by regular steps, from the helpless, +traditional, imitative work of the Romanesque and Byzantine artists to +its highest development. It then passed a succession of climaxes in the +masterpieces of Lionardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian, and +thence descended gradually to the miserably low level of the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>It is easy to trace the chief objects which painting had in view in its +successive phases. Tradition, Reality and Illusion were the three. +Cimabue was still a Traditionist. Giotto was the first Realist. Mantegna +first aimed at the full illusion which finished art is capable of +producing, and though not so great a man as Giotto, was a much greater +painter. Then came Lionardo, Michelangelo and Raphael, the men of +universal genius, who could make use of tradition without being +commonplace, who could be realistic without being coarse, and who +understood how to produce illusion without being theatrical. In the +decay of Italian art what strikes one most strongly is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> combination +of the three faults which the great men knew how to avoid—coarseness, +commonplace thought and theatrical execution.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image214.jpg" width="450" height="273" alt="PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>Cimabue had found out that it was possible to paint sacred pictures +without the dictation of priests, as prescribed by the Council of Nice. +The idea discovered by Giotto, or rather the fact, namely, that nature +could be copied artistically, produced a still greater revolution, and +he had hosts of scholars and followers and imitators. But they were +nothing more, or at the most it may be said that they developed his idea +to the furthest with varying success. It was realism—sometimes a kind +of mystic evocation of nature, disembodied and divinely pure, as in +Beato<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> Angelico; often exquisitely fresh and youthful, as in his pupil, +Benozzo Gozzoli, whose vast series of frescoes half fills the Camposanto +of Pisa—sometimes tentative and experimental, or gravely grand, as in +Masaccio, impetuous and energetic as in Fra Lippo Lippi, fanciful as in +Botticelli—but still, always realism, in the sense of using nature +directly, without any distinct effort at illusion, the figures mostly +taken from life, and generally disposed in one plane, the details +minute, the landscapes faithful rather than suggestive.</p> + +<p>The lives of those men were all typical of the times in which they +lived, and especially the life of the holy man we call Beato Angelico, +of saintly memory, that of the fiery lay brother, Filippo Lippi, whose +astounding talents all but redeemed his little less surprising sins—and +lastly that of Andrea Mantegna.</p> + +<p>The first two stand out in tremendous contrast as contemporaries—the +realist of the Soul, and the realist of the Flesh, the Saint and the +Sinner, the Ascetic and the Sensualist.</p> + +<p>Beato Angelico—of his many names, it is easier to call him by the one +we know best—was born in 1387. At that time the influence of the Empire +in Italy was ended, and that of the Popes was small. The Emperors and +the Popes had in fact contended for the control of municipal rights in +the free Italian cities; with the disappearance of those rights under +the Italian despots the cause of contention was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> gone, as well as the +partial liberty which had given it existence. The whole country was cut +up into principalities owned and ruled by tyrants. Dante had been dead +about sixty years, and the great imperial idea which he had developed in +his poem had totally failed. The theoretical rights of man, as usual in +the world's history, had gone down before the practical strength of +individuals, whose success tended, again, to call into activity other +individuals, to the general exaltation of talent for the general +oppression of mediocrity. In other words, that condition had been +produced which is most favourable to genius, because everything between +genius and brute strength had been reduced to slavery in the social +scale. The power to take and hold, on the one hand, and the power to +conceive and execute great works on the other, were as necessary to each +other as supply and demand; and all moral worth became a matter of +detail compared with success.</p> + +<p>In such a state of the world, a man of creative genius who chanced to be +a saint was an anomaly; there was no fit place for him but a monastery, +and no field for his powers but that of Sacred Art. It was as natural +that Angelico should turn monk as that Lippo Lippi, who had been made +half a monk against his will, should turn layman.</p> + +<p>In the peaceful convent of Saint Mark, among the Dominican brethren, +Beato Angelico's character and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> genius grew together; the devout artist +and the devotional mystic were inseparably blended in one man, and he +who is best remembered as a famous painter was chosen by a wise Pope to +be Archbishop of Florence, for his holy life, his gentle character and +his undoubted learning.</p> + +<p>He could not refuse the great honour outright; but he implored the Pope +to bestow it upon a brother monk, whom he judged far more worthy than +himself. He was the same consistent, humble man who had hesitated to eat +meat at the Pope's own table without the permission of the prior of his +convent—a man who, like the great Saint Bernard, had given up a +prosperous worldly existence in pure love of religious peace. It was no +wonder that such a man should become the realist of the angels and a +sort of angel among realists—himself surnamed by his companions the +'Blessed' and the 'Angelic.'</p> + +<p>Beside him, younger than he, but contemporary with him, stands out his +opposite, Filippo Lippi. He was not born rich, like Angelico. He came +into the world in a miserable by-way of Florence, behind a Carmelite +convent. His father and mother were both dead when he was two years old, +and a wretchedly poor sister of his father took care of him as best she +could till he was eight. When she could bear the burden no longer, she +took him to the door of the monastery, as orphans were taken in those +days, and gave him over to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> charity of the Carmelite fathers. Most +of the boys brought to them in that way grew up to be monks, and some of +them became learned; but the little Filippo would do nothing but scrawl +caricatures in his copybook all day long, and could not be induced to +learn anything. But he learned to draw so well that when the prior saw +what he could do, he allowed him to paint; and at seventeen the lad who +would not learn to read or write knew that he was a great artist, and +turned his back on the monastery that had given him shelter, and on the +partial vows he had already taken. He was the wildest novice that ever +wore a frock. He had almost missed the world, since a little more +inclination, a little more time, might have made a real monk of him. But +he had escaped, and he took to himself all the world could give, and +revelled in it with every sensation of his gifted, sensuous nature. It +was only when he could not get what he wanted that he had curious +returns of monkish reasoning. The historian of his life says that he +would give all he possessed to secure the gratification of whatever +inclination chanced to be predominant at the moment; but if he could by +no means accomplish his wishes, he would then depict the object which +attracted his attention and he would try, by reasoning and talking with +himself, to diminish the violence of his inclination.</p> + +<p>There was no lack of adventure in his life, either. Once, at Ancona, on +the Adriatic, he ventured too far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> out to sea in an open boat, and he +and his companions were picked up by a Barbary pirate and carried off to +Africa. But for his genius he might have ended his days there, instead +of spending only eighteen months in slavery. A clever drawing of the +pirate chief, made on a whitewashed wall with a bit of charcoal from a +brazier, saved him. The Moor saw it, was delighted, set him to paint a +number of portraits, in defiance of Moses, Mahomet and the Koran, and +then, by way of reward, brought him safe across the water to Naples and +gave him his liberty.</p> + +<p>He painted more pictures, earned money, and worked his way back to +Florence. As long as he worked at all he did marvels, but a pretty face +was enough to make him forget his art, his work and the Princes and +Dukes who employed him. Cosimo de Medici once shut him up with his +picture, to keep him at it; he tore the sheets of his bed into strips, +knotted them together, escaped by the window—and was of course +forgiven. The nuns of Saint Margaret employed him to paint an +altar-piece for them; he persuaded them to let the most beautiful of +their novices sit as a model for one of the figures; he made love to +her, of course, and ran away with her, leaving the picture unfinished. +It is characteristic of him that though he never forsook her, he refused +the Pope's offer of a dispensation from his early vows which would have +enabled him to marry her—for he hated all ties and bonds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> alike, and a +regular marriage would have seemed to him almost as bad as slavery in +Africa.</p> + +<p>Lippo represented one extreme of character, Beato Angelico the other. +Between them were many men of almost equal genius, but of more common +temper, such as Botticelli, who was Lippo's pupil, or Benozzo Gozzoli, +the pupil of Angelico. Of Sandro Botticelli we know at least that he +resembled his master in one respect—he positively refused to learn +anything from books, and it was in sheer despair that his father, +Filipepe, apprenticed the boy to a goldsmith, who rejoiced in the +nickname of Botticello—'the little tun'—perhaps on account of his +rotund figure, and it was from this first master of his that the boy +came to be called 'Botticello's Sandro.' The goldsmith soon saw that the +boy was a born painter, and took him to Lippo Lippi to be taught. Both +Botticelli and Gozzoli, like many first-rate artists of that time, were +quiet, hard-working men, devoted to their art, and not remarkable for +anything else. The consequence is that little is known about their +lives. It is natural that we should know most about the men who were +most different from their companions, such as Michelangelo on the one +hand, and Benvenuto Cellini on the other, or Beato Angelico and Lippo +Lippi, or the clever Buffalmacco—whose practical jokes were told by +Boccaccio and Sacchetti, and have even brought him into modern +literature—and Lionardo da Vinci. Then, as now, there were two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> types +of artists, considered as men; there were Bohemians and scholars. +Lionardo and Michelangelo were grave and learned students; so was Beato +Angelico in a sense limited to theology. But Benvenuto, Lippo Lippi and +Buffalmacco were typical Bohemians. As for the latter, he seems scarcely +ever to have painted a picture without playing off a practical jest upon +his employer, and he began his career by terrifying his master, who +insisted upon waking him to work before dawn. He fastened tiny wax +tapers upon the backs of thirty black beetles, and as soon as he heard +the old man stirring and groping in the dark, he lighted the tapers +quickly, and drove the beetles into the room, through a crack under the +door, and they ran wildly hither and thither on the pavement. The master +took them for demons come to carry off his soul; he almost lost his +senses in a fit, and he used half the holy water in Florence to exorcise +the house. But ever afterwards he was too much frightened to get up +before daylight, and Buffalmacco slept out the long night in peace.</p> + +<p>Andrea Mantegna, the great painter and engraver, who made the final step +in the development of pictorial art in Italy, was a shepherd's son, like +Giotto, born about one hundred years after Giotto's death. Similar +conditions and a similar bent of genius produced different results in +different centuries. Between Giotto and Mantegna the times had changed; +men lived differently, thought differently and saw differently.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p> + +<p>How Mantegna got into the studio of the learned master Squarcione of +Padua is not known. The shepherd lad may have strayed in on a summer's +day, when the door was open, and attracted the painter's attention and +interest. One of the greatest living painters today was a Bavarian +peasant boy, who used to walk ten miles barefoot to the city and back on +Sundays, carrying his shoes to save them, in order to go into the free +galleries and look at the pictures; and somehow, without money, nor +credit, nor introduction, he got into the studio of a good master, and +became a great artist. Mantegna may have done the same. At all events, +he became old Squarcione's favourite pupil.</p> + +<p>But when he was inside the studio, he found there a vast collection of +antique fragments of sculpture, which the master had got together from +all sources, and which the pupils were drawing. He was set to drawing +them, too, as the best way of learning how to paint.</p> + +<p>That was the logical manifestation and characteristic expression of +Renascence, which was a second birth of Greek and Roman art, science and +literature—one might call it, in Italy, the second birth of civilized +man. It brought with it the desire and craving for something more than +realism, together with the means of raising all art to the higher level +required in order to produce beautiful illusions. Men had found time to +enjoy as well as to fight and pray. In other words, they fought and +prayed less, and the result was that they had more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> leisure. The women +had begun to care for artistic things much earlier, and they had taught +their children to care for them, and the result was a general tendency +of taste to a higher level. Genius may be an orphan and a foundling, but +taste is the child of taste. Genius is the crude, creative force; but +the gentle sense of appreciation, neither creative nor crude, but +receptive, is most often acquired at home and in childhood. A full-grown +man may learn to be a judge and a critic, but he cannot learn to have +taste after he is once a man. Taste belongs to education rather than to +instruction, and it is the mother that educates, not the schoolmaster.</p> + +<p>That faculty of taste was what Italy had acquired between the time of +Cimabue and the time of Mantegna—roughly speaking, between the year +1200 and the year 1450—between the first emancipation of art from the +old Byzantine and Romanesque thraldom and the time when the new art had +so overspread the country that engravings of the most famous pictures +began to be sold in the streets in every important city in Italy. Only a +few years after Mantegna's death, Albert Dürer, the great painter +engraver of Nüremberg, appeared before the council of Venice to try and +get a copyright for his engravings, which were being so cleverly forged +by the famous Raimondi that the copies were sold in the Piazza of Saint +Mark as originals. In passing, it is interesting to remember that Dürer, +whose engravings now sell for hundreds of dollars each, sold them +himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> at his own house for prices varying between the values of +fifteen and twenty-five cents, according to the size of the plate. The +Council of Venice refused him the copyright he asked, but interdicted +the copyist from using Dürer's initials.</p> + +<p>The immense sale of prints popularized art in Italy at the very time +when the first great printing houses, like the Aldine, were popularizing +learning. Culture, in the same sense in which we use the word, became +preëminently the fashion. Everyone wished to be thought clever, and a +generation grew up which not only read Latin authors with pleasure, +wrote Latin correctly, and had some acquaintance with Greek, but which +took a lively interest in artistic matters, and constituted a real +public for artists, a much larger and a much more critical one than +could be found today among an equal population in any so-called +civilized country. The era of collectors began then, and Mantegna's old +master was the first of them. Every man of taste did his best to get +possession of some fragment of antique sculpture, everyone bought +engravings, everyone went to see the pictures of the great +masters—everyone tried to get together a little library of printed +books. It took two hundred and fifty or three hundred years to develop +the Renascence, but what it produced in Italy alone has not been +surpassed, and in many ways has not been equalled, in the four hundred +years that have followed it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p> + +<p>With its culmination, individualities, even the strongest, became less +distinctly defined, and the romantic side of the art legend was ended. +It is so in all things. The romance of the ocean belongs to those who +first steered the perilous course that none had dared before; many have +been in danger by the sea, many have perished in the desperate trial of +the impossible, but none can be Columbus again; many have done brave +deeds in untracked deserts, but none again can be the pioneers who first +won through to our West. The last may be the greatest, but the first +will always have been the first, the daring, the romantic, who did what +no man had done before them.</p> + +<p>And so it is also in the peaceful ways of art. Giotto, Beato Angelico, +Lippo Lippi, Botticelli, never attained to the greatness of Lionardo or +Michelangelo or Raphael. Sober criticism can never admit that they did, +whatever soft-hearted enthusiasts may say and write. But those earlier +men had something which the later ones had not, both in merit and in +genius. They fought against greater odds, with poorer weapons, and where +their strength failed them, heart and feeling took the place of +strength; and their truth and their tenderness went straight to the +heart of their young world, as only the highest perfection of illusion +could appeal to the eyes of the critical, half-sceptic generation that +came after them.</p> + +<p>And so, although it be true that art is not dependent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> on genius alone, +but also on mechanical skill, yet there is something in art which is +dependent on genius and on nothing else. It is that something which +touches, that something which creates, that something which itself is +life; that something which belongs, in all ages, to those who grope to +the light through darkness; that something of which we almost lose sight +in the great completeness of the greatest artists, but which hovers like +a halo of glory upon the brows of Italy's earliest, truest and tenderest +painters.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image227.jpg" width="450" height="272" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>REGION XIV BORGO</h2> + + +<p>Borgo, the 'Suburb,' is the last of the fourteen Regions, and is one of +the largest and most important of all, for within its limits stand Saint +Peter's, the Vatican, and the Mausoleum of Hadrian—the biggest church, +the biggest palace and the biggest tomb in the whole world.</p> + +<p>To those who know something of Rome's great drama, the Castle of Sant' +Angelo is the most impressive of all her monuments. Like the Colosseum, +it stands out in its round strength alone, sun-gilt and shadowy brown +against the profound sky. Like the great Amphitheatre, it has been +buffeted in the storms of ages and is war-worn without, to the highest +reach of a mounted man, and dinted above that by every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> missile invented +in twelve hundred years, from the slinger's pebble or leaden bullet to +the cannon ball of the French artillery. Like the Colosseum, it is the +crestless trunk of its former self. But it has life in it still, whereas +the Colosseum died to a ruin when Urban the Eighth showed his successor +how to tear down the outer wall and build a vast palace with a hundredth +part of the great theatre.</p> + +<p>Sant' Angelo is a living fortress yet, and nearly a thousand years have +passed, to the certain knowledge of history, since it was ever a single +day unguarded by armed men. Thirty generations of men at arms have stood +sentry within its gates since Theodora Senatrix, the strong and sinful, +flashed upon history out of impenetrable darkness, seized the fortress +and made and unmade popes at her will, till, dying, she bequeathed the +domination to her only daughter, and her name to the tale of Roman +tyranny.</p> + +<p>The Castle has been too often mentioned in these pages to warrant long +description of it here, even if any man who has not lived for years +among its labyrinthine passages could describe it accurately. The great +descending corridor leads in a wide spiral downwards to the central spot +where Hadrian lay, and in the vast thickness of the surrounding +foundations there is but stone, again stone and more stone. From the +main entrance upwards the fortress is utterly irregular within, full of +gloomy chambers, short, turning staircases,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> dark prisons, endless +corridors; and above are terraces and rooms where much noble blood has +been shed, and where many limbs have been racked and tortured, and +battlements from which men good and bad, guilty and innocent, have been +dropped a rope's length by the neck to feed the crows.</p> + +<p>Here died Stephen Porcari, the brave and spotless; here died Cardinal +Carafa for a thousand crimes; and here Lorenzo Colonna, caught and +crushed in the iron hands of Sixtus the Fourth, laid his bruised head, +still stately, on the block—'a new block,' says Infessura, who loved +him and buried him, and could not forget the little detail. The story is +worth telling, less for its historical value than for the strange +exactness with which it is all set down.</p> + +<p>Pope Sixtus, backed by the Orsini, was at war with the Colonna to the +end of his reign; but once, on a day when there was truce, he seems to +have said in anger that he cared not whom the Colonna served nor with +whom they allied themselves. And Lorenzo Colonna, Protonotary Apostolic, +with his brothers, took the Pope at his word, and they joined forces +with the King of Naples, fortifying themselves in their stronghold of +Marino, whence the eldest son of the family still takes his title. The +Pope, seeing them in earnest and fearing King Ferdinand, sent an embassy +of two cardinals to them, entreating them to be reconciled with the +Church. But they answered that they would not, for his Holiness had +given them permission to ally themselves with whom they pleased, and +refused them money for service, and they said that they could not live +without pay—a somewhat ironical statement for such men as the Colonna, +who lived rather by taking than by giving an equivalent for anything +received.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image231a.jpg" width="650" height="396" alt="CASTLE OF SANT' ANGELO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">CASTLE OF SANT' ANGELO</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then the Pope made war upon King Ferdinand, and when there had been much +bloodshed, and plundering and burning on both sides, Prospero Colonna +quarrelled with the Duke of Calabria, who was on Ferdinand's side and +for whom he had been fighting, and came over to the Church, and so the +Colonna were restored to favour, and the Pope made a treaty with the +King against Venice, and so another year passed.</p> + +<p>But after that the quarrel was renewed between Pope Sixtus and Lorenzo +Colonna, on pretext that a certain part of the agreement to which they +had come had not been executed by the Protonotary; and while the matter +was under discussion, the Cardinal of Saint George, nephew of the great +Count Jerome Riario, sent word privately to the Protonotary Colonna, +warning him either to escape from Rome or to be on his guard if he +remained, 'because some one was plotting against him, and hated him.' +Wherefore Lorenzo shut himself up in the dwelling of Cardinal Colonna, +between the Colonna palace and Monte Cavallo on the Quirinal hill, and +many young men, attached to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> the great house, began to watch in arms, +day and night, turn and turn about. And when this became known, the +Orsini also began to arm themselves and keep watch at Monte Giordano. +Scenting a struggle, a Savelli, siding with Colonna, struck the first +blow by seizing forty horses and mules of the Orsini in a farm building +on the Tivoli road; and immediately half a dozen robber Barons joined +Savelli, and they plundered right and left, and one of them wrote a long +and courteous letter of justification to the Pope. But Orsini retorted +swiftly, 'lifting' horses and cattle that belonged to his enemies and +making prisoners of their retainers. Among others he took two men who +belonged to the Protonotary. And the latter, unable to leave Rome in +safety, began to fortify himself in the Cardinal's house with many +fighting men, and with many strange weapons, 'bombardelle, cerobottane,' +and guns and catapults. Whereupon the Pope sent for Orsini, and +commanded him, as the faithful adherent of the Church, to go and take +the Protonotary prisoner to his house. But while Orsini was marshalling +his troops with those of Jerome Riario, at Monte Giordano and in Campo +de' Fiori, the Pope sent for the municipal officers of the city and +explained that he meant to pardon the Protonotary if the latter would +come to the Vatican humbly and of his own free will; and certain of +these officers went to the Protonotary as ambassadors,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> to explain this. +To them he answered, in the presence of Stephen Infessura, the +chronicler who tells the story, that he had not fortified himself +against the Church, but against private and dangerous enemies, against +whom he had been warned, and that he had actually found that his house +was spied upon by night; but that he was ready to carry out the terms of +the old agreement, and finally, that he was ready to go freely to the +Pope, trusting himself wholly to His Holiness, without any earnest or +pledge for his safety, but that he begged the Pope not to deliver him +into the hands of the Orsini. Yet even before he had spoken, the Orsini +were moving up their men, by way of Saint Augustine's Church, which is +near Piazza Navona. Nevertheless Colonna, the Protonotary, mounted his +horse to ride over to the Vatican.</p> + +<p>But John Philip Savelli stood in the way, and demanded of the officers +what surety they would give for Colonna; and they promised him safety +upon their own lives. Then Savelli answered them that they should +remember their bond, for if Colonna did not come back, or if he should +be hurt, he, Savelli, would be avenged upon their bodies. And Colonna +rode out, meaning to go to the Pope, but his retainers mounted their +horses and rode swiftly by another way and met him, and forced him back. +For they told him that if he went, his end would be near, and that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +themselves would be outlawed; and some said that before they would let +him go, they would cut him to pieces themselves rather than let his +enemies do it. And furiously they forced him back, him and his horse, +through the winding streets, and brought him again into the stronghold, +and bade the officers depart in peace.</p> + +<p>And the second time two of the officers returned and told the +Protonotary to come, for he should be safe. And again he mounted his +horse, and struck with the flat of his blade a man who hindered him, and +leaped the barrier raised for defence before the palace and rode away. +And again his own men mounted and followed him, and overtook him at the +cross of Trevi, near by. And one, a giant, seized his bridle and forced +him back, saying, 'My Lord, we will not let you go! Rather will we cut +you in quarters ourselves; for you go to ruin yourself and us also.'</p> + +<p>But when they had him safe within the walls, he wrung his hands, and +cried out that it was they who, by hindering him, were destroying +themselves and him. But many answered, 'If you had gone, you would never +have come back.' And it was then the twenty-first hour of the day, and +there were left three hours before dark.</p> + +<p>But the Pope, seeing that Colonna did not come, commanded the Orsini to +bring him by force, as they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> might, even by slaying the people, if the +people should defend him; and he ordered them to burn and pillage the +regions of Monti, Trevi and Colonna. And with Orsini there were some of +those fierce Crescenzi, who still lived in Rome. And they all marched +through the city, bearing the standard of the Church, and they passed by +Trevi and surrounded the house on Monte Cavallo, and proclaimed the ban +against all men who should help the Protonotary; wherefore many of the +people departed in fear. Then Orsini first leapt the barrier, and his +horse was killed under him by a bombard that slew two men also; and +immediately all the Colonna's men discharged their firearms and +catapults and killed sixteen of their enemies. But the Orsini advanced +upon the house.</p> + +<p>Then, about the twenty-third hour, the Colonna were weary of fighting +against so many, and their powder was not good, so that they fell back +from the main gateway, and the Orsini rushed in and filled the arched +ways around the courtyard, and set fire to the hay and straw in the +stables, and fought their way up the stairs, sacking the house.</p> + +<p>They found the Protonotary in his room, wounded in the hand and sitting +on a chest, and Orsini told him that he was a prisoner and must come. +'Slay me, rather,' he answered. But Orsini bade him surrender and have +no fear. And he yielded himself up, and they took him away through the +smoking house, slippery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> with blood. They found also John Philip +Savelli, and they stripped him of the cuirass he wore, and setting their +swords to him, bade him cry, 'Long live Orsini!' And he answered, 'I +will not say it.' Then they wounded him deep in the forehead and smote +off both his hands, and gave him many wounds in face and body, and left +him dead. And they plundered all the goods of Cardinal Colonna, his +plate, his robes, his tapestries, his chests of linen, and they even +carried off his cardinal's hat.</p> + +<p>So the Protonotary, on the faith of Orsini, was led away to the Pope in +his doublet, but some one lent him a black cloak on the way. And as they +went, Jerome Riario rode beside him and jeered at him, crying out, 'Ha, +ha! thou traitor, I shall hang thee by the neck this night!' But Orsini +answered Jerome, and said, 'Sir, you shall hang me first!' for he had +given his word. And more than once on the way, Riario, drunk with blood, +drew his dagger to thrust it into Colonna, but Orsini drove him off, and +brought his prisoner safely to the Pope. And his men sacked the quarter +of the Colonna; and among other houses of the Colonna's retainers which +were rifled they plundered that of Paul Mancino, near by, whose +descendant was to marry the sister of Mazarin; and also, among the +number, the house of Pomponius Letus, the historian, from whom they took +all his books and belongings and clothes, and he went away in his +doublet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> and buskins, with his stick in his hand, to make complaint +before the municipality.</p> + +<p>Then for a whole month all that part of Rome which was dominated by the +Colonna was given over to be pillaged and burned by their enemies, while +in still Sant' Angelo, the tormentors slowly tore Lorenzo Colonna to +pieces, so that the Jewish doctor who was called in to prolong his life +said that nothing could save him, for his limbs were swollen and pierced +through and through, and many of his bones were broken, and he was full +of many deep wounds. Yet in the end, lest he should die a natural death, +they prepared the new block and the axe to cut off his head.</p> + +<p>'Moreover,' says Infessura, in his own language, 'on the last day of +June, when the people were celebrating in Rome the festivity of the most +happy decapitation of Saint Paul the Apostle, whose head was cut off by +the most cruel Nero—on that very day, about an hour and a half after +sunrise, the aforesaid Holiness of our Sovereign Lord caused the +Protonotary Colonna to be beheaded in the Castle; and there were present +the Senator and the Judge of the crime. And when the Protonotary was led +out of prison early in the morning to the grating above the Castle, he +turned to the soldiers who were there and told them that he had been +grievously tormented, wherefore he had said certain things not true. And +immediately afterwards, when he was in the closed place below, where he +was beheaded,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> the Senator and Judge sat down as a Tribunal, and caused +to be read the sentence which they passed against him, although no +manner of criminal procedure had been observed, since all the +confessions were extorted under torture, and he had no opportunity of +defending himself.' Therefore, when this sentence had been read, the +Protonotary addressed those present and said: 'I wish no one to be +inculpated through me. I say this in conscience of my soul, and if I +lie, may the devil take me, now that I am about to go out of this life; +and so thou, Notary who hast read the sentence, art witness of this, and +ye all are witnesses, and I leave the matter to your conscience, that +you should also proclaim it in Rome,—that those things written in this +sentence are not true, and that what I have said I have said under great +torture, as ye may see by my condition.' He would not let them bind his +hands, but knelt down at the block, and forgave the executioner, who +asked his pardon. And then he said in Latin, 'Lord, into thy hands I +commend my spirit,' and called thrice upon Christ the Saviour, and at +the third time, the word and his head were severed together from his +body.</p> + +<p>Then they placed the body in a wooden coffin and took it to Santa Maria +Transpontina, the first church on the right, going from the Castle +toward Saint Peter's, and when none came to take it away, they sent word +to his mother. And she, white-haired and tearless, with burning eyes, +came; and she took her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> son's head from the coffin and held it up to the +people, saying, 'Behold the justice of Sixtus,' and she laid it in its +place tenderly; and with torches, and the Confraternities, and many +priests, the body was taken to the Church of the Holy Apostles, and +buried in the Colonna Chapel near the altar.</p> + +<p>But before it was buried it was seen in the coffin, and taken out, and +laid in it again, and all saw the torments which the man had suffered in +his feet, which were swollen and bound up with rags; and also the +fingers of his hands had been twisted, so that the inside was turned +clean outwards, and on the top of his head was a wound, where priests +make the tonsure, as though the scalp had been raised by a knife; and he +was dressed in a cotton doublet, yet his own had been of fine black +silk. Also they had put on him a miserable pair of hose, torn from the +half of the leg downwards; and a red cap with a trencher was upon his +head, and it was rather a long cap, and the narrator believed that the +gaolers had dressed him thus as an insult. 'And I Stephen, the scribe, +saw it with my eyes, and with my hands I buried him, with Prosper of +Cicigliano, who had been his vassal; and no other retainers of the +Colonna would have anything to do with the matter, out of fear, as I +think.'</p> + +<p>Five hundred years had passed since Theodora's day, four hundred more +are gone since Lorenzo the Protonotary laid his head upon the block, and +still the tradition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> of terror and suffering clings to Sant' Angelo, and +furnishes the subject of an all but modern drama. Such endurance in the +character of a building is without parallel in the history of +strongholds, and could be possible only in Rome, where the centuries +pass as decades, and time is reckoned by the thousand years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image241.jpg" width="450" height="284" alt="HOSPITAL OF SANTO SPIRITO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOSPITAL OF SANTO SPIRITO<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>The main and most important memories in the Region of Borgo, apart from +the Castle, and Saint Peter's and the Vatican, are those connected with +the Holy Office, the hospital and insane asylum of Santo Spirito, and +with the Serristori barracks. In Rome, to go to Santo Spirito means to +go mad. It is the Roman Bedlam. But there is another association with +the name, and a still sadder one. There, by the gate of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> the long, low +hospital, is still to be seen the Rota—the 'wheel'—the revolving +wooden drum, with its small aperture, corresponding to an opening in the +grating, through which many thousand infants have been passed by +starving women to the mystery within, to a nameless death, or to grow up +to a life almost as nameless and obscure. The mother, indeed, received a +ticket as a sort of receipt by which she could recognize her child if +she wished, but the children claimed were very few. Within, they were +received by nursing Sisters, and cared for, not always wisely, but +always kindly, and some of them grew up to happy lives. Modern charity, +in its philistinism and well-regulated activity, condemns such wholesale +readiness to take burdens which might sometimes be borne by those who +lay them down. But modern charity, in such condemnation, does not take +just account of a mother's love, and believes that to receive nameless +children in such a way would 'encourage irresponsibility,' if not vice. +And yet in Rome, where half the population could neither read nor write, +infanticide was unknown, and fewer children were passed in through the +Rota yearly than are murdered in many a modern city. For the last thing +the worst mother will do is to kill her child; last only before that +will she part with it. Which was more moral, the unrestricted charity of +the Rota, or the unrestricted, legal infanticide of the old-fashioned +'baby-farm,' where superfluous children<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> were systematically starved to +death by professional harpies?</p> + +<p>On by the Borgo Santo Spirito, opposite the old church of the +Penitentiaries, stands the Palazzo Serristori, memorable in the +revolutionary movement of 1867. It was then the barracks of the Papal +Zouaves—the brave foreign legion enlisted under Pius the Ninth, in +which men of all nations were enrolled under officers of the best blood +in Europe, hated more especially by the revolutionaries because they +were foreigners, and because their existence, therefore, showed a +foreign sympathy with the temporal power, which was a denial of the +revolutionary theory which asserted the Papacy to be without friends in +Europe. Wholesale murder by explosives was in its infancy then as a fine +art; but the spirit was willing, and a plot was formed to blow up the +castle of Sant' Angelo and the barracks of the Zouaves. The castle +escaped because one of the conspirators lost heart and revealed the +treachery; but the Palazzo Serristori was partially destroyed. The +explosion shattered one corner of the building. It was said that the +fuse burned faster than had been intended, so that the catastrophe came +too soon. At all events, when it happened, about dark, only the +musicians of the band were destroyed, and few of the regiment were in +the building at all, so that about thirty lives were sacrificed, where +the intention had been to destroy many hundreds. In the more sane +condition of Europe today,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> it seems to us amazing that Pius the Ninth +should have been generally blamed for signing the death warrant of the +two atrocious villains who did the deed, and for allowing them to be +executed. The fact that he was blamed, and very bitterly, gives some +idea of the stupid and senseless prejudice against the popes which was +the result of Antonelli's narrow and reactionary policy.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image245.jpg" width="450" height="260" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>LEO THE THIRTEENTH</h2> + + +<p>We commonly speak of the nineteenth century as an age of superior +civilization. The truth of the assertion depends on what civilization +means, but there is no denying that more blood has been shed by +civilized nations during the last one hundred and twenty years than in +any equal period of the world's history. Anyone may realize the fact by +simply recalling the great wars which have devastated the world since +the American Revolution.</p> + +<p>But the carnage was not uninterrupted. The record of death is divided in +the midst by the thirty years of comparative peace which followed the +battle of Waterloo and preceded the general revolution of 1848. Napoleon +had harried the world, from Moscow to Cairo, from Vienna to Madrid, +pouring blood upon blood,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> draining the world's veins dry, exhausting +the destroying power of mankind in perpetual destruction. When he was +gone, Europe was utterly worn out by his terrible energy, and collapsed +suddenly in a state of universal nervous prostration. Then came the long +peace, from 1815 to 1848.</p> + +<p>During that time the European nations, excepting England, were governed +by more or less weak and timid sovereigns, and it was under their feeble +rule that the great republican idea took root and grew, like a cutting +from the stricken tree of the French Revolution, planted in the heart of +Europe, nurtured in secret, and tended by devoted hands to a new +maturity, but destined to ruin in the end, as surely as the parent +stock.</p> + +<p>Those thirty and odd years were a sort of dull season in Europe—an +extraordinarily uneventful period, during which the republican idea was +growing, and during which the monarchic idea was decaying. Halfway +through that time—about 1830—Joseph Mazzini founded the Society of +Young Italy, in connection with the other secret societies of Europe, +and acquired that enormous influence which even now is associated with +his name. Mazzini and Garibaldi meant to make a republic of Italy. The +House of Savoy did not at that time dream of a united Italian Kingdom. +The most they dared hope was the acquisition of territory on the north +by the expulsion of the Austrians. England<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> and circumstances helped the +Savoy family in their sudden and astonishing rise of fortune; for at +that time Austria was the great military nation of Europe, while France +was the naval power second to England, and through the Bourbons, Italy +was largely under the influence of Austria. England saw that the +creation of an independent friendly power in the Mediterranean would +both tend to diminish Austria's strength by land, and would check France +in her continued efforts to make the shores of the Mediterranean hers.</p> + +<p>She therefore encouraged Italy in revolution, and it is generally +believed that she secretly furnished enormous sums of money, through Sir +James Hudson, minister in Turin, to further the schemes of Mazzini. The +profound hatred of Catholics which was so much more marked in England +then than now, produced a strong popular feeling there in favour of the +revolutionaries, who inveighed against all existing sovereignties in +general, but were particularly bitter against the government of the +Popes. The revolution thus supported by England, and guided by such men +as Mazzini and Garibaldi, made progress. The legendary nature of Rome, +as mistress of the world, appealed also to many Italians, and 'Rome' +became the catchword of liberty. The situation was similar in other +European countries; secret societies were as active, and to the +revolutionaries the result seemed as certain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p> + +<p>But the material of monarchic opposition was stronger elsewhere than in +Italy. Prussia had Hohenzollerns and Austria had Hapsburgs—races that +had held their own and reigned successfully for hundreds of years. The +smaller German principalities had traditions of conservative obedience +to a prince, which were not easily broken. On the other hand, in Italy +the government of the Bourbons and their relatives was a barbarous +misrule, of which the only good point was that it did not oppress the +people with taxes, and in Rome the Pontifical chair had been occupied by +a succession of politically insignificant Popes from Pius the Seventh, +Napoleon's victim, to Gregory the Sixteenth. There was no force in Italy +to oppose the general revolutionary idea, except the conservatism of +individuals, in a country which has always been revolutionary. Much the +same was true of France. But in both countries there were would-be +monarchs waiting in the background, ready to promote any change whereby +they might profit—Louis Napoleon, and the Kings of Sardinia, Charles +Albert first, and after his defeat by the Austrians and his abdication, +the semi-heroic, semi-legendary Victor Emmanuel.</p> + +<p>Gregory the Sixteenth died in 1846, and Pius the Ninth was elected in +his stead—a man still young, full of the highest ideals and of most +honest purpose; enthusiastic, a man who had begun life in military +service and was destined to end it in captivity, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> upon whom it was +easy to impose in every way, since he was politically too credulous for +any age, and too diffident, if not too timid, for the age in which he +lived. His private virtues made him a model to the Christian world, +while his political weakness made him the sport of his enemies. The only +stable thing in him was his goodness; everything else was in perpetual +vacillation. In every true account of every political action of Pius the +Ninth, the first words are, 'the Pope hesitated.' And he hesitated to +the last—he hesitated through a pontificate of thirty-two years, he +outreigned the 'years of Peter,' and he lost the temporal power.</p> + +<p>The great movement came to a head in 1848. A year of revolutions, riots, +rebellions and new constitutions. So perfectly had it been organized +that it broke out almost simultaneously all over Europe—in France, +Italy, Prussia and Austria. Just when the revolution was rife Pius the +Ninth proclaimed an amnesty. That was soon after his election, and he +vacillated into a sort of passive approval of the Young Italian party. +It was even proposed that Italy should become a confederation of free +states under the presidency of the Pope. No man in his senses believed +in such a possibility, but at that time an unusual number of people were +not in their senses; Europe had gone mad.</p> + +<p>Everyone knows the history of that year, when one Emperor, several +Kings, and numerous princes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> ministers scattered in all directions, +like men running away from a fire that is just going to reach a quantity +of explosives. The fire was the reaction after long inactivity. Pius the +Ninth fled like the rest, when his favourite minister, Count Rossi, had +been stabbed to death on the steps of the Cancelleria. Some of the +sovereigns got safely back to their thrones. The Pope was helped back by +France and kept on his throne, first by the Republic, and then, with one +short intermission, by Louis Napoleon. In 1870, the French needed all +their strength for their own battles, and gave up fighting those of the +Vatican.</p> + +<p>During that long period, from 1849 to 1870, Pius the Ninth governed Rome +in comparative security, in spite of occasional revolutionary outbreaks, +and in kindness if not in wisdom. Taxation was insignificant. Work was +plentiful and well paid, considering the country and the times. +Charities were enormous. The only restriction on liberty was political, +never civil. Reforms and improvements of every kind were introduced. +When Gregory the Sixteenth died, Rome was practically a mediæval city; +when the Italians took it, twenty-four years later, it was a fairly +creditable modern capital. The government of Pius the Ninth was +paternal, and if he was not a wise father, he was at all events the +kindest of men. The same cannot be said of Cardinal Antonelli, his prime +minister, who was the best hated man of his day, not only in Europe and +Italy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> but by a large proportion of Churchmen. He was one of those +strong and unscrupulous men who appeared everywhere in Europe as +reactionaries in opposition to the great revolution. On a smaller +scale—perhaps because he represented a much smaller power—he is to be +classed with Disraeli, Metternich, Cavour and Bismarck. In palliation of +many of his doings, it should be remembered that he was not a priest; +for the Cardinalate is a dignity not necessarily associated with the +priesthood, and Antonelli was never ordained. He was a fighter and a +schemer by nature, and he schemed and fought all his life for the +preservation of the temporal power in Rome. He failed, and lived to see +his defeat, and he remained till his death immured in the Vatican with +Pius the Ninth. He used to live in a small and almost mean apartment, +opening upon the grand staircase that leads up from the court of Saint +Damasus.</p> + +<p>When the Italians entered Rome through the breach at the Porta Pia, +Italy was unified. It is a curious fact that Italy was never at any time +unified except by force. The difference between the unification under +Julius Cæsar and Augustus, and the unification under Victor Emmanuel, is +very simple. Under the first Cæsars, Rome conquered the Italians; under +the House of Savoy, the Italians conquered Rome.</p> + +<p>The taking of Rome in 1870 was the deathblow of mediævalism; and the +passing away of King Victor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> Emmanuel and of Pope Pius the Ninth was the +end of romantic Italy, if one may use the expression to designate the +character of the country through all that chain of big and little events +which make up the thrilling story of the struggle for Italian unity. +After the struggle for unity, began the struggle for life—more +desperate, more dangerous, but immeasurably less romantic. There is all +the difference between the two which lies between unsound banking and +perilous fighting. The long Pontificate of Pius the Ninth came to a +close almost simultaneously with the reign and the life of Victor +Emmanuel, first King of United Italy, after the Pope and the King had +faced each other during nearly a third of the century, two political +enemies of whom neither felt the slightest personal rancour against the +other. On his death-bed, the King earnestly desired the Pope's parting +blessing, but although the Pope gave it, the message arrived too late, +for the old King was dead. Little more than a month later, Pius the +Ninth departed this life. That was the end of the old era.</p> + +<p>The disposition of Europe in the year 1878, when Leo the Thirteenth was +crowned, was strongly anti-Catholic. England had reached the height of +her power and influence, and represented to the world the +scientific-practical idea in its most successful form. She was then +traversing that intellectual phase of so-called scientific atheism of +which Huxley and Herbert Spencer were the chief teachers. Their view +seems not to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> have been so hostile to the Catholic Church in particular +as it was distinctly antagonistic to all religion whatsoever. People +were inclined to believe that all creeds were a thing of the past, and +that a scientific millennium was at hand. No one who lived in those days +can forget the weary air of pity with which the Huxleyites and the +Spencerians spoke of all humanity's beliefs. England's enormous +political power somehow lent weight to the anti-religious theories of +those two leading men of science, which never really had the slightest +hold upon the believing English people. Italians, for instance, readily +asserted that England had attained her position among nations by the +practice of scientific atheism, and classed Darwin the discoverer with +Spencer the destroyer; for all Latins are more or less born +Anglomaniacs, and naturally envy and imitate Anglo-Saxon character, even +while finding fault with them, just as we envy and imitate Latin art and +fashions. Under a German dynasty and a Prime Minister of Israelitish +name and extraction, the English had become the ideal after which half +of Europe hankered in vain. England's influence was then distinctly +anti-Catholic.</p> + +<p>Germany, fresh in unity, and still quivering with the long-forgotten +delight of conquest, was also, as an Empire, anti-Catholic, and the +Kultur Kampf, which was really a religious struggle, was at its height. +Germany's religions are official at the one extreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> and popular at the +other; but there is no intermediate religion to speak of—and what we +should call cultured people, scientific men, the professorial class, are +largely atheistic.</p> + +<p>For some time after the proclamation of the Empire, Germany meant +Prussia to the rest of the world—Prussia officially evangelical, +privately sceptical, the rigid backbone of the whole German military +mammoth. The fact that about one-third of the population of the Empire +is Catholic was overlooked by Prussia and forgotten by Europe.</p> + +<p>France—Catholic in the provinces—was Paris just then—republican +Paris. And all French Republics have been anti-Catholic, as all French +monarchies have been the natural allies of the Vatican, as institutions, +though individual Kings, like Francis the First, have opposed the Popes +from time to time. France, in 1878, was recovering with astonishing +vitality from her defeat, but the new growth was unlike the old. The +definite destruction of the old France had taken place in 1870; and the +new France bore little resemblance to the old. It was, as it is now, +Catholic, but anti-papal.</p> + +<p>The smaller northern powers, Scandinavia and Holland, were anti-Catholic +of course. Russia has always been the natural enemy of the Catholic +Church. Of the remaining European nations, only Austria could be said to +have any political importance, and even she was terrorized by the new +German Empire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p> + +<p>Italy had been the scene of one of those quick comedies of national +self-transformation which start trains of consequences rather than +produce immediately great results. One may call it a comedy, not in a +depreciating sense, but because the piece was played out to a successful +issue with little bloodshed and small hindrance. It had been laid down +as a principle by the playwrights that the Vatican was the natural enemy +of Italian unity; and the playwrights and principal actors, Cavour, +Garibaldi and others, were all atheists. The new Italy of their creation +was, therefore, an anti-Catholic power, while the whole Italian people, +below the artificial scientific level, were, as they are now, +profoundly, and even superstitiously, religious. That was the state of +the European world when Leo the Thirteenth was elected.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image257a.jpg" width="650" height="875" alt="POPE LEO XIII. + +From the Portrait by Lenbach" title="" /> +<span class="caption">POPE LEO XIII. + +From the Portrait by Lenbach</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Popes have always occupied an exceptional position as compared with +other sovereigns. There is not, indeed, in the history of any nation or +community any record of an office so anomalous. To all intents and +purposes Christianity is a form of socialism, the Church is a democracy, +and the government of the Popes has been despotic, in the proper +sense,—that is, it has been one of 'absolute authority.' It is probably +not necessary to say anything about the first statement, which few, I +fancy, will be inclined to deny. Pure socialism means community of +property, community of social responsibility, and community of +principles. As regards the democratic rules by which the Church governs +itself, there cannot be two ways of looking at them. Peasant and prince +have an equal chance of wearing the triple crown; but in history it will +be found that it has been more often worn by peasants than by princes, +and most often by men issuing from the middle classes. Broadly, the +requirements have always been those answered by personal merit rather +than by any other consideration. The exceptions have perhaps been many, +and the abuses not a few, but the general principle cannot be denied, +and the present Pope came to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity by much +the same steps as the majority of his predecessors. Since his elevation +to the pontificate the Pecci family have established, beyond a doubt, +their connection with the noble race of that name, long prominent in +Siena, and having an ancient and historical right to bear arms and the +title of count—a dignity of uncertain value in Italy, south of the +Tuscan border, but well worth having when it has originated in the +northern part of the country.</p> + +<p>Joachim Vincent Pecci, since 1878 Pope, under the name of Leo the +Thirteenth, was born at Carpineto, in the Volscian hills, in 1810. His +father had served in the Napoleonic wars, but had already retired to his +native village, where he was at that time a landed proprietor of +considerable importance and the father of several children. Carpineto +lies on the mountain side, in the neighbourhood of Segni, in a rocky +district, and in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> midst of a country well known to Italians as the +Ciociaria. This word is derived from 'cioce,' the sandals worn by the +peasants in that part of the country, in the place of shoes, and bound +by leathern thongs to the foot and leg over linen strips which serve for +stockings. The sandal indeed is common enough, or was common not long +ago, in the Sabine and Samnian hills and in some parts of the Abruzzi, +but it is especially the property of the Volscians, all the way from +Montefortino, the worst den of thieves in Italy, down to the Neapolitan +frontier. Joachim Pecci was born with a plentiful supply of that rough, +bony, untiring mountaineer's energy which has made the Volscians what +they have been for good or evil since the beginning of history.</p> + +<p>Those who have been to Carpineto have seen the dark old pile in which +the Pope was born, with its tower which tops the town, as the dwellings +of the small nobles always did in every hamlet and village throughout +the south of Europe. For the Pecci were good gentlefolk long ago, and +the portraits of Pope Leo's father and mother, in their dress of the +last century, still hang in their places in the mansion. His Holiness +strongly resembles both, for he has his father's brow and eyes, and his +mother's mouth and chin. In his youth he seems to have been a very dark +man, as clearly appears from the portrait of him painted when he was +Nuncio in Brussels at about the age of thirty-four years. The family +type is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> strong. One of the Pope's nieces might have sat for a portrait +of his mother. The extraordinarily clear, pale complexion is also a +family characteristic. Leo the Thirteenth's face seems cut of live +alabaster, and it is not a figure of speech to say that it appears to +emit a light of its own.</p> + +<p>Born and bred in the keen air of the Volscian hills, he is a southern +Italian, but of the mountains, and there is still about him something of +the hill people. He has the long, lean, straight, broad-shouldered frame +of the true mountaineer, the marvellously bright eye, the eagle +features, the well-knit growth of strength, traceable even in extreme +old age; and in character there is in him the well-balanced combination +of a steady caution with an unerring, unhesitating decision, which +appears in those great moments when history will not wait for little +men's long phrases, when the pendulum world is swinging its full stroke, +and when it is either glory or death to lay strong hands upon its +weight. But when it stops for a time, and hangs motionless, the little +men gather about it, and touch it boldly, and make theories about its +next unrest.</p> + +<p>In the matter of physique, there is, indeed, a resemblance between Leo +the Thirteenth, President Lincoln and Mr. Gladstone—long, sinewy men +all three, of a bony constitution and indomitable vitality, with large +skulls, high cheek-bones, and energetic jaws—all three men of great +physical strength, of profound capacity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> for study, of melancholic +disposition, and of unusual eloquence. It might almost be said that +these three men represent three distinct stages of one type—the real or +material, the intellectual and the spiritual. From earliest youth each +of the three was, by force of circumstances, turned to the direction +which he was ultimately to follow. Lincoln was thrown upon facts for his +education; Gladstone received the existing form of education in its +highest development, while the Pope was brought up under the domination +of spiritual thoughts at a time when they had but lately survived the +French Revolution. Born during the height of the conflict between belief +and unbelief, Leo the Thirteenth, by a significant fatality, was raised +to the pontificate when the Kultur Kampf was raging and the attention of +the world was riveted on the deadly struggle between the Roman Catholic +Church and Prince Bismarck—a struggle in which the great chancellor +found his equal, if not his master.</p> + +<p>The Pope spent his childhood in the simple surroundings of Carpineto, +than which none could be simpler, as everyone knows who has ever visited +an Italian country gentleman in his home. Early hours, constant +exercise, plain food and farm interests made a strong man of him, with +plenty of simple common sense. As a boy he was a great walker and +climber, and it is said that he was excessively fond of birding, the +only form of sport afforded by that part of Italy, and practised there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +in those times, as it is now, not only with guns, but by means of nets. +It has often been said that poets and lovers of freedom come more +frequently from the mountains and the seashore than from a flat inland +region. Leo the Thirteenth ranks high among the scholarly poets of our +day, and is certainly conspicuous for the liberality of his views. As +long as he was in Perugia, it is well known that he received the +officers of the Italian garrison and any government officials of rank +who chanced to be present in the city, not merely now and then, or in a +formal way, but constantly and with a cordiality which showed how much +he appreciated their conversation. It may be doubted whether in our +country an acknowledged leader of a political minority would either +choose or dare to associate openly with persons having an official +capacity on the other side.</p> + +<p>But the stiff mannerism of the patriarchal system which survived until +recently from the early Roman times gave him that formal tone and +authoritative manner which are so characteristic of his conversation in +private. His deliberate but unhesitating speech makes one think of +Goethe's 'without haste, without rest.' Yet his formality is not of the +slow and circumlocutory sort; on the contrary, it is energetically +precise, and helps rather than mars the sound casting of each idea. The +formality of strong people belongs to them naturally, and is the +expression of a certain unchanging persistence;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> that of the weak is +mostly assumed for the sake of magnifying the little strength they have.</p> + +<p>The Pope's voice is as distinctly individual as his manner of speaking. +It is not deep nor very full, but, considering his great age, it is +wonderfully clear and ringing, and it has a certain incisiveness of +sound which gives it great carrying power. Pius the Ninth had as +beautiful a voice, both in compass and richness of quality, as any +baritone singer in the Sixtine choir. No one who ever heard him intone +the 'Te Deum' in Saint Peter's, in the old days, can forget the grand +tones. He was gifted in many ways—with great physical beauty, with a +rare charm of manner, and with a most witty humour; and in character he +was one of the most gentle and kind-hearted men of his day, as he was +also one of the least initiative, so to say, while endowed with the high +moral courage of boundless patience and political humility. Leo the +Thirteenth need speak but half a dozen words, with one glance of his +flashing eyes and one gesture of his noticeably long arm and +transparently thin hand, and the moral distance between his predecessor +and himself is at once apparent. There is strength still in every +movement, there is deliberate decision in every tone, there is lofty +independence in every look. Behind these there may be kindliness, +charity, and all the milder gifts of virtue; but what is apparent is a +sort of energetic, manly trenchancy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> which forces admiration rather than +awakens sympathy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image266.jpg" width="450" height="350" alt="LIBRARY OF THE VATICAN" title="" /> +<span class="caption">LIBRARY OF THE VATICAN</span> +</div> + +<p>When speaking at length on any occasion he is eloquent, but with the +eloquence of the dictator, and sometimes of the logician, rather than +that of the persuader. His enunciation is exceedingly distinct in Latin +and Italian, and also in French, a language in which he expresses +himself with ease and clearness. In Latin and Italian he chooses his +words with great care and skill, and makes use of fine distinctions, in +the Ciceronian manner, and he certainly commands a larger vocabulary +than most men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> + +<p>His bearing is erect at all times, and on days when he is well his step +is quick as he moves about his private apartments. 'Il Papa corre +sempre,'—'the Pope always runs'—is often said by the guards and +familiars of the antechamber. A man who speaks slowly but moves fast is +generally one who thinks long and acts promptly—a hard hitter, as we +should familiarly say.</p> + +<p>It is not always true that a man's character is indicated by his daily +habits, nor that his intellectual tendency is definable by the qualities +of his temper or by his personal tastes. Carlyle was one instance of the +contrary; Lincoln was another; Bismarck was a great third, with his iron +head and his delicate feminine hands. All men who direct, control or +influence the many have a right to be judged by the world according to +their main deeds, to the total exclusion of their private lives. There +are some whose public actions are better than their private ones, out of +all proportion; and there are others who try to redeem the patent sins +of their political necessities by the honest practice of their private +virtues. In some rare, high types, head, heart and hand are balanced to +one expression of power, and every deed is a mathematical function of +all three.</p> + +<p>Leo the Thirteenth probably approaches as nearly to such superiority as +any great man now living. As a statesman, his abilities are admitted to +be of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> highest order; as a scholar he is undisputedly one of the +first Latinists of our time, and one of the most accomplished writers in +Latin and Italian prose and verse; as a man, he possesses the simplicity +of character which almost always accompanies greatness, together with a +healthy sobriety of temper, habit and individual taste rarely found in +those beings whom we might call 'motors' among men. It is commonly said +that the Pope has not changed his manner of life since he was a simple +bishop. He is, indeed, a man who could not easily change either his +habits or his opinions; for he is of that enduring, melancholic, +slow-speaking, hard-thinking temperament which makes hard workers, and +in which everything tends directly to hard work as a prime object, even +with persons in whose existence necessary labour need play no part, and +far more so with those whose smallest daily tasks hew history out of +humanity in the rough state.</p> + +<p>Of the Pope's statesmanship and Latinity the world knows much, and is +sure to hear more, while he lives—most, perhaps, hereafter, when +another and a smaller man shall sit in the great Pope's chair. For he is +a great Pope. There has not been his equal, intellectually, for a long +time, nor shall we presently see his match again. The era of +individualities is not gone by, as some pretend. Men of middle age have +seen in a lifetime Cavour, Louis Napoleon, Garibaldi, Disraeli, +Bismarck, Leo the Thirteenth—and the young Emperor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> of Germany. With +the possible exception of Cavour, who died, poisoned as some say, before +he had lived out his life, few will deny that of all these the present +Pope possesses, in many respects, the most evenly balanced and +stubbornly sane disposition. That fact alone speaks highly for the +judgment of the men who elected him, in Italy's half-crazed days, +immediately after the death of Victor Emmanuel.</p> + +<p>At all events, there he stands, at the head of the Holy Roman Catholic +and Apostolic Church, as wise a leader as any who in our day has wielded +power; as skilled, in his own manner, as any who hold the pen; and +better than all that, as straightly simple and honest a Christian man as +ever fought a great battle for his faith's sake.</p> + +<p>Straight-minded, honest and simple he is, yet keen, sensitive and nobly +cautious; for there is no nobility in him who risks a cause for the +vanity of his own courage, and who, in blind hatred of his enemies, +squanders the devotion of those who love him. In a sense, today, the +greater the man the greater the peacemaker, and Leo the Thirteenth ranks +highest among those who have helped the cause of peace in this century.</p> + +<p>In spite of his great age, the Holy Father enjoys excellent health, and +leads a life full of occupations from morning till night. He rises very +early, and when, at about six o'clock in the morning, his valet, Pio +Centra, enters his little bedroom, he more often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> finds the Pope risen +than asleep. He is accustomed to sleep little—not more than four or +five hours at night, though he rests a short time after dinner. We are +told that sometimes he has been found asleep in his chair at his +writing-table at dawn, not having been to bed at all. Of late he +frequently says mass in a chapel in his private apartments, and the mass +is served by Pio Centra. On Sundays and feast-days he says it in another +chapel preceding the throne-room. The little chapel is of small +dimensions, but by opening the door into the neighbouring room a number +of persons can assist at the mass. The permission, when given, is +obtained on application to the 'Maestro di Camera,' and is generally +conceded only to distinguished foreign persons. After saying mass +himself, the Holy Father immediately hears a second one, said by one of +the private chaplains on duty for the week, whose business it is to take +care of the altar and to assist. Frequently he gives the communion with +his own hand to those who are present at his mass. After mass he +breakfasts upon coffee and goat's milk, and this milk is supplied from +goats kept in the Vatican gardens—a reminiscence of Carpineto and of +the mountaineer's early life.</p> + +<p>Every day at about ten he receives the Secretary of State, Cardinal +Rampolla, and converses with him for a good hour or more upon current +affairs. On Tuesdays and Fridays the Secretary of State receives<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> the +Diplomatic Corps in his own apartments, and on those days the Under +Secretary confers with the Pope in his chief's place. The acting prefect +of the 'Holy Apostolic Palaces' is received by the Pope when he has +business to expound. On the first and third Fridays of each month the +Maggiordomo is received, and so on, in order, the cardinal prefects of +the several Roman congregations, the Under Secretaries, and all others +in charge of the various offices. In the papal antechamber there is a +list of them, with the days of their audiences.</p> + +<p>During the morning the Pope receives cardinals, bishops and ambassadors +who are going away on leave, or who have just returned, princes and +members of the Roman nobility, and distinguished foreigners. At ten +o'clock he takes a cup of broth brought by Centra. At two in the +afternoon, or a little earlier, he dines, and he is most abstemious, +although he has an excellent digestion. His private physician, Doctor +Giuseppe Lapponi, has been heard to say that he himself eats more at one +meal than the Holy Father eats in a week. Every day, unless indisposed, +some one is received in private audience. These audiences are usually +for the cardinal prefects of the congregations, the patriarchs, +archbishops and bishops who are in Rome at the time, and distinguished +personages.</p> + +<p>When the weather is fine the Pope generally walks or drives in the +garden. He is carried out of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> apartments to the gate in a +sedan-chair by the liveried 'sediarii,' or chair-porters; or if he goes +out by the small door known as that of Paul the Fifth, the carriage +awaits him, and he gets into it with the private chamberlain, who is +always a monsignore. It is as well to say here, for the benefit of +non-Catholics, that 'monsignori' are not necessarily bishops, nor even +consecrated priests, the title being really a secular one. Two Noble +Guards of the corps of fifty gentlemen known under that name ride beside +the carriage doors. The closed carriage is a simple brougham, having the +Pope's coat of arms painted on the door, but in summer he occasionally +goes out in an open landau. He drives several times round the avenues, +and when he descends, the officer of the Guards dismounts and opens the +carriage door. He generally walks in the neighbourhood of the Chinese +pavilion and along the Torrione, where the papal observatory is built.</p> + +<p>Leo the Thirteenth is fond of variety—and no wonder, shut up for life +as he is in the Vatican; he enjoys directing work and improvements in +the gardens; he likes to talk with Vespignani, the architect of the Holy +Apostolic Palaces, who is also the head of the Catholic party in the +Roman municipality, to go over the plans of work he has ordered, to give +his opinion, and especially to see that the work itself is executed in +the shortest possible time. Time is short for a pope; Sixtus the Fifth, +who filled Rome and Italy with himself,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> reigned only five years; +Rodrigo Borgia eleven years; Leo the Tenth, but nine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image273.jpg" width="450" height="304" alt="FOUNTAIN OF ACQUA FELICE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">FOUNTAIN OF ACQUA FELICE</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1893 the Pope began to inhabit the new pavilion designed and built by +Vespignani in pure fifteenth-century style. It is built against the +Torrione, the ancient round tower constructed by Saint Leo the Fourth +about the year 850. In 1894 Leo the Thirteenth made a further extension, +and joined another building to the existing one by means of a loggia, on +the spot once occupied by the old barracks of the papal gendarmes, who +are still lodged in the gardens, and whose duty it is to patrol the +precincts by day and night. Indeed, the fact that two dynamiters were +caught in the garden in 1894 proves that a private police is necessary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> + +<p>During the great heat of summer the Pope, after saying mass, goes into +the garden about nine in the morning and spends the whole day there, +receiving everyone in the garden pavilion he has built for himself, just +as he would receive in the Vatican. He dines there, too, and rests +afterward, guarded by the gendarmes on duty, to whom he generally sends +a measure of good wine—another survival of a country custom; and in the +cool of the day he again gets into his carriage, and often does not +return to the Vatican till after sunset, toward the hour of Ave Maria.</p> + +<p>In the evening, about an hour later,—at 'one of the night,' according +to the old Roman computation of time,—he attends at the recitation of +the rosary, or evening prayers, by his private chaplain, and he requires +his immediate attendants to assist also. He then retires to his room, +where he reads, studies or writes verses, and at about ten o'clock he +eats a light supper.</p> + +<p>While in the garden he is fond of talking about plants and flowers with +the director of the gardens. He walks with the officer of the Noble +Guards and with the private chamberlain on duty. He speaks freely of +current topics, tells anecdotes of his own life and visits the gazelles, +goats, deer and other animals kept in the gardens. From the cupola of +Saint Peter's the whole extent of the grounds is visible, and when the +Pope is walking, the visitors, over four hundred feet above, stop to +watch him. He has keen eyes, and sees them also.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> 'Let us show +ourselves!' he exclaims on such occasions. 'At least they will not be +able to say that the Pope is ill!'</p> + +<p>The Pope's favourite poets are Virgil and Dante. He knows long passages +of both by heart, and takes pleasure in quoting them. When Father +Michael, the apostolic prefect to Erithrea, was taking his leave, with +the other Franciscans who accompanied him to Africa, his Holiness +recited to them, with great spirit, Dante's canto upon St. Francis.</p> + +<p>The Pope reads the newspapers, passages of interest being marked for him +by readers in order to save time. He frequently writes letters to the +bishops, and composes encyclicals in a polished and Ciceronian style of +Latin. The encyclicals are printed at the private press of the Vatican, +an institution founded by him and furnished with all modern +improvements. They are first published in the 'Osservatore Romano,' the +official daily paper of the Vatican, and then finally translated into +Italian and other languages, and sent out to the bishops abroad. Leo the +Thirteenth likes to see and talk with men of letters, as well as to read +their books. Two years ago he requested Professor Brunelli of Perugia to +buy for him the poetical works of the Abbé Zanella. The request is +characteristic, for his Holiness insisted upon paying for the book, like +anyone else.</p> + +<p>When great pilgrimages are to be organized, the first step taken is to +form committees at the place of origin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> The leader of the pilgrimage is +usually the head of the diocese, who then writes to Rome to make the +arrangements. The Committee on Pilgrimages provides quarters for the +pilgrims, at the Lazaret of Saint Martha, or elsewhere, that they may be +properly lodged and fed. On the occasion of the celebrated French +workingmen's pilgrimage, the great halls in the Belvedere wing, +including the old quarters of the engineer corps, and of the artillery +and the riding-school, were opened as dining-halls, where the pilgrims +came morning and evening to their meals; the kitchen department and the +general superintendence were in charge of Sisters, and everything was +directed by the Roman Committee of Pilgrimages. The visitors were +received by the Circolo, or Society of Saint Peter's, and by the first +Artisan Workmen's Association, the members of which waited at table, +wearing aprons. The Circolo has an office for pilgrimages which +facilitates arrangements with the railways, and provides lodgings in +hotels, inns and private houses in Rome for the well-to-do; but the +General Committee on Pilgrimages provides lodgings for the poor. The +head of the pilgrimage also makes arrangements for the mass which the +Holy Father celebrates for the pilgrims, and for the audience which +follows. If the pilgrimage is large, the mass is said in Saint Peter's; +if small, in the Vatican, either in the Loggia of the Beatification or +in the Sala Ducale. At the audience the pilgrims place their offerings +in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> Pope's hands, and he blesses the rosaries, crosses and other +objects of devotion, and gives small silver medals in memory of the +occasion.</p> + +<p>Since 1870 the Pope has not conducted the solemn services either in +Saint Peter's or in the Sixtine Chapel. The only services of this kind +in which he takes part are those held in the Sixtine Chapel on the +anniversary of the death of Pius the Ninth, and on the anniversary of +his own coronation, March 3. At these two functions there are also +present the Sacred College, the bishops and prelates, the Roman +nobility, the Knights of Malta, the Diplomatic Corps in full dress, and +any foreign Catholic royal princes who may chance to be in Rome at the +time. At the 'public' consistories, held with great pomp in the Sala +Regia, the Pope gives the new hat to each new cardinal; but there are +also 'private' consistories held in the beautiful Sala del Concistoro, +near the hall of the Swiss Guards, at the entrance to the Pope's +apartments.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the Pope appears at beatifications and canonizations, and +during the present pontificate these have been generally held in the +Hall of Beatifications, a magnificent room with a tribune, above the +portico of Saint Peter's, turned into a chapel for the occasion, with +innumerable candles and lamps, the transparency of the beatified person, +called the Gloria, and standards on which are painted representations of +miracles. The last of these ceremonies was held in Saint Peter's, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +closed doors, but in the presence of an enormous concourse, with the +greatest pomp, the whole of the Noble Guard and the Palatine Guard +turning out, and order being preserved by the Swiss Guards, the +gendarmes, and the vergers of the basilica, known as the 'Sanpietrini.'</p> + +<p>In Holy Week, in order to meet the wants of the many eminent and devout +Catholics who then flock to Rome, the Holy Father celebrates mass two or +three times in the Sala Ducale, which is then turned into a chapel. +During these masses motetts are sung by the famous Sixtine choir, under +the direction of the old Maestro Mustafa, once the greatest soprano of +the century, but at the same time so accomplished a musician as to have +earned the common name of 'Palestrina redivivus.' It is to be regretted +that he has never allowed any of his beautiful compositions to be +published. On such occasions as Christmas Day or the feast of Saint +Joachim, by whose name the Pope was christened, he receives the College +of Cardinals, the bishops present in Rome, many prelates, the heads of +religious bodies, some officers of the old pontifical army and of the +guards, and the dignitaries of the papal court, in his own private +library, where he talks familiarly with each in turn, and quite without +ceremony. Reigning sovereigns, princes and distinguished persons are +received in the grand throne-room, where the throne is covered with red +velvet, with coats of arms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> at the angles of the canopy. Upon a large +pier-table, in the rococo style, between the windows and opposite the +throne, stands a great crucifix of ivory and ebony, between two +candlesticks. The carpet used at such times was presented by Spain. +Before the Emperor of Germany's visit the Pope himself gave particular +directions for the dressing of the throne and the arrangement of the +rooms.</p> + +<p>When great personages are received their suites are also presented, +after which the Pope retires with his guest to the small private +throne-room.</p> + +<p>Before coming to the Pope's presence it is necessary to pass through +many anterooms, the Sala Clementina, the hall of the palfrenieri and +sediarii,—that is, of the grooms and chair-porters,—the hall of the +gendarmes, the antechamber of the Palatine Guard, that of the officers +on duty, the hall of the Arras, that of the chamberlains and Noble +Guards and at last the antechamber of the Maestro di Camera—there are +eight in all. Persons received in audience are accompanied by the +'camerieri segreti,' who do the honours in full dress, wearing their +chains and carrying their staves.</p> + +<p>The private library is a spacious room lined with bookcases made of a +yellow wood from Brazil, some of which are curtained. Busts of several +former Popes stand upon marble columns.</p> + +<p>To the Pope's bedroom, only his private valet and his secretaries have +access. It is of small dimensions, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> contains only a bed, in an +alcove adorned with graceful marble columns, a writing-table, an +arm-chair and kneeling stool, and one wardrobe.</p> + +<p>Besides these, there is his private study, in which the table and chair +stand upon a little carpeted platform, other tables being placed on each +side upon the floor, together with an extremely uncomfortable but +magnificent straight-backed arm-chair, which is one of the gifts offered +on the occasion of the episcopal jubilee. There is, moreover, a little +room containing only a lounge and an old-fashioned easy-chair with +'wings' and nothing else. It is here that the Holy Father retires to +take his afternoon nap, and the robust nature of his nerves is proved by +the fact that he lies down with his eyes facing the broad light of the +window.</p> + +<p>The private apartment occupies the second floor, according to Italian +reckoning, though we Americans should call it the third; it is on a +level with Raphael's loggie. The floor above it is inhabited by Cardinal +Rampolla, the Secretary of State.</p> + +<p>The 'pontifical court,' as it is called, consists (1898) of Cardinal +Rampolla, the Secretary of State; Cardinal Mario Mocenni, the +pro-prefect of the Holy Apostolic Palaces, a personage of the highest +importance, who has sole control of everything connected with the +Vatican palace and all the vast mass of adjoining buildings; the +Maggiordomo, who, besides many other functions, is the manager of the +museums, galleries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> and inhabited apartments; the Maestro di Camera, who +nearly corresponds to a master of ceremonies, and superintends all +audiences; the almoner and manager of the papal charities, assisted by a +distinguished priest, who is also a lawyer, formerly secretary to the +well-known Monsignor de Merode; a monk of the Dominican order, who +supervises the issuing of books printed at the Vatican; a chief steward; +four private secretaries, who take turns of service lasting a week for +each, and are always with the Pope, and finally the chief of the Vatican +police. Moreover, his Holiness has his private preacher, who delivers +sermons before him in Advent and Lent, and his confessor, both of whom +are always Capuchin monks, in accordance with a very ancient tradition.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed by the uninitiated that these few persons in any +way represent the central directive administration of the Catholic +Church. On the contrary, the only one of them who is occupied in that +larger field is Cardinal Rampolla, the Secretary of State. The others +are, strictly speaking, the chief personages of the pontifical +household, as we should say. But their offices are not sinecures. The +Pope's restless energy extracts work from the men about him as one +squeezes water from a sponge. In the days of Pius the Ninth, after the +fall of the temporal power, the Vatican was overrun and overcrowded with +useless but well-paid officials, officers and functionaries great and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +small, who took refuge there against the advancing wave of change. When +Leo the Thirteenth had been on the throne only a few weeks, there was +sold everywhere a comic print representing the Pope, with a huge broom, +sweeping all the useless people pell-mell down the steps of the Vatican +into the Piazza of Saint Peter's. As often happens, the caricaturist saw +the truth. In a reign that has lasted twenty years, Leo the Thirteenth +has done away with much that was useless, worthless and old-fashioned, +and much that cumbered the narrow patch of earth on which so important a +part of the world's business is transacted. He is a great simplifier of +details, and a strong leveller of obstructions, so that his successor in +the pontificate will find it a comparatively easy thing to keep the +mechanism in order in its present state.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image282.jpg" width="450" height="281" alt="THE VATICAN FROM THE PIAZZA OF SAINT PETER'S" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE VATICAN FROM THE PIAZZA OF SAINT PETER'S</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<p>The strictest economy, even to the minutest details, is practised in the +Vatican. It appears certain that the accounts of the vast household have +often been inspected by the Pope, whose prime object is to prevent any +waste of money where so much is needed for the maintenance of church +institutions in all parts of the world. In the midst of outward +magnificence the papal establishment is essentially frugal, for the +splendid objects in the Pope's apartments, even to many of the articles +of furniture, are gifts received from the faithful of all nations. But +the money which pours into the Vatican from the contributions of +Catholics all over Christendom is only held in trust, to be expended in +support of missions, of poor bishoprics, and of such devout and +charitable organizations as need help, wherever they may be. That +nothing may be lost which can possibly be applied to a good purpose is +one of Leo the Thirteenth's most constant occupations. He has that +marvellous memory for little things which many great leaders and +sovereigns have had; he remembers not only faces and names, but figures +and facts, with surprising and sometimes discomfiting accuracy.</p> + +<p>In his private life, as distinguished from his public and political +career, what is most striking is the combination of shrewdness and +simplicity in the best sense of both words. Like Pius the Ninth, he has +most firmly set his face against doing anything which could be construed +as financially advantageous to his family,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> who are good gentlefolk, and +well to do in the world, but no more. All that he has as Pope he holds +in trust for the Church in the most literal acceptation of the term. The +contributions of Catholics, on being received, are immediately invested +in securities bearing interest, which securities are again sold as may +be necessary for current needs, and expended for the welfare of Catholic +Christianity. Every penny is most carefully accounted for. These moneys +are generally invested in Italian national bonds—a curious fact, and +indicative of considerable confidence in the existing state of things, +as well as a significant guarantee of the Vatican's good faith towards +the monarchy. It is commonly said in Rome among bankers that the Vatican +makes the market price of Italian bonds. Whether this be true or not, it +is an undeniable fact that the finances of the Vatican are under the +direct and exceedingly thrifty control of the Pope himself. To some +extent we may be surprised to find so much plain common sense surviving +in the character of one who has so long followed a spiritual career. We +should not have looked for such practical wisdom in Pius the Ninth. But +the times are changed since then, and are most changed in most recent +times. The head of the Catholic Church today must be a modern man, a +statesman, and an administrator; he must be able to cope with +difficulties as well as heresies; he must lead his men as well as guide +his flock; he must be the Church's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> steward as well as her consecrated +arch-head; he must be the reformer of manners as well as the preserver +of faith; he must be the understander of men's venial mistakes as well +as the censor of their mortal sins.</p> + +<p>Battles for belief are no longer fought only with books and dogmas, +opinions and theories. Everything may serve nowadays, from money, which +is the fuel of nations, to wit, which is the weapon of the individual; +and the man who would lose no possible vantage must have both a heavy +hand and a light touch.</p> + +<p>By his character and natural gifts, Leo the Thirteenth is essentially +active rather than contemplative, and it is not surprising that the +chief acts of his pontificate should have dealt rather with political +matters than with questions of dogma and ecclesiastical authority. It +has certainly been the object of the present Pope to impress upon the +world the necessity of Christianity in general, and of the Roman +Catholic Church in particular, as a means of social redemption and a +factor in political stability. This seems to be his inmost conviction, +as shown in all his actions and encyclical letters. One is impressed, at +every turn, by the strength of his belief in religion and in his own +mission to spread it abroad. In regard to forms of faith, the opinions +of mankind differ very widely, but the majority of intelligent men now +living seem to hold a more or less distinct faith of one sort or +another, and to require faith of some sort in their fellow-men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> Common +atheism has had its little day, and is out of fashion. It is certainly +not possible to define that which has taken the place of the +pseudo-scientific materialism which plagued society twenty or thirty +years ago, and it is certainly beyond the province of this book to +examine into the current convictions with which we are to begin the +twentieth century.</p> + +<p>Unprejudiced persons will not, however, withhold their admiration in +reviewing the life of a man who has devoted his energies, his +intelligence and his strength, not to mention the enormous power wielded +by him as the head of the Church, to the furtherance and accomplishment +of ends which so many of us believe to be good. For the pontificate of +Leo the Thirteenth has differed from that of his predecessor in that it +has been active rather than passive. While Pius the Ninth was the head +of the Church suffering, Leo the Thirteenth is the leader of the Church +militant. This seems to be the reason why he has more than once been +accused of inconsistency in his actions, notably in his instructions to +French Catholics, as compared with the position he has maintained +towards the Italian government. People seem to forget that, whereas the +question of temporal power is deeply involved in the latter case, it has +nothing whatever to do with the former, and as this question is the one +most often brought up against the papacy and discussed in connection +with it by people who seem to have very little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> idea of its real +meaning, it may be as well to state here at once the Pope's own view of +it.</p> + +<p>'The temporary sovereignty is not absolutely requisite for the existence +of the papacy, since the Popes were deprived of it during several +centuries, but it is required in order that the pontiff's independence +may display itself freely, without obstacles, and be evident and +apparent in the eyes of the world. It is the social form, so to say, of +his guardianship, and of his manifestation. It is necessary—not to +existence, but to a right existence. The Pope who is not a sovereign is +necessarily a subject, because (in the social existence of a monarchy) +there is no mean term between subject and sovereign. A Pope who is a +subject of a given government is continually exposed to its influence +and pressure, or at least to influences connected with political aims +and interests.'</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image287a.jpg" width="650" height="977" alt="RAPHAEL'S "TRANSFIGURATION"" title="" /> +<span class="caption">RAPHAEL'S "TRANSFIGURATION"</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p> + +<p>The writer from whom these lines are quoted comes to the natural and +logical conclusion that this is not the normal position which should be +occupied by the head of the Church. I may remark here that the same view +is held in other countries besides Italy. The Emperor of Russia is the +undisputed head of the Russian Orthodox Church. Queen Victoria occupies, +by the British Constitution, almost exactly the same position towards +the Anglican Church. In practice, though certainly not in theory, it is +the evident purpose of the young German Emperor, constitutionally or +unconstitutionally, to create for himself the same dominant pontifical +position in regard to the Churches of the German Empire. It seems +somewhat unjust, therefore, that the Popes, whose right to the +sovereignty of Rome was for ages as undisputed as that of any King or +Emperor in Europe, though secondary in itself to their ecclesiastical +supremacy, should be blamed for protesting against what was undoubtedly +a usurpation so far as they were concerned, although others may look +upon it as a mere incident in the unification of a free people. +Moreover, since the unification was accomplished, the vanquished Popes +have acted with a fairness and openness which might well be imitated in +other countries. The Italians, as a nation, possess remarkable talent +and skill in conspiracy, and there is no organization in the world +better fitted than that of the Roman Catholic Church for secretly +organizing and carrying out a great political conspiracy, if any such +thing were ever attempted. The action of the Popes, on the contrary, has +been fair and above board.</p> + +<p>Both Pius the Ninth and Leo the Thirteenth have stated their grievances +in the most public manner, and so far have they been from attempting to +exercise their vast influence in directing the politics of Italy that +they have enjoined upon Italian Catholics to abstain from political +contests altogether. Whether in so doing they have pursued a wise course +or not, history will decide, probably according to the taste of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +historian; but the fact itself sufficiently proves that they have given +their enemies more than a fair chance. This seems to have been the form +taken by their protests; and this is a fair answer to the principal +accusation brought by non-Catholics against the Pope, namely, that he is +ready to sacrifice everything in an unscrupulous attempt to regain +possession of temporal power. In other matters Leo the Thirteenth has +always shown himself to be a statesman, while Pius the Ninth was the +victim of his own meek and long-suffering character. To enter into the +consideration of the political action of the Pope during the last +fifteen years, would be to review the history of the world during that +time. To give an idea of the man's character, it would be sufficient to +recall three or four of the principal situations in which he has been +placed. A volume might be written, for instance, on his action in regard +to the German Army Bill, his position towards Ireland, his arbitration +in the question of the Caroline Islands, and his instructions to French +Catholics.</p> + +<p>It is extremely hard to form a fair judgment from documents alone, and +especially from those documents which most generally come before the +public, namely, articles in such reviews as the <i>Contemporary Review</i>, +on the one hand, and the <i>Civiltà Cattolica</i> on the other. Indeed, the +statements on either side, if accepted without hesitation, would render +all criticisms futile.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> Devout Roman Catholics would answer that matters +of faith are beyond criticism altogether; but the writers in the +<i>Contemporary</i>, for instance, will, with equal assurance, declare +themselves right because they believe that they cannot be wrong. It +would be better to consult events themselves rather than the current +opinions of opposite parties concerning them, to set aside the +consideration of the aims rightly or wrongly attributed to Leo the +Thirteenth, and to look only on the results brought about by his policy +in our time. In cases where actions have a merely negative result, it is +just to consider the motive alone, if any criticism is necessary, and +here there seems to be no particular reason for doubting the Pope's +statement of his own case. For instance, in connection with Ireland, the +Pope said, in the document known as 'The Circular Letter of the +Propaganda': 'It is just that the Irish should seek to alleviate their +afflicted condition; it is just that they should fight for their rights, +nor is it denied them to collect money to alleviate the condition of the +Irish.' In regard to the same matter, the 'Decree of the Holy Office' +reads as follows: 'The Holy See has frequently given opportune advice +and counsel to the Irish people (upon whom it has always bestowed +especial affection), whenever its affairs seem to require it, by which +counsel and advice they might be enabled to defend and vindicate their +rights without prejudice to justice, and without disturbing the public +peace.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> A fairer statement of the rights of men, and a more express +injunction against public disturbance of any kind, could hardly be +expressed in two short sentences.</p> + +<p>Outside of Italy the position of Leo the Thirteenth in Rome is not +generally understood. Most people suppose that the expression 'the +prisoner in the Vatican,' which he applies to himself, and which is very +generally applied to him by the more ardent of Italian Catholics, is a +mere empty phrase, and that his confinement within his small dominion is +purely a matter of choice. This is not the case. So far as the political +theory of the question is concerned, it is probable that the Pope would +not in any case be inclined to appear openly on Italian territory unless +he showed himself as the official guest of King Humbert, who would +naturally be expected to return the visit. To make such an official +visit and such an appearance would be in fact to accept the Italian +domination in Rome, a course which, as has already been noticed, would +be contrary to the accepted Catholic idea of the social basis necessary +for the papacy. It would not necessarily be an uncatholic act, however, +but it would certainly be an unpapal one. No one would expect the +ex-Empress of the French, for instance, to live openly in Paris, as +though the Parisians had never been her subjects, and as though she +accepted the Republic in a friendly and forgiving spirit. And the case +is to all intents and purposes exactly identical.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image292.jpg" width="450" height="544" alt="LOGGIE OF RAPHAEL IN THE VATICAN" title="" /> +<span class="caption">LOGGIE OF RAPHAEL IN THE VATICAN</span> +</div> + +<p>But this is not all. It is unfortunately true that there is another and +much better reason why Leo the Thirteenth cannot show himself in the +streets of Rome. It is quite certain that his life would not be safe. +The enthusiastic friends of Italy who read glowing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> accounts of the +development of the new kingdom and write eloquent articles in the same +strain will be utterly horrified at this statement, and will, moreover, +laugh to scorn the idea that the modern civilized Italian could conspire +to take the life of a harmless and unoffending old man. They will be +quite right. The modern civilized Italians would treat the Pope with the +greatest respect and consideration if he appeared amongst them. Most of +them would take off their hats and stand aside while he drove by, and a +great many of them would probably go down upon their knees in the +streets to receive his blessing. The King, who is a gentleman, and +tolerant of religious practices, would treat the head of the Church with +respect. The Queen, who is not only religious, but devout, would hail +the reappearance of the pontiff with enthusiasm. But unfortunately for +the realization of any such thing, Rome is not peopled only by modern +civilized Italians, nor Italy either. There is in the city a very large +body of social democrats, anarchists and the like, not to mention the +small nondescript rabble which everywhere does its best to bring +discredit upon socialistic principles—a mere handful, perhaps, but +largely composed of fanatics and madmen, people half hysterical from +failure, poverty, vice and an indigestion of so-called 'free thought.' +There have not been many sovereigns nowadays whose lives have not been +attempted by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> such men at one time or another. Within our own memory an +Emperor of Russia, a President of the French Republic and two Presidents +of the United States have been actually murdered by just such men. The +King of Italy, and the Emperor William the First, Napoleon the Third, +Queen Victoria and Alexander the Third have all been assailed by such +fanatics within our own recollection, and some of them have narrowly +escaped death. Not one of them, with the exception of Alexander the +Third, has been so hated by a small and desperate body of men as Leo the +Thirteenth is hated by the little band which undoubtedly exists in Italy +today. I will venture to say that it is a matter of continual +satisfaction to the royal family of Italy, and to the Italian +government, that the Pope should really continue to consider himself a +prisoner within the precincts of the Vatican, since it is quite certain +that if he were to appear openly in Rome the Italian authorities would +not, in the long run, be able to protect his life.</p> + +<p>After all that has been said and preached upon the subject by the +friends of Italy, it would be a serious matter indeed if the Pope, +taking a practical advantage of his theoretic liberty, should be done to +death in the streets of Rome by a self-styled Italian patriot. No one +who thoroughly understands Rome at the present day is ignorant that such +danger really exists, though it will no doubt be promptly denied by +Italian ministers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> newspaper correspondents or other intelligent but +enthusiastic persons. The hysterical anarchist is unfortunately to be +met with all over the world at the present day, side by side with the +scientific social democrat, and too often under his immediate +protection. Indeed, a great number of the acts of Leo the Thirteenth, if +not all of them, have been directed against the mass of social democracy +in all its forms, good, bad and indifferent; and to the zeal of his +partisans in endeavouring to carry out his suggestions must be +attributed some of the strong utterances of the Church's adherents upon +matters political.</p> + +<p>The question of 'assent and obedience' to the Holy See in matters not +relating to dogma and faith is, perhaps, the most important of all those +in which the papacy is now involved. There appears to be a decided +tendency to believe that Catholics ascribe to the Holy See a certain +degree of infallibility in regard to national policy and local +elections. The Pope's own words do not inculcate a blind obedience as +necessary to the salvation of the voter, though it is expressly declared +a grave offence to favour the election of persons opposed to the Roman +Catholic Church and whose opinions may tend to endanger its position. +The idea that the Pope's political utterances can ever be considered as +ex cathedrâ is too illogical to be presented seriously to the world by +thinking men. Leo the Thirteenth is undoubtedly a first-rate statesman,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +and it might be to the advantage not only of all good Catholics but of +all humanity, and of the cause of peace itself, to follow his advice in +national and party politics whenever practicable. To bind oneself to +follow the political dictation of Leo the Thirteenth, and to consider +such obedience to the Pope as indispensable to salvation, would be to +create a precedent. Pius the Ninth was no statesman at all, and there +are plenty of instances in history of Popes whose political advice would +have been ruinous, if followed, though it was often formulated more +authoritatively and more dictatorially than the injunctions from time to +time imparted to Catholics by Leo the Thirteenth. An Alexander the Sixth +would be an impossibility in our day; but in theory, if another Rodrigo +Borgia should be elected to the Holy See, one should be as much bound to +obey his orders in voting for the election of the President of the +United States as one can possibly be to obey those of Leo the +Thirteenth, seeing that the divine right to direct the political +consciences of Catholics, if it existed at all, would be inherent in the +papacy as an institution, and not merely attributed by mistaken people +to the wise, learned and conscientious man who is now the head of the +Catholic Church. But the Pope's utterances have lately been interpreted +by his too zealous adherents to mean that every Catholic subject or +citizen throughout the world, who has the right to vote in his own +country, must give that vote<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> in accordance with the dictates of the +Church as a whole, and of his bishop in particular, under pain of +committing a very grave offence against Catholic principles. A state in +which every action of man, public or private, should be guided solely +and entirely by his own religious convictions would no doubt be an ideal +one, and would approach the social perfection of a millennium. But in +the mean time a condition of society in which society itself should be +guided by such political opinions as any one man, human and limited, can +derive from his own conscience, pure and upright though it be, would be +neither logical nor desirable. There are points in the universal +struggle for life which do not turn upon questions of moral right and +wrong, and which every individual has a preëminent and inherent right to +decide for himself.</p> + +<p>Anyone who undertakes to speak briefly of such a personage as Leo the +Thirteenth, and of such a question as the 'assent and obedience' of +Catholics in matters not connected with morals or belief, lays himself +open to the accusation of superficiality. We are all, however, obliged +to deal quickly and decisively, in these days, with practical matters of +which the discussion at length would fill many volumes. Most of us +cannot do more than form an opinion based upon the little knowledge we +have, express it as best we may, and pass on. The man who spends a +lifetime in the study of one point, the specialist in fact, is often too +ignorant of all other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> matters to form any general opinion worth +expressing. Humanity is too broad to be put under a microscope, too +strong to be treated like a little child. No one man, today, in this day +of many Cæsars, can say surely and exactly what should be rendered to +each of them.</p> + +<p>Leo the Thirteenth is the leader of a great organization of Christian +men and women spreading all over the world; the leader of a vast body of +human thought; the leader of a conservative army which will play a large +part in any coming struggle between anarchy and order. He may not be +here to direct when the battle begins, but he will leave a strong +position for his successor to defend, and great weapons for him to +wield, since he has done more to simplify and strengthen the Church's +organization than a dozen Popes have done in the last two centuries. Men +of such character fight the campaigns of the future many times over in +their thoughts while all the world is at peace around them, and when the +time comes at last, though they themselves be gone, the spirit they +called up still lives to lead, the sword they forged lies ready for +other hands, the roads they built are broad and straight for the march +of other feet, and they themselves, in their graves, have their share in +the victories that save mankind from social ruin.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image299.jpg" width="450" height="303" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>THE VATICAN</h2> + + +<p>The Mons Vaticanus is sometimes said to have received its name from +'vaticinium,' an oracle or prophecy; for tradition says that Numa chose +the Vatican hill as a sacred place from which to declare to the people +the messages he received from the gods. It is not, however, one of the +seven hills on which ancient Rome was built, but forms a part of a ridge +beginning with the Janiculum and ending with Monte Mario, all of which +was outside the ancient limits of the city. In our day the name is +applied only to the immense pontifical palace adjacent to, and connected +with, the basilica of Saint Peter's.</p> + +<p>The present existence of this palace is principally due to Nicholas the +Fifth, the builder pope, whose gigantic scheme would startle a modern +architect. His plan was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> to build the Church of Saint Peter's as a +starting point, and then to construct one vast central 'habitat' for the +papal administration, covering the whole of what is called the Borgo, +from the Castle of Sant' Angelo to the cathedral. In ancient times a +portico, or covered way supported on columns, led from the bridge to the +church, and it was probably from this real structure that Nicholas began +his imaginary one, only a small part of which was ever completed. That +small portion alone comprises the basilica and the Vatican Palace, which +together form by far the greatest continuous mass of buildings in the +world. The Colosseum is 195 yards long by 156 broad, including the +thickness of the walls. Saint Peter's Church alone is 205 yards long and +156 broad, so that the whole Colosseum would easily stand upon the +ground-plan of the church, while the Vatican Palace is more than half as +long again.</p> + +<p>Nicholas the Fifth died in 1455, and the oldest parts of the present +Vatican Palace are not older than his reign. They are generally known as +Torre Borgia, from having been inhabited by Alexander the Sixth, who +died of poison in the third of the rooms now occupied by the library, +counting from the library side. The windows of these rooms look upon the +large square court of the Belvedere, and that part of the palace is not +visible from without.</p> + +<p>Portions of the substructure of the earlier building were no doubt +utilized by Nicholas, and the secret<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> gallery which connects the Vatican +with the mausoleum of Hadrian is generally attributed to Pope John the +Twenty-third, who died in 1417; but on the whole it may be said that the +Vatican Palace is originally a building of the period of the Renascence, +to which all successive popes have made additions.</p> + +<p>The ordinary tourist first sees the Vatican from the square as he +approaches from the bridge of Sant' Angelo. But his attention is from +the first drawn to the front of the church, and he but vaguely realizes +that a lofty, unsymmetrical building rises on his right. He pauses, +perhaps, and looks in that direction as he ascends the long, low steps +of the basilica, and wonders in what part of the palace the Pope's +apartments may be, while the itinerant vender of photographs shakes +yards of poor little views out of their gaudy red bindings, very much as +Leporello unrolls the list of Don Giovanni's conquests. If the picture +peddler sees that the stranger glances at the Vatican, he forthwith +points out the corner windows of the second story and informs his victim +that 'Sua Santità' inhabits those rooms, and promptly offers photographs +of any other interior part of the Vatican but that. The tourist looks up +curiously, and finally gets rid of the fellow by buying what he does not +want, with the charitable intention of giving it to some dear but +tiresome relative at home. And ever afterward, perhaps, he associates +with his first impression<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> of the Vatican the eager, cunning, scapegrace +features of the man who sold him the photographs.</p> + +<p>To fix a general scheme of the buildings in the mind one must climb to +the top of the dome of the church and look down from the balcony which +surrounds the lantern. The height is so great that even the great +dimensions of the biggest palace in the world are dwarfed in the deep +perspective, and the wide gardens look small and almost insignificant. +But the relative proportions of the buildings and grounds appear +correctly, and measure each other, as it were. Moreover, it is now so +hard to obtain access to the gardens at all that the usual way of seeing +them is from the top of Saint Peter's, from an elevation of four hundred +feet.</p> + +<p>To the average stranger 'the Vatican' suggests only the museum of +sculpture, the picture-galleries and the Loggie. He remembers, besides +the works of art which he has seen, the fact of having walked a great +distance through straight corridors, up and down short flights of marble +steps, and through irregularly shaped and unsymmetrically disposed +halls. If he had any idea of the points of the compass when he entered, +he is completely confused in five minutes, and comes out at last with +the sensation of having been walking in a labyrinth. He will find it +hard to give anyone an impression of the sort of building in which he +has been, and certainly he cannot have any knowledge of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +topographical relations of its parts. Yet in his passage through the +museums and galleries he has seen but a very small part of the whole, +and, excepting when in the Loggie, he probably could not once have stood +still and pointed in the direction of the main part of the palace.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image303.jpg" width="450" height="285" alt="BELVEDERE COURT OF THE VATICAN GALLERY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">BELVEDERE COURT OF THE VATICAN GALLERY<br /><br /> + +From a print of the last century</span> +</div> + +<p>In order to speak even superficially of it all, it is indispensable to +classify its parts in some way. Vast and irregular it is at its two +ends, toward the colonnade and toward the bastions of the city, but the +intervening length consists of two perfectly parallel buildings, each +over three hundred and fifty yards long, about eighty yards apart, and +yoked in the middle by the Braccio Nuovo of the Museum and a part of +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> library, so as to enclose two vast courts, the one known as +Belvedere,—not to be confused with the Belvedere in the Museum,—and +the other called the Garden of the Pigna, from the pine-cone which +stands at one end of it.</p> + +<p>Across the ends of these parallel buildings, and toward the city, a huge +pile is erected, about two hundred yards long, very irregular, and +containing the papal residence and the apartments of several cardinals, +the Sixtine Chapel, the Pauline Chapel, the Borgia Tower, the Stanze and +Loggie of Raphael, and the Court of Saint Damasus. At the other end of +the parallelogram are grouped the equally irregular but more beautiful +buildings of the old Museum, of which the windows look out over the +walls of the city, and which originally bore the name of Belvedere, on +account of the lovely view. This is said to have been a sort of +summer-house of the Borgia, not then connected with the palace by the +long galleries.</p> + +<p>It would be a hopeless and a weary task to attempt to trace the history +of the buildings. Some account of the Pope's private apartments has +already been given in these pages. They occupy the eastern wing of the +part built round the Court of Damasus; that is to say, they are at the +extreme end of the Vatican, nearest the city, and over the colonnade, +and the windows of the Pope's rooms are visible from the square. The +vast mass which rises above the columns to the right of Saint Peter's is +only a small part of the whole palace, but is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> not the most modern, by +any means. It contains, for instance, the Sixtine Chapel, which is +considerably older than the present church, having been built by Sixtus +the Fourth, whose beautiful bronze monument is in the Chapel of the +Sacrament, in Saint Peter's. It contains, too, Raphael's Stanze, or +halls, and Bramante's famous Loggie, the beautiful architecture of which +is a frame for some of Raphael's best work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image307a.jpg" width="650" height="868" alt="MICHELANGELO'S "LAST JUDGMENT"" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MICHELANGELO'S "LAST JUDGMENT"</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> + +<p>But any good guide book will furnish all such information, which it +would be fruitless to give in such a work as this. In the pages of +Murray the traveller will find, set down in order and accurately, the +ages, the dimensions, and the exact positions of all the parts of the +building, with the names of the famous artists who decorated each. He +will not find set down there, however, what one may call the atmosphere +of the place, which is something as peculiar and unforgettable, though +in a different way, as that of Saint Peter's. It is quite unlike +anything else, for it is part of the development of churchmen's +administration to an ultimate limit in the high centre of churchmanism. +No doubt there was much of that sort of thing in various parts of Europe +long ago, and in England before Henry the Eighth, and it is to be found +in a small degree in Vienna to this day, where the traditions of the +departed Holy Roman Empire are not quite dead. It is hard to define it, +but it is in everything; in the uniforms of the attendants, in their +old-fashioned faces, in the spotless cleanliness of all the +Vatican—though no one is ever to be seen handling a broom—in the +noiselessly methodical manner of doing everything that is to be done, in +the scholarly rather than scientific arrangement of the objects in the +museum and galleries—above all, in the visitor's own sensations. No one +talks loudly among the statues of the Vatican, and there is a feeling of +being in church, so that one is disagreeably shocked when a guide, +conducting a party of tourists, occasionally raises his voice in order +to be heard. It is all very hard to define, while it is quite impossible +to escape feeling it, and it must ultimately be due to the dominating +influence of the churchmen, who arrange the whole place as though it +were a church. An American lady, on hearing that the Vatican is said to +contain eleven thousand rooms, threw up her hands and laughingly +exclaimed, 'Think of the housemaids!' But there are no housemaids in the +Vatican, and perhaps the total absence of even the humblest feminine +influence has something to do with the austere impression which +everything produces.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the Vatican may be divided into seven portions. These are +the pontifical residence, the Sixtine and Pauline chapels, the picture +galleries, the library, the museums of sculpture and archæology, the +outbuildings, including the barracks of the Swiss Guards, and, lastly, +the gardens with the Pope's Casino. Of these the Sixtine Chapel, the +galleries and museums, and the library, are incomparably the most +important.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p> + +<p>The name Sixtine is derived from Sixtus the Fourth, as has been said, +and is usually, but not correctly, spelled 'Sistine.' The library was +founded by Nicholas the Fifth, whose love of books was almost equal to +his passion for building. The galleries are representative of Raphael's +work, which predominates to such an extent that the paintings of almost +all other artists are of secondary importance, precisely as Michelangelo +filled the Sixtine Chapel with himself. As for the museums, the objects +they contain have been accumulated by many popes, but their existence +ought, perhaps, to be chiefly attributed to Julius the Second and Leo +the Tenth, the principal representatives of the Rovere and Medici +families.</p> + +<p>On the walls of the Sixtine Chapel there are paintings by such men as +Perugino, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Ghirlandajo, as well as by a +number of others; but Michelangelo overshadows them all with his ceiling +and his 'Last Judgment.' There is something overpowering about him, and +there is no escaping from his influence. He not only covers great spaces +with his brush, but he fills them with his masterful drawing, and makes +them alive with a life at once profound and restless. One does not feel, +as with other painters, that a vision has been projected upon a flat +surface; one rather has the impression that a mysterious reality of life +has been called up out of senseless material. What we see is not +imaginary motion represented, but real motion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> arrested, as it were, in +its very act, and ready to move again. Many have said that the man's +work was monstrous. It was monstrously alive, monstrously vigorous; at +times over-strong and over-vital, exaggerative of nature, but never +really unnatural, and he never once overreached himself in an effort. No +matter how enormous the conception might be, he never lacked the means +of carrying it to the concrete. No giantism of limb and feature was +beyond the ability of his brush; no astounding foreshortening was too +much for his unerring point; no vast perspective was too deep for his +knowledge and strength. His production was limited only by the length of +his life. Great genius means before all things great and constant +creative power; it means wealth of resource and invention; it means +quantity as well as quality. No truly great genius, unless cut short by +early death, has left little of itself. Besides a man's one great +masterpiece, there are always a hundred works of the same hand, far +beyond the powers of ordinary men; and the men of Michelangelo's day +worked harder than we work. Perhaps they thought harder, too, being more +occupied with creation, at a time when there was little, than we are +with the difficult task of avoiding the unintentional reinvention of +things already invented, now that there is so much. The latter is a real +difficulty in our century, when almost every mine of thought has been +worked to a normal depth by minds of normal power,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> and it needs all the +ruthless strength of original genius to go deeper, and hew and blast a +way through the bedrock of men's limitations to new veins of treasure +below.</p> + +<p>It has been said of Titian by a great French critic that 'he absorbed +his predecessors and ruined his successors.' Michelangelo absorbed no +one and ruined no one; for no painter, sculptor or architect ever +attempted what he accomplished, either before him or after him. No sane +person ever tried to produce anything like the 'Last Judgment,' the +marble 'Moses,' or the dome of Saint Peter's. Michelangelo stood alone +as a creator, as he lived a lonely man throughout the eighty-nine years +of his life. He had envy but not competition to deal with. There is no +rivalry between his paintings in the Sixtine Chapel and those of the +many great artists who have left their work beside his on the same +walls.</p> + +<p>The chapel is a beautiful place in itself, by its simple and noble +proportions, as well as by the wonderful architectural decorations of +the ceiling, conceived by Michelangelo as a series of frames for his +paintings. Beautiful beyond description, too, is the exquisite marble +screen. No one can say certainly who made it; it was perhaps designed by +the architect of the chapel himself, Baccio Pintelli. There are a few +such marvels of unknown hands in the world, and a sort of romance clings +to them, with an element of mystery that stirs the imagination, in a +dreamy way, far more than the gilded oak tree in the arms of Sixtus the +Fourth, by which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> the name of Rovere is symbolized. Sixtus commanded, +and the chapel was built. But who knows where Baccio Pintelli lies? Or +who shall find the grave where the hand that carved the lovely marble +screen is laid at rest?</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image312.jpg" width="450" height="354" alt="SIXTINE CHAPEL" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SIXTINE CHAPEL</span> +</div> + +<p>It is often dark in the Sixtine Chapel. The tourist can rarely choose +his day, and not often his hour, and, in the weary traveller's +hard-driven appreciation, Michelangelo may lose his effect by the +accident of a thunder shower. Yet of all sights in Rome, the Sixtine +Chapel most needs sunshine. If in any way possible, go there at noon on +a bright winter's day, when the sun is streaming in through the high +windows at the left of the 'Last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> Judgment.' Everyone has heard of the +picture before seeing it, and almost everybody is surprised or +disappointed on seeing it for the first time. Then, too, the world's +ideas about the terrific subject of the painting have changed since +Michelangelo's day. Religious belief can no more be judged by the +standard of realism. It is wiser to look at the fresco as a work of art +alone, as the most surprising masterpiece of a master draughtsman, and +as a marvellous piece of composition.</p> + +<p>In the lower part of the picture, there is a woman rising from her grave +in a shroud. It has been suggested that Michelangelo meant to represent +by this figure the Renascence of Italy, still struggling with darkness. +The whole work brings the times before us. There is the Christian Heaven +above, and the heathen Styx below. Charon ferries the souls across the +dark stream; they are first judged by Minos, and Minos is a portrait of +a cardinal who had ventured to judge the rest of the picture before it +was finished. There is in the picture all the whirling confusion of +ideas which made that age terrible and beautiful by turns, devout and +unbelieving, strong and weak, scholarly upon a foundation of barbarism, +and most realistic when most religious. You may see the reflected +confusion in the puzzled faces of most tourists who look at the 'Last +Judgment' for the first time. A young American girl smiles vaguely at +it; an Englishman glares, expressionless, at it through an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> eyeglass, +with a sort of cold inquiry—'Oh! is that all?' he might say; a German +begins at Paradise at the upper left-hand corner, and works his way +through the details to hell below, at the right. But all are inwardly +disturbed, or puzzled, or profoundly interested, and when they go away +this is the great picture which, of all they have seen, they remember +with the most clearness.</p> + +<p>And as Michelangelo set his great mark upon the Sixtine, so Raphael took +the Stanze and the Loggie for himself—and some of the halls of the +picture-galleries too. Raphael represented the feminine element in +contrast with Michelangelo's rude masculinity. There hangs the great +'Transfiguration,' which, all but finished, was set up by the young +painter's body when he lay in state—a picture too large for the +sentiment it should express, while far too small for the subject it +presents—yet, in its way, a masterpiece of composition. For in a +measure Raphael succeeded in detaching the transfigured Christ from the +crowded foreground, and in creating two distinct centres of interest. +The frescoes in the Stanze represent subjects of less artistic +impossibility, and in painting them Raphael expended in beauty of design +the genius which, in the 'Transfiguration,' he squandered in attempting +to overcome insuperable difficulties. Watch the faces of your +fellow-tourists now, and you will see that the puzzled expression is +gone. They are less interested than they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> were before the 'Last +Judgment,' but they are infinitely better pleased.</p> + +<p>Follow them on, to the library. They will enter with a look of +expectation, and presently you will see disappointment and weariness in +their eyes. Libraries are for the learned, and there are but a handful +of scholars in a million. Besides, the most interesting rooms, the +Borgia apartments, have been closed for many years and have only +recently been opened again after being wisely and well restored under +the direction of Leo the Thirteenth.</p> + +<p>Two or three bad men are responsible for almost all the evil that has +been said and written against the characters of the Popes in the Middle +Age. John the Twelfth, of the race of Theodora Senatrix, Farnese of +Naples and Rodrigo Borgia, a Spaniard, who was Alexander the Sixth, are +the chief instances. There were, indeed, many popes who were not +perfect, who were more or less ambitious, avaricious, warlike, timid, +headstrong, weak, according to their several characters; but it can +hardly be said that any of them were, like those I have mentioned, +really bad men through and through, vicious, unscrupulous and daringly +criminal.</p> + +<p>According to Guicciardini, Alexander the Sixth knew nothing of Cæsar +Borgia's intention of poisoning their rich friend, the Cardinal of +Corneto, with whom they were both to sup in a villa on August 17, 1503. +The Pope arrived at the place first, was thirsty, asked for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> drink, and +by a mistake was given wine from a flask prepared and sent by Cæsar for +the Cardinal. Cæsar himself came in next, and drank likewise. The Pope +died the next day, but Cæsar recovered, though badly poisoned, to find +himself a ruined man and ultimately a fugitive. The Cardinal did not +touch the wine. This event ended an epoch and a reign of terror, and it +pilloried the name of Borgia for ever. Alexander expired in the third +room of the Borgia apartments, in the raving of a terrible delirium, +during which the superstitious bystanders believed that he was +conversing with Satan, to whom he had sold his soul for the papacy, and +some were ready to swear that they actually saw seven devils in the room +when he was dying. The fact that these witnesses were able to count the +fiends speaks well for their coolness, and for the credibility of their +testimony.</p> + +<p>It has been much the fashion of late years to cry down the Vatican +collection of statues, and to say that, with the exception of the +'Torso' it does not contain a single one of the few great masterpieces +known to exist, such as the 'Hermes of Olympia,' the 'Venus of Medici,' +the 'Borghese Gladiator,' the 'Dying Gaul.' We are told that the +'Apollo' of the Belvedere is a bad copy, and that the 'Laocoön' is no +better, in spite of the signatures of the three Greek artists, one on +each of the figures; that the 'Antinous' is a bad Hermes; and so on to +the end of the collection, it being an easy matter to demolish the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +insignificant statues after proving the worthlessness of the principal +ones. Much of this criticism comes to us from Germany. But a German can +criticise and yet admire, whereas an Anglo-Saxon usually despises what +he criticises at all. Isaac D'Israeli says somewhere that certain +opinions, like certain statues, require to be regarded from a proper +distance. Probably none of the statues in the Vatican is placed as the +sculptor would have placed it to be seen to advantage. Michelangelo +believed in the 'Laocoön,' and he was at least as good a judge as most +modern critics, and he roughed out the arm that was missing,—his sketch +lies on the floor in the corner,—and devoted much time to studying the +group. It is true that he is said to have preferred the torso of the +'Hercules,' but he did not withhold his admiration of the other good +things. Of the 'Apollo' it is argued that it is insufficiently modelled. +Possibly it stood in a very high place and did not need much modelling, +for the ancients never wasted work, nor bestowed it where it could not +be seen. However that may be, it is a far better statue, excepting the +bad restorations, than it is now generally admitted to be, though it is +not so good as people used to believe that it was. Apparently there are +two ways of looking at objects of art. The one way is to look for the +faults; the other way is to look for the beauties. It is plain that it +must be the discovery of the beauty which gives pleasure, while the +criticism of shortcomings can only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> flatter the individual's vanity. +There cannot be much doubt but that Alcibiades got more enjoyment out of +life than Diogenes.</p> + +<p>The oldest decorated walls in the palace are those by Fra Angelico in +the Chapel of Nicholas. For some reason or other this chapel at one time +ceased to be used, the door was walled up and the very existence of the +place was forgotten. In the last century Bottari, having read about it +in Vasari, set to work to find it, and at last got into it through the +window which looks upon the roof of the Sixtine Chapel. The story, which +is undoubtedly true, gives an idea of the vastness of the palace, and +certainly suggests the probability of more forgotten treasures of art +shut up in forgotten rooms.</p> + +<p>One other such at least there is. High up in the Borgia Tower, above the +Stanze of Raphael, is a suite of rooms once inhabited by Cardinal +Bibbiena, of the Chigi family, and used since then by more than one +Assistant Secretary of State. There is a small chapel there, with a +window looking upon an inner court. This was once the luxurious +cardinal's bath-room, and was beautifully painted by Raphael in fresco, +with mythological subjects. In 1835, according to Crowe and +Cavalcaselle, Passavant saw it as it had originally been, with frescoes +still beautiful, though much damaged, and the marble bath still in its +place in a niche painted with river gods. In one of the Vatican's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +periodical fits of prudery the frescoes were completely hidden with a +wooden wainscot, the bath-tub was taken away and the room was turned +into a chapel. It is believed, however, that the paintings still exist +behind their present covering.</p> + +<p>The walk through the Museum is certainly one of the most wonderful in +the world. There are more masterpieces, perhaps, in Florence; possibly +objects of greater value may be accumulated in the British Museum; but +nowhere in the world are statues and antiquities so well arranged as in +the Vatican, and perhaps the orderly beauty of arrangement has as much +to do as anything else with the charm which pervades the whole. One is +brought into direct communication with Rome at its best, brilliant with +the last reflections of Hellenic light; and again one is brought into +contact with Rome at its worst, and beyond its worst, in its decay and +destruction. Amid the ruin, too, there is the visible sign of a new +growth in the beginnings of Christianity, from which a new power, a new +history, a new literature and a new art were to spring up and blossom, +and in the rude sculpture of the Shepherd, the Lamb and the Fishes lies +the origin of Michelangelo's 'Moses' and 'Pietà.' There, too, one may +read, as in a book, the whole history of death in Rome, graven in the +long lines of ancient inscriptions, the tale of death when there was no +hope, and its story when hope had begun in the belief in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +resurrection of the dead. There the sadness of the sorrowing Roman +contrasts with the gentle hopefulness of the bereaved Christian, and the +sentiment and sentimentality of mankind during the greatest of the +world's developments are told in the very words which men and women +dictated to the stone-cutter. To those who can read the inscriptions the +impression of direct communication with antiquity is very strong. For +those who cannot there is still a special charm in the long succession +of corridors, in the occasional glimpses of the gardens, in the +magnificence of the decorations, as well as in the statues and fragments +which line the endless straight walls. One returns at last to the outer +chambers, one lingers here and there, to look again at something one has +liked, and in the end one goes out remembering the place rather than the +objects it contains, and desiring to return again for the sake of the +whole sensation one has had rather than for any defined purpose.</p> + +<p>At the last, opposite the iron turnstile by which visitors are counted, +there is the closed gate of the garden. It is very hard to get admission +to it now, for the Pope himself is often there when the weather is fine. +In the Italian manner of gardening, the grounds are well laid out, and +produce the effect of being much larger than they really are. They are +not, perhaps, very remarkable, and Leo the Thirteenth must sometimes +long for the hills of Carpineto and the freer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> air of the mountains, as +he drives round and round in the narrow limits of his small domain, or +walks a little under the shade of the ilex trees, conversing with his +gardener or his architect. Yet those who love Italy love its +old-fashioned gardens, the shady walks, the deep box-hedges, the stiff +little summer-houses, the fragments of old statues at the corners, and +even the 'scherzi d'acqua,' which are little surprises of fine +water-jets that unexpectedly send a shower of spray into the face of the +unwary. There was always an element of childishness in the practical +jesting of the last century.</p> + +<p>When all is seen, the tourist gets into his cab and drives down the +empty paved way by the wall of the library, along the basilica, and out +once more to the great square before the church. Or, if he be too strong +to be tired, he will get out at the steps and go in for a few minutes to +breathe the quiet air before going home, to get the impression of unity, +after the impressions of variety which he has received in the Vatican, +and to take away with him something of the peace which fills the +cathedral of Christendom.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image322.jpg" width="450" height="275" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2>SAINT PETER'S</h2> + + +<p>We have an involuntary reverence for all witnesses of history, be they +animate or inanimate, men, animals, or stones. The desire to leave a +work behind is in every man and man-child, from the strong leader who +plants his fame in a nation's marrow, and teaches unborn generations to +call him glorious, to the boy who carves his initials upon his desk at +school. Few women have it. Perhaps the wish to be remembered is what +fills that one ounce or so of matter by which modern statisticians +assert that the average man's brain is heavier than the average woman's. +The wish in ourselves makes us respect the satisfaction of it which the +few obtain. Probably few men have not secretly longed to see their names +set up for ages, like the 'Paulus V. Borghesius'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> over the middle of the +portico of Saint Peter's, high above the entrance to the most vast +monument of human hands in existence. Modesty commands the respect of a +few, but it is open success that appeals to almost all mankind. Pasquin +laughed:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Angulus est Petri, Pauli frons tota. Quid inde?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Non Petri, Paulo stat fabricata domus.'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Which means:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'The corner is Peter's, but the whole front Paul's.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Not being Peter's, the house is built for Paul.'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The thing itself, the central cathedral of Christendom, is so enormous +that many who gaze on it for the first time do not even notice that +hugely lettered papal name. The building is so far beyond any familiar +proportions that at first sight all details are lost upon its broad +front. The mind and judgment are dazed and staggered. The earth should +not be able to bear such weight upon its crust without cracking and +bending like an overloaded table. On each side the colonnades run +curving out like giant arms, always open to receive the nations that go +up there to worship. The dome broods over all, like a giant's head +motionless in meditation. The vastness of the structure takes hold of a +man as he issues from the street by which he has come from Sant' Angelo. +In the open space, in the square and in the ellipse between the +colonnades and on the steps, two hundred thousand men could be drawn up +in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> rank and file, horse and foot and guns. Excepting it be on some +special occasion, there are rarely more than two or three hundred +persons in sight. The paved emptiness makes one draw a breath of +surprise, and human eyes seem too small to take in all the flatness +below, all the breadth before, and all the height above. Taken together, +the picture is too big for convenient sight. The impression itself moves +unwieldily in the cramped brain. A building almost five hundred feet +high produces a monstrous effect upon the mind. Set down in words, a +description of it conveys no clear conception; seen for the first time, +the impression produced by it cannot be put into language. It is +something like a shock to the intelligence, perhaps, and not altogether +a pleasant one. Carried beyond the limits of a mere mistake, +exaggeration becomes caricature; but when it is magnified beyond +humanity's common measures, it may acquire an element approaching to +terror. The awe-striking giants of mythology were but magnified men. The +first sight of Saint Peter's affects one as though, in the everyday +streets, walking among one's fellows, one should meet with a man forty +feet high.</p> + +<p>Involuntarily we conceive that Saint Peter's has always stood where it +stands, and it becomes at once, in our imaginations, the witness of much +which it really never saw. Its calm seems meant to outlast history; one +thinks that, while the Republic built Rome, and Augustus adorned it, and +Nero burned it on the other side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> of the Tiber, the cathedral of the +world was here, looking on across the yellow water, conscious of its own +eternity, and solemnly indifferent to the ventures and adventures of +mankind.</p> + +<p>It is hard to reduce the great building in imagination to the little +basilica built by Constantine the sentimentalist, on the site of Nero's +circus; built by some other man perhaps, for no one knows surely; but a +little church, at best, compared with many of those which Saint Peter's +dwarfs to insignificance now. To remind men of him the effigy of that +same Constantine sits on a marble charger there, on the left, beneath +the portico, behind the great iron gate, with head thrown back, and +lifted hand, and marble eyes gazing ever on the Cross. Some say that he +really embraced Christianity only when dying. The names of the churches +founded by him in Constantinople are all sentimentally ambiguous, from +Sophia, 'wisdom,' to Anastasia, 'resurrection,' or revival, and hence +'spring.' It is strange that the places of worship built by him in Rome, +if they were really his work, should bear such exceedingly definite +designations and direct dedications as Saint Peter's, Saint John's, +Saint Paul's and the Church of the Holy Cross. At all events, whether he +believed much or little, Christianity owes him much, and romance is +indebted to him for almost as much more. But for Constantine there might +have been no Charlemagne, no Holy Roman Empire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p> + +<p>In old times criminals of low degree used to be executed on the +Esquiline, and were buried there, unburned, unless their bodies were +left to wither upon the cross in wind and sun, as generally happened. +The place was the hideous feeding ground of wild dogs and carrion birds, +and witches went there by night to perform their horrid rites. It was +there that Canidia and her companion buried a living boy up to the neck +that they might make philters of his vitals. Everyone must remember the +end of Horace's imprecation:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"... insepulta membra different lupi,<br /></span> +<span class="i7">Et Esquilinæ alites."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Then came Mæcenas and redeemed all that land; turned it into a garden, +and beautified it; uprooted the mouldering crosses, whereon still hung +the bones of dead slaves, and set out trees in their stead; piled thirty +feet of clean earth upon the shallow graves of executed murderers and of +generations of thieves, and planted shrubbery and flowers, and made +walks and paths and shady places.</p> + +<p>Therefore it happened that the southern spur of the Janiculum became +after that time a place of execution and cruel death. The city had never +grown much on that side of the Tiber,—that is to say, on the right +bank,—and the southern end of the long hill was a wilderness of sand +and brushwood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image327.jpg" width="450" height="309" alt="MAMERTINE PRISON" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MAMERTINE PRISON</span> +</div> + +<p>In the deep Mamertine prison, behind the Tabulary of the Forum, it was +customary to put to death only political misdoers, and their bodies were +then thrown down the Gemonian steps. 'Vixerunt,' said Cicero, grimly, +when Catiline's fellow conspirators lay there dead; and perhaps the +sword that was to fall upon his own neck was even then forged. The +prison is still intact. The blood of Vercingetorix and of Sejanus is on +the rocky floor. Men say that Saint Peter was imprisoned here. But +because he was not of high degree Nero's executioners led him out across +the Forum and over the Sublician bridge, up to the heights of Janiculum. +He was then very old and weak, so that he could not carry his cross, as +condemned men were made to do. When they had climbed more than half-way +up the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> height, seeing that he could not walk much farther, they +crucified him. He said that he was not worthy to suffer as the Lord had +suffered, and begged them to plant his cross with the head downward in +the deep yellow sand. The executioners did so. The Christians who had +followed were not many, and they stood apart weeping.</p> + +<p>When he was dead, after much torment, and the sentinel soldier had gone +away, they took the holy body, and carried it along the hillside, and +buried it at night close against the long wall of Nero's circus, on the +north side, near the place where they buried the martyrs killed daily by +Nero's wild beasts and in other cruel ways. They marked the spot, and +went there often to pray. Lately certain learned men have said that he +was crucified in the circus itself, but the evidence is slight compared +with the undoubted weight of a very ancient tradition, and turns upon +the translation of a single word.</p> + +<p>Within two years Nero fell and perished miserably, scarcely able to take +his own life to escape being beaten to death in the Forum. In a little +more than a year there were four emperors in Rome; Galba, Otho and +Vitellius followed one another quickly; then came Vespasian, and then +Titus, with his wars in Palestine, and then Domitian. At last, nearly +thirty years after the apostle had died on the Janiculum, there was a +bishop called Anacletus, who had been ordained priest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> by Saint Peter +himself. The times being quieter then, this Anacletus built a little +oratory, a very small chapel, in which three or four persons could kneel +and pray over the grave. And that was the beginning of Saint Peter's +Church. But Anacletus died a martyr too, and the bishops after him all +perished in the same way up to Eutichianus, whose name means something +like 'the fortunate one' in barbarous Greek-Latin, and who was indeed +fortunate, for he died a natural death. But in the mean time certain +Greeks had tried to steal the holy body, so that the Roman Christians +carried it away for nineteen months to the Catacombs of Saint Sebastian, +after which they brought it back again and laid it in its place. And +again after that, when the new circus was built by Elagabalus, they took +it once more to the same catacombs, where it remained in safety for a +long time.</p> + +<p>Now came Constantine, in love with religion and inclined to think +Christianity best, and made a famous edict in Milan, and it is said that +he laid the deep foundations of the old Church of Saint Peter's, which +afterward stood more than eleven hundred years. He built it over the +little oratory of Anacletus, whose chapel stood where the saint's body +had lain, under the nearest left-hand pillar of the canopy that covers +the high altar, as you go up from the door. Constantine's church was +founded, on the south side, within the lines of Nero's circus, outside +of it on the north side, and parallel with its length. Most churches are +built with the apse to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> the east, but Constantine's, like the present +basilica, looked west, because from time immemorial the bishop of Rome, +when consecrating, stood on the farther side of the altar from the +people, facing them over it. And the church was consecrated by Pope +Sylvester the First, in the year 326.</p> + +<p>Constantine built his church as a memorial and not as a tomb, because at +that time Saint Peter's body lay in the catacombs, where it had been +taken in the year 219, under Elagabalus. But at last, in the days of +Honorius, disestablisher of heathen worship, the body was brought back +for the last time, with great concourse and ceremony, and laid where it +or its dust still lies, in a brazen sarcophagus.</p> + +<p>Then came Alaric and the Vandals and the Goths. But they respected the +church and the Saint's body, though they respected Rome very little. And +Odoacer extinguished the flickering light of the Western Empire, and +Dietrich of Bern, as the Goths called Theodoric of Verona, founded the +Gothic kingdom, and left his name in the Nibelungenlied and elsewhere. +At last arose Charles, who was called the 'Great' first on account of +his size, and afterwards on account of his conquests, which exceeded +those of Julius Cæsar in extent; and this Charlemagne came to Rome, and +marched up into the Church of Constantine, and bowed his enormous height +for Leo the Third to set upon it the crown of the new empire, which was +ever afterwards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> called the Holy Roman Empire, until Napoleon wiped out +its name in Vienna, having girt on Charlemagne's sword, and founded an +empire of his own, which lasted a dozen years instead of a thousand.</p> + +<p>So the ages slipped along till the church was in bad repair and in +danger of falling, when Nicholas the Fifth was Pope, in 1450. He called +Alberti and Rossellini, who made the first plan; but it was the great +Julius the Second who laid the first stone of the present basilica, +according to Bramante's plan, under the northeast pillar of the dome, +where the statue of Saint Veronica now stands. The plan was changed many +times, and it was not until 1626, on the thirteen hundredth anniversary +of Saint Sylvester's consecration, that Urban the Eighth consecrated +what we now call the Church of Saint Peter.</p> + +<p>We who have known Saint Peter's since the old days cannot go in under +the portico without recalling vividly the splendid pageants we have seen +pass in and out by the same gate. Even before reaching it we glance up +from the vast square to the high balcony, remembering how from there +Pius the Ninth used to chant out the Pontifical benediction to the city +and the world, while in the silence below one could hear the breathing +of a hundred thousand human beings.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/image333a.jpg" width="650" height="407" alt="PANORAMA + +From the Orti Farnesiani" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PANORAMA<br /><br /> + +From the Orti Farnesiani</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p> + +<p>That is all in ghostland now, and will soon be beyond the reach of +memory. In the coachhouses behind the Vatican, the old state coaches are +mouldering; and the Pope, in his great sedia gestatoria, the bearers, +the fan-men, the princes, the cardinals, the guards and the people will +not in our time be again seen together under the Roman sky. +Old-fashioned persons sigh for the pageantry of those days when they go +up the steps into the church.</p> + +<p>The heavy leathern curtain falls by its own weight, and the air is +suddenly changed. A hushed, half-rhythmic sound, as of a world breathing +in its sleep, makes the silence alive. The light is not dim or +ineffectual, but very soft and high, and it is as rich as floating gold +dust in the far distance, and in the apse, an eighth of a mile from the +door. There is a blue and hazy atmospheric distance, as painters call +it, up in the lantern of the cupola, a twelfth of a mile above the +pavement.</p> + +<p>It is all very big. The longest ship that crosses the ocean could lie in +the nave between the door and the apse, and her masts from deck to truck +would scarcely top the canopy of the high altar, which looks so small +under the super-possible vastness of the immense dome. We unconsciously +measure dwellings made with hands by our bodily stature. But there is a +limit to that. No man standing for the first time upon the pavement of +Saint Peter's can make even a wide guess at the size of what he sees +unless he knows the dimensions of some one object.</p> + +<p>Close to Filarete's central bronze door a round disk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> of porphyry is +sunk in the pavement. That is the spot where the emperors of the Holy +Roman Empire were crowned in the old church; Charlemagne, Frederick +Barbarossa and many others received the crown, the Chrism and the +blessing here, before Constantine's ancient basilica was torn down lest +it should fall of itself. For he did not build as Titus built—if, +indeed, the old church was built by him at all.</p> + +<p>A man may well cast detail of history to the winds and let his mind +stand free to the tremendous traditions of the place, since so much of +them is truth beyond all question. Standing where Charles the Great was +crowned eleven hundred years ago, he stands not a hundred yards from the +grave where the Chief Apostle was first buried. There he has lain now +for fifteen hundred years, since the 'religion of the fathers' was +'disestablished,' as we should say, by Honorius, and since the Popes +became Pontifices Maximi of the new faith. This was the place of Nero's +circus long before the Colosseum was dreamed of, and the foundations of +Christendom's cathedral are laid in earth wet with blood of many +thousand martyrs. During two hundred and fifty years every bishop of +Rome died a martyr, to the number of thirty consecutive Popes. It is +really and truly holy ground, and it is meet that the air, once rent by +the death cries of Christ's innocent folk, should be enclosed in the +world's most sacred place, and be ever musical with holy song, and +sweet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> with incense. It needs fifty thousand persons to fill the nave +and transepts in Saint Peter's. It is known that at least that number +have been present in the church several times within modern memory; but +it is thought that the building would hold eighty thousand—as many as +could be seated on the tiers in the Colosseum. Such a concourse was +there at the opening of the Œcumenical Council in December, 1869, and +at the jubilees celebrated by Leo the Thirteenth; and on all those +occasions there was plenty of room in the aisles, besides the broad +spaces which were required for the functions themselves.</p> + +<p>To feel one's smallness and realize it, one need only go and stand +beside the marble cherubs that support the holy-water basins against the +first pillar. They look small, if not graceful; but they are of heroic +size, and the bowls are as big as baths. Everything in the place is +vast; all the statues are colossal, all the pictures enormous; the +smallest detail of the ornamentation would dwarf any other building in +the world, and anywhere else even the chapels would be churches. The eye +strains at everything, and at first the mind is shocked out of its power +of comparison.</p> + +<p>But the strangest, most extravagant, most incomprehensible, most +disturbing sight of all is to be seen from the upper gallery in the +cupola looking down to the church below. Hanging in mid-air, with +nothing under one's feet, one sees the church projected in perspective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +within a huge circle. It is as though one saw it upside down and inside +out. Few men could bear to stand there without that bit of iron railing +between them and the hideous fall; and the inevitable slight dizziness +which the strongest head feels may make one doubt for a moment whether +what is really the floor below may not be in reality a ceiling above, +and whether one's sense of gravitation be not inverted in an +extraordinary dream. At that distance human beings look no bigger than +flies, and the canopy of the high altar might be an ordinary table.</p> + +<p>And thence, climbing up between the double domes, one may emerge from +the almost terrible perspective to the open air, and suddenly see all +Rome at one's feet, and all the Roman mountains stretched out to south +and east, in perfect grace of restful outline, shoulder to shoulder, +like shadowy women lying side by side and holding hands.</p> + +<p>And the broken symmetry of the streets and squares ranges below, cut by +the winding ribbon of the yellow Tiber; to the right the low Aventine, +with the dark cypresses of the Protestant cemetery beyond, and the +Palatine, crested with trees and ruins; the Pincian on the left, with +its high gardens, and the mass of foliage of the Villa Medici behind it; +the lofty tower of the Capitol in the midst of the city; and the sun +clasping all to its heart of gold, the new and the old alike, past and +present, youth, age and decay,—generous as only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> the sun can be in this +sordid and miserly world, where bread is but another name for blood, and +a rood of growing corn means a pound of human flesh. The sun is the only +good thing in nature that always gives itself to man for nothing but the +mere trouble of sitting in the sunshine; and Rome without sunshine is a +very grim and gloomy town today.</p> + +<p>It is worth the effort of climbing so high. Four hundred feet in the +air, you look down on what ruled half the world by force for ages, and +on what rules the other half today by faith—the greatest centre of +conquest and of discord and of religion which the world has ever seen. A +thousand volumes have been written about it by a thousand wise men. A +word will tell what it has been—the heart of the world. Hither was +drawn the world's blood by all the roads that lead to Rome, and hence it +was forced out again along the mighty arteries of the Cæsars' +marches—to redden the world with the Roman name. Blood, blood and more +blood,—that was the history of old Rome,—the blood of brothers, the +blood of foes, the blood of martyrs without end. It flowed and ebbed in +varying tide at the will of the just and the unjust, but there was +always more to shed, and there were always more hands to shed it. And so +it may be again hereafter; for the name of Rome has a heart-stirring +ring, and there has always been as much blood spilled for the names of +things as for the things themselves.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is wonderful to stand there and realize what every foot means, +beneath that narrow standing room on the gallery outside the lantern, +counting from the top downward as one counts the years of certain trees +by the branches. For every division there is a pope and an architect: +Sixtus the Fifth and Giacomo della Porta, Paul the Third and +Michelangelo, Baldassare Peruzzi and Leo the Tenth, Julius the Second +and Bramante, Nicholas the Fifth and Alberti. Then the old church of +Constantine, and then the little oratory built over Saint Peter's grave +by Saint Anacletus, the third or, according to some, the fourth bishop +of Rome; then, even before that, Nero's circus, which was either +altogether destroyed or had gone to ruins before Anacletus built his +chapel.</p> + +<p>And far below all are buried the great of the earth, deep down in the +crypt. There lies the chief Apostle, and there lie many martyred bishops +side by side; men who came from far lands to die the holy death in +Rome,—from Athens, from Bethlehem, from Syria, from Africa. There lie +the last of the Stuarts, with their pitiful kingly names, James the +Third, Charles the Third, and Henry the Ninth; the Emperor Otho the +Second has lain there a thousand years; Pope Boniface the Eighth of the +Caetani, whom Sciarra Colonna took prisoner at Anagni, is there, and +Rodrigo Borgia, Alexander the Sixth, lay there awhile, and Agnes +Colonna, and Queen Christina of Sweden,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> and the Great Countess, and +many more besides, both good and bad—even to Catharine Cornaro, Queen +of Cyprus, of romantic memory. In the high clear air above, it chills +one to think of the death silence down there in the crypt; but when you +enter the church again after the long descent, and feel once more the +quick change of atmosphere by which a blind man could tell that he was +in Saint Peter's, you feel also the spell of the place and its ancient +enchantment; you do not regret the high view you left above, and the +dead under your feet seem all at once near and friendly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image340.jpg" width="450" height="356" alt="INTERIOR OF SAINT PETER'S" title="" /> +<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF SAINT PETER'S</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is not an exaggeration or the misuse of a word to call it magic. +Magic is supposed to be a means of communication with beings of another +world. It is scarcely a metaphor to say that Saint Peter's is that. It +is the mere truth and no more, and you can feel that it is if you will +stand, with half-closed eyes, against one of the great pillars, just +within hearing of the voices that sing solemn music in the chapel of the +choir, and make yourself a day-dream of the people that go up the nave +by seeing them a little indistinctly. If you will but remember how much +humanity is like humanity in all ages, you can see the old life again as +it was a hundred years—two, three, five, ten hundred years before that. +If you are fortunate, just then, a score of German seminary students may +pass you, in their scarlet cloth gowns, marching two and two in order, +till they wheel by the right and go down upon their knees with military +precision before the gate of the Chapel of the Sacrament. Or if it be +the day and hour, a procession crosses the church, with lights and song +and rich vestments, and a canopy over the Sacred Host, which the +Cardinal Archpriest himself is carrying reverently before him with +upraised hands hidden under the cope, while the censers swing high to +right and left. Or the singers from the choir go by, in violet silk and +lace, hurrying along the inner south aisle to the door of the sacristy, +where heavy yellow cherubs support marble draperies under the monument +of Pius the Eighth. If you stand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> by your pillar a little while, +something will surely happen to help your dream, and sweep you back a +century or two.</p> + +<p>And if not, and if you have a little imagination of your own which can +stir itself without help from outside, you can call up the figures of +those that lie dead below, and of those who in ages gone have walked the +dim aisles of the ancient church. Up the long nave comes Pelagius, +Justinian's pope, with Narses by his side, to swear by holy cross and +sacred gospel that he has not slain Vigilius, Pope before him: and this +Narses, smooth-faced, passionless, thoughtful, is the conqueror of the +Goths, and having conquered them, he would not suffer that a hair of the +remnant of them should be hurt, because he had given his word. +High-handed Henry the Fifth, claiming power over the Church, being +refused full coronation by Pope Paschal till he yields, seizes Pope and +College of Cardinals then and there, and imprisons them till he has +starved them to submission, and half requites the Church for Gregory's +humiliation of the father whom he himself thrust from the throne—of +that Henry whom the strong Hildebrand made to do penance barefoot on the +snow in the courtyard of Matilda's Castle at Canossa. And Matilda +herself, the Great Countess, the once all beautiful, betrayed in love, +the half sainted, the all romantic, rises before you from her tomb +below, in straight, rich robes and flowing golden hair, and once more +makes gift of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> her vast possessions to the Church of Rome. Nicholas +Rienzi strides by, strange compound of heroism, vanity and high poetry, +calling himself in one breath the people's tribune, and Augustus, and an +emperor's son. There is a rush of armed men shouting furiously in +Spanish, 'Carne! Sangre! Bourbon!' There is a clanging of steel, a +breaking down of gates, and the Constable of Bourbon's horde pours in, +irresistible, ravaging all, while he himself lies stark and stiff +outside, pierced by Bernardino Passeri's short bolt, and Clement +trembles in Sant' Angelo. Christina of Sweden, Monaldeschi's murder red +upon her soul, comes next, fawning for forgiveness, to die in due time +over there in the Corsini palace by the Tiber.</p> + +<p>A man may call up half the world's history in half an hour in such a +place, toward evening, when the golden light streams through the Holy +Dove in the apse. And, in imagination, to those who have seen the great +pageants within our memory, the individual figures grow smaller as the +magnificence of the display increases out of all proportion, until the +church fills again with the vast throngs that witnessed the jubilees of +Leo the Thirteenth in recent years, and fifty thousand voices send up a +rending cheer while the most splendid procession of these late days goes +by.</p> + +<p>It was in the Chapel of the Sacrament that the body of the good Pope +Pius the Ninth was laid in state for several days. That was a strange +and solemn sight, too.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> The gates of the church were all shut but one, +and that was only a little opened, so that the people passed in one by +one from the great wedge-shaped crowd outside—a crowd that began at the +foot of the broad steps in the Piazza, and struggled upward all the +afternoon, closer and closer toward the single entrance. For in the +morning only the Roman nobles and the prelates and high ecclesiastics +were admitted, by another way. Within the church the thin stream of men +and women passed quickly between a double file of Italian soldiers. That +was the first and last time since 1870 that Italian troops were under +arms within the consecrated precincts. It was still winter, and the +afternoon light was dim, and it seemed a long way to the chapel. The +good man lay low, with his slippered feet between the bars of the closed +gate. The people paused as they passed, and most of them kissed the +embroidered cross, and looked at the still features, before they went +on. It was dim, but the six tall waxen torches threw a warm light on the +quiet face, and the white robes reflected it around. There were three +torches on each side, too, and there were three Noble Guards in full +dress, motionless, with drawn swords, as though on parade. But no one +looked at them. Only the marble face, with its kind, far-away smile, +fixed itself in each man's eyes, and its memory remained with each when +he had gone away. It was very solemn and simple, and there were no other +lights in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> church save the little lamps about the Confession and +before the altars. The long, thin stream of people went on swiftly and +out by the sacristy all the short afternoon till it was night, and the +rest of the unsatisfied crowd was left outside as the single gate was +closed.</p> + +<p>Few saw the scene which followed, when the good Pope's body had lain +four days in state, and was then placed in its coffin at night, to be +hoisted high and swung noiselessly into the temporary tomb above the +small door on the east side—that is, to the left—of the Chapel of the +Choir. It was for a long time the custom that each pope should lie there +until his successor died, when his body was removed to the monument +prepared for it in the mean time, and the Pope just dead was laid in the +same place.</p> + +<p>The church was almost dark, and only in the Chapel of the Choir and in +that of the Holy Sacrament, which are opposite each other, a number of +big wax candles shed a yellow light. In the niche over the door a mason +was still at work, with a tallow dip, clearly visible below. The triple +coffin stood before the altar in the Chapel of the Choir. Opposite, +where the body still lay, the Noble Guards and the Swiss Guards, in +their breastplates, kept watch with drawn swords and halberds.</p> + +<p>The Noble Guards carried the bier on their shoulders in solemn +procession, with chanting choir, robed bishop, and tramping soldiers, +round by the Confession and across the church, and lifted the body into +the coffin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> The Pope had been very much beloved by all who were near +him, and more than one grey-haired prelate shed tears of genuine grief +that night.</p> + +<p>In the coffin, in accordance with an ancient custom, a bag was placed +containing ninety-three medals, one of gold, one of silver and one of +bronze, for each of the thirty-one years which Pope Pius had reigned; +and a history of the pontificate, written on parchment, was also +deposited at the feet of the body.</p> + +<p>When the leaden coffin was soldered, six seals were placed upon it, five +by cardinals, and one by the archivist. During the ceremony the +Protonotary Apostolic, the Chancellor of the Apostolic Chamber and the +Notary of the Chapter of Saint Peter's were busy, pen in hand, writing +down the detailed protocol of the proceedings.</p> + +<p>The last absolution was pronounced, and the coffin in its outer case of +elm was slowly moved out and raised in slings, and gently swung into the +niche. The masons bricked up the opening in the presence of cardinals +and guards, and long before midnight the marble slab, carved to +represent the side of a sarcophagus, was in its place, with its simple +inscription, 'Pius IX, P.M.'</p> + +<p>From time immemorial the well containing the marble staircase which +leads down to the tomb of Saint Peter has been called the 'Confession.' +The word, I believe, is properly applied to the altar-rail,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> from the +ancient practice of repeating there the general confession immediately +before receiving the Communion, a custom now slightly modified. But I +may be wrong in giving this derivation. At all events, a marble +balustrade follows the horseshoe shape of the well, and upon it are +placed ninety-five gilded lamps, which burn perpetually. There is said +to be no special significance in the number, and they produce very +little effect by daylight.</p> + +<p>But on the eve of Saint Peter's Day, and perhaps at some other seasons, +the Pope has been known to come down to the church by the secret +staircase leading into the Chapel of the Sacrament, to pray at the +Apostle's tomb. On such occasions a few great candlesticks with wax +torches were placed on the floor of the church, two and two, between the +Chapel and the Confession. The Pope, attended only by a few chamberlains +and Noble Guards, and dressed in his customary white cassock, passed +swiftly along in the dim light, and descended the steps to the gilded +gate beneath the high altar. A marble pope kneels there too, Pius the +Sixth, of the Braschi family, his stone draperies less white than Pope +Leo's cassock, his marble face scarcely whiter than the living Pontiff's +alabaster features.</p> + +<p>Those are sights which few have been privileged to see. There is a sort +of centralization of mystery, if one may couple such words, in the +private pilgrimage of the head of the Church to the tomb of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> chief +Apostle by night, on the eve of the day which tradition has kept from +the earliest times as the anniversary of Saint Peter's martyrdom. The +whole Catholic world, if it might, would follow Leo the Thirteenth down +those marble steps, and two hundred million voices would repeat the +prayer he says alone.</p> + +<p>Many and solemn scenes have been acted out by night in the vast gloom of +the enormous church, and if events do not actually leave an essence of +themselves in places, as some have believed, yet the knowledge that they +have happened where we stand and recall them has a mysterious power to +thrill the heart.</p> + +<p>Opposite the Chapel of the Sacrament is the Chapel of the Choir. Saint +Peter's is a cathedral, and is managed by a chapter of Canons, each of +whom has his seat in the choir, and his vote in the disposal of the +cathedral's income, which is considerable. The chapter maintains the +Choir of Saint Peter's, a body of musicians quite independent of the +so-called 'Pope's Choir,' which is properly termed the 'Choir of the +Sixtine Chapel,' and which is paid by the Pope. There are some radical +differences between the two. By a very ancient and inviolable +regulation, the so-called 'musico,' or artificial soprano, is never +allowed to sing in the Chapel of the Choir, where the soprano singers +are without exception men who sing in falsetto, though they speak in a +deep voice. On great occasions the Choir of the Sixtine joins in the +music in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> body of the church, but never in the Chapel, and always +behind a lattice.</p> + +<p>Secondly, no musical instruments are ever used in the Sixtine. In the +Chapel of the Choir, on the contrary, there are two large organs. The +one on the west side is employed on all ordinary occasions; it is over +two hundred years old, and is tuned about two tones below the modern +pitch. It is so worn out that an organ-builder is in attendance during +every service, to make repairs at a moment's notice. The bellows leak, +the stops stick, some notes have a chronic tendency to cipher, and the +pedal trackers unhook themselves unexpectedly. But the Canons would +certainly not think of building a new organ.</p> + +<p>Should they ever do so, and tune the instrument to the modern pitch, the +consternation of the singers would be great; for the music is all +written for the existing organ, and could not be performed two notes +higher, not to mention the confusion that would arise where all the +music is sung at sight by singers accustomed to an unusual pitch. This +is a fact not generally known, but worthy of notice. The music sung in +Saint Peter's, and, indeed, in most Roman churches, is never rehearsed +nor practised. The music itself is entirely in manuscript, and is the +property of the choir master, or, as is the case in Saint Peter's, of +the Chapter, and there is no copyright in it beyond this fact of actual +possession, protected by the simple plan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> of never allowing any musician +to have his part in his hands except while he is actually performing it. +In the course of a year the same piece may be sung several times, and +the old choristers may become acquainted with a good deal of music in +this way, but never otherwise. Mozart is reported to have learned +Allegri's Miserere by ear, and to have written it down from memory. The +other famous Misereres, which are now published, were pirated in a +similar way. The choir master of that day was very unpopular. Some of +the leading singers who had sung the Misereres during many years in +succession, and had thus learned their several parts, met and put +together what they knew into a whole, which was at once published, to +the no small annoyance and discomfiture of their enemy. But much good +music is quite beyond the reach of the public—Palestrina's best +motetts, airs by Alessandro Stradella, the famous hymn of Raimondi, in +short a great musical library, an 'archivio' as the Romans call such a +collection, all of which is practically lost to the world.</p> + +<p>It is wonderful that under such circumstances the choir of Saint Peter's +should obtain even such creditable results. At a moment's notice an +organist and about a hundred singers are called upon to execute a florid +piece of music which many have never seen nor heard; the accompaniment +is played at sight from a mere figured bass, on a tumble-down instrument +two hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> years old, and the singers, both the soloists and the +chorus, sing from thumbed bits of manuscript parts written in +old-fashioned characters on paper often green with age. No one has ever +denied the extraordinary musical facility of Italians, but if the +outside world knew how Italian church music is performed it would be +very much astonished.</p> + +<p>It is no wonder that such music is sometimes bad. But sometimes it is +very good; for there are splendid voices among the singers, and the +Maestro Renzi, the chief organist, is a man of real talent as well as of +amazing facility. His modernizing influence is counter-balanced by that +of the old choir master, Maestro Meluzzi, a first-rate musician, who +would not for his life change a hair of the old-fashioned traditions. +Yet there are moments, on certain days, when the effect of the great old +organ, with the rich voices blending in some good harmony, is very +solemn and stirring. The outward persuasive force of religion lies +largely in its music, and the religions that have no songs make few +proselytes.</p> + +<p>Nothing, perhaps, is more striking, as one becomes better acquainted +with Saint Peter's, than the constant variety of detail. The vast +building produces at first sight an impression of harmony, and there +appears to be a remarkable uniformity of style in all the objects one +sees. There are no oil-paintings to speak of in the church, and but few +frescoes. The great altar-pieces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> are almost exclusively fine mosaic +copies of famous pictures which are preserved elsewhere. Of these +reproductions the best is generally considered to be that of Guercino's +'Saint Petronilla,' at the end of the right aisle of the tribune.</p> + +<p>Debrosses praises these mosaic altar-pieces extravagantly, and even +expresses the opinion that they are probably superior in point of colour +to the originals from which they are copied. In execution they are +certainly wonderful, and many a stranger looks at them and passes on, +believing them to be oil-paintings. They possess the quality of being +imperishable and beyond all influence of climate or dampness, and they +are masterpieces of mechanical workmanship. But many will think them +hard and unsympathetic in outline, and decidedly crude in colour. Much +wit has been manufactured by the critics at the expense of Guido Reni's +'Michael,' for instance, and as many sharp things could be said about a +good many other works of the same kind in the church. Yet, on the whole, +they do not destroy the general harmony. Big as they are, when they are +seen from a little distance they sink into mere insignificant patches of +colour, all but lost in the deep richness of the whole.</p> + +<p>As for the statues and monuments, between the 'Pietà' of Michelangelo +and Bracci's horrible tomb of Benedict the Fourteenth, there is the step +which, according to Tom Paine, separates the sublime from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> the +ridiculous. That very witty saying has in it only just the small +ingredient of truth without which wit remains mere humour. Between the +ridiculous and the sublime there may sometimes be, indeed, but one step +in the execution; but there is always the enormous moral distance which +separates real feeling from affectation—the gulf which divides, for +instance, Bracci's group from Michelangelo's.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image353.jpg" width="450" height="509" alt="PIETÀ OF MICHELANGELO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PIETÀ OF MICHELANGELO</span> +</div> + + +<p>The 'Pietà' is one of the great sculptor's early works. It is badly +placed. It is dwarfed by the heavy architecture above and around it. It +is insulted by a pair of hideous bronze cherubs. There is a manifest +improbability in the relative size of the figure of Christ and that of +the Blessed Virgin. Yet in spite of all, it is one of the most beautiful +and touching groups in the whole world, and by many degrees the best +work of art in the great church. Michelangelo was a man of the strongest +dramatic instinct even in early youth, and when he laid his hand to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +marble and cut his 'Pietà' he was in deep sympathy with the supreme +drama of man's history. He found in the stone, once and for all time, +the grief of the human mother for her son, not comforted by +foreknowledge of resurrection, nor lightened by prescience of near +glory. He discovered in the marble, by one effort, the divinity of +death's rest after torture, and taught the eye to see that the +dissolution of this dying body is the birth of the soul that cannot die. +In the dead Christ there are two men manifest to sight. 'The first man +is of earth, earthy; the second man is the Lord from heaven.'</p> + +<p>In the small chapel stands a strangely wrought column, enclosed in an +iron cage. The Romans now call it the Colonna Santa, the holy pillar, +and it is said to be the one against which Christ leaned when teaching +in the temple at Jerusalem. A great modern authority believes it to be +of Roman workmanship, and of the third century; but those who have lived +in the East will see much that is oriental in the fantastic ornamented +carving. It matters little. In actual fact, whatever be its origin, this +is the column known in the Middle Age as the 'Colonna degli Spiritati,' +or column of those possessed by evil spirits, and it was customary to +bind to it such unlucky individuals as fell under the suspicion of +'possession' in order to exorcise the spirit with prayers and holy +water. Aretino has made a witty scene about this in the 'Cortegiana,'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +where one of the Vatican servants cheats a poor fisherman, and then +hands him over to the sacristan of Saint Peter's to be cured of an +imaginary possession by a ceremonious exorcism. Such proceedings must +have been common enough in those days when witchcraft and demonology +were elements with which rulers and lawgivers had to count at every +turn.</p> + +<p>Leave the column and its legend in the lonely chapel, with the exquisite +'Pietà'; wander hither and thither, and note the enormous contrasts +between good and bad work which meet you at every turn. Up in the right +aisle of the tribune you will come upon what is known as Canova's +masterpiece, the tomb of Clement the Thirteenth, the Rezzonico pope, as +strange a mixture of styles and ideas as any in the world, and yet a +genuine expression of the artistic feeling of that day. The grave Pope +prays solemnly above; on the right a lovely heathen genius of Death +leans on a torch; on the left rises a female figure of Religion, one of +the most abominably bad statues in the world; below, a brace of +improbable lions, extravagantly praised by people who do not understand +leonine anatomy, recall Canova's humble origin and his first attempt at +modelling. For the sculptor began life as a waiter in a 'canova di +vino,' or wine shop, whence his name; and it was when a high dignitary +stopped to breakfast at the little wayside inn that the lad modelled a +lion in butter to grace the primitive table.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> The thing attracted the +rich traveller's attention, and the boy's fortune was made. The Pope is +impressive, the Death is gentle and tender, the Religion, with her crown +of gilded spikes for rays, and her clumsy cross, is a vision of bad +taste, and the sleepy lions, when separated from what has been written +about them, excite no interest. Yet somehow, from a distance, the +monument gets harmony out of its surroundings.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;"> +<img src="images/image356.jpg" width="319" height="500" alt="TOMB OF CLEMENT THE THIRTEENTH" title="" /> +<span class="caption">TOMB OF CLEMENT THE THIRTEENTH</span> +</div> + + +<p>One of the best tombs in the basilica is that of Sixtus the Fourth, the +first pope of the Rovere family, in the Chapel of the Sacrament. The +bronze figure, lying low on a sarcophagus placed out on upon the floor, +has a quiet manly dignity about it which one cannot forget. But in the +same tomb lies a greater man of the same name,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> Julius the Second, for +whom Michelangelo made his 'Moses' in the Church of San Pietro in +Vincoli—a man who did more than any other, perhaps, to make the great +basilica what it is, and who, by a chain of mistakes, got no tomb of his +own. He who solemnly laid the foundations of the present church, and +lived to see the four main piers completed, with their arches, has only +a little slab in the pavement to recall his memory. The protector and +friend of Bramante, of Michelangelo and of Raphael,—of the great +architect, the great sculptor and the great painter,—has not so much as +the least work of any of the three to mark his place of rest. Perhaps he +needed nothing but his name.</p> + +<p>After all, his bones have been allowed to rest in peace, which is more +than can be said of all that have been buried within the area of the +church. Urban the Sixth had no such good fortune. He so much surprised +the cardinals, as soon as they had elected him, by his vigorous moral +reforms that they hastily retired to Anagni and elected an antipope of +milder manners and less sensitive conscience. He lived to triumph over +his enemies. In Piacenza he was besieged by King Charles of Naples. He +excommunicated him, tortured seven cardinals whom he caught in the +conspiracy and put five of them to death; overcame and slew Charles, +refused him burial and had his body exposed to the derision of the +crowd. The chronicler<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> says that 'Italy, Germany, England, Hungary, +Bohemia, Poland, Sicily and Portugal were obedient to the Lord Pope +Urban the Sixth.' He died peacefully, and was buried in Saint Peter's in +a marble sarcophagus.</p> + +<p>But when Sixtus the Fifth, who also surprised the cardinals greatly, was +in a fit of haste to finish the dome, the masons, wanting a receptacle +for water, laid hands on Urban's stone coffin, pitched his bones into a +corner, and used the sarcophagus as they pleased, leaving it to serve as +a water-tank for many years afterwards.</p> + +<p>In extending the foundations of the church, Paul the Third came upon the +bodies of Maria and Hermania, the two wives of Honorius, the Emperor who +'disestablished' paganism in favour of Christianity. They were sisters, +daughters of Stilicho, and had been buried in their imperial robes, with +many rich objects and feminine trinkets; and they were found intact, as +they had been buried, in the month of February, 1543. Forty pounds of +fine gold were taken from their robes alone, says Baracconi, without +counting all the jewels and trinkets, among which was a very beautiful +lamp, besides a great number of precious stones. The Pope melted down +the gold for the expenses of the building, and set the gems in a tiara, +where, if they could be identified, they certainly exist today—the very +stones worn by empresses of ancient Rome.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then, as if in retribution, the Pope's own tomb was moved from its +place. Despoiled of two of the four statues which adorned it, the +monument is now in the tribune, and is still one of the best in the +church. A strange and tragic tale is told of it. A Spanish student, it +is said, fell madly in love with the splendid statue of Paul's +sister-in-law, Julia Farnese. He succeeded in hiding himself in the +basilica when it was closed at night, threw himself in a frenzy upon the +marble and was found stone dead beside it in the morning. The ugly +draperies of painted metal which now hide much of the statue owe their +origin to this circumstance. Classical scholars will remember that a +somewhat similar tale is told by Pliny of the Venus of Praxiteles in +Cnidus.</p> + +<p>In spite of many assertions to the effect that the bronze statue of +Saint Peter which is venerated in the church was originally an image of +Jupiter Capitolinus, the weight of modern authority and artistic +judgment is to the contrary. The work cannot really be earlier than the +fifth century, and is therefore of a time after Honorius and the +disestablishment. Anyone who will take the trouble to examine the lives +of the early popes in Muratori may read the detailed accounts of what +each one did for the churches. It is not by any means impossible that +this may be one of the statues made under Saint Innocent the First, a +contemporary of Honorius, in whose time a Roman lady called Vestina<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> +made gift to the church of vast possessions, the proceeds of which were +used in building and richly adorning numerous places of worship. In any +case, since it is practically certain that the statue was originally +intended for a portrait of Saint Peter, and has been regarded as such +for nearly fifteen hundred years, it commands our respect, if not our +veneration.</p> + +<p>The Roman custom of kissing the foot, then bending and placing one's +head under it, signifies submission to the commands of the Church, and +is not, as many suppose, an act of devotion to the statue.</p> + +<p>The practice of dressing it in magnificent robes on the feast of Saint +Peter is connected with the ancient Roman custom, which required +censors, when entering upon office, to paint the earthen statue of +Jupiter Capitolinus a bright red. But the connection lies in the Italian +mind and character, which cling desperately to external practices for +their hold upon inward principles. It is certainly not an inheritance of +uninterrupted tradition, as Roman church music, on the contrary, most +certainly is; for there is every reason to believe that the recitations +now noted in the Roman missal were very like those used by the ancient +Romans on solemn occasions.</p> + +<p>The church is not only a real landmark. Astronomers say that if there +were a building of the same dimensions on the moon we could easily see +it with our modern telescopes. It is also, in a manner, one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> of Time's +great mile-stones, of which some trace will probably remain till the +very end of the world's life. Its mere mass will insure to it the +permanence of the great pyramid of Cheops. Its mere name associates it +for ever with the existence of Christianity from the earliest time. It +has stamped itself upon the minds of millions of men as the most vast +monument of the ages. Its very defects are destined to be as lasting as +its beauties, and its mighty faults are more imposing than the small +perfections of the Greeks. Between it and the Parthenon, as between the +Roman empire and the Athenian commonwealth, one may choose, but one +dares not make comparison. The genius of the Greeks absorbed the world's +beauty into itself, distilled its perfection, and gave humanity its most +subtle quintessence; but the Latin arm ruled the world itself, and the +imperial Latin intelligence could never find any expression fitted to +its enormous measure. That is the secret of the monstrous element in all +the Romans built. And that supernormal giantism showed itself almost for +the last time in the building of Saint Peter's, when the Latin race had +reached its last great development, and the power of the Latin popes +overshadowed the whole world, and was itself about to be humbled. Before +Michelangelo was dead Charles the Fifth had been Emperor forty years, +Doctor Martin Luther had denied the doctrine of salvation by works, the +nations had broken loose from the Popes, and the world was at war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image362.jpg" width="450" height="261" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>Let us part here, at the threshold of Saint Peter's, not saying farewell +to Rome, nor taking leave without hope of meeting on this consecrated +ground again; but since the city lies behind us, region beyond region, +memory over memory, legend within legend, and because we have passed +through it by steps and by stations, very quickly, yet not thoughtlessly +nor irreverently, let us now go each our way for a time, remembering +some of those things which we have seen and of which we have talked, +that we may know them better if we see them again.</p> + +<p>For a man can no more say a last farewell to Rome than he can take leave +of eternity. The years move on, but she waits; the cities fall, but she +stands; the old races of men lie dead in the track wherein mankind +wanders always between two darknesses; yet Rome lives, and her changes +are not from life to death, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> ours are, but from one life to another. +A man may live with Rome, laugh with her, dream with her, weep with her, +die at her feet; but for him who knows her there is no good-bye, for she +has taken the high seat of his heart, and whither he goes, she is with +him, in joy or sorrow, with wonder, longing or regret, as the chords of +his heart were tuned by his angel in heaven.</p> + +<p>But she is as a well-loved woman, whose dear face is drawn upon a man's +heart by the sharp memory of a cruel parting, line for line, shadow for +shadow, look for look, as she was when he saw her last; and line for +line he remembers her and longs for her smile and her tender word. Yet +be the lines ever so deep-graven, and the image ever so sweet and true, +when the time of parting is over, when he comes back and she stands +where she stood, with eyes that lighten to his eyes, then she is better +loved than he knew and dearer than he had guessed. Then the heart that +has steadily beaten time to months of parting, leaps like a child at the +instant of meeting again; then eyes that have so long fed on memory's +vision widen and deepen with joy of the living truth; then the soul that +has hungered and starved through an endless waiting, is suddenly filled +with life and satisfied of its faith.</p> + +<p>So he who loves Rome, and leaves her, remembers her long and well, +telling himself that he knows how every stone of her walls and her +streets would look<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> again; but he comes back at last, and sees her as +she is, and he stands amazed at the grandeur of all that has been, and +is touched to the heart by the sad loveliness of much that is. Together, +the thoughts of love and reverence rise in words, and with them comes +the deep wonder at something very great and high. For he himself is +grown grey and war-worn in the strife of a few poor years, while through +five and twenty centuries Rome has faced war and the world; and he, a +gladiator of life, bows his head before her, wondering how his own fight +shall end at last, while his lips pronounce the submission of his own +mortality to her abiding endurance—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS, MORITURUS TE SALUTAT<br /></span> +</div></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p> +<h2>Index</h2> + + +<p> +A<br /> +<br /> +Abruzzi, i. 159; ii. <a href='#Page_230'>230</a><br /> +<br /> +Accoramboni, Flaminio, i. 296<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittoria, i. 135, 148, 289-296, 297</span><br /> +<br /> +Agrarian Law, i. 23<br /> +<br /> +Agrippa, i. 90, 271; ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Younger, ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Alaric, i. 252; ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Alba Longa, i. 3, 78, 130<br /> +<br /> +Albergo dell' Orso, i. 288<br /> +<br /> +Alberic, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a><br /> +<br /> +Albornoz, ii. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a><br /> +<br /> +Aldobrandini, i. 209; ii. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olimpia, i. 209</span><br /> +<br /> +Alfonso, i. 185<br /> +<br /> +Aliturius, ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br /> +<br /> +Altieri, i. 226; ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br /> +<br /> +Ammianus Marcellinus, i. 132, 133, 138<br /> +<br /> +Amphitheatre, Flavian, i. 91, 179<br /> +<br /> +Amulius, i. 3<br /> +<br /> +Anacletus, ii. <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a><br /> +<br /> +Anagni, i. 161, 165, 307; ii. <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a><br /> +<br /> +Ancus Martius, i. 4<br /> +<br /> +Angelico, Beato, ii. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>-192, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a><br /> +<br /> +Anguillara, i. 278; ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Titta della, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Anio, the, i. 93<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Novus, i. 144</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vetus, i. 144</span><br /> +<br /> +Annibaleschi, Riccardo degli, i. 278<br /> +<br /> +Antiochus, ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br /> +<br /> +Antipope—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anacletus, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boniface, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement, i. 126</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gilbert, i. 127</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John of Calabria, ii. <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>-37</span><br /> +<br /> +Antonelli, Cardinal, ii. <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a><br /> +<br /> +Antonina, i. 266<br /> +<br /> +Antonines, the, i. 113, 191, 271<br /> +<br /> +Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, i. 46, 96, 113, 114, 190, 191<br /> +<br /> +Appian Way, i. 22, 94<br /> +<br /> +Appius Claudius, i. 14, 29<br /> +<br /> +Apulia, Duke of, i. 126, 127; ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a><br /> +<br /> +Aqua Virgo, i. 155<br /> +<br /> +Aqueduct of Claudius, i. 144<br /> +<br /> +Arbiter, Petronius, i. 85<br /> +<br /> +Arch of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arcadius, i. 192</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Claudius, i. 155</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domitian, i. 191, 205</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gratian, i. 191</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcus Aurelius, i. 96, 191, 205</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal, i. 205</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Septimius Severus, ii. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valens, i. 191</span><br /> +<br /> +Archive House, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a><br /> +<br /> +Argiletum, the, i. 72<br /> +<br /> +Ariosto, ii. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a><br /> +<br /> +Aristius, i. 70, 71<br /> +<br /> +Arnold of Brescia, ii. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>-89<br /> +<br /> +Arnulf, ii. <a href='#Page_41'>41</a><br /> +<br /> +Art, i. 87; ii. <a href='#Page_152'>152</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and morality, i. 260, 261; ii. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">religion, i. 260, 261</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barocco, i. 303, 316</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine in Italy, ii. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of taste in, ii. <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">factors in the progress of art, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">engraving, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">improved tools, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">individuality, i. 262; ii. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>-177</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek influence on, i. 57-63</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modes of expression of, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fresco, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>-183</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oil painting, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>-186</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Renascence, i. 231, 262; ii. <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">phases of, in Italy, ii. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress of, during the Middle Age, ii. <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transition from handicraft to, ii. <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Artois, Count of, i. 161<br /> +<br /> +Augustan Age, i. 57-77<br /> +<br /> +Augustulus, i. 30, 47, 53; ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a><br /> +<br /> +Augustus, i. 30, 43-48, 69, 82, 89, 90, 184, 219, 251, 252, 254, 270; ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>Aurelian, i. 177, 179, 180; ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a><br /> +<br /> +Avalos, Francesco, d', i. 174, 175<br /> +<br /> +Aventine, the, i. 23, 76; ii. 10, 40, 85, 119-121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 132, 302<br /> +<br /> +Avignon, i. 167, 273, 277; ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +B<br /> +<br /> +Bacchanalia, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacchic worship, i. 76; ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br /> +<br /> +Bajazet the Second, Sultan, i. 276<br /> +<br /> +Baracconi, i. 104, 141, 178, 188, 252, 264, 274, 304; ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /> +<br /> +Barberi, i. 202<br /> +<br /> +Barberini, the, i. 157, 187, 226, 268, 301; ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a><br /> +<br /> +Barbo, i. 202; ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br /> +<br /> +Barcelona, i. 308<br /> +<br /> +Bargello, the, i. 129, 293, 296; ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a><br /> +<br /> +Basil and Constantine, ii. <a href='#Page_33'>33</a><br /> +<br /> +Basilica (Pagan)—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julia, i. 66, 71, 106; ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Basilicas (Christian) of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantine, i. 90; ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberius, i. 138</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philip and Saint James, i. 170</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint John Lateran, i. 107, 112, 117, 278, 281</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Maria Maggiore, i. 107, 135, 139, 147, 148, 166, 208, 278; ii. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santi Apostoli, i. 157, 170-172, 205, 241, 242; ii. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sicininus, i. 134, 138</span><br /> +<br /> +Baths, i. 91<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Agrippa, i. 271</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Caracalla, ii. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Constantine, i. 144, 188</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Diocletian, i. 107, 129, 145-147, 149, 289, 292</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Novatus, i. 145</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Philippus, i. 145</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of public, i. 144</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Severus Alexander, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Titus, i. 55, 107, 152</span><br /> +<br /> +Befana, the, i. 298, 299, 300; ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a><br /> +<br /> +Belisarius, i. 266, 267, 269<br /> +<br /> +Benediction of 1846, the, i. 183<br /> +<br /> +Benevento, Cola da, i. 219, 220<br /> +<br /> +Bernard, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>-80<br /> +<br /> +Bernardi, Gianbattista, ii. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a><br /> +<br /> +Bernini, i. 147, 301, 302, 303; ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a><br /> +<br /> +Bibbiena, Cardinal, ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maria, ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bismarck, ii. <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a><br /> +<br /> +Boccaccio, i. 211, 213<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vineyard, the, i. 189</span><br /> +<br /> +Bologna, i. 259; ii. <a href='#Page_58'>58</a><br /> +<br /> +Borghese, the, i. 206, 226<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scipio, i. 187</span><br /> +<br /> +Borgia, the, i. 209<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cæsar, i. 149, 151, 169, 213, 287; ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandia, i. 149, 150, 151, 287</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lucrezia, i. 149, 177, 185, 287; ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rodrigo, i. 287; ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanozza, i. 149, 151, 287</span><br /> +<br /> +Borgo, the Region, i. 101, 127; ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>-214, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a><br /> +<br /> +Borromini, i. 301, 302; ii. 24<br /> +<br /> +Botticelli, ii. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a><br /> +<br /> +Bracci, ii. <a href='#Page_318'>318</a><br /> +<br /> +Bracciano, i. 282, 291, 292, 294<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, i. 289</span><br /> +<br /> +Bramante, i. 305; ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a><br /> +<br /> +Brescia, i. 286<br /> +<br /> +Bridge. See <i>Ponte</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ælian, the, i. 274</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cestian, ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabrician, ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sublician, i. 6, 23, 67; ii. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brotherhood of Saint John Beheaded, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br /> +<br /> +Brothers of Prayer and Death, i. 123, 204, 242<br /> +<br /> +Brunelli, ii. <a href='#Page_244'>244</a><br /> +<br /> +Brutus, i. 6, 12, 18, 41, 58, 80; ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Buffalmacco, ii. <a href='#Page_196'>196</a><br /> +<br /> +Bull-fights, i. 252<br /> +<br /> +Burgundians, i. 251<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +C<br /> +<br /> +Cæsar, Julius, i. 29-33, 35-41, 250; ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Cæsars, the, i. 44-46, 125, 249, 252, 253; ii. <a href='#Page_224'>224</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julian, i. 252</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palaces of, i. 4, 191; ii. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caetani, i. 51, 115, 159, 161, 163, 206, 277<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Benedict, i. 160</span><br /> +<br /> +Caligula, i. 46, 252; ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Campagna, the, i. 92, 94, 158, 237, 243, 253, 282, 312; ii. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br /> +<br /> +Campitelli, the Region, i. 101; ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a><br /> +<br /> +Campo—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dei Fiori, i. 297</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marzo (Campus Martius), i. 65, 112, 271</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. 101, 248, 250, 275; ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaccino, i. 128-131, 173</span><br /> +<br /> +Canale, Carle, i. 287<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>Cancelleria, i, 102, 305, 312, 315, 316; ii. <a href='#Page_223'>223</a><br /> +<br /> +Canidia, i. 64; ii. <a href='#Page_293'>293</a><br /> +<br /> +Canossa, i. 126; ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a><br /> +<br /> +Canova, ii. <a href='#Page_320'>320</a><br /> +<br /> +Capet, Hugh, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a><br /> +<br /> +Capitol, the, i. 8, 14, 24, 29, 72, 107, 112, 167, 190, 204, 278, 282; +ii. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>-75, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a><br /> +<br /> +Capitoline hill, i. 106, 194<br /> +<br /> +Captains of the Regions, i. 110, 112, 114<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Election of, i. 112</span><br /> +<br /> +Caracci, the, i. 264<br /> +<br /> +Carafa, the, ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a><br /> +<br /> +Cardinal, i. 186, 188; ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a><br /> +<br /> +Carnival, i. 107, 193-203, 241, 298; ii. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Saturn, i. 194</span><br /> +<br /> +Carpineto, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a><br /> +<br /> +Carthage, i. 20, 26, 88<br /> +<br /> +Castagno, Andrea, ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a><br /> +<br /> +Castle of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grottaferrata, i. 314</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petrella, i. 286</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Piccolomini, i. 268</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Angelo, i. 114, 116, 120, 126, 127, 128, 129, 259, 278, 284, 308, 314; ii. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>-214, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Castracane, Castruccio, i. 165, 166, 170<br /> +<br /> +Catacombs, the, i. 139<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Saint Petronilla, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sebastian, ii. <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Catanei, Vanossa de, i. 287<br /> +<br /> +Catharine, Queen of Cyprus, ii. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a><br /> +<br /> +Cathedral of Siena, i. 232<br /> +<br /> +Catiline, i. 27; ii. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br /> +<br /> +Cato, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br /> +<br /> +Catullus, i. 86<br /> +<br /> +Cavour, Count, ii. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a><br /> +<br /> +Cellini, Benvenuto, i. 311, 315; ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a><br /> +<br /> +Cenci, the, ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beatrice, i. 147, 285-287; ii. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, i. 285; ii. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Centra Pio, ii. <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a><br /> +<br /> +Ceri, Renzo da, i. 310<br /> +<br /> +Cesarini, Giuliano, i. 174; ii. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a><br /> +<br /> +Chapel, Sixtine. See under <i>Vatican</i><br /> +<br /> +Charlemagne, i. 32, 49, 51, 53, 76, 109; ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Charles of Anjou, i. ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albert of Sardinia, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Fifth, i. 131, 174, 206, 220, 305, 306; ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chiesa. See <i>Church</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuova, i. 275</span><br /> +<br /> +Chigi, the, i. 258<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agostino, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabio, ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Christianity in Rome, i. 176<br /> +<br /> +Christina, Queen of Sweden, ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br /> +<br /> +Chrysostom, ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a><br /> +<br /> +Churches of,—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Apostles, i. 157, 170-172, 205, 241, 242; ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aracœli, i. 52, 112, 167; ii. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cardinal Mazarin, i. 186</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Gallows, i. 284</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Holy Guardian Angel, i. 122</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Minerva, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Penitentiaries, ii. <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Portuguese, i. 250</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Adrian, i. 71</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Agnes, i. 301, 304</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Augustine, ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bernard, i. 291</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Callixtus, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Charles, i. 251</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eustace, ii. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">George in Velabro, i. 195; ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gregory on the Aventine, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ives, i. 251; ii. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">John of the Florentines, i. 273</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pine Cone, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peter's on the Janiculum, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sylvester, i. 176</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saints Nereus and Achillæus, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vincent and Anastasius, i. 186</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Clemente, i. 143</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giovanni in Laterano, i. 113</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lorenzo in Lucina, i. 192</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Miranda, i. 71</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marcello, i. 165, 192</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pietro in Montorio, ii. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Vincoli, i. 118, 283; ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Salvatore in Cacaberis, i. 112</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stefano Rotondo, i. 106</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Angelo in Pescheria, i. 102; ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Francesca Romana, i. 111</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maria de Crociferi, i. 267</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">degli Angeli, i. 146, 258, 259</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">dei Monti, i. 118</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">del Pianto, i. 113</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">di Grotto Pinta, i. 294</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">in Campo Marzo, ii. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">in Via Lata, i. 142</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Nuova, i. 111, 273</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Transpontina, ii. <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">della Vittoria, i. 302</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prisca, ii. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sabina, i. 278; ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trinità dei Pellegrini, ii. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>Cicero, i. 45, 73; ii. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br /> +<br /> +Cimabue, ii. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a><br /> +<br /> +Cinna, i. 25, 27<br /> +<br /> +Circolo, ii. <a href='#Page_245'>245</a><br /> +<br /> +Circus, the, i. 64, 253<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maximus, i. 64, 66; ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /> +<br /> +City of Augustus, i. 57-77<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Making of the, i. 1-21</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Rienzi, i. 93; ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>-8</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Empire, i. 22-56</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Middle Age, i. 47, 78-99, 92</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Republic, i. 47</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">today, i. 55, 92</span><br /> +<br /> +Civilization, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and bloodshed, ii. <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">morality, ii. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">progress, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>-180</span><br /> +<br /> +Claudius, i. 46, 255, 256; ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br /> +<br /> +Clœlia, i. 13<br /> +<br /> +Cœlian hill, i. 106<br /> +<br /> +Collegio Romano, i. 102; ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +Colonna, the, i. 51, 94, 104, 135, 153, 157-170, 172, 176, 187, 206, 217, 251, 252, 271, 272, 275-283, 306-315; ii. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giovanni, i. 104</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacopo, i. 159, 165, 192</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lorenzo, ii. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-213</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcantonio, i. 182; ii. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pietro, i. 159</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pompeo, i. 305, 310-317; ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prospero, ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sciarra, i. 162-166, 192, 206, 213, 229, 275,279, 281, 307</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stephen, i. 161, 165; ii. 13, 16</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Younger, i. 168</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittoria, i. 157, 173-177; ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. 101, 190-192; ii. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">War between Orsini and, i. 51, 104, 159, 168, 182, 275-283, 306-315; ii. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-211</span><br /> +<br /> +Colosseum, i. 56, 86, 90, 96, 106, 107, 111, 125, 152, 153, 187, 191, 209, 278; ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a><br /> +<br /> +Column of Piazza Colonna, i. 190, 192<br /> +<br /> +Comitium, i. 112, 257, 268<br /> +<br /> +Commodus, i. 46, 55; ii. <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a><br /> +<br /> +Confraternities, i. 108, 204<br /> +<br /> +Conscript Fathers, i. 78, 112<br /> +<br /> +Constable of Bourbon, i. 52, 259, 273, 304, 309-311; ii. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br /> +<br /> +Constans, i, 135, 136<br /> +<br /> +Constantine, i. 90, 113, 163<br /> +<br /> +Constantinople, i. 95, 119<br /> +<br /> +Contests in the Forum, i. 27, 130<br /> +<br /> +Convent of Saint Catharine, i. 176<br /> +<br /> +Convent of Saint Sylvester, i. 176<br /> +<br /> +Corneto, Cardinal of, ii. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a><br /> +<br /> +Cornomania, i. 141<br /> +<br /> +Cornutis, i. 87<br /> +<br /> +Coromania, i. 141, 144<br /> +<br /> +Corsini, the, ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a><br /> +<br /> +Corso, i. 96, 106, 108, 192, 196, 205, 206, 229, 251<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittorio Emanuele, i. 275</span><br /> +<br /> +Corte Savella, i. 284; ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<br /> +Cosmas, the, ii. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +Costa, Giovanni da, i. 205<br /> +<br /> +Court House, i. 71<br /> +<br /> +Crassus, i. 27, 31; ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br /> +<br /> +Crawford, Thomas, i. 147<br /> +<br /> +Crescentius, ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a><br /> +<br /> +Crescenzi, i. 114; ii. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a><br /> +<br /> +Crescenzio, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>-40<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stefana, ii. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Crispi, i. 116, 187<br /> +<br /> +Crusade, the Second, ii. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a><br /> +<br /> +Crusades, the, i. 76<br /> +<br /> +Curatii, i. 3, 131<br /> +<br /> +Customs of early Rome, i. 9, 48<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in dress, i. 48</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">religion, i. 48</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +D<br /> +<br /> +Dante, i. 110; ii. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a><br /> +<br /> +Decameron, i. 239<br /> +<br /> +Decemvirs, i. 14; ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br /> +<br /> +Decrees, Semiamiran, i. 178<br /> +<br /> +Democracy, i. 108<br /> +<br /> +Development of Rome, i. 7, 18<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some results of, i. 154</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Barons, i. 51</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decemvirs, i. 14</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Empire, i. 29, 30</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gallic invasion, i. 15-18</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kings, i. 2-7, 14-45</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Middle Age, i. 47, 92, 210-247</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Papal rule, i. 46-50</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Republic, i. 7-14</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tribunes, i. 14</span><br /> +<br /> +Dictator of Rome, i. 29, 79<br /> +<br /> +Dietrich of Bern, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Dionysus, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br /> +<br /> +Dolabella, i. 34<br /> +<br /> +Domenichino, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a><br /> +<br /> +Domestic life in Rome, i. 9<br /> +<br /> +Dominicans, i. 158; ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>Domitian, i. 45, 152, 205; ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<br /> +Doria, the, i. 206; ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albert, i. 207</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andrea, i. 207</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conrad, i. 207</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gian Andrea, i. 207</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamba, i. 207</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paganino, i. 207</span><br /> +<br /> +Doria-Pamfili, i. 206-209<br /> +<br /> +Dress in early Rome, i. 48<br /> +<br /> +Drusus, ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br /> +<br /> +Duca, Antonio del, i. 146, 147<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giacomo del, i. 146</span><br /> +<br /> +Dürer, Albert, ii. <a href='#Page_198'>198</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +E<br /> +<br /> +Education, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a><br /> +<br /> +Egnatia, i. 75<br /> +<br /> +Elagabalus, i. 77, 177, 179; ii. <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Election of the Pope, ii. <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a><br /> +<br /> +Electoral Wards, i. 107<br /> +<br /> +Elizabeth, Queen of England, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a><br /> +<br /> +Emperors, Roman, i. 46<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the East, i. 95, 126</span><br /> +<br /> +Empire of Constantinople, i. 46<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Rome, i. 15, 17, 22-28, 31, 45, 47, 53, 60, 72, 99</span><br /> +<br /> +Encyclicals, ii. <a href='#Page_244'>244</a><br /> +<br /> +Erasmus, ii. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br /> +<br /> +Esquiline, the, i. 26, 106, 139, 186; ii. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a><br /> +<br /> +Este, Ippolito d', i. 185<br /> +<br /> +Etruria, i. 12, 15<br /> +<br /> +Euodus, i. 255, 256<br /> +<br /> +Eustace, Saint, ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">square of, ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Eustachio. See <i>Sant' Eustachio</i><br /> +<br /> +Eutichianus, ii. <a href='#Page_296'>296</a><br /> +<br /> +Eve of Saint John, i. 140<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Epiphany, 299</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +F<br /> +<br /> +Fabius, i. 20<br /> +<br /> +Fabatosta, ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a><br /> +<br /> +Farnese, the, ii. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julia, ii. <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Farnesina, the, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br /> +<br /> +Fathers, Roman, i. 13, 78, 79-84<br /> +<br /> +Ferdinand, ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a><br /> +<br /> +Ferrara, Duke of, i. 185<br /> +<br /> +Festivals, i. 193, 298<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aryan in origin, i. 173</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Befana, i. 299-301</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carnival, i. 193-203</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church of the Apostle, i. 172, 173</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coromania, i. 141</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Epifania, i. 298-301</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Floralia, i. 141</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lupercalia, i. 194</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May-day in the Campo Vaccino, i. 173</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saturnalia, i. 194</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint John's Eve, i. 140</span><br /> +<br /> +Festus, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br /> +<br /> +Feuds, family, i. 168<br /> +<br /> +Field of Mars. See <i>Campo Marzo</i><br /> +<br /> +Finiguerra, Maso, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>-188<br /> +<br /> +Flamen Dialis, i. 34<br /> +<br /> +Floralia. See <i>Festivals</i><br /> +<br /> +Florence, i. 160<br /> +<br /> +Forli, Melozzo da, i. 171<br /> +<br /> +Fornarina, the, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a><br /> +<br /> +Forum, i, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 26, 27, 64, 72, 111, 126, 129, 194; ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>-94, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Augustus, i. 119</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trajan, i. 155, 171, 172, 191</span><br /> +<br /> +Fountains (Fontane) of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egeria, ii. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trevi, i. 155, 156, 186, 267</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tullianum, i. 8</span><br /> +<br /> +Franconia, Duke of, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a><br /> +<br /> +Francis the First, i. 131, 174, 206, 219, 304<br /> +<br /> +Frangipani, i. 50, 94, 153; ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a><br /> +<br /> +Frederick, Barbarossa, ii. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Naples, i. 151</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Second, ii. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fulvius, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +G<br /> +<br /> +Gabrini, Lawrence, ii. <a href='#Page_4'>4</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicholas, i. 23, 93, 103, 168, 211, 281; ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>-23, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gaeta, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a><br /> +<br /> +Galba, ii. <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<br /> +Galen, i. 55<br /> +<br /> +Galera, i. 282, 291<br /> +<br /> +Galileo, i. 268<br /> +<br /> +Gardens, i. 93<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cæsar's, i. 66, 68</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Lucullus, i. 254, 270</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pigna, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pincian, i. 255</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Vatican, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gargonius, i. 65<br /> +<br /> +Garibaldi, ii. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>Gastaldi, Cardinal, i. 259<br /> +<br /> +Gate. See <i>Porta</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Colline, i. 250</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lateran, i. 126, 154</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Septimian, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gebhardt, Émile, i. 213<br /> +<br /> +Gemonian Steps, ii. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br /> +<br /> +Genseric, i. 96; ii. <a href='#Page_70'>70</a><br /> +<br /> +George of Franzburg, i. 310<br /> +<br /> +Gherardesca, Ugolino della, ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a><br /> +<br /> +Ghetto, i. 102; ii. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-118<br /> +<br /> +Ghibellines, the, i. 129, 153, 158; ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br /> +<br /> +Ghiberti, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ghirlandajo, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a><br /> +<br /> +Giantism, i. 90-92, 210, 302<br /> +<br /> +Gibbon, i. 160<br /> +<br /> +Giotto, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>-165, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a><br /> +<br /> +Gladstone, ii. <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a><br /> +<br /> +Golden Milestone, i. 72, 92, 194<br /> +<br /> +Goldoni, i. 265<br /> +<br /> +Goldsmithing, ii. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br /> +<br /> +"Good Estate" of Rienzi, ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>-12<br /> +<br /> +Gordian, i. 91<br /> +<br /> +Goths, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gozzoli, Benozzo, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a><br /> +<br /> +Gracchi, the, i. 22, 28<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caius, i. 23; ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cornelia, i. 22, 24</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tiberius, i. 23; ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gratidianus, i. 27<br /> +<br /> +Guards, Noble, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palatine, ii. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Swiss, ii. <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guelphs, i. 159; ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Ghibellines, i. 129, 153, 275; ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guiscard, Robert, i. 95, 126, 127, 129, 144, 252; ii. <a href='#Page_70'>70</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +H<br /> +<br /> +Hadrian, i. 90, 180; ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a><br /> +<br /> +Hannibal, i. 20<br /> +<br /> +Hasdrubal, i. 21<br /> +<br /> +Henry the Second, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fourth, i. 126, 127; ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fifth, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seventh of Luxemburg, i. 273, 276-279; ii. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eighth, i. 219; ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hermann, i. 46<br /> +<br /> +Hermes of Olympia, i. 86<br /> +<br /> +Hermogenes, i. 67<br /> +<br /> +Hilda's Tower, i. 250<br /> +<br /> +Hildebrand, i. 52, 126-129; ii.<br /> +<br /> +Honorius, ii. <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a><br /> +<br /> +Horace, i. 44, 57-75, 85, 87; ii. <a href='#Page_293'>293</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the Bore, i. 65-71</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Camen Seculare of, i. 75</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Satires of, i. 73, 74</span><br /> +<br /> +Horatii, i. 3, 131<br /> +<br /> +Horatius, i. 5, 6, 13, 23; ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a><br /> +<br /> +Horses of Monte Cavallo, i. 181<br /> +<br /> +Hospice of San Claudio, i. 251<br /> +<br /> +Hospital of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santo Spirito, i. 274; ii. <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></span><br /> +<br /> +House of Parliament, i. 271<br /> +<br /> +Hugh of Burgundy, ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Tuscany, ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Huns' invasion, i. 15, 49, 132<br /> +<br /> +Huxley, ii. <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +I<br /> +<br /> +Imperia, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a><br /> +<br /> +Infessura, Stephen, ii. <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-213<br /> +<br /> +Inn of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Bear, i. 288</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Falcone, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lion, i. 287</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanossa, i. 288</span><br /> +<br /> +Inquisition, i. 286; ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a><br /> +<br /> +Interminelli, Castruccio degli, i. 165.<br /> +<br /> +Irene, Empress, i. 109<br /> +<br /> +Ischia, i. 175<br /> +<br /> +Island of Saint Bartholomew, i. 272; ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a><br /> +<br /> +Isola Sacra, i. 93<br /> +<br /> +Italian life during the Middle Age, i. 210, 247<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from 17th to 18th centuries, i. 260, 263, 264</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +J<br /> +<br /> +Janiculum, the, i. 15, 253, 270; ii. <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<br /> +Jesuit College, ii. <a href='#Page_61'>61</a><br /> +<br /> +Jesuits, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>-63<br /> +<br /> +Jews, i. 96; ii. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>-119<br /> +<br /> +John of Cappadocia, i. 267, 268<br /> +<br /> +Josephus, ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br /> +<br /> +Juba, i. 40<br /> +<br /> +Jugurtha, i. 25<br /> +<br /> +Jupiter Capitolinus, ii. <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">priest of, i. 80, 133</span><br /> +<br /> +Justinian, i. 267<br /> +<br /> +Juvenal, i. 112; ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +K<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>Kings of Rome, i. 2-7<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +L<br /> +<br /> +Lampridius, Ælius, i. 178<br /> +<br /> +Lanciani, i. 79, 177<br /> +<br /> +Lateran, the, i. 106, 112-114, 129, 140-142<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Count of, i. 166</span><br /> +<br /> +Latin language, i. 47<br /> +<br /> +Latini Brunetto, ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a><br /> +<br /> +Laurentum, i. 55, 93<br /> +<br /> +Lazaret of Saint Martha, ii. <a href='#Page_245'>245</a><br /> +<br /> +League, Holy, i. 305, 306, 313, 314<br /> +<br /> +Lentulus, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br /> +<br /> +Lepida, Domitia, i. 255, 256<br /> +<br /> +Letus, Pomponius, i. 139; ii. <a href='#Page_210'>210</a><br /> +<br /> +Lewis of Bavaria, i. 165, 167, 192, 275<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Seventh, ii. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eleventh, i. 104, 151</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourteenth, i. 253</span><br /> +<br /> +Library of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collegio Romano, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vatican, ii. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Victor Emmanuel, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lieges, Bishop of, i. 280<br /> +<br /> +Lincoln, Abraham, ii. <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a><br /> +<br /> +Lippi, Filippo, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>-195, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a><br /> +<br /> +Liszt, i. 185, 203; ii. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a><br /> +<br /> +Livia, i. 220, 252<br /> +<br /> +Livy, i. 44, 47<br /> +<br /> +Lombards, the, i. 251<br /> +<br /> +Lombardy, i. 309<br /> +<br /> +Lorrain, i. 264<br /> +<br /> +Loyola, Ignatius, ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a><br /> +<br /> +Lucilius, i. 74<br /> +<br /> +Lucretia, i. 5, 12, 13<br /> +<br /> +Lucullus, i. 257, 270<br /> +<br /> +Lupercalia, i. 194<br /> +<br /> +Lupercus, i. 194<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +M<br /> +<br /> +Macchiavelli, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a><br /> +<br /> +Mæcenas, i. 62, 69, 74, 140; ii. <a href='#Page_293'>293</a><br /> +<br /> +Mænads, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a><br /> +<br /> +Maldachini, Olimpia, i. 304, 305<br /> +<br /> +Mamertine Prison, i. 25, ii. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a><br /> +<br /> +Mancini, Maria, i. 170, 187<br /> +<br /> +Mancino, Paul, ii. <a href='#Page_210'>210</a><br /> +<br /> +Manlius, Cnæus, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcus, i. 29; ii. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Titus, i. 80</span><br /> +<br /> +Mantegna, Andrea, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>-198<br /> +<br /> +Marcomanni, i. 190<br /> +<br /> +Marforio, i. 305<br /> +<br /> +Marino, i. 174<br /> +<br /> +Marius, Caius, i. 25, 29<br /> +<br /> +Marius and Sylla, i. 25, 29, 36, 45, 53; ii. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br /> +<br /> +Mark Antony, i. 30, 93, 195, 254<br /> +<br /> +Marozia, ii. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a><br /> +<br /> +Marriage Laws, i. 79, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a><br /> +<br /> +Mary, Queen of Scots, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a><br /> +<br /> +Masaccio, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a><br /> +<br /> +Massimi, Pietro de', i. 317<br /> +<br /> +Massimo, i. 102, 317<br /> +<br /> +Mattei, the, ii. <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alessandro, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-143</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Curzio, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-143</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Girolamo, ii. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>-143</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcantonio, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olimpia, ii. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piero, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Matilda, Countess, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a><br /> +<br /> +Mausoleum of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Augustus, i. 158, 169, 205, 251, 252, 270, 271</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hadrian, i. 102, 252; ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">See <i>Castle of Sant' Angelo</i></span><br /> +<br /> +Maximilian, i. 151<br /> +<br /> +Mazarin, i. 170, 187<br /> +<br /> +Mazzini, ii. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a><br /> +<br /> +Mediævalism, death of, ii. <a href='#Page_225'>225</a><br /> +<br /> +Medici, the, i. 110; ii. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cosimo de', i. 289; ii. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella de', i. 290, 291</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John de', i. 313</span><br /> +<br /> +Messalina, i. 254, 272; ii. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a><br /> +<br /> +Michelangelo, i. 90, 146, 147, 173, 175, 177, 302, 303, 315; ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>-281, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>-319, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Last Judgment" by, i. 173; ii. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Moses" by, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Pietà" by, ii. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Middle Age, the, i. 47, 92, 210-247, 274; ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>-175, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a><br /> +<br /> +Migliorati, Ludovico, i. 103<br /> +<br /> +Milan, i. 175<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, i. 306</span><br /> +<br /> +Milestone, golden, i. 72<br /> +<br /> +Mithræum, i. 271<br /> +<br /> +Mithras, i. 76<br /> +<br /> +Mithridates, i. 26, 30, 37, 358<br /> +<br /> +Mocenni, Mario, ii. <a href='#Page_249'>249</a><br /> +<br /> +Monaldeschi, ii. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br /> +<br /> +Monastery of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Apostles, i. 182</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dominicans, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grottaferrata, ii. <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Anastasia, ii. <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gregory, ii. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Onofrio, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Moncada, Ugo de, i. 307, 308<br /> +<br /> +Mons Vaticanus, ii. <a href='#Page_268'>268</a><br /> +<br /> +Montaigne, i. 288<br /> +<br /> +Montalto. See <i>Felice Peretti</i><br /> +<br /> +Monte Briano, i. 274<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cavallo, i. 181, 188, 292, 293; ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Citorio, i. 193, 252, 271</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giordano, i. 274, 281, 282, 288; ii. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mario, i. 313; ii. <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Montefeltro, Guido da, ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a><br /> +<br /> +Monti—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. 101, 106, 107, 111, 112, 125, 133, 134, 144, 150, 185, 305; ii. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Trastevere, i. 129, 145, 153; ii. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by moonlight, i. 117</span><br /> +<br /> +Morrone, Pietro da, i. 159<br /> +<br /> +Muratori, i. 85, 132, 159, 277; ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a><br /> +<br /> +Museums of Rome, i. 66<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vatican, ii. <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Villa Borghese, i. 301</span><br /> +<br /> +Mustafa, ii. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +N<br /> +<br /> +Naples, i. 175, 182, 307, 308<br /> +<br /> +Napoleon, i. 32, 34, 53, 88, 109, 258; ii. <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Narcissus, i. 255<br /> +<br /> +Navicella, i. 106<br /> +<br /> +Nelson, i. 253<br /> +<br /> +Neri, Saint Philip, i. 318<br /> +<br /> +Nero, i. 46, 56, 188, 254, 257, 285; ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a><br /> +<br /> +Nilus, Saint, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a><br /> +<br /> +Nogaret, i. 162, 164<br /> +<br /> +Northmen, i. 46, 49<br /> +<br /> +Numa, i. 3; ii. <a href='#Page_268'>268</a><br /> +<br /> +Nunnery of the Sacred Heart, i. 256<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +O<br /> +<br /> +Octavius, i. 27, 30, 43, 89; ii. <a href='#Page_291'>291</a><br /> +<br /> +Odoacer, i. 47; ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Olanda, Francesco d', i. 176<br /> +<br /> +Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, i. 186, 188<br /> +<br /> +Olympius, i. 136, 137, 138<br /> +<br /> +Opimius, i. 24<br /> +<br /> +Orgies of Bacchus, i. 76; ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br /> +<br /> +Orgies of the Mænads, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Aventine, i. 76; ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Orsini, the, i. 94, 149, 153, 159, 167-169, 183, 216, 217, 271, 274, 306-314; ii. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bertoldo, i. 168</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Camillo, i. 311</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella, i. 291</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ludovico, i. 295</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Matteo, i. 281</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon, i. 161</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orsino, i. 166</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paolo Giordano, i. 283, 290-295</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porzia, i. 187</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Troilo, i. 290, 291</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Virginio, i. 295</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war between Colonna and, i. 51, 104, 159, 168, 182, 275-283, 306-315; ii. <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Orsino, Deacon, i. 134, 135<br /> +<br /> +Orvieto, i. 314<br /> +<br /> +Otho, ii. <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Second, ii. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Otto, the Great, i. 114; ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>-37</span><br /> +<br /> +Ovid, i. 44, 63<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +P<br /> +<br /> +Painting, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in fresco, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>-183</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oil, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>-186</span><br /> +<br /> +Palace (Palazzo)—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Annii, i. 113</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barberini, i. 106, 187</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borromeo, ii. <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Braschi, i. 305</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cæsars, i. 4, 191; ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonna, i. 169, 189; ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consulta, i. 181</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corsini, ii. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doria, i. 207, 226</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pamfili, i. 206, 208</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Farnese, i. 102</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fiano, i. 205</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Finanze, i. 91</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gabrielli, i. 216</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Lateran, i. 127; ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Massimo alle Colonna, i. 316, 317</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mattei, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazarini, i. 187</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Nero, i. 152</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Pilotta, i. 158</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Priori, i. 160</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quirinale, i. 139, 181, 185, 186, 188, 189, 304</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Renascence, i. 205</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rospigliosi, i. 181, 187, 188, 189</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruspoli, i. 206</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santacroce, i. 237; ii. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Senator, i. 114</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Serristori, ii. <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Theodoli, i. 169</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Venezia, i. 102, 192, 202</span><br /> +<br /> +Palatine, the, i. 2, 13, 67, 69, 194, 195; ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a><br /> +<br /> +Palermo, i. 146<br /> +<br /> +Palestrina, i. 156, 157, 158, 161, 165, 166, 243, 282; ii. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a><br /> +<br /> +Paliano, i. 282<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, i. 157, 189</span><br /> +<br /> +Palladium, i. 77<br /> +<br /> +Pallavicini, i. 206, 258<br /> +<br /> +Palmaria, i. 267<br /> +<br /> +Pamfili, the, i. 206<br /> +<br /> +Pannartz, i. 317<br /> +<br /> +Pantheon, i. 90, 102, 195, 271, 278; ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a><br /> +<br /> +Parione, the Region, i. 101, 297, 312, 317; ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Square of, ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pasquino, the, i. 186, 305, 317<br /> +<br /> +Passavant, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a><br /> +<br /> +Passeri, Bernardino, i. 313; ii. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br /> +<br /> +Patarina, i. 107, 202<br /> +<br /> +Patriarchal System, i. 223-228<br /> +<br /> +Pavia, i. 175<br /> +<br /> +Pecci, the, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joachim Vincent, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Peretti, the, i. 205<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Felice, i. 149, 289-295</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, i. 149, 289, 292</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittoria. See <i>Accoramboni</i></span><br /> +<br /> +Perugia, i. 159, 276, 277<br /> +<br /> +Perugino, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a><br /> +<br /> +Pescara, i. 174<br /> +<br /> +Peter the Prefect, i. 114; ii. <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Petrarch, i. 161<br /> +<br /> +Petrella, i. 286<br /> +<br /> +Philip the Fair, i. 160, 276, 278<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second of Spain, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Phocas, column of, ii. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br /> +<br /> +Piazza—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barberini, i. 155</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Berlina Vecchia, i. 283</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chiesa Nuova, i. 155</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Colonna, i. 119, 190</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gesù, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Minerva, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moroni, i. 250</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Navona, i. 102, 297, 298, 302, 303, 305; ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pigna, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pantheon, i. 193; ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pilotta, i. 158</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Popolo, i. 144, 206, 259, 273</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quirinale, i. 181</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Romana, ii. <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Eustachio, ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Lorenzo in Lucina, i. 192, 205, 250</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Peter's, ii. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Sciarra, i. 192</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spagna, i. 251; ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">delle Terme, i. 144</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Termini, i. 144</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venezia, i. 206</span><br /> +<br /> +Pierleoni, the, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br /> +<br /> +Pigna, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. 101, 102; ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pilgrimages, ii. <a href='#Page_245'>245</a><br /> +<br /> +Pincian (hill), i. 119, 270, 272<br /> +<br /> +Pincio, the, i. 121, 189, 223, 253, 255, 256, 259, 264, 272<br /> +<br /> +Pintelli, Baccio, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a><br /> +<br /> +Pinturicchio, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a><br /> +<br /> +Pliny, the Younger, i. 85, 87<br /> +<br /> +Pompey, i. 30<br /> +<br /> +Pons Æmilius, i. 67<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cestius, ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabricius, ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumphalis, i. 102, 274</span><br /> +<br /> +Ponte. See also <i>Bridge</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Garibaldi, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotto, i. 67</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Angelo, i. 274, 283, 284, 287; ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sisto, i. 307, 311; ii. <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. 274, 275</span><br /> +<br /> +Pontifex Maximus, i. 39, 48<br /> +<br /> +Pontiff, origin of title, ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a><br /> +<br /> +Pope—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adrian the Fourth, ii. <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander the Sixth, i. 258; ii. <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. 259</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anastasius, ii. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Benedict the Sixth, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>-30</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourteenth, i. 186</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boniface the Eighth, i. 159, 160, 167, 213, 280, 306; ii. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Celestin the First, i. 164</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, ii. <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement the Fifth, i. 275, 276</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>-19</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. 306, 307, 310, 313, 314; ii. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eighth, i. 286</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ninth, i. 187; ii. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eleventh, i. 171</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, ii. <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damascus, i. 133, 135, 136</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eugenius the Third, ii. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghisleri, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gregory the Fifth, ii. <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>-37</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. 52, 126; ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, i. 183, 293</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixteenth, i. 305; ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honorius the Third, ii. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Innocent the Second, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third, i. 153; ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, ii. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eighth, i. 275</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tenth, i. 206, 209, 302, 303</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joan, i. 143</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John the Twelfth, ii. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, i. 113</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifteenth, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Twenty-third, ii. <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julius the Second, i. 208, 258; ii. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leo the Third, i. 109; ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tenth, i. 304; ii. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Twelfth, i. 202; ii. <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, i. 77; ii. <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>-267, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberius, i. 138</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lucius the Second, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin the First, i. 136</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicholas the Fourth, i. 159, 274</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifth, i. 52; ii. <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paschal the Second, i. 258; ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul the Second, i. 202, 205</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third, i. 219; ii. <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>-51, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifth, ii. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pelagius the First, i. 170, 171; ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pius the Fourth, i. 147, 305</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, i. 181, 182</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. 53; ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ninth, i. 76, 183, 315; ii. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>-225, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Silverius, i. 266</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sixtus the Fourth, i. 258, 275; ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-213, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifth, i. 52, 139, 149, 181, 184, 186, 205, 283; ii. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sylvester, i. 113; ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Symmachus, ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Urban the Second, i. 52</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eighth, i. 181, 187, 268, 301; ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vigilius, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Popes, the, i. 125, 142, 273<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Avignon, i. 167, 273, 277; ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among sovereigns, ii. <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">election of, ii. <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hatred for, ii. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>-264</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporal power of, i. 168; ii. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>-259</span><br /> +<br /> +Poppæa, i. 103<br /> +<br /> +Porcari, the, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stephen, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>-60, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Porsena of Clusium, i. 5, 6, 12<br /> +<br /> +Porta. See also <i>Gate</i>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angelica, i. 120</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maggiore, i. 107</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metronia, i. 106</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mugonia, i. 10</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pia, i. 107, 147, 152; ii. <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pinciana, i. 193, 250, 264, 266, 269</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Popolo, i. 272, 299</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portese, ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salaria, i, 106, 107, 193</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Giovanni, i. 107, 120</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lorenzo, i. 107</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sebastiano, ii. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spirito, i. 311; ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tiburtina, i. 107</span><br /> +<br /> +Portico of Neptune, i. 271<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Octavia, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Poussin, Nicholas, i. 264<br /> +<br /> +Præneste, i. 156<br /> +<br /> +Prætextatus, i. 134<br /> +<br /> +Prefect of Rome, i. 103, 114, 134<br /> +<br /> +Presepi, ii. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a><br /> +<br /> +Prince of Wales, i. 203<br /> +<br /> +Prior of the Regions, i. 112, 114<br /> +<br /> +Processions of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Brotherhood of Saint John, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captains of Regions, i. 112</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coromania, i. 141</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coronation of Lewis of Bavaria, i. 166, 167</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ides of May, ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>-129</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Triumph of Aurelian, i. 179</span><br /> +<br /> +Progress and civilization, i. 262; ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>-180<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">romance, i. 154</span><br /> +<br /> +Prosper of Cicigliano, ii. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Q<br /> +<br /> +Quæstor, i. 58<br /> +<br /> +Quirinal, the (hill), i. 106, 119, 158, 182, 184, 186, 187; ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +R<br /> +<br /> +Rabble, Roman, i. 115, 128, 132, 153, 281; ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br /> +<br /> +Race course of Domitian, i. 270, 297<br /> +<br /> +Races, Carnival, i. 108, 202, 203<br /> +<br /> +Raimondi, ii. <a href='#Page_315'>315</a><br /> +<br /> +Rampolla, ii. <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a><br /> +<br /> +Raphael, i. 260, 315; ii. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Trastevere, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>-147</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Transfiguration" by, ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ravenna, i. 175<br /> +<br /> +Regions (Rioni), i. 100-105, 110-114, 166<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captains of, i. 110</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devices of, i. 100</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fighting ground of, i. 129</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prior, i. 112, 114</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rivalry of, i. 108, 110, 125</span><br /> +<br /> +Regola, the Region, i. 101, 168; ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-3<br /> +<br /> +Regulus, i. 20<br /> +<br /> +Religion, i. 48, 50, 75<br /> +<br /> +Religious epochs in Roman history, i. 76<br /> +<br /> +Renascence in Italy, i. 52, 77, 84, 98, 99, 188, 237, 240, 250, 258, 261, 262, 303; ii. <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>-201, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">art of, i. 231</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frescoes of, i. 232</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">highest development of, i. 303, 315</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaders of, ii. <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>-159</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manifestation of, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">palaces of, i. 205, 216</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in "The Last Judgment," ii. <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of development of, ii. <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Reni, Guido, i. 264; ii. <a href='#Page_317'>317</a><br /> +<br /> +Republic, the, i. 6, 12, 15, 53, 110; ii. <a href='#Page_291'>291</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Arnold of Brescia, ii. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porcari, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>-60</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rienzi, i. 93; ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-8</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern ideas of, ii. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Revolts in Rome—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">against the nobles, ii. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the army, i. 25</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Arnold of Brescia, ii. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-89</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marius and Sylla, i. 25</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porcari, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>-60</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rienzi, i. 93; ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-8, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">slaves, i. 24</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stefaneschi, i. 281-283; ii. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>-222</span><br /> +<br /> +Revolutionary idea, the, ii. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>-222<br /> +<br /> +Riario, the, ii. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jerome, ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rienzi, Nicholas, i. 23, 93, 103, 168, 211, 281; ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>-23, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br /> +<br /> +Rioni. See <i>Regions</i><br /> +<br /> +Ripa, the Region, i. 101; ii. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a><br /> +<br /> +Ripa Grande, ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a><br /> +<br /> +Ripetta, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a><br /> +<br /> +Ristori, Mme., i. 169<br /> +<br /> +Robert of Naples, i. 278<br /> +<br /> +Rotfredo, Count, i. 114, 115<br /> +<br /> +Rome—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a day in mediæval, i. 241-247</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bishop of, i. 133</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">charm of, i. 54, 98, 318</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ecclesiastic, i. 124</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lay, i. 124</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a modern Capital, i. 123, 124</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foundation of, i. 2</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Augustan Age, i. 60-62</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Barons, i. 50, 84, 104, 229-247; ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Cæsars, i. 84</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Empire, i. 15, 17, 28, 31, 45, 47, 53. 60, 99</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Kings, i. 2-7, 10, 11</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Middle Age, i. 110, 210-247, 274; ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>-175</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Napoleonic era, i. 229</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Popes, i. 50, 77, 84, 104</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Republic, i. 6, 12, 16, 53, 110</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rienzi, i. 93; ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-8</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">today, i. 55</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sack of, by Constable of Bourbon, i. 259, 273, 309-315</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sack of, by Gauls, i. 15, 49, 252</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Guiscard, i. 95, 126-129, 252</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seen from dome of Saint Peter's, ii. <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Tribunes, i. 14</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decemvirs, i. 14</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dictator, i. 28</span><br /> +<br /> +Romulus, i. 2, 5, 30, 78, 228<br /> +<br /> +Rospigliosi, i. 206<br /> +<br /> +Rossi, Pellegrino, i. 316<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Count, ii. <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rostra, i. 27; ii. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julia, i. 68; ii. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>Rota, ii. <a href='#Page_215'>215</a><br /> +<br /> +Rovere, the, i. 258; ii. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a><br /> +<br /> +Rudini, i. 187<br /> +<br /> +Rudolph of Hapsburg, i. 161<br /> +<br /> +Rufillus, i. 65<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +S<br /> +<br /> +Sacchi, Bartolommeo, i. 139, 147<br /> +<br /> +Saint Peter's Church, i. 166, 278; ii. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">altar of, i. 96</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">architects of, ii. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bronze doors of, ii. <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">builders of, ii. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chapel of the Choir, ii. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chapel of the Sacrament, ii. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Choir of, ii. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>-316</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonna Santa, ii. <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dome of, i. 96; ii. <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piazza of, ii. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sacristy of, i. 171</span><br /> +<br /> +Salvini, i. 169, 252<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giorgio, i. 313</span><br /> +<br /> +Santacroce Paolo, i. 286<br /> +<br /> +Sant' Angelo the Region, i. 101; ii. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a><br /> +<br /> +Santorio, Cardinal, i. 208<br /> +<br /> +San Vito, i. 282<br /> +<br /> +Saracens, i. 128, 144<br /> +<br /> +Sarto, Andrea del, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a><br /> +<br /> +Saturnalia, i. 125, 194, 195<br /> +<br /> +Saturninus, i. 25<br /> +<br /> +Satyricon, the, i. 85<br /> +<br /> +Savelli, the, i. 284; ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Philip, ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-210</span><br /> +<br /> +Savonarola, i. 110<br /> +<br /> +Savoy, house of, i. 110; ii. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a><br /> +<br /> +Scævola, i. 13<br /> +<br /> +Schweinheim, i. 317<br /> +<br /> +Scipio, Cornelius, i. 20<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Africa, i. 20, 22, 29, 59, 76; ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Asia, i. 21; ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Scotus, i. 182<br /> +<br /> +See, Holy, i. 159, 168; ii. <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>-267, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br /> +<br /> +Segni, Monseignor, i. 304<br /> +<br /> +Sejanuo, ii. <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br /> +<br /> +Semiamira, i. 178<br /> +<br /> +Senate, Roman, i. 167, 168, 257<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Little, i. 177, 180</span><br /> +<br /> +Senators, i. 78, 112, 167<br /> +<br /> +Servius, i. 5, 15<br /> +<br /> +Severus—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arch of, ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Septizonium of, i. 96, 127</span><br /> +<br /> +Sforza, i. 13; ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catharine, i. 177; ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, i. 306</span><br /> +<br /> +Siena, i. 232, 268; ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a><br /> +<br /> +Signorelli, ii. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a><br /> +<br /> +Slaves, i. 81, 24<br /> +<br /> +Sosii Brothers, i. 72, 73<br /> +<br /> +Spencer, Herbert, ii. <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a><br /> +<br /> +Stefaneschi, Giovanni degli, i. 103, 282<br /> +<br /> +Stilicho, ii. <a href='#Page_323'>323</a><br /> +<br /> +Stradella, Alessandro, ii. <a href='#Page_315'>315</a><br /> +<br /> +Streets. See <i>Via</i><br /> +<br /> +Subiaco, i. 282<br /> +<br /> +Suburra, i. 39; ii. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a><br /> +<br /> +Suetonius, i. 43<br /> +<br /> +Sylla, ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>-29, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>-42<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +T<br /> +<br /> +Tacitus, i. 46, 254; ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br /> +<br /> +Tarentum, i. 18, 19<br /> +<br /> +Tarpeia, i. 29; ii. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br /> +<br /> +Tarpeian Rock, ii. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a><br /> +<br /> +Tarquins, the, i. 6, 11, 12, 80, 248, 249, 269; ii. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sextus, i. 5, 11</span><br /> +<br /> +Tasso, i. 188, 189; ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>-149<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bernardo, i. 188</span><br /> +<br /> +Tatius, i. 68, 69<br /> +<br /> +Tempietto, the, i. 264<br /> +<br /> +Temple of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castor, i. 27</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castor and Pollux, i. 68; ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceres, ii. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Concord, i. 24; ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flora, i. 155</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hercules, ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isis and Serapis, i. 271</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julius Cæsar, i. 72</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minerva, i. 96</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saturn, i. 194, 201; ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Sun, i. 177, 179, 180, 271</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venus and Rome, i. 110</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venus Victorius, i. 270</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vesta, i. 68</span><br /> +<br /> +Tenebræ, i. 117<br /> +<br /> +Tetricius, i. 179<br /> +<br /> +Theatre of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apollo, i. 286</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balbus, ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcellus, ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pompey, i. 103, 153</span><br /> +<br /> +Thedoric of Verona, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br /> +<br /> +Theodoli, the, i. 258<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>Theodora Senatrix, i. 158, 266, 267; ii. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>-29, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a><br /> +<br /> +Tiber, i. 23, 27, 66, 93, 94, 151, 158, 168, 189, 237, 248, 249, 254, 269, 272, 288<br /> +<br /> +Tiberius, i. 254, 287; ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br /> +<br /> +Titian, i. 315; ii. <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a><br /> +<br /> +Titus, i. 56, 86; ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<br /> +Tivoli, i. 180, 185; ii. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a><br /> +<br /> +Torre (Tower)—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anguillara, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borgia, ii. <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dei Conti, i. 118, 153</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milizie, i. 277</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Millina, i. 274</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Nona, i. 274, 284, 287; ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sanguigna, i. 274</span><br /> +<br /> +Torrione, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a><br /> +<br /> +Trajan, i. 85, 192; ii. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a><br /> +<br /> +Trastevere, the Region, i. 101, 127, 129, 278, 307, 311; ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br /> +<br /> +Trevi, the Fountain, i. 155, 186<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. 155, 187; ii. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tribunes, i. 14<br /> +<br /> +Trinità de' Monti, i. 256, 264<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dei Pellegrini, ii. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Triumph, the, of Aurelian, i. 179<br /> +<br /> +Triumphal Road, i. 66, 69, 70, 71<br /> +<br /> +Tullianum, i. 8<br /> +<br /> +Tullus, i. 3<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domitius, i. 90</span><br /> +<br /> +Tuscany, Duke of, ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a><br /> +<br /> +Tusculum, i. 158<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +U<br /> +<br /> +Unity, of Italy, i. 53, 77, 123, 184; ii. <a href='#Page_224'>224</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Augustus, i. 184</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Victor Emmanuel, i. 184</span><br /> +<br /> +University, Gregorian, the, ii. <a href='#Page_61'>61</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">of the Sapienza, i. 251; ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Urbino, Duke of, i. 208, 217<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +V<br /> +<br /> +Valens, i. 133<br /> +<br /> +Valentinian, i. 133<br /> +<br /> +Varus, i. 46<br /> +<br /> +Vatican, the, i. 127, 128, 147, 165, 189, 278, 281, 307; ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">barracks of Swiss Guard, ii. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chapels in,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pauline, ii.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nicholas, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixtine, ii. <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>-281, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fields, i. 274</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Court of the Belvedere, ii. <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Saint Damasus, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances of, ii. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gardens of, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of the Pigna, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">library, ii. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Borgia apartments of, ii. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loggia of the Beatification, ii. <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Raphael, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maestro di Camera, ii. <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">museums of, ii. <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture galleries, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>-284</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pontifical residence, ii. <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">private apartments, ii. <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sala Clementina, ii. <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">del Concistoro, ii. <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ducale, ii. <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Regia, ii. <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">throne room, ii. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torre Borgia, ii. <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Veii, i. 16, 17<br /> +<br /> +Velabrum, i. 67<br /> +<br /> +Veneziano, Domenico, ii. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a><br /> +<br /> +Venice, i. 193, 296, 306; ii. <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a><br /> +<br /> +Vercingetorix, ii. <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br /> +<br /> +Vespasian, i. 46, 56; ii. <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br /> +<br /> +Vespignani, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a><br /> +<br /> +Vesta, i. 57<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temple of, i. 71, 77</span><br /> +<br /> +Vestals, i. 77, 80, 133, 152; ii. <a href='#Page_99'>99</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">house of, i. 69</span><br /> +<br /> +Via—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Angelo Custode, i. 122</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appia, i. 22, 94</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arenula, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borgognona, i. 251</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Campo Marzo, i. 150</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Caravita, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Corso, i. 155, 158, 192, 193, 251; ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Dateria, i. 183</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dogana Vecchia, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flaminia, i. 193</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Florida, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Frattina, i. 250</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de' Greci, i. 251</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lata, i. 193</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lungara, i. 274; ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lungaretta, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Maestro, i. 283</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marforio, i. 106</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Monserrato, i. 283</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montebello, i. 107</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nazionale, i. 277</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nova, i. 69</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Parione, i. 297</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de' Poli, i. 267</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de Pontefici, i. 158</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de Prefetti, ii. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quattro Fontane, i. 155, 187</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sacra, i. 65, 71, 180</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Gregorio, i. 71</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Teodoro, i. 195</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de' Schiavoni, i. 158</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sistina, i. 260</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Stelleta, i. 250</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Tritone, i. 106, 119-122, 155</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumphalis, i. 66, 70, 71</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venti Settembre, i. 186</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittorio Emanuele, i. 275</span><br /> +<br /> +Viale Castro Pretorio, i. 107<br /> +<br /> +Vicolo della Corda, i. 283<br /> +<br /> +Victor Emmanuel, i. 53, 166, 184; ii. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monument to, ii. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Victoria, Queen of England, ii. <a href='#Page_263'>263</a><br /> +<br /> +Vigiles, cohort of the, i. 158, 170<br /> +<br /> +Villa Borghese, i. 223<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonna, i. 181, 189</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">d'Este, i. 185</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Hadrian, i. 180</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ludovisi, i. 106, 193</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Medici, i. 259, 262, 264, 265, 269, 313</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negroni, i. 148, 149, 289, 292</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Publica, i. 250</span><br /> +<br /> +Villani, i. 160, 277; ii. <a href='#Page_164'>164</a><br /> +<br /> +Villas, in the Region of Monti, i. 149, 150<br /> +<br /> +Vinci, Lionardo da, i. 260, 315; ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The Last Supper," by, ii. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Virgil, i. 44, 56, 63<br /> +<br /> +Virginia, i. 14<br /> +<br /> +Virginius, i. 15<br /> +<br /> +Volscians, ii. <a href='#Page_230'>230</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +W<br /> +<br /> +Walls—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aurelian, i. 93, 106, 110, 193, 271; ii. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Servian, i. 5, 7, 15, 250, 270</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Urban the Eighth, ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Water supply, i. 145<br /> +<br /> +William the Silent, ii. <a href='#Page_263'>263</a><br /> +<br /> +Witches on the Æsquiline, i. 140<br /> +<br /> +Women's life in Rome, i. 9<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Z<br /> +<br /> +Zama, i. 21, 59<br /> +<br /> +Zenobia of Palmyra, i. 179; ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zouaves, the, ii. <a href='#Page_216'>216</a><br /> +</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 2, by +Francis Marion Crawford + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS, VOL. 2 *** + +***** This file should be named 28600-h.htm or 28600-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/6/0/28600/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/28600-h/images/image10.jpg b/28600-h/images/image10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c00f3d --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image10.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image107.jpg b/28600-h/images/image107.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f217d5f --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image107.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image111a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image111a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d810ff --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image111a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image118.jpg b/28600-h/images/image118.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d97948 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image118.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image12.jpg b/28600-h/images/image12.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad0104b --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image12.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image123.jpg b/28600-h/images/image123.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af1385f --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image123.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image129a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image129a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad39db5 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image129a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image133.jpg b/28600-h/images/image133.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e2bb3da --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image133.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image138.jpg b/28600-h/images/image138.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4896169 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image138.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image144.jpg b/28600-h/images/image144.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..244ddda --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image144.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image147.jpg b/28600-h/images/image147.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..58f2c69 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image147.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image151a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image151a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..17410f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image151a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image155.jpg b/28600-h/images/image155.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..08ded73 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image155.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image160.jpg b/28600-h/images/image160.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1c7612 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image160.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image163.jpg b/28600-h/images/image163.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc6dab5 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image163.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image168.jpg b/28600-h/images/image168.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eaffd20 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image168.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image170.jpg b/28600-h/images/image170.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8b26c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image170.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image177a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image177a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e770023 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image177a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image182.jpg b/28600-h/images/image182.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..01cc68b --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image182.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image198.jpg b/28600-h/images/image198.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8ad277 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image198.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image1a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image1a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ddb5db --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image1a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image20.jpg b/28600-h/images/image20.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a21f9bf --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image20.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image211a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image211a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6224551 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image211a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image214.jpg b/28600-h/images/image214.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..761bb81 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image214.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image227.jpg b/28600-h/images/image227.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..796bea7 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image227.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image231a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image231a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e10d293 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image231a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image241.jpg b/28600-h/images/image241.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea91639 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image241.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image245.jpg b/28600-h/images/image245.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae95a9e --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image245.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image257a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image257a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0a4d03c --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image257a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image266.jpg b/28600-h/images/image266.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..68847ab --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image266.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image273.jpg b/28600-h/images/image273.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9695c3f --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image273.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image282.jpg b/28600-h/images/image282.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..31be480 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image282.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image287a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image287a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8cc8f03 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image287a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image292.jpg b/28600-h/images/image292.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..20d86bc --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image292.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image299.jpg b/28600-h/images/image299.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c643fe9 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image299.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image29a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image29a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d94a6c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image29a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image303.jpg b/28600-h/images/image303.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..458a5b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image303.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image307a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image307a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3945496 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image307a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image312.jpg b/28600-h/images/image312.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..00d1628 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image312.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image322.jpg b/28600-h/images/image322.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b2840af --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image322.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image327.jpg b/28600-h/images/image327.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..26cd6b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image327.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image333a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image333a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba0b79e --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image333a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image34.jpg b/28600-h/images/image34.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..31113d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image34.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image340.jpg b/28600-h/images/image340.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..477a658 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image340.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image353.jpg b/28600-h/images/image353.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7606993 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image353.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image356.jpg b/28600-h/images/image356.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..089ed5a --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image356.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image362.jpg b/28600-h/images/image362.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d19f2be --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image362.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image42.jpg b/28600-h/images/image42.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..426e42e --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image42.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image50.jpg b/28600-h/images/image50.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7743ae9 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image50.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image55.jpg b/28600-h/images/image55.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c6c63f --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image55.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image59a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image59a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4cf673c --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image59a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image62.jpg b/28600-h/images/image62.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fae4be --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image62.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image66.jpg b/28600-h/images/image66.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed6b742 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image66.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image68.jpg b/28600-h/images/image68.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e75408 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image68.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image77.jpg b/28600-h/images/image77.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c2c7299 --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image77.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image83a.jpg b/28600-h/images/image83a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0938ad --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image83a.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image85.jpg b/28600-h/images/image85.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c9a7ec --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image85.jpg diff --git a/28600-h/images/image98.jpg b/28600-h/images/image98.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b252fbd --- /dev/null +++ b/28600-h/images/image98.jpg |
